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Industrial Power Systems

Handbook

D O N A L D BEEMAN, Editor
Manager, Industriaf P w e r Engineering
Industrial Engineering Seclwn
General Electric Company, Schenectady, New Yorlc

FIRST EDITION

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.


1955 New York Toronto London
Ch.UPh?r 1 by Donald Beeman, Alan Graeme Darling,
and R. H. Kaufmann

Short-circuit-current Calculating
Procedures

FUNDAMENTALS OF A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS


The determination of short-circuit currents in power distribution sys-
tems is just as basic and important as the determination of load currents
for the purpose of applying circuit breakers, fuses, and motor starters.
The magnitude of the shoncircuit current is often easier to determine
than the magnitude of the load current.
Calculating procedures have been so greatly simplified compared with
the very complicated procedures previously used that now only simple
arithmetic is required to determine the short-circuit currents in even the
most complicated power systems.

SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS

If adequate protection is to he provided for a plant electric system, the


size of the electric power system must also be considered to determine
how much short-circuit current i t will deliver. This is done so that cir-
cuit breakers or fuses may he selected with adequate interrupting capac-
ity (IC). This interrupting capacity should be high enough to open
safely the maximum short-circuit current which the power system can
cause to flow through a circuit breaker if a short circuit occurs in the
feeder or equipment which it protects.
The magnitude of the load current is determined by the amount Of
work that is being done and hears little relation to the size of the system
supplying the load. However, the magnitude of the short-circuit current
is somewhat independent of the load and is directly related to the size or
I
2 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

capacity of t,he power source. The larger the apparatus which supplies
electric power t o the system, the greater the short-circuit current will be.
Take a simple case: A 440-volt three-phase lo-lip motor draws about
13 amp of current a t full load and will draw only this amount whether
supplied by a 25-kva or a 2500-kva transformer bank. So, if only thc
load currcnts arc considered when selecting motor branch circuit break-
ers, a 15- or 20-amp circnit, breaker wnuld he specified. However, the
size of t,he power system back of the circuit breaker has a real bearing on
the amount of the short,-circuit,current. which can flow as a result of a
short circuit on the load side of the circuit breaker. Hence, a much
larger circuit breaker would be required to handle the short-circuit current
from a 2500-kva bank than from a 25-kva bank of transformers.
A simple mathematical example is shown in Fig. 1.1. These numbers

MUST BE CAPABLE OF INTERRUPTING 1000 AMPERES

MOTOR LOAD
El IOOV
100 A
CURRENT
5 AMP
~ ~ 1 0O.HM
1S
APPARENT
IMPEDANCE
20 OHMS

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT =


E
-
ZT
: -
I00
0.1
= 1000- AMPERES

MUST BE CAPABLE OF INTERRUPTING 10,000 AMPERES

MOTOR LOAD
CURRENT
I000 A 5 AMP
2 1 = 0.01 OHMS

FIG. 1.1 Illustrotion showing that copocity of power source has more effect on rhort-
circuit-current magnitude than load.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 3

have been chosen for easy calculation rather than a representation of


actual system conditions.
The impedance, limiting the flow of load current, consists mainly of
the 20 ohms apparent impedance of the motor. If a short circuit occurs
at F , the only impedance t o limit the flow of short-circuit current is the
transformer impedance (0.1 ohm compared with 20 ohms for the motor);
therefore, the short-circuit current is 1000 amp, or 200 times as great as
the load current. Unless circuit breaker A can open 1000 amp, the
short-circuit current will continue to flow, doing great damage.
Suppose the plant grows and a larger transformer, one rated a t 1000
amp, is substituted for the 100-amp unit. A short circuit a t F , (bottom
in Fig. 1.1) will now be limited by only 0.01 ohm, the impedance of the
larger transformer. Although the load current is still 5 amp, the short-
circuit current will now he 10,000 amp, and circuit breaker A must be
able t o open that amount. Consequently it is necessary to coiisider the
size of the system supplying the plant as well as the load current, to be
sure that circuit breakers or fuses are selected which have adequate
interrupting rating for stopping the flow of the short-circuit current.
Short-circuit and load currents are analogous t o the flow of xvater in a
hydroelectric plant, shoivn in Fig. 1.2. The amount of water that flows
under normal conditions is determined by the load on the turbines.
Within limits, it makes little difference whether the reservoir behiiid the
dam is large or small. This flow of water is comparable to the flow of load
current in the distribution system in a factory.
On the other hand, if the dam breaks, the amount of water that will
flow will depend upon the capacity of the reservoir and will bear little
relation to the load on the turbines. Whether the reservoir is large or
small will make a great difference in this case. This flow of water is
comparable t o the flow of current through a short circuit in the distribu-
tion system. The load currents do useful work, like the water that flows
down the penstock through the turbine water wheel. The short-circuit
currents produce unwanted effects, like the torrent that rushes madly
downstream when the dam breaks.

SOURCES OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS

When determining the magnitude of short-circuit currents, it is


extremely important that all sources of short-circuit current he considered
and that the reactance characteristics of these sources be known.
There are three basic sources of short-circuit current:
1. Generators
2. Synchronous motors and synchronous condensers
3. Induction motors
4 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

All these can feed shorecircuit current into a short circuit (Fig. 1.3).
Generators are driven by turbines, diesel engines, water wheels, or
other types of prime movers. When a short circuit occurs on the circuit
fed by a generatar, the generator continues t o produce voltage because the
field excitation is maintained and the prime mover drives the generator
at substantially normal speed. The generated voltage produces a short-
circuit current of a large magnitude which flows from the generator (or
generators) to the short circuit. This flow of short-circuit current is
limited only by the impedance of the generator and of the circuit between
the generator and the short circuit. For a short circuit a t the terminals
of the generator, the current from the generator is limited only by its own
impedance.

FIG. 1.2 Normal load and short-circuit currents are analogous to the conditions shown in
the hydroelectric plant.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT ULCULATlNG PROCEDURES 5

METAL CLAD SWITCHGEAR

SHORT CIRCUIT
CURRENT FROM
INDUCTION
MOTOR

FIG. 1.3 Generators, synchronous motors, and induction motors all produce short-circuit
current.

HOW SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS PRODUCE SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT

Synchronous motors are constructed substantially like generators; i.e.,


they have a field excited by direct current and a stator winding in which
alternating current flows. Normally, synchronous motors draw a-c
power from the line and convert electric energy to mechanical energy.
However, the design of a synchronous motor is so much like that of a
generator that electric energy can be produced just as in a generator, by
driving the synchronous motor with a prime mover. Actually, during a
system short circuit the synchronous motor acts like a generator and
delivers shortcircuit current to the system instead of drawing load cur-
rent from it (Fig. 1.4).
As soon as a short circuit is established, the voltage on the system is
reduced to a very low value. Consequently, the motor stops delivering
energy to the mechanical load and starts slowing down. However, the
inertia of the load and motor rotor tends to prevent the motor from slow-
ing down. In other words, the rotating energy of the load and rotor
drives the synchronous motor just as the prime mover drives a generator.
6 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

The synchronous motor then becomes a generator and delivers short-


circuit current for many cycles after the short circuit occurs on the system.
Figure 1.5 shows an oscillogram of the current delivered by a synchronous
motor during a system short circuit. The amount of current depends
upon the horsepower, voltage rating, and reactance of the synchronous
motor and the reactance of the system to the point of short circuit.

LOAD CURRENT FIG. 1.4 Normally motors draw


load current from the source or
utility system but produce rhort-
UlILITY circuit current when a short cir-
SYSTEM
w i t occurs in the d a d .

SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR

-€t
,- \
SHORT CIRCUIT
CURRENT FROM
MOTOR

. .-.. .
SYSTEM

-
SYNCMOYOUS '
Yoroll
-.
. . 1.._
FIG ,.__ ..,. l.r o.
5 IBmlowl c..o
e f. 0s-
. ..
SHORT'. I cillogrclm of short-circuit current
CIRCUIT produced by a synchronous
motor

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT DELIVERED BY


A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
SHORT.CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 7

HOW INDUCTION MOTORS PRODUCE SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT

The inertia of the load and rotor of an induction motor has exactly the
same effect on an induction motor as on a synchronous motor; i.e., it
drives the motor after the system short circuit occurs. There is one
major difference. The induction motor has no d-c field winding, but
there is a flux in the induction motor during normal operation. This flux
acts like flux produced by the d-c field winding in the synchronous motor.
The field of the induction motor is produced by induction from the
stator rather than from the d-c winding. The rotor flux remains normal
as long as voltage is applied to the stator from an external source. How-
ever, if the external source of voltage is removed suddenly, as it is when a
short circuit occurs on the system, the flux in the rotor cannot change
instantly. Since the rotor flux cannot decay instantly and the inertia
drives the induction motor, a voltage is generated in the stator winding
causing a short-circuit current to flow to the short circuit until the rotor
flux decays to zero. To illustrate the short-circuit current from an
induction motor in a practical case, oscillograms were taken on a wound-
rotor induction motor rated 150 hp, 440 volts, 60 cycles, three phase, ten
poles, 720 rpm. The external rotor resistance was short-circuited in each
case, in order that the effect might he similar to that which would he
obtained with a low-resistance squirrel-cage induction motor.
Figure 1.6 shows the primary current when the machine is initially
running light and a solid three-phase short circuit is applied a t a point in
the circuit close to its input (stator) terminals a t time TI. The current
shown is measured on the motor side of the short circuit; so the short-
circuit current contribution from the source of power does not appear, but
only that contributed by the motor. Similar tests made with the machine
initially running a t full load show that the short-circuit current produced

T.

FIG. 1.6 ,Tracer of oxillograms of short-circuit currents produced by an induction motor


running a t light load.
8 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

by the motor when short-circuited is substantially the same, regardless of


initial loading on the motor. Note that the maximum current occurs in
the lowest trace on the oscillogram and is about ten times rated full-load
current. The current vanishes almost completely in four cycles, since
there is no sustained field current in the rotor to provide flux, as in the
case of a synchronous machine.
The flux does last long enough to prodnce enough short-circuit current
to affect the momentary duty on circuit breakers and the interrupting
duty on devices which open within one or two cycles after a short circuit.
Hence, the short-circuit current produced by induction motors must he
considered in certain calculations. The magnitude of short-circuit cur-
rent produced by the induction motor depends upon the horsepower,
voltage rating, reactance of the motor, and the reactance of the system to
the point of short c. "cuit. The machine impedance, effective a t the time
of short circuit, cmesponds closely with the impedance a t standstill.
Consequently, the i iitial symmetrical value of Short-circuit current is
approximately equnl to the full-voltage starting current of the motor.

TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are often spoken of as a source of short-circuit current.


Strictly speaking, this is not correct, for the transformer merely delivers
the short-circuit current generated by generators or motors ahead of the
transformer. Transformers merely change the system voltage and mag;
nitude of current but generate neither. The short-circuit current deliv-
ered by a transformer is determined by its secondary voltage rating and
reactance, the reactance of the generators and system to the terminals of
the transformer, and the reactance of the circuit from the transformer to
the short circuit.

ROTATING-MACHINE REACTANCE

The reactance of a rotating machine is not one simple value as it is for a


transformer or a piece of cable, but is complex and variable with time.
For example, if a short circuit is applied to the terminals of a generator,
the short-circuit current behaves as shown i n Fig. 1.7. The current starts
out a t a high value and decays to a steady state after some time has
elapsed from the inception of the short cirroit. Since the field excitation
voltage and speed have remained snbstantially constant within the short
interval of time considered, a change of apparent react,ance of the machine
may he assumed, to explain the change in the magnitude of short-circuit
current with time.
The expression of such variable reactance at any instant after the
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 9

occurrence of any short circuit requires a complicated formula involving


time as one of the variables. For the sake of simplification in short-cir-
cuit calculating procedures for circuit-breaker and relay applications,
three values of reactance are assigned to generators and motors, viz.,
subtransient reactance, transient reactance, and synrhronous reactance.
The three reactances can be briefly described as follows:
1. Subtransient reactance X y is the apparent reactance of the stator
winding at the instant short circuit occurs, and it determines the current
Row during the first few cycles of a short circuit.
2. Transient reactance X i is the apparent initial reactance of the
stator winding, if the effect of all amortisseur windings is ignored and
only the field winding considered. This reactance determines the cur-
rent following the period when subtransient reactance is the controlling
value. Transient reactance is effective up to 45 see or longer, depending
upon the design of the machine.
3. Synchronous reactance X d is the apparent reactance that deter-
mines the current flow when a steady-state condition is reached. It is not
effective until several seconds after the short circuit occurs; consequently,
it has no value in short-circuit calculations for the application of circuit
breakers, fuses, and contactors but is useful for relay-setting studies.
Figure 1.8 shows the variation of current with time and associates the
various reactances mentioned above with the time and current scale.
Previous loading has an effect on the total magnitude of short-circuit

CURRENT DETERMINED
BY SYNCHRONOUS

OF TOTAL OSCILLOGRAM
OCCURS AT ONLY TWO ENDS SHOWN
THIS TIME.
HERE. THIS REPRESENTS
THE BREAK BETWEEN
THE TWO PARTS.

FIG. 1.7 Trace of orcillograrn of hart-circuit current produced by a generator.


10 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

MAX, SUBTRANSIENT CURRENT- USE SUBTRANSIENT REACTANCE X"d


/-

TIME-
(8)
FIG 1.8 Variation of generotor short-circuit current wilh time.

current delivered by a generator. The value of X i or X y generally


given by the machine designer is the lowest value obtainable. Hence, its
use will show maximum short-circuit current.
Certain characteristics of short-circuit currents must he understood
before a system analysis can he made.

SYMMETRICAL AND ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS

These terms are used to describe the symmetry of the a-c waves about
the zero axis. If the envelopes of the peaks of the current waves are
symmetrical about the zero axis, the current is called symmetrical current
(Figs. 1.9 and 1.10). If the envelopes of the peaks of the current waves
are not symmetrical about the zero axis, the current is called asymmetrical

ENVEWPES OF PEAKS
OF SINE WAVE ARE
SYMMETRIGAL ABOUT
THE ZERO AXIS.

ZERO
AXIS

FIG. 1.9 Symmelrical a-c wove.


SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 11

THE ENVELOPES OF PEAKS


ARE SVHHETRICAL ABOUT

ZERO AXIS

FIG, 1.10 Symmetrical d t e r n a t i n g current f r o m a short-circuited generotor.

ENVELOPES OF PEAKS ARE NOT


SYMMETRICAL ABOUT ZERO AXIS

AX1 S
TOTALLY 0 F F SET

PARTIALLY O F F S E l

FIG. 1.11 Asymmetrical (I-c waver. The conditions shown here ore theoreticol a n d ore
for the purpose of illustration only. D-C component will r a p i d l y d e c a y to zero i n a c t u a l
circuits.

FIG. 1.12 Trace of o r c i l l o g r a m of a t y p i c a l short-circuit current


12 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

current (Fig. 1.11). The envelope is a line drawn through the peaks of
the waves, as shown in Figs. 1.9 to 1.12.
For the sake of explanation, many of the illustrations, such as Figs.
1.11, 1.15 to 1.19, show sine waves of current uniformly offset for several
cycles. It should be noted that in practical circuits the amount of asym-
metry decreases rapidly after the occurrence of the short circuit in the
system. This decrease of asymmetry is shown qualitatively in illustra-
tions such as Figs. 1.12, 1.20, 1.23, and 1.24.
Oscillograms show that short-circuit currents are nearly always asym-
metrical during the first few cycles after the short circuit occurs. They
also show that the asymmetry is maximum at the instant the short circuit
occurs and that the current gradually becomes symmetrical a few cycles
after the occurrence of the short circuit. The trace of an oscillogram of a
typical short-circuit current is shown in Fig. 1.12.

WHY SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS ARE ASYMMETRICAL

In the usual industrial power systems the applied or generated voltages


are of sine-wave form. When a short circuit occurs, substantially s i n e
wave short-circuit currents result. For simplicity, the following discus-
sion assumes sine-wave voltages and currents.
In ordinary power circuits the resistance of the circuit is negligible com-
pared with the reactance of the circuit. The short-circuit-current power
factor is determined by the ratio of resistance and reactance of the circuit
only (not of the load). Therefore the short-circuit current in most power
circuits lags the internal generator voltage by approximately 90" (see
Fig. 1.13). The internal generator voltage is the voltage generated in
the stator coils by the field flux.
If in a circuit mainly containing reactance a short circuit occurs at the
peak of the voltage wave, the short-circuit current would start at zero
and trace a sine wave which would be symmetrical ahout the zero axis
(Fig. 1.14). This is known as a symmetrical short-circuit current.
If in the same circuit (i.e., one containing a large ratio of reactance to
resistance) a short circuit occurs at the zero point of the voltage wave, the
current will start a t zero but cannot follow a sine wave symmetrically
about the zero axis because such a current would be in phase with the
voltage. The wave shape must be the same as that of voltage hut 90'
behind. That can occur only if the current is displaced from the zero
axis, as shown in Fig. 1.15. In this illustration the current is a sine wave
and is displaced 90' from the voltage wave and also is displaced from the
zero axis. The two cases shown in Figs. 1.14 and 1.15 are extremes.
One shows a symmetrical current and the other a completely asym-
metricd current.
WORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 13

GENERATOR TRANSFORMER

INTERNAL VOLTAGE OF GENERATOR APPLIED HERE

ONE LINE IMPEDANCE


ioxazx 7x 0.m

REACTANCE, X = 19%
RESISTANCE. R = 1.4%

I
RESISTANCE I S LESS THAN OF THE REACTANCE HENCE MAY
BE NEGLECTED WITHOUT AN APPRECIABLE ERROR

INTERNAL VOLTAGE OF GENERATOR

- NEARLY 90'

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

DIAGRAM
SHOWING
SINE WAVES
CORRESPONDING
TO VECTOR
DIAGRAM
FOR ABOVE
CIRCUIT

FIG. 1.13 Diagrams Illustrating the phase relations of voltage and short-circuit current.
14 SHORT-CIRCUll-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

GENERATED VOLTAGE
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

ZERO
AXIS

SHORT CIRCUIT OCCURRED AT THIS POINT

FIG. 1.14 Symmetric01 short-circuit current and generoted voltage for zero-power-factor
cirwit.

-SHORT
CIRCUIT
CURRENT

FIG. 1.15 Asymmetrical short-circuit current and generated voltage in zero-power-factor


circuit. Condition i s theoretical and is shown for illustration purposes only.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES IS

If,in a circuit containing only reactance, the short circuit occurs a t any
point except a t the peak of the voltage wave, there will be some offset of
the current (Fig. 1.16). The amount of offset depends upon the point on
the voltage wave at which the short circuit occurs. It may vary from
zero (shown in Fig. 1.14) to a maximum (shown in Fig. 1.15).
I n circuits containing both
reactance and resistance, the s~,?&&,R&!~~
amount of offset of the short- CURRENT
circuit current may vary be-
tween the same limits as for
circuits containing only react-
ance. However, the point on
the voltage wave a t which the
short circuit must occur to pro-
duce maximum asymmetry
dependsupon the ratioof react-
ance to resistance of the cir-
cuit. Maximum asymmetry
is obtained when the short cir-
cuit occurs a t a time angle
+
equal to 90" 0 (measured
forward in degrees from the
zero point of the voltage wave)
where tangent 0 equals there- ASYMMETRICAL
actance-to-resistance ratio of
FIG. 1.16 Short-circuit current and generated
the circuit' The short-circuit voltage in zero-Dower-factor circuit. Short cir-
current will be symmetrical cuit occurred between the
when the fault occurs 90"from point and peak of the generated voltctge wove.
that point onthe voltage wave. This condition i s theoretical and for illustration
an example, assumeacir- purporer only. The short-circuit current will
gradually become symmetrical in practical
cuit that has equal resistance CiTCUit.,
and reactance, i.e., the react-
ance-to-resistance ratio is 1. The tangent of 45" is I ; hence, maximum
offset is obtained when the short circuit occurs a t 135' from the zero
point of the voltage wave (Fig. 1.17).

D-C COMPONENT OF ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS

Asymmetrical alternating currents when treatedas a single current wave


are difficult to interpret for circuit-breaker application and relay-setting
purposes. Complicated formulas are also required to calculate their
magnitude unless resolved into components. The asymmetrical alter-
nating currents are, for circuit-breaker applications and relay-setting
16 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCUUTING PROCEDURES

MAXIMUM OFFSET
FIG. 1.17 Short-circuit current and generated voltage in circuit with equal reactance and
resistance. This condition i s theoretical and is shown for illustration purposes only. The
short-circuit current will gradually become symmetrical in practical circuits.

purposes, arbitrarily divided into simple components, which makes it


easy to calculate the short-circuit magnitude a t certain significant times
after the short circuit occurs.
The asymmetrical alternating current behaves exactly as if there were
two component currents flowing simultaneously. One is a symmetrical
a-c component and the other a d-c component. The sum of those two
components a t any instant is equal t o the magnitude of the total asym-
metrical a-c wave a t the same instant.
The d-c component referred to here is generated within the a-c system
with no external source of direct current being considered. I n some cases,
particularly in the neighborhood of the d-c railways, direct current from
the railways flows through neighboring a-c systems. This type of d-c
current is not considered in this discussion or in the calculating procedures
which follow.
As an example of the resolution of asymmetrical alternating currents
into components, refer to Fig. 1.15 which shows an asymmetrical short-
circuit current which is resolved into a symmetrical a-c and a d-c compo-
nent in Fig. 1.18. If the instantaneous values of the two components
(dashed lines) are added a t any instant, the resultant will be that of the
asymmetrical current wave.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 17

F I N S T A N T AT WHICH SHORT CIRCUIT OCCURS

ASYMMETRICAL

AC COMPONENT

FIG. 1.18 Theoretical Ihort-circuit-cvrrent wove illustrating components of asymmetrical


current. In practical circuits, d-c component would decay to zero in o few cycler.

INSTANT OF SHORT CIRCUIT

TOTAL CURRENT

DC COMPONENT

AC COMPONENT

ZERO A X I S

a = b = D C COMPONENT

FIG. 1.19 Components of asymmetrical short-circuit current in which short circuit occurred
at some point between the zero point and p e a k of the generated voltage wave. This is a
lhsoretical condition similar to that shown in Fig. 1.18.
I8 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

As mentioned previously, the examples shown in Figs. 1.13 and 1.18 are
for purposes of illustration only. In practical circuits the d-c component
decays very rapidly, as shown in Fig. 1.20.

INITIAL M A G N I T U D E OF D-C C O M P O N E N T

The magnitude of the d-c component depends upon the iustant, the
short circuit occurs and may vary from zero, as in Fig. 1.14, to a maximum
initial value equal to the peak of the a-c symmetrical compoiieiit, as i n
Figs. 1.15 and 1.18. When the short circuit occurs at any other point,
such as shown in Fig. 1.19, the initial magnitude of the d-c componciit is
equal to the value of the a-c symmct,riral component a t thc instant of
short circuit. The above limit,s hold true for the initial magiiitudc of d-c
eomporient in a system regardless of the reactance and resistance. Ilow-
ever, the d-c componeut does not continue to flo~va t a constant value, as
shown i n Figs. 1.18 and 1.19, unless there is zero resistauce i i i the circuit.

DECREMENT

There is uo d-c voltage in the system t o sustaiu the flax of direct


current; therefore the energy represeuted by the dirert. component of
current will be dissipated as ZZR loss from the direct current flowiug
through the resistance of the circuit. If the circuit had zero resistance,
the direct current would flow at a constant value (Figs. 1.18 and 1.19)

TOTAL ASYMMETRICAL CURRENT

C COMPONENT

AC COMPONENT

FIG. 1.20 Trace of orcillogrom showing decay of d-c component and how orymmetricd
short-circuit currenl gradually becomes symmetrical when d-c component diroppearr.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 19

until the circuit was interrupted. However, all practical circuits have
some resistance; so the d-c romponent decays as shown in Fig. 1.20. The
combination of the decaying of d-c and symmetriral a-(*components gives
an asymmetrical wave that changes to a symmetriral wave whcti the
d-c component has disappeared. The rate of decay of the currents is
called the decrement.

X/R RATIO

The X / R ratio is the ratio of the reactance to the resistance of the cir-
cuit. The decrement or rate of decay of the d-c component is propor-
tional to the ratio of reactance to resistance of the complete circuit from
generator to short circuit. The theory is the same as opening the circuit
of a battery and an inductive coil.
If the ratio of reactance to resistance is infinite (i.e., zero resistance),
the d-c component never decays, as shown in Figs. 1.18 and 1.19. On the
other hand, if the ratio is zero (all resistance, no reartance), it decays
instantly. FOFany ratio of reactarice to resistance in between these
limits, the d-c component takes a definite time to decrease to substantially
zero, as shown in Fig. 1.20.
! I n generators the ratio of subtransient reactance to resistance may be as
?much as 7 0 : l ; so it takes several cycles for the d-c component to dis-
appear. In circuits remote from generators, the ratio of reactance to
resistance is lower, and the d-c component decays more rapidly. The
higher the resistance in proportion to the reactance, the more IaRloss
from the d-c c.omponent, and the energy of the direct current is dis-
sipated sooner.

D-C TIME CONSTANT

Often it is said that generators, motors, or circuits have a certain d-c


time constant. This refers again to the rate of decay of the d-c compo-
O C COMPONENT

a = 37Y. OF b (APPROX )

C- TIME
CONSTANT I N OF D C COMPONENT
SECONDS

FIG. 1.21 Graphic illustration of time constant.


20 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

nent. The d-c time constant is the time, in seconds, required by the d-c
component to reduce to about 37 per cent of its original value a t the
instant of short circuit. I t is the ratio of the inductance in henrys to the
resistance in ohms of the machine or circuit. This is merely a guide to
how fast the d-c component decays.
Stated in other terms, it is the time in seconds for the d-c component to
reach zero if it continued t o decay a t the same rate it does initially
(Fig. 1.21).

RMS VALUE INCLUDING D-C COMPONENT

The rms values of a-c waves are significant since circuit breakers, fuses,
and motor starters are rated in terms of rrns current or equivalent kva.
The maximum rrns value of short-circuit current occurs at a time of about
one cycle after short circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.20. If there were no
decay in the d-c component, as in Fig. 1.18, the rrns value of the first
cycle of current would be j.732 times the rrns value of the a-c component.
I n practical circuits there is always some d-c decay during the first cycle.
An approximate rrns value of one cycle of an offset wave whether it is
partially or totally offset is expressed by the equation

where C = rrns value of offset or asymmetrical current wave over one


cycle
a = rrns value of a-c component
b = value of d-c component at one-half cycle

MULTIPLYING FACTOR

Calculation of the precise rrns value of an asymmetrical current a t any


time after the inception of a short circuit may be very involved. Accu-
rate decrement factors to account for the d-c component a t any time are
required, as well as accurate factors for the rate of change of the apparent
reactance of the generators. This precise method may he used if desired,
but simplified methods have been evolved whereby the d-c component is
accounted for by simple multiplying factors. The multiplying factor
converts the rrns value of the symmetrical a-c wave into rms amperes of
the asymmetrical wave including a d-c component.
The magnitude of the d-c component depends upon the point on the
voltage wave a t which the short circuit occurs. For protective-device
application, only the maximum d-c component is considered, since the
circuit breaker must be applied to handle the maximum short-circuit
current that can occur in a system.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 21

In the general case for circuits rated above 600 volts, the multiplying
factor to account for d-c component is 1.6 times the rms value of the a-c
symmetrical component at the first half cycle.
For circuits rated 5000 volts or less where there is no local generation,
that is, where the supply t,o the bus is through transformers or long lines,
the multiplying factor to ralculate the total current at the first half cycle
may be reduced to 1.5. For circuits 600 volts and less, t,he multiplying
factor to calculate the total current at the first half cycle is 1.25 when the
circuit breaker is applied on the average current in three phases. Where
single-phase conditions must be considered in circuits GOO volts and less,
then to account for the d-c component in one phase of a three-phase cir-
cuit a multiplying factor to calculate the total current at the first half
cycle of 1.5 is used.
For some calculations, rms current evaluations a t longer time intervals
than the first half cycle, such as three to eight cycles corresponding to the
interrupting time of circuit breakers, are required. Multiplying factors
for this purpose may be taken from the curve in Fig. 1.22.
Table 1.2 gives the multiplying factors commonly used for applying

FIG. 1.22 Charts showing multiplying factors to account for decoy of d-c component for
various X / R ratio of circuits.
22 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURREM CALCULATING PROCEDURES

short-circuit protective devices. These factors range from 1 t o 1.6,


depending upon whether the short-circuit calculation is being made t o
determine the interrupting or momentary duty on the short-circuit pro-
tective device.

SHORT-CIRCUIT RATIO OF GENERATORS

This term is referred t o frequently in short-circuit discussions. With


present AIEE procedures of short-rircuit ralrulations, it has become a n
accessory with no practical significance from this standpoint. For the
sake of completeness, a definition is given here.
Short-circuit ratio
-~
-
field current t o produce rated voltage a t no load
field current t o produce rated current at sustained short circuit
No further mention will he made of short-circuit ratio.

TOTAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT

The total symmetrical short-rirruit current is made up of currents from


several sourves, Fig. 1.23. At the top of the figure is shown the short-
circuit current from the utility. This act,ually comes from ut,ility gener-
ators, but generally the industrial system is small and remote electrically
from the utility generators so that the Symmetrical short-rircuit current
is substant,ially constant,. If there are generators in the indust,rial plant,
then they cont,ribute a symmet,rical short-circuit rurreiit which for all
practical purposes is constant over the first few cycles. There is, how-
ever, a slight decrement, as indicated in Fig. 1.23.
The other sources are synchronous motors which act something like
plant generators, except that t,hey have a higher rate of decay of the sym-
metriral component, and induction motors whirh have a very rapid rate
of dccay of the symmetrical component of current. When all these cur-
rents are added, the total symmetrical short-circuit rurrent is typical of
that shown a t the bottom of Fig. 1.23.
The magnitude of the first few cycles of the t,otal symmetrical short-
circuit, current is further increased by the presence of a d-c compouent,
Fig. 1.24. The d-c component, offsets the a-c ware and, therefore, makes
it asymmetrical. The d-c component decays t o zero within a few cycles
in most indust,rial power systems.
It is this total rms asymmetrical short-circuit current, as shown in Fig.
1.24, that must he determilied for short-circuit protective-derice applira-
tion. The problem of doing this has been simplified by standardized
procedures to a poiut xhere t o determine the rms asymmetriral current
one need only divide t,he line-to-neutral roltage by the proper reactance
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 23

RG. 1.23 Tracer of orcillogramr of rym- FIG. 1.24 Arymmelrical short-circuit current
metrical short-circuit currents from utility, from dl sources illustrated in Fig. 1.23 plus
panerator, synchronous motors, and induc- d-c component.
lion motors. The shape of the total com-
bined currents is illurtmted by the bottom
hace.
24 SHORT.CIRCUIT-CURRENT U L C U U l l N G PROCEDURES

or impedance and then multiply by the proper multiplying factor from


Table 1.2.

BASIS OF RATING A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES


The background of the circuit-breaker rating structure as well as the
basic characteristics of short-circuit currents must be understood to
enable the engineer to select the proper rotating-machine reactances and
multiplying factors for the d-c component to determine the sbort-circuit-
current magnitude for checking the duty on a particular circuit breaker,
such as momentary duty or interrupting duty.
The rating structure of circuit breakers, fuses, and motor starters is
designed to tell the application engineer how circuit breakers, fuses, or
motor starters will perform under conditions where the short-circuit cur-
rent varies with time. In discussing these rating bases, and for the sake
of clarity, they will be arbitrarily divided into two sections, i.e., the rating
basis of high-voltage short-circuit protective devices above 600 volts and
the rating basis of low-voltage Short-circuit protective devices 600 volts
and below.
HIGH-VOLTAGE SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES (ABOVE 600 VOLTS)

Power-circuit-breaker Rating Basis. The standard indoor oilless power


circuit breakers as used in metal-clad switchgear will be used here t o
explain power circuit-breaker ratings. The same fundamental principles
apply to all other high-voltage power circuit breakers.
The circuit-breaker rating structure is complicated because of the time
of operation of the circuit breakers after a short circuit occurs.
The few cycles needed for the power circuit breaker to open the circuit
and stop the flow of short-circuit current consist of the time required for
(1) the protective relays to close their contacts, (2) the circuit-breaker
trip coil to move its plunger to release the breaker operating mechanism,
(3) the circuit-breaker contacts to part, and (4)the circuit breaker to
interrupt the short-circuit current in its arc chamber. During this time,
the short-circuit current produces high mechanical stresses in the circuit
breaker and in other parts of the circuit. These stresses are produced
almost instantaneously in phase with the current and vary as the square
of the current. Therefore, they are greatest when maximum current is
flowing. The foregoing discussion showed that t,he short-circuit current
is maximum during the first cycle or loop, because of the presence of the
d-c component and because the motors contribute the most short-circuit
current a t that time. Thus, the short-circuit stresses on the circuit
breakers and other parts of the circuit are maximum during the first loop
of short-circuit current.
During the time from the inception of the short circuit until the circuit-
breaker contacts part, the current decreases in magnitude because of the
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 25

decay of the d-c component and the change in motor reactance, as


explained previously. Consequently, the current that the circuit breaker
must interrupt, four or five cycles after the inception of t.he short circuit,
is generally of less magnitude than the maximum value of the first loop.
The fact that the current changes in magnitude with time has led to the
establishment of two bases of short-circuit-current ratings on power cir-
cuit breakers: (1) the momentary rating or its ability to withstand
mechanical stresses due to high short-circuit current and (2) the inter-
rupting rating or its ability t,o interrupt the flow of short-circuit current
within its interrupting element.
What Comprises the Circuit-breaker-rating Structure. Circuit-
breaker-rating structures are revised and changed from time to time. It
is suggested that where specific problems require the latest information on
circuit-breaker ratings the applicahlc American Standards Association
(ASA), National Electrical Manufacturers Association (XEMA), or
American Instituteof Elect,rical Engineers (AIEE) standards he referred to.
To illustrate the various factors that comprise the circuit-breaker-
rating structure, an oilless power circuit breaker for metal-clad switchgear
rated 4.16 kv 250 mva* has been chosen. The complete rating is shown
on line 5, Table 1.1. The following will explain the meaning of the several
columns of Table 1.1, starting at the left. The rircuit-breaker-type
designation, column 1, varies among manufacturers. For the sake of com-
pleteness the General Electric Company nomenclature is used in this col-
umn. The remainder of the items are uniform throughout the industry.

1. Type of Circuit Breaker (AM-4.16-250)


AM = magne-blast circuit breaker
4.16 = for 4.16-kv class of circuits (not applicable to 4800- and 4800-
volt circuits)
250 = interrupting rating in mva a t 4.16 kv

2-4. Voltage Rating


2. Rated kv (4.16): the nominal voltage class or classes in which the
circuit breaker is rated.
3. Maximum design kv (4.76): the maximum voltage a t which the cir-
cuit breaker is designed to operate. The 4.16-kv circuit breakers,
for example, are suitable for a 1330-volt system plus 10 per cent for
voltage regulation or 4.76 kv.
(Note: 4330 is 4% X 2500.) Some utility syst.ems operate a t 1330
volts near the substation.
4. Minimum operating kv a t rated mva (3.85) : the minimum voltage a t
which the circuit breaker will interrupt its rated mva or in this case
it is 3.85 kv. At any voltages below this value, the circuit breaker
* blegavalt-amperes (see Appendix).
t
i.
16 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

I !

I (
I t
a

/
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 27

is not designed to interrupt the rated mva but will interrupt some
value less than rated mva.
This is very significant in the rating of power circuit breakers for,
as poiuted out later, the circuit hreaker will interrupt a maximum of
only so many amperes regardless of voltage. At any voltage less
than the minimum operating voltage the product of the maximum
kiloampere interrupting rating times the kv times the square root of
3 is less than the mva interrupting rating of the circuit breaker.
5-6. Insulation Level (Withstand Test)
5 . Low-frequency rrns kv (19): the 60-cycle high-potential test.
6. Impulse crest kv (60) : a measure of its ability to withstand lightning
and other surges. This is applied with an impulse generator as a
design test.
7-9. Current Ratings in Amperes
7. Continuous 60 cycles (1200 or 2000): the amount of load current
which the circuit breaker will carry continuously without exceeding
the allowable temperature rise.
8-9. Short-time Rating
8. Momentary amperes (60,000) : the maximum rms asymmetrical cur-
rent that a circuit breaker will withstand including short-circuit cnr-
rents from all sources and motors (induction and synchronous) and
the d-c component. This rating is independent of operating voltage
for a given circuit breaker.
This is just as significant a limitation as mva interrupting rating.
It defines the ability of the circuit breaker to withstand the mechani-
cal stresses produced by the very large offset first cycle of the short-
circuit current. This rating is nnusually significant because the
mechanical stresses in the circuit hreaker vary as the square of the
current. It is the only rating that is affected by the square law, and
therefore is one of the most critical in the application of the circuit
breakers. The rating schedules of power circuit breakers are so pro-
portioned that the momentary rating is about 1.6 times the maximum
interrupting rating amperes.
9. Four-second (37,500): the maximum current that the circuit breaker
will withstand in the closed position for a period of 4 sec to allow for
relaying operating time. This value is the same as the maximum
interrupting rating amperes.
10-13. Interrupting Ratings
10. Three-phase rated mva (250): the three-phase mva which the circuit
breaker will interrupt over a range of voltages from the maximum
design kv down t o the minimum operating kv. In this case the
28 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURREM CALCULATING PROCEDURES

interrupting rating is 250 rnva between 4.76 and 3.85 kv. The mva
to be interrupted is obtained by multiplying the kv a t which the cir-
cuit breaker operates times the symmetrical current in kiloamperes to
be interrupted times the square root of 3. The product of these must
not exceed the rnva interrupting rating a t any operating voltage.
11. Amperes a t rated voltage (35,000): the maximum total rms amperes
which the circuit breaker will interrupt a t rated voltage, i.e., in the
case of the example used above 35,000 at 4.16 kv (4.16 X 35.000 x
fi = 250 mva). These figures are rounded. This figure is given
for information only and does not have a limiting significance of
particular interest to the application engineer.
12. Maximum amperes interrupting rating (37,500) : the maximum total
rms amperes that the circuit breaker will interrupt regardless of how
low the voltage is. In this example, this current is 37,500 amp. At
minimum operating voltage, 3.85 kv, this corresponds to 250 mva,
and, for example, a t a voltage of 2.3 kv this corresponds to 150mva.
The circuit breaker will not interrupt this much current a t all volt-
ages, i.e., i t will not interrupt this much current if the product of
current, voltage, and the square root of 3 is greater than the mva
interrupting rating. This current limit determines the minimum kv
a t which the circuit breaker will interrupt rated mva (column 4). At
any voltage lower than that given in column 4, this maximum rms
total interrupting current determines how much the circuit breaker
will interrupt in mva. Therefore, when the voltage goes below the
limit of column 4, the mva which the circuit breaker will interrupt is
lower than the rnva rating given in column 10 by an amount propor-
tional to the reduction in operating voltage below the value of column 4.
13. Rated interrupting time (8 cycles on 60-cycle basis): the maximum
total time of operation from the instant the trip coil is energized until
the circuit breaker has cleared the short circuit.
What limits the Application of Power Circuit Breakers an on inter-
rupting-and Momentary-duty Basis? In so far as applying power cir-
cuit breakers on an interrupting-duty basis is concerned i t can be seen
from the foregoing that there are four limits, none of which should be
exceeded. These must all be checked for any application.
1. Operating voltage should never at any time exceed the limit of
column 3, Table 1.1, i.e., the maximum design kv.
2. Interrupting rnva should never be exceeded a t any voltage. This
limit is sig’nificant only when the operating voltage is between the limits
of columns 3 and 4, Table 1.1. It is not significant when the operating
voltage is below the limit of column 4, Table 1.1, because maximum inter-
rupting amperes limit the mva to values less than the rnva rating.
3. Maximum interrupting rating amperes should never be exceeded
SHORT-CIRCUIT.CURRENT CALCUUTING PROCEDURES 29

even though the product of this current times the voltages times the
square root of 3 is less than the interrupting rating in mva. This figure
is the controlling one in so far as interrupting duty is involved when the
voltage is below that of column 4, Table 1.1 (minimum operating voltage
a t rated mva).
4. Momentary current should never be exceeded a t any operating
voltage. Modern power circuit breakers generally have a momeutary
rating in rms amperes of 1.6 times the maximum interrupting rating in
rms amperes. As a result, where there is no short-circuit-current contri-
bution from motors, a check of the interrupting duty only is necessary.
If this is within the circuit-breaker interrupting rating then the maximum
Short-circuit current, including the d-c component, mill be within the
momentary rating of the circuit breaker.
Where there is short-circuit contribution from motors, the momentary
rating of the circuit breaker may be exceeded, before the interrupting
rating is exceeded in a given cirruit. Whenever there are motors to be
considered in the short-circuit calculations, the momentary duty and the
interrupting duty should both be checked.
How to Check Momentary Duty on Power Circuit Breakers. Siuce the
short-circuit current is maximum a t the first half cycle, the short-circuit
current must be determined a t the first half cycle to determine the maxi-
mum momentary duty on a circuit breaker.
To determine the short-circuit current a t the first half cycle, it is neces-
sary to consider all sources of short-circuit current, that is, the generators,
synchronous motors, induction motors, and utility connections. The
subtransient reactances of generators, synchronous motors, and inductiou
motors are employed in the reactance diagram. Since the d-r component
is present a t this time, it is necessary to account for it by the use of a
multiplying factor. This multiplying factor is either 1.5 or l.G, as out-
lined in Table 1.2. Typical circuits where the 1.5 multiplying factor can
be used are shown in Fig. 1.25. The procedure is the same, regardless of
the type of power circuit breaker involved.
How to Check Interrupting Duty on Power Circuit Breakers. To check
the interrupting duty on a power circuit breaker, the short-circuit current
should be determined a t the time that the circuit-breaker contacts part.
The time required for the circuit-breaker contacts to part will vary over a
considerable range, because of variation in relay time and in circuit-
breaker operating speed. The fewer cycles required for the circuit-
breaker contacts to part, the greater will be the curreut to interrupt.
Therefore, the maximum interrupting duty is imposed upon the circuit
breaker when the tripping relays operate instantaneously. In all short-
circuit calculations, for the purpose of determining interrupting duties,
the relays are assumed to operate instantaneously. To account for
SEPES-DIVEN
SEN-RIO-EIELI', tCA
1
30 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

HIGH VOLTAGE
INCOMING LINE
2400
4160
4800 VOLT
INCOMING
L I N E FROM
UTILITY

$ o,:4600
A6,0 V BUS

T O P L A N T LOAD TO P LANT L O AD
(0) NO GENERATION NO GENERATION (b)
IN THE P L A N T IN THE P L A N T

13.6 KV

U U
USE 1.6
MULTIPLYING
FACTOR

u.-L NO GENERATION
ON THIS BUS
NO GENERATION
2400, 4160 OR

(C) TO LOAD

FIG. 1.25 One-line diogrom of carer where the multiplying factor 1.5 may be used on
circuits rated less than 5 h.
c
.: .. . .. ,
,, ,.. . .
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 31

variation in the circuit-breaker operating speed, power circuit breakers


have been grouped into classes, such as eight-cycle, five-cycle, three-cycle
circuit breakers, etc. It is assumed for short-circuit-calculation purposes
that circuit breakers of all manufacturers, in any one speed grouping,
operate substantially the same with regard to contact parting time.
Instead of specifying a time a t which the short-circuit current is to he
calculated, it is determined by the simpler approach of specifying the
generator and motor reactances and using multiplying factors. These
factors are listed in Table 1.2.
In industrial plants, eight-cycle circuit breakers are generally used.
Normally, the induction-motor contribution has disappeared, and that of
the synchronous motors has changed from the subtransient to the transient
condition before the contacts of these circuit breakers part. Therefore,
in calculating the interrupting duty on commonly used power circuit
breakers, generator subtransient reactance and synchronous-motor
transient reactance are used and induction motors are neglected. The
elapsed time is so long that usually all the d-c component has disappeared.
What d-c component is left is more than offset by the reduction in a-c
component due to the increase in reactance of the generators. Hence, a
multiplying factor of one (1) is used.
In very large power systems, when symmetrical short-circuit interrupt-
ing duty is 500 mva or greater, there is an exception to this rule. In such
large power systems, the ratio of reactance to resistance is usually so high
that there may be considerable d-c component left when the contacts of
the standard eight-cycle circuit breaker part. To account for this, the
multiplying factor of 1.1is used in determining the total rms short-circuit
mva that a circuit breaker may have to interrupt in these large systems.
The multiplying factor of 1.1 is not applied until the symmetrical short-
circuit value reaches 500 mva.
High-voltage Fuses. High-voltage fuses are either of the current-
limiting type, Fig. 1.26, which open the circuit before the first current
peak, or of the non-current-limiting type, which open the circuit within
one or two cycles after the inception of the short circuit. For the sake of
standardization, all fuse-interrupting ratings are on the basis of maximum
rms current that will flow in the first cycle after the short circuit occurs.
This is the current that will flow if the fuse did not open the circuit
previously, i.e., fuses are rated in terms of “available short-circuit
current.”
To determine the available short-circuit current a t the first cycle for
the application of high-voltage fuses, use the subtransient reactances of
all generators, induction motors, synchronous motors, and utility sources
and allow for the maximum d-c component. The multiplying factor for
allowing for d-c component is 1.6, the same as for allowing for d-c compo-
w
u
TABLE 1.2 Condensed Table of Multiplying Factors and Rotating-machine Reactances
To Be Used for CaLdatina Swt-dreuit Cunanh for Circuit-breaker, Fuse, and Motor.rtartor Applicdons

1 Generators. 1 I

I I 1 frequency
changers I 0
w
C
a
Interrupting duty 2
Eight cycle or slower (general case). .......... Above 600 wlh Any ploee where symmetricmi I .O Subtransient
Rva cycle.. .............................. Above 600 volt, short-circuit kva i s loss than 1.1 Subtransient
500 mva ii
Momentary duty s
s
z
Generol GOSO.. ........................... Above 600 volt) Near generoting station 1.6 Subtransient
Lar than 5 k.. .......................... 601 to 5000 volh Remote from generating do- 1.5 Subtransient
lion (X/R rotio l e u thon I01

High-voltaqe Fuses
5
Three-phose I n o interrupting duly

All typos, including dl wrront-limiting fuses. .... Above 600 wih Anywhere in system I .O Subhqndent 1 Transient 1 Neglect

Maximum rms ampere interrupting duty

... Above 600 volt' I


All types, including dl current-limiting fuses..
Non-current-limiting lypes only.. ............. 601 to 15,000 wlh
1
Anywhere in system
Remote from generoting %to.
tion ( X / R mtio leu lhm 41
1.6
1 .?
i i i
Subtronsient Svbtronrient Svbwmrient
Subwoniiont Subhmrient Subtransient
All h e p o w e r ratings.. .................... 2400 and 4i60Y Anywhere in system
Wlh 1.0

All horsepower rotingr.. .................... 2400 and 4160Y Anywhere in system


I .6
Yolh

CIrmit breaker w conladm l y p e . . ........... 601 10 5000 volts

0
Cirwit b r w b r or contocto~lype. ............ 601 to MOO volts bywhere in system 1.6 Subtransient Subtrmdent Subtransient
Clrcvit b r e e b r or contartor type.. ........... 601 lo 5000 volts temote from gener.ting 11.- 1.5 Subtransient Subtrmdent Subtransient 8
lion lX/R ratio leis than 101 R
0
m
Apparatus. 600 Volts and Below z
Interrupting or momentary duty

Air circuit breakers or breaker-contactor combino.


lion motor stoners.. .................... 600 volts and below Anywhere in system I .25 Subtransient Subtianrient Svbtronrienl
Low-voltacp furas or fused combination motor
Slarte" ............................... 600 volt* and below Anywhere in system 1 .25 Subtransient Subtransient Svbtraniient
34 SHORT-CIRCUIT.CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

nent when determining the momentary duty on a power circuit breaker


(see Table 1.2).
The interrupting rating of fuses in amperes is exactly parallel, in so far
as short-circuit+urent calculations are concerned, to the momentary
rating of power circuit breakers.
The ampere interrupting rating of high-voltage fuses is the only rating
that has any physical significance. For the sake of simplicity of applica-
tion in systems with power circuit breakers, some fuses are given inter-
rupting ratings in three-phase mva. The three-phase mva interrupting
rating has no physical significance, because fuses are single-phase devices,
each fuse functioning only on the current which passes through it.

WAVE OF AVAILABLE

THE FUSE ELEMENTS MELT


BEFORE PEAK VALUE OF
AVAILABLE SHORT CIRCUIT
CURRENT I S REACHED

1
FIG. 1.26 Grophic sxplonotion of the current-limiting action of current-limiting fuses.
See Fig. 1.27 for method of determining available short-circuit current.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CAKULATING PROCEDURES 35

These three-phase mva ratings have been selected so they will line u p
with power-circuit-breaker ratings. For example, a high-voltage fuse
rated 150 mva and a power circuit breaker rated 150 mva can he applied
on the basis of the same short-circuit-current calculations. Of course, the
application voltage must he factored in each case.
High-voltoge M o t o r Starters. High-voltage motor starters generally
employ for short-circuit protection either current-limiting fuses or power
circuit breakers. The short-circuit-current calculations for applying
these motor starters are the same as those for high-voltage fuses and
power circuit breakers, respectively.

LOW-VOLTAGE CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (600 VOLTS A N D BELOW)

low-voltage Air Circuit Breokers. The present designs of low-voltage


air circuit breakers differ from those of high-voltage power circuit break-
ers because they are substantially instantaneous in operation a t currents
near their interrupting rating. The contacts often begin to part during
the first cycle of current. Therefore, low-voltage air circuit breakers are
subject to interrupting the current a t the first cycle after short circuit and
withstanding the mechanical forces of that rurrent. It is necessary to
calculate the current a t only one time for the application of low-voltage air
circuit breakers. The current determined should be that of the first halt
cycle and should be determined on exactly the same hasis as for checking
the momentary duty of high-voltage power circuit breakers, except for a
change in the multiplying factor as discussed in the next paragraph. The
suhtransient reactances of generators, induction motors, and synrhronous
motors are used, and the d-c component is considered (see Table 1.2).
The multiplying factor for the d-c component is not so high in low-
voltage circuits as in some high-voltage circuits. This is due to the gener-
ally lower level of reactance-to-resistance ( X I R ) ratio in low-voltage
circLits, which causes the d-c component to decay faster than in some
high-voltage circuits.
In rating low-voltage air circuit breakers, the average d-c component of
the three phases is used, which is somewhat lower than that for the maxi-
mum phase.
The generally lower ( X / R ) ratio and the use of an average d-c compo-
nent for the three phases result in a considerably lower multiplying factor
in low-voltage circuits. The multiplying factor has been standardized
at 1.25 for the average for the three phases. This is equivalent t o a
multiplier of about 1.5 to account for the d-c component in the maximum
phase.
Application of High-voltage Oil Circuit Breokers to 600-volt Systems.
In the 192Os, 5-kv oil circuit breakers were used extensively on 600-volt
36 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULAnNG PROCEDURES

systems. The procedure for determining short-circuit currents in sys-


tems of 600 volts and below is slightly modified for checking duty on oil
breakers of the 5-kv class as compared with low-voltage air circuit
breakers.
Both the momentary duty and interrupting duty must be checked for
the oil-circuit-breaker application. To check the momentary duty, use
the same procedure as for low-voltage air circuit breakers, i.e., generators,
utility sources, induction motors, and synchronous motors (subtransient
reactance). However, a multiplying factor of 1.5 is used instead of 1.25
as for low-voltage air circuit breakers. Oil-circuit-breaker momentary
ratings are based on the maximum current through any one pole, not on
the average current in the three phases which is employed in the rating of
low-voltage circuit breakers.
To determine the interrupting duty, use the generator subtransient
reactance and utility-source reactance plus the synchronous-motor
transient reactance and a multiplying factor of 1.0.
Low-voltage Fuses. Several low-voltage fuses with published a-c
interrupting ratings are appearing on the market. There are no industry
standards to follow, but most of these seem to be following air-circuit-
breaker standards, i.e., using the same rating base and same method of
determining short-circuit duty as is used for low-voltage air circuit
breakers. Hence, the procedure will not be repeated here except to
point out that the 1.25 multiplying factor is used (see Table 1.2).
So-called National Electrical Code (NEC) plug and cartridge fuses
have no established a-c interrupting ratings. Many tests have been made
to determine their a-c interrupting ability, but to date the industry has
not applied a-c interrupting ratings.
Low-voltage M o t o r Starters. Low-voltage motor starters are of two
types: those using fuses and those using air circuit breakers for short-
circuit protection. Those using air circuit breakers for short-circuit
protection are applied 04 exactly the same basis as low-voltage air circuit
breakers in so far as short-circuit currents are concerned.
Motor starters using fuses for short-circuit protection are applied on
exactly the same basisas fuses in so far as short-circuit current is concerned.

AVAILABLE SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT

In determining the short-circuit current, the impedance of the circuit


protective device connected in the faulty feeder is neglected. The short-
circuit current is determined by’ assuming that the protective device is
shorted out by a bar of zero impedance (Fig. 1.27). The short-circuit
/
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 37

current which flows in such a circuit is commonly called available short-


circuit cumat. The procedure for determining the available short-circuit
current is based on setting up impedance or reactance diagrams. The
impedance of the short-circuit protective device that is nearest the short
circuit (electrically) is omitted from the impedance diagram.
Practically all protective devices are so rated and tested for short-
circuit interrupting ability; hence this procedure may be followed in
short-circuit calculations. This greatly simplifies the calculations and
removes the effect of impedance variations between different types and
makes of devices having the same interrupting rating. I t means that
one set of short-circuit-current calculations for a given set of conditions
is all that is needed for applying any type of protective device, regardless
of the impedance of the devices themselves.

0 GENERATOR

TRANSFORMER
MOTORS

CABLE

SHORT ClRCUlTED 8 1
J UMPER OF Z E R O CABLE
IMPEDANCE

SHORT
CIRCUIT

FIG. 1.27 Connections for determining available short-circuit current for testing rhort-
circuit protective devices.
38 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

HOW TO MAKE A SHORT-CIRCUIT STUDY


FOR DETERMINING SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT

FORMULAS FOR SHORT-CIRCUIT STUDY'

1. Changing ohms to per cent ohms, etc.:


(ohms reactance) (kva.base)
Per cent (%) ohms reactance = (1.1)
(kvt)*(lO)
(ohms reactance)(kva base)
Per-unit (90 ohms reactance = (kv)*(1000) (1.2)
[see Eq. (1.34)]
( % reactance)(kv)2(10)
Ohms reactance = (1.3)
kva base
per cent ohms reactance
Per-unit ohms reactance = (1.4)
100
2. Changing per cent or per-unit ohms reactance from one kva base to
another:
% ohms reactance on kva base 2
- kva base 2
kva base 1
X (% ohms reactance on base 1) (1.5)

9f reactance on kva base 2


- kva base 2 X (% ohms reactance on kva base 1) (1.36)
-
kva base 1
3. Converting utility-system reactance to per cent or per-unit ohms
reactance on kva base being used in study:
a. If given in per cent ohms reactance on a kva base different than that
used in the study, convert according to Eq. (1.5).
b. If given in short-circuit kva, convert to per-unit ohms thus:
kva base used in reactance diagram
9i reactance =
short-circuit kva of utility system (1.6)
c. If given in short-circuit amperes (rms symmetrical), convert t o per-
unit ohms thus:
kva base used in reactance diagram
Yi reactance = (1.7)
(short-circuit current) ( d $ ) ( k v rating of system)
d. If only the kva interrupting rating of the incoming line breaker is
known,
* See pp. 54 to 57 for more prr-unit formulas
1 kv = line-to-line kilovolts.
SHORTT-CIRCUIT.CURRENTCALCULATING PROCEDURES 39
9f ohms reactance
-
kva base used in reactance diagram
kva interrupting rating of incoming line breaker (1.8)

4. Determining kva base of motors:


The exact kva base of a motor = EI 4
3 (1.9)
where E = name-plate voltage rating
I = name-plate full-load current rating
When motor full-load currents are not known, use the following kva bases:
Induction motors:
kva base = horsepower rating (1.10)
0.8-power factor synchronous motor:
kva base = 1.0 (horsepower rating) (1.11)
1.0-power factor synchronous motors:
kva base = 0.80 (horsepower rating) (1.12)
5. Changing voltage base when ohms are used:
Ohms on basis of voltage 1
- ')* X (ohms on basis of voltage 2) (1.13)
(voltage 2)2
In Eqs. (1.1) to (1.4), ohms impedance or ohms resistance may be sub-
stituted for ohms reactance. The final product is then per-unit or per
cent ohms impedance or resistance, respectively.
6 . Determining the symmetrical short-circuit kva:

Symmetrical short-circuit kva = ~ (kva base) (1.14)


% X*
-~
- y? '&(kva base) (1.15)
(line-to-neutral voltage)2
= 3 (1.16)
ohms reactance X 1000
- kv2 X lo00
-
ohms reactance
7. Determining the symmetrical short-circuit current:
(1.16a)
.
(100) (kva base)
Symmetrical short-circuit current = (1.17)
(% X*)(v%(kvt)
-
-
kva base
(1.18)
(% X*)(&)(kvt)
-
- k v t X lo00
(1.19)
( d ) ( o h m s reactance)
* X = reactance or impedanoe.
t kv = line-&line kilovolts.
TABLE 1.3 Factor ( K ) to Convert Ohms to Per Cent or Per-unit Ohms for Three-phase Circuits* L
0

Base kvo

loot 1 50 200 300 500


- __
Pr. c*nt Per-""it Per cent Per-""it Per cant Por-un1t Per cent Per-""it Per cent Per-""it v)
I

216Y/125 '14 2.14 321.5 3.215 128 4.28 t43 6.43


-0.712
240 73 1.73 260.4 2.604 147 3.47 a1 5.21
071
868 8.68 2
480 43.4 0.434 65.21 0.6521 86.8 0.868 30.2 1.302 217 2.17 KE
600
2,400
27.7
1.73
0.277
0.0173
4.166
2.604
0.4166
0.02604
55.5
3.47
0.555
0.0347
83.3
5.21
0.833
0.0511
I38
8.68
1.38
0.0868
2
4.1 60 0.56 0.00576 0.808 0.00808 1.15 0.0115 1.72 0.0172 2.88 0.0288
4,800 0.435 0.00435 0.651 0.00651 0.868 0.00868 1.302 0.01302 2.17 0.0217 B
-I
6.900 0.210 0.0021 0.315 0.0031 5 0.42 0.0042 0.63 0.0063 1.05 0.0105 n
7,200
l1,OOO
0.193
0.0825
0.001 93
0.000825
0.289
0.123
0.00289
0.00123
0.386
0.165
0.00386
0.00165
0.579
0.247
0.00579
0.00247
0.965
0.413
0.00965
0.00413
2
11.500 0.0755 0.000755 0.113 0.00113 0.151 0.00151 0.226 0.00226 0.377 0.00377 5
12,000 0.0695 0.000695 0.104 0.00104 0.138 0.00138 0.208 0.00208 0.347 0.00347 f
0
12,500 0.064 0.00064 0.096 0.00096 0.127 0.00127 0.192 0.001 92 0.32 0.0032
13.200 0.0574 0.000574 0.086 0.00086 0.114 0.00114 0.172 0,00172 0.286 0.00286
13,800 0.0525 0.000525 0.0787 0.000787 0.105 0.00105 0.157 0.001 57 0.262 0.00262
23,000 0.0187 0,000187 0.0283 0.000283 0.0378 0.000378 0.0567 0.000547 0.045 0.00045
6c
37.4M) 0.00711 0.000071 I 0.0107 0.000106 0.0142 0.000142 0.0213 0.00021 3 0.0355 0.000355 R
46,000 0.00471 0.0000471 0.00708 0.0000708 0.00945 0.0000945 0.0141 0.0001 41 0.0236 0.000236 v,
69,OCU 0.0021 2 0.0000212 0.0031 5 0.000031 5 0.0042 0.000042 0.0063 0.000063 0.0105 0.000105
- -
* For per-unit, K kva base , kva base
= For per cent, K = kv = line-to-line kilovolts
kv' X 1wO kv' X 10
t To determine multiplying factors far any other base use figures under 100-kvs base columns multiplied by new base in kva,
100
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 41

8. Determining the asymmetrical short-circuit current:


Asymmetrical short-circuit current
= (symmetrical current) (multiplying factor)
(1.20)
Asymmetrical short-circuit kva
= (symmetrical kva) (multiplying factor)

DIAGRAMS

One-line Diagram. The first step in making a short-circuit study is to


prepare a one-line diagram showing all sources of short-circuit current,
i.e., utility ties, generators, synchronous motors, induction motors, syn-
chronous condensers, rotary converters, etc., and all significant circuit
elements, such as transformers, cables, circuit breakers, etc. (Fig. 1.28).
M a k e an Impedance or Reactance Diagram. The second step is to
make an impedance or reactance diagram showing all significant react-
ances and resistances (Pig. 1.29). In the following pages this will be

GENERATOR
C

I UTILITY SYSTEM

TRANS D GENERATOR

CABLE E
SHORT
CIRCUIT
LARGE CABLE J
MOTOR

480 VOLT
MOTORS

FIG. 1.28 e diagram c , typical large industrial power system.

INFINITE
H BUSES

-SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT GOES THROUGH HERE

FIG. 1.29 Reactonce diagram of system shown in Fig. 1.28.


42 SHORT-ClRCUIT.CURRENT CALCULAltNG PROCEDURES

referred to as an impedance diagram, recognizing of course that only


reactances will be used in many diagrams. The circuit element,s and
machines considered in the impedance diagram depend upon many
factors, i.e., circuit voltage, whether momentary or interrupting duty are
to be checked, etc.
The foregoing discussion and Table 1.2 explain when motors are to be
considered and what motor reactances are to he used for checking
the dut,y on a given circuit breaker or fuses of a given voltage class.
There are other problems, i.e., (1) selecting the type and location of the
short circuit in the system, (2) determining the specific reactance of a
given circuit element or machine, and (3) deciding whether or not circuit
resistance should be convidered.

SELECTION OF TYPE AND LOCATION OF SHORT CIRCUIT

Three-phase Short Circuits Generally Considered. I n most indus-


trial systems, the maximum short-circuit current is obtained when a
three-phase short circuit occurs. Short-rircuit-current magnitudes are
generally less for line-to-neutral or line-to-line short circuits than for the
three-phase short circuits. Thus, the simple three-phase short-circuit-
current calculations will suffice for application of short-circuit protective
devices in most industrial systems.
Unbalanced Short Circuits in Large Power Systems. In some very
large systems where the high-voltage-system neutral is solidly grounded,
maximum short-circuit current flows for a single phase-to-ground short
rircuit. Such a system might be served from a large delta-Y trans-
former bank or directly from the plant generators.
Hence the only time that single-phase short-circuit-current calculations
need be made is on large high-voltage systems (2400 volts and above)
with solidly grounded generator neutrals or where main transformers
that supply a plant from a utility are ronnected in delta on the high-
voltage side (incoming line) and in Y with solidly grounded neutrals
on the low-voltage (load) side.
The calculations of unbalanced short-circuit currents in large power
systems can best be done by symmetrical components, see Chap. 2.
Normally, generator and large delta-Y transformer secondaries are
grounded through a reactor or resistor to limit the short-circuit current
for a single line-to-ground short circuit on the system to letis than the
value of short-circuit current for a three-phase short circuit.
Bolted Short Circuits Only Are Considered. Several tests have been
made to evaluate the effect of arc drop at the point of short circuit in
reducing the short-circuit-current magnitude. It was felt by some
engineers that the current-limiting effect of the arc was pronounced.
These tests showed, however, that for circuit voltages as low as 300 volts
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 43

there may be no substantial difference in the current that flows for a


bolted short circuit and when there is an arc of several inches of length.
These test,s also confirmed modern calculating procedure as an accurate
method of estimating the short-circuit-current magnitude in systems
of 600 volts and less.
.4rcs cannot be counted on to limit the flow of short-circuit currents
even in louvoltage circuits; so short-circuit-current calculations for
all circuit voltages are made on the basis of zero impedance at the point
of short circuit, or, in other words, a bolted short circuit. This materially
simplifies calculation because all other circuit impedances are linear in
magnitude, whereas arcs have a nonlinear impedance characteristic.
At What Point in the System Should the Short Circuit Be Considered
to Occur? The maximum short-circuit current will flow through a cir-
cuit breaker, fuse, or motor starter when the short circuit occurs at the

4160V.
I I I

$? MAX.SHORT CIRCUIT DUTY ON

$- BREAKERS ON THIS BUS


$EW:RS FOR SHORT CIRCUIT

1T ?;
A&??
Y T T - 3
& + * +
r y r-x
MAX. DUTY FOR
THESE BREAKERS
OCCURS FOR
SHORT CIRCUIT
HERE

FIG. 1.30 Location of faults for maximum Short-circuit duty on circuit breakers.
44 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

terminals of the circuit breaker, etc. (Fig. 1.30). These devices, if


properly applied, should be capable of opening the maximum short-
circuit current that can flow through them. Therefore, only one short-
circuit location (at the terminal of the device) need be considered for
checking the duty on a given circuit breaker, fuse, or motor starter.

DETERMINING REACTANCES AND RESISTANCES OF CIRCUITS AND MACHINES

Typical reactances of circuit elements and machines are given at the


end of this chapter. Resistances are included for certain items. These
tables may be used as a basis for assigning values to the various elements
of the impedance diagram. The reactances and resistances are all line-
to-neutral values for one phase of a three-phase circuit. Where the
reactances of a specific motor, generator, or transformer are known,
these values should he used in lieu of the typical reactances in this
chapter. The following is a guide to general practice in selecting and
representing reactances.
U s e R e a c t a n c e s of All S i g n i f i c a n t Circuit E l e m e n t s . Whether or not
the reactance of a certain circuit element of a system is significant
depends upon the voltage rating of the system where the short circuit
occurs. In all cases, generator, motor, and transformer reactances
are used. In systems rated above 600 volts, the reactances of short
bus runs, current transformers, disconnecting switches, circuit breakers,
and other circuit elements of only a few feet in length are so low that
they may be neglected without significant error.
In circuits rated 600 volts or less, the reactances of low-voltage current
transformers, air circuit breakers, disconnecting switches, low-voltage bus
runs, etc., may have a significant hearing on the magnitude of total short-
circuit current.
As a general guide, the reactance of the low-voltage secondary-switch-
gear section in load-center unit substations with closely coupled trans-
formers and secondary switchgear is not significant for all voltages of
600 volts and below. However, where there are several transformers or
generators paralleled on one bus, or connections several feet long between
a single transformer and its switchgear, reactances of the bus connections
will generally be significant and should be considered in short-circuit
calculations. I n systems of more than about 1000 kva on one bus a t
208Y/120 or 240 volts, reactance of all circuit components such as short
bus runs, current transformers, circuit breakers, etc., should be included
in the short-circuit study.
I n systems of more than about 3000 kva on one bus a t 480 volts or
600 volts, reactances of all components such as current transformers,
circuit breakers, short bus runs, etc., should be considered.
It should be remembered that the lower the voltage, the more effective
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENl CALCUUTING PROCEDURES 45

a small impedance is in limiting the short-circuit-current magnitude.


That is why extreme care should he used to include all circuit elements
in the impedance diagram, particularly for large ZORY/lZO-volt or
240-volt systems. If care is not used, the calculations will result in a
value of current far higher than will actually be realized in practice.
See the example outlined in Figs. 1.46 and 1.47. This often results in the
adoption of low-voltage switchgear of higher interrupting rating and
higher cost than are actually required. If care is used in including all
reactances, the calculated reiults will be close to the short-circuit currents
obtained in practice. Short-circuit calculations are of most value if
they reflect accurate answers.
When Is Resistance Considered? The resistance of all generators,
transformers, reactors, motors, and high-capacity buses (above about
1000-amp rating) is so low, compared with their reactance, that their
resistance is not considered, regardless of their voltage rating. The
resistance of all other circuit elements of the high-voltage system (above
600 volts) is usually neglected, because the resistance of these parts has
no significant bearing on the total magnitude of short-circuit currents.
In systems of 600 volts and less the error of omitting resistances of
all parts of the circuit except cables and small ampere rating buses is
usually less than 5 per cent. However, the resistance of cable circuits is
often the predominant part of the total impedance of a cable. When
appreciable lengths of cable are involved in the circuit through which
short-circuit current flows in a system of GOO volts or less, the resistance
as well as the reactance of the cable circuits should be included in the
GENERATOR

OF-THESE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS.


___ -. . . -.
1100 FT. 101

IN GENERAL USF REACTANCE


AND RESISTANCE OF THESE
----
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT CONSIDERING
REACTANCE ONLY :20800 AMPERES (20 FT

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT CONSIDERING


REACTANCE OF A LL PARTS PLUS
RESISTANCE OF COW VOLTAGE
CABLE = 11500 4MPERES.

FIG. 1.31 One-line diagram showing effect of resistance in cable circuits.


46 SHORT-CIRCUIT.CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

impedance diagram. The example of Fig. 1.31 shows the error that
might result in neglecting cable resistance.
I n secondary network systems of 600 volts and less, the resistance as
well as the reactance of the tie-cable circuits between substation buses
should be included in the impedance diagram. The example of Fig. 1.32
shows the effect of cable resistance in reducing short-circuit current in a
typical industrial network.
n n
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT USING
REACTANCE ONLY = 51000 AMPERES,

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT USING


REACTANCE PLUS RESISTANCE OF
T I E CIRCUIT= 41000 AMPERES.

T I E CIRCUITS
208 Y / l Z O V O L T S .

200 FT
2- 250 M,CM
3 CONO. CABLES ~~~~~T
I N PARALLEL

200 F T

FIG. 1.32 One-line diogrtlm of low-voltage secondary network system showing effect of
resistance of cable tie circuits.

Where to Use Exact Multiplying Factors. I n low-voltage systems


having considerable lengths of cahle, the X / R ratio may be so low that
the 1.25 multiplying factor would be considerably in error. Hence in
these systems where resistance is considered, determine the correct
X / R ratio and then use minimum multiplying factor.

GUIDE FOR REPRESENTING THE REACTANCE O F A GROUP O F MOTORS

A group of motors fed from one substation or from one generating


station bus may range in rating from fractional to several thousand horse-
power per motor. All motors that are running at the time a short circuit
occurs in the power system contribute short-circuit current and therefore
should be taken into consideration.
Motors Roted 600 Volts and Below. I n that portion of the power sys-
tem operating at 600 volts or less, there are generally numerous small
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES A?

motors, i.e., under about 50 hp. I t becomes impractical to represent


each small motor in the impedance diagram. These motors are con-
stantly being turned off and on; so it is practically impossible to predict
which ones will be on the line when a short circuit occurs. Furthermore,
it would be impractical to obtain the characteristics of each small motor
and to account for the effect of the impedance of their leads.
Where more accurate data are not available, the following procedure
may be used with satisfactory results for representing the combined
reactance of a group of miscellaneous motors operating a t 600 volts or
less.
1. In systems rated 240, 480, or 600 volts a t each generator and/or
transformer bus, assume that the maximum horsepower of motors
runniug a t any one time is equal to the combined kva rating of the step-
down transformer and/or generators supplying that one bus (see Figs.
1.33 and 1.34).
2. 10 systems rated 208Y/120 volts, a substantial portion of the load
usually consists of lights and a lesser proportion of motor load than in
240-, 480-, or 000-volt systems. Hence in 208Y/120-volt systems where
more accurate data are not available, assume a t each generator and/or
transformer bus that the maximum horsepower of motors running a t

REbCTbNCE QOW,
TO UTILITY SYSTEM OF UTILITY OR5.,s 0.25% OR
SYSTEM 25 %
REbCTbNCE OF
REbCTbNCE EQUIVALENT
OF 7 5 0 K V b MOTOR
TRbNSF. 5.5%

IMPEObNCE O I b G R b M
750 K V b BASE
SHORT EQUIVALENT MOTOR
CIRCUIT 750 KVb

240, 480, 600 VOLT SYSTEMS

El
hKVA
SHORT
CIRCUIT
TO UTILITY SYSTEM

EQUIVILENT MOTOR
375 K V b
REbCTbNCE
OF UTILITY
SYSTEM

REbCTbNCE
OF 7 5 0 KVb
TRbNSF.

IMPEObNCE OIbGRbM

2 0 8 Y / 1 2 0 VOLT SYSTEMS
750 K V b BASE
0.50% OR
50 %
REACTbNCE OF
EQUIVALENT
MOTOR

FIG. 1.33 Oiagromr illustrating how to include motors in low-voltage radial systems.
40 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

any one time is equal t,o 50 per cent of the combined rating of all step-
down trausformers and/or generators supplying power to that one bus,
Fig. 1.33. For large commercial buildings the 50 per cent figure may
be too low. Check carefully the mot,or load on all large 208Y/120-volt
systems.
I n the generalized rases referred t o in paragraphs 1 and 2 , no specific
ratio of induction t o synchronous motors or no specific number of motors
which prcduce unusually high short-circuit current,s has been set fort,h.
T o account for these variables, a n average motor reitctance ihcluding
leads is assumed t o be 25 per cent for the purpose of preparing application
tables like Table 1.5 and in making short-circuit st,udies where no more
accurat,e data are available. It will he noted that the average motor
reactance of 25 per cent is based on the transformer or supply-generator
kva rating. This figure is between the values of 28 per cent for induc-
tion mot,ors and 21 per cent for synchronous motors given in Table 1.14.
Where the division between synchronous and iuduction motors is known,
then more accurate calculations can be made by using the assumed motor
reactances of Table 1.14. T h e reactances given in Table 1.14 are based
on motor kva ratings and not supply transformer or generator ratings.

750 KVA
T
A 500 KVA 750 KVA

-480 VOLTS
500 KVA
v

EQUIVALENT MOTORS WOULD BE 250 KVA AND 375 K VA


FOR 280Y/120 VOLT SECONDARY SYSTEM

FIG. 1.34 Diagram illustrating how lo include motors in lowvoltage secondary network
rvrternr.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 49

Although a portion of the load connected to a bus rated GOO voks or


less may be heaters, lights, a-c welders, solderitig irons, appliances, arid
other devices which produce no short-circuit curreiit, the total installed
horsepower of motors connected t,o such a bus is geiierally much greater
than the kva rating of the supply transformers and generators. Hov-
ever, allowing for diversity, generally the total comhitied horsepower
rat,ing of all mot,ors running a t one time ix-ould trot produce short-cir-
cuit currents in excess of the values obtained when using the ahore
assumptions.
I n systems of 000 volts or Icss, the large motors (i,e., mot,ors 011 t,he
order of several hundred horsepomerj are usually few i n number and
represent only a small portion of the tot,al connected horsepower; there-
fore, these larger motors are generally lumped in with the smaller motors
and the complete group is represented as one equivalent motor i t i the
impedance diagram.
Synchrouous and induction motors need not be segregated when com-
bining the motors in these low-voltage systems, because lorn-voltage air
circuit breakers operr so fast that only the current flow duritig the first half
cycle is considered; i.e., only suhtraiisient reactances ( X y ) of marhiiies
are considered.
Motors Rated above 600 Volts. High-voltage motors (rated 2200
volts and ahove) are generally larger in horsepower rating thau motors
on systems operating under 600 volts. These largcr motors may have
a much more significant hearing on short-circuit-current magnitudes
than smaller motors, and, therefore, more exact determinatiou of the
reactances of the larger motors is in order. Therefore, it is often foutid
convetiient t o represent each large high-voltage motor individually in
the impedance diagram.
However, in large plants like steel mills, paper mills, etc., where there
are numerous motors of several huridred horsepower each, it is often found
desirable t o group these larger motors iii one group arid represent them
by one reartaiire in the impedance diagram. Individual motors of
several thousand horsepoitrer should be coiisidered individually and
their reactances accurately determined hefore starting the short-circuit
study.
Whether considering motors individually or in groups, regardless of
voltage rating of the motors, it is necessary t o obtain an equivalent kva
rating of the individual or group of motors. This can be done precisely
for large motors by Eq. (1.9) or can be approximated hy Eq. (l.lO),
( l , l l ) , or (1.12), when the full-load current is not known. The latter
equations are used when considering a single reactance t o represent a
group of miscellaneous motors.
50 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

I n high-voltage systems, complete motor data may not be available.


Lacking these data, the connected horsepower is assumed to he equal
t o the generator and/or transformer capacity supplying a given high-
voltage bus.
If the reactance of the leads between the transformer and/or gen-
erator bus and the motors is significant, the reactanre of these leads
should be included.

MAKING THE IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM

After it has been decided what elements of the one-line diagram are
to be considered in the impedance diagram, the mechanirs of making
the impedance diagram and of determining the short-circuit-current
magnitude are as follows.
Treatment of Sources of Short-circuit

7
GENERATOR OR MOTOR OF Current. The generators and motors
ZERO IMPEDANCE are treated as if they comprised a gen-
erator of zero reactance plus an external
reactor to represent the reactance of the
EXTERNAL TO machine windings, Fig. 1.35. The first
REPRESENT IMPEDANCE OF step in making an impedance diagram
GENERATOR OR MOTOR. is torepresent every generator and motor
or groups of motors and utility supply
FIG. 1.35 One-line representation by a reactance connected to a zero im-
of generator or motor in impedance pedance bus or so-called “infinite bus,”
diogmm. Fig. 1.36. This bus represents the in-
ternal voltage of the generators and motors.
Completing the Impedance Diagram. The second step is to add the
reactance of cables, buses, transformers, current transformers, circuit

flG. 1.36 Representation of reactances of generators, motors, and utility supply of


system shown in one-line diagram form in Fig. 1.28.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 51

breakers, switches, etc., in their proper location to complete the imped-


ance diagram, top of Fig. 1.37.
Choice of Ohms, Per Cent Ohms, or Per-unit Ohms Method. The
next step is to decide whether to use ohms, per cent ohms, or per-unit
ohms to represent the various circuit impedances in the impedance
diagram.

INFINITE BUS

SHORT 6.04V
INFINITE BUS CIRCUIT

STEP NO i COMBINE SERIES REACTANCES


C+D=0.04+0.15~0.19%
H +1+J = 2 . O t ~0.0+0.10~
12.10%

STEP NO.:! COMBINE PARALLEL REACTANCES


F,G AND I H + I J) +
'
- = _' + L +
XI F G
I
H + I + J
I I
- _ 3 + p-j=j 2 . 5 + 0 . 2 + 0 . 0 8 3
-o,'40t
I
-= 2.783 X =0.3698
XI

STEP N 0 . 3 COMBINE SERIES REACTANCES


X,,AND E
X t = XI + E = 0.36+0.04'0.40%
STEP NO. 4 COMBINE PARALLEL REACTANCES
X o , A . B . AND IC+D)
I - 1 + 1 + L+- 1 -l +-i +-
I I+ -
XR XI A B C+D '0.40 0 2 5 2.0 0.19
2 . 5 + 4 + 0 . 5 +5.3=12.3
X,

RESULTANT SINGLE REACTANCE

I 0.0805 %
X ~ O ~ z

FIG. 1.37 Complete reaclomce diagram for system shown in Fig. 1.28. Steps for com-
bining reactances into o single resultant value.
52 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

Ohms are generally not used because of the difficulty of converting


ohms from one voltage base to another without error and because of
the very small numbers, which make accurate and easy calculation more
difficult than the per cent or per-unit system.
In many of the examples in this book, the assumed or given impedance
or reactance data are listed in per cent, hut in the reactance dia,-rams
these are converted to per-unit. N o notation will he made when that is
done as it will be obvious.
Equations (1.1) to (1.4) show how to convert ohms to per cent ohms,
ohms to per-unit ohms.
The Per-unit System for Electrical Calculations.* A per-unit system
is a means of expressing numbers for ease in comparing them. A per-unit
value is a ratio:
a number
Per-unit = (1.21)
base number
~~

The base number is also called unit value since in the per-unit system
it has a value of 1, or unity. Thus, base voltage is also called unit
voltage.
Any convenient number may be selected for the base number. For
example, for the columns below, a base of 560 is used:
Per-unit Volue
Number with 560 as a Base
93 0.17
125 0.22
560 1 .oo
2053 3.65

Each number in the second column is a per-unit part of the base


number. In the first column, to compare the numbers, first mentally
determine the ratio of one to the other. In the second column this is
already accomplished.
The comparison can be aided by selection of the base number which
will illustrate the comparison best. In the foregoing example, if it is
desired to show how much larger each uumber is when compared with
the smallest number, the number 93 might have been selected as the
base. This would then be obtained as follows:
Per-""it Valve
Number with 93 (
I, (I Base
93 I .oo
125 I.35
560 6.00
2053 22.20

The value of a per-unit system is particularly useful when comparing


* From material originally prepared by H. J. Finison. iormrrly of General Ekctrir
Company.
SHORT-CIRCUIT.CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 53

numbers that are similarly related to two different base numbers. For
example :
Core A Cole B
Norm01 "0th 2300 460
Volts during motor starting 2020 420

The above figures in themselves have little significance until they are
compared each with its normal condition as follows:
Vollr during starting per-unit of normal 0.88 0.91

Per Cent. Obviously per cent and per-unit systems are similar. The
per cent system is obtained by multiplying the per-unit value arbitrarily
by 100 to keep many frequently used per-unit values expressed as whole
integers. By definition,
a number
Per cent =
base number
x 100 (1.22)

Thus to change per cent to per-unit, divide by 100. For example, a


transformer which has an impedance of 6 per cent has an impedance of
0.06 per-unit.
The per cent system is somewhat more difficult to work with and more
subject to possible error since it must always be remembered that the
numbers have been arbitrarily multiplied by 100. For a simple example,
money may draw interest a t the rate of 4 per cent per year. Early in
arithmetic one learns to determine the interest by multiplying the princi-
pal by 0.04. It is thus necessary to remember to convert to the per-unit
value before using the figure. In a complex calculation, this repeated
conversion may invite errors. In effect it is safer and more convenient
to say that interest is a t the rate of 0.04 per-unit.
Impedances of electric apparatus are usually given in per cent. I t is
usually convenient to convert these figures immediately to per-unit by
dividing by 100 and thereafter do all calculating in terms of per-unit
rather than attempt to remember always during the calculations whether
a number should or should not be multiplied or divided by 100 to obtain
the true value.
Symbol. Just as the per cent system has a symbol (%) to desig-
nate that a given number is expressed in terms of per cent (as 6%) so also
does the per-unit system have a symbol. The symbol for per-unit is
(%). Thus 0.06 per-unit is written as 0.06 91.
Selection of Base Number. In a per-unit system as used for expressing
electrical quantities of voltage, current, and impedance, it is necessary to
select numbers arbitrarily for the following:
Base volts
Base amperes
54 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

Do not then in addition arbitrarily select base ohms since it has already
been fixed by the first two selections because of Ohm’s law.
z = -E
I
base volts
Base ohms = (1.23)
base a m p z s
Using the selected base values, all parts of an electric circuit or system
may be expressed in per-unit terms as follows:
volts
Per-unit volts = (1.24)
base volts
amperes
Per-unit amperes = (1.25)
base amperes
ohms
Per-unit ohms = (1.26)
base ohms
In practice it is more convenient to select:
Base volts
Base kva
The base values of other quant.ities are thus automatically fixed. Hence,
for a single-phase system,
base kva X 1000
Base amperes = (1.27)
base volts
base kva
Base amperes = (1.28)
base kv
base volts
Base ohms = (1.23)
base amperes
where base kva is single-phase kva and base volts is single-phase volts.
For a three-phase system:
base kva X 1000
Bme amperes = (1.29)
X base voks
base kva
Base amperes = (1.30)
4 X base kv
hase volts
Base ohms = (1.31)
4 X base amperes
where base kva is three-phase kva, base volts is line-to-line, and hase ohms
is per phase.
Per-unit Ohms. In practice i t is desirable to convert directly from
ohms to per-unit ohms, without first determining base ohms. By Ohm’s
law,
base volts
Base ohms = (1.23)
base amperes
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 55

Substitute Eq. (1.27) (which gives the base amperes) into Eq. (1.23), to
obtain
base volts
Base ohms =
(base kva X 1000)/base volts
(base volts)P
Base ohms = bsse kva x 1000
(1.32)
By definition:
ohms
Per-unit ohms = (1.26)
base ohms
Substitute Eq. (1.32) into Eq. (1.26) to obtain
ohms
Per-unit ohms =
(base volts)e/(base kva X 1000)
ohms X base kva X 1000
Per-unit ohms = (1.33)
(base voltd2
ohms X base kva
Per-unit ohms = (1.34)
(base kv)2 X 1000
where base kva is single-phase kva and base kv is single-phase kv.
When dealing with a three-phase system, i t is usual to select three-phase
kva and line-to-line volts for the base values. Convert the above expres-
sions to these bases to obtain
ohms X base kva X 1000 X 3
Per-unit ohms =
(base volts X d .3 ,)z
ohms'X base kva X 1000
Per-unit ohms =
(base volts)2
ohms X base kva
Per-unit ohms = (1.35)
(base kv)* X 1000
where ohms are per phase, kva is three-phase kva, and kv is line-to-line
voltage.
Usual Base Numbers for System Studies. If per cent or per-unit ohms
reactance is used, the next step is to choose a kva base.
In system studies it is usually desirable to select as the base voltage the
nominal-system voltage or the voltage rating of the generators and supply
transformers. Base kva will usually be selected as the kva rating of one
of the machines or transformers in the system, or a convenient round
number such as 1000, 10,000, or 100,OOO kva. After choosing the kva
base, convert ohmic reactance of cables, wires, current transformers,
etc., to per cent or per-unit ohms reactance on the chosen base, using
Eq. (1.1) or (1.2) or Table 1.3.
If ohms reactance is used, convert all per cent reactances to ohms by
Eq. (1.3).
Where two systems of differing voltage are interconnected through a
56 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

transformer, select a common kva base for both systems and the rated
voltage of each system as its own base voltage. (These base voltages
must have the same ratio t o each other as the turn ratio of the transformer
connecting the two systems.) Base ohms and base amperes for the two
systems will thus he correspondingly different. Figure 1.38 shows a
typical example.
Once the system values are expressed as per-unit values, the two inter-
connected systems may be treated as a single system and any calculations
necessary carried out. Only in reconverting the per-unit values of the
results to actual voltage and current values is i t necessary t o remember
t h a t two different voltages actually existed in the system.
Change of Base Number. Frequently the impedance of a circuit ele-
ment may be expressed in terms of a particuiar base kva, and it may be
desirable t o express it in terms of a different base kva. For example, the
reactance of devices like transformers, generators, and motors is given in
per cent on their own kva rating, and their reactances must be converted
to the common base, chosen for the study by means of Eq. (1.5) or (1.36).
Per-unit ohms on kva base 2
- base kva
x (per-unit ohms on kva base 1) (1.36)
base kva 1
Similarly, a machine rated a t one voltage may actually be used i n a
circuit a t a different voltage. Its per-unit impedance must thus be
changed to a new base voltage.

GENERATOR MOTOR
1000 KVA I0;YKVA o(lOOO KVA)

13800 2300
VOLTS VOLTS
PRIMARY SECONDARY
RATING RATING
13200 2400
VOLTS VOLTS

TRANSFORMER RATIO= 13 200/2400=5.5


(A1
(A)HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEM ( 8 )LOW VOLTAGE SYSTEM RATIO -
(El
13 800 BASE VOLTS 2500 5.5

I000 BASE KVA 1000 I .o

41.6 EASE AMPS 233 115 5


190 BASE OHMS 6.2 5 (5.5?

FIG. 1.38 Method of converting bore volts, kva, amperes, and ohms from one value to
onother.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES n
Reference to Eq. (1.35) shows that per-unit ohms is inversely propor-
tional to the square of base volts. Thus:
Per-unit ohms on new base volts - - (old base volt.s)* (1.37)
Per-unit ohms on old base volts (new base volts)*
and
Per-unit ohms on new base volts = per-unit ohms on old base volts
(old base volts)2
(1.38)
(new base volts)2
Equations (1.37) and (1.38) may be used for per cent ohms as well as per-
unit ohms.
Converting Ohms to a Common Voltage Base. When using ohms
instead of per cent or per-unit in the impedance diagram, it is important
to convert the ohmic values to a common voltage base by Eq. (1.13).
For example, if the short-circuit current is being calculated in a 480-volt
system (supplied by transformers rated 480-volt secondary) fed through a
cable and a transformer from a 2400-volt system, the ohms impedance of
the cable in the 2400-volt circuit must be multiplied by 48O2/24OO2to
convert it to ohms on a 480-volt base. The transformer ratings, i.e., 480,
240, etc., and not system ratings, if different from transformer rating, are
used as the voltage base for short-circuit-current calculations.
Representing the Utility Supply System. The utility system must be
represented by a reactance in the impedance diagram. Sometimes this
utility-system reactance is available in per cent on a certain base. If so,
it is merely necessary to convert this value to the common base used in
the impedance diagram. To do this, use Eq. (1.5). In some cases the
utility engineers will give the short-circuit kva or current that the utility
system will deliver a t the plant site. In otker cases, only the interrupting
capacity of the incoming-line circuit breaker is known. In these cases to
convert short-circuit kva, current, or incoming-line breaker interrupting
rating to per cent reactance on the kva base used in the reactance diagram,
proceed as follows:
If given short-circuit kva, convert to per cent by using Eq. (1.6).
If per-unit is desired, use also Eq. (1.4).
If given short-circuit amperes (rms symmetrical), convert to per cent
by Eq. (1.7) and to per-unit by Eqs. (1.7) and (1.4).
If only the kva interrupting rating of the incoming line circuit breaker
is known, convert to per cent by Eq. (1.8) and to per-unit by Eqs. (1.8)
and (1.4).

DETERMINING THE EQUIVALENT SYSTEM IMPEDANCE OR REACTANCE

After completing the impedance diagram and inserting the values of


reactance or impedance for each part of the diagram, it is necessary to
reduce this network to one equivalent value. This can be done either by
58 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

longhand calculation or with the aid of a calculating board. Since so few


engineers have access to calculating hoards and must use longhand meth-
ods, this method will be covered in sufficient detail to enable solving the
short-circuit problems commonly encountered.
Use of Calculating Boards. A d-c calculating board will permit
accurate solution of all short-circuit problems where reactance only is
considered. In most cases where resistance is a significant factor and
must be considered, the d-c calculating board cannot be used readily.
However, in some problems involving resistance, certain approximations
can be made to obtain reasonably accurate answers on d-c calculating
boards. For exact calculating-board solutions of problems factoring
resistance and reactance, the a-c calculating board may he employed.
A-c calculating boards have boxes to represent both the resistance and
reactance of a circuit. The procedure for using calculating boards is
beyond the scope of this book.
Longhand Method of Combining Reactances. Longhand methods of
combining reactances vary in some respects. To illustrate the principles
involved, refer to Figs. 1.37 and 1.39.
Arbitrary values of reactance have been assigned to the various
branches. Combining the various branches of the diagram is merely a
question of reducing two or more series reactances to one value and
reducing two or more parallel reactances to one value until one single
equivalent value is obtained.
The following shows how to combine reactances and resistances.
1. Combining reactance and resistance to determine impedance,
z = m
z=r+jz (1.39)
wherej = 47
2. Adding series reactance of circuits where resistance is neglected add
reactances arithmetically, i.e.,
x, + x2 + xa = x. = equivalent reactance
z,,z2, and x 3 = reactances of circuit components
zs= equivalent reactance
3. Combining parallel reactances,
zo = equivalent reactance
For two reactances only x, and z2

XI = -
(d(z2)
21 +
22
(1.40)
For combining several parallel reactances
1 1 1 1 1 1
-=_
2. 2,
+ - + - +X -I + E
2 2 2,
(1.41)
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 59

INFINITE

c.

REACTANCE DIAGRAM OF CIRCUIT


SHOWN IN ONE LINE DIAGRAM TO
ONE-LINE DIAGRAW THE LEFT.

P~T& T( $*,
* T . Pm EQUIVALENT Y

e c , TO
CONVERT P I T I , PITI
c. EQUIVALENT Y.
STEP x z
STEP# I
COMBINE SERIES REACTANCES
PI~TI,RBT~,ETC.

I
&Pa.
--&-
Ct

cs
a"3+c*

L c4 +
COMBINE 2 C t , 3 + C+ AND
THEN REPEAT STEPS 2.3 e 4
UNTIL ONE EOUIVALENT
DRAW NEW DIAGRAM REACTANCE IS OBTAINED.
STEP-* 3 STEP t t 4

FIG. 1.39 Example of the method of combining remtmces of a network-type system


into a single resultant value.
MI SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

Some systems are such that they cannot he reduced by merely com-
bining series and parallel rgactances. For example, take the one-line
diagram of a circuit as show in upper left-hand corner of Fig. 1.39. The
\
reactance diagram is shown the ypper righehand corner of Fig. 1.39.
In addition to combining serieszind parallel reactances, it is necessary to
convert a triangle of reactances such as PI,
TI,PzrT , and C1to an equiva-
lent Y of reactances by the formulas of Fig. 1.40. By these conversions,
I

B=
ob + a c + be a=-
0c
b A+B+C

a b + a c + bc "
c= b:
A+B+C

A = ob+oc+bc A8
C:
a A+B+C
FIG. 1.40 Formula for converting a triangle or delta of three impedances to a Y of three
equivalent impedances, and vice verso.

any commonly encountered system reactance diagram can be reduced to


one equivalent reactance.
Combining Impedances. Sometimes i t is desirable to consider the
resistance and reactance of a circuit. This involves combining imped-
ances. The procedure for combining impedances is outlined here. The
combining of parallel impedances necessitates multiplication and division
of impedances (complex quantities) and is outlined here.
Adding Series Impedances. When two or more impedances are in
series, the resistance and reactance components are added separately to
combine the series into one equivalent value.
Refer to Fig. 1.41. The three series impedances are
+
z1 = TI jzl
za = 72 i-
jxa
zz = Tp + ja
SHORT-ClRCUIT+CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 61

3 SERIES EQUIVALENT
IMPEDANCES IMPEDANCE
FIG. 1.41 Example illustrating the combining of series impedances.
The equivalent impedance
rl
2 %= VZ + + +
73 j(z1 + zz+ 4 (1.42)
Using the numerical values of Fig. 1.41,
2, = 1+ j 2
22 = 2 +j3
= 0.5 + j l
21 = (1 + 2 + 0.5) + j ( 2 + 3 + 1) = 3.5 + j G
The above is applicable when impedances are expressed in ohms, per-
unit or per cent.
Combining Parallel Impedances. Parallel impedances may be
reduced to one equivalent impedance as follows (see Fig. 1.42):

TWO PARALLEL IMPEDANCES EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE


FIG. 1.42 Example illustrating L e combining of parallel impedances.
61 WORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

(1) Reduce the per cent values of resistance and reactance in each of
the given parallel circuits to a per-unit basis by dividing per cent figures
by 100 or convert the per cent values to ohms. Per cent values can be
used in the following if the multiplier 100 is applied properly, e.g.,
T X
(Branch 1) 0.05 0.15
(Branch 2) 0.008 0.108
(2) Calculate the impedance squared z2 of each circuit
2% = r' + 2
'
1
(Branch 1) rlz + = ZI', e.g., 0 .052+ 0.1547-0>25
21'
(Branch 2) r 2 + zz2= zz2, e.g., 0.008z+ 0.108* = 0.0117
(3) Obtain the ratios of r/z' of each circuit
Tl 0.05
(Branch 1) -', e.g., -= 2.0
21 0.025
rz
(Branch 2) -, e.g., 0.0°8 - 0.683
z'2 0.0117
~

(4) Add the foregoing


r / z z = Ga = 2.683
(5) Obtain the ratios of x/z* for each circuit
21 0.15
(Branch 1) -2 e.g., -= 6
21 0.025
XP 0.108
(Branch 2) e.g., -= 9.2
7 j
22 0.0117
(6) Add the foregoing
X/L' = Ba = 15.2
(7) Ya2 = 02 + Ba2,e.g., = 2.683' + 15.24 = 238.2
(8) ra = Ga e.g.,
-9
Y3'
=;2 ~ - 0.0112
(9) xa =
BJ e.g.,
-2 __
15" = 0.0642
=
Ya2 238.2
The foregoing may be tabulated for convenience in solving a number of
parallel pairs of circuits:
r z z4 = r' z2 r/z' 2/22 +
(Branch 1) 00 0 0 0
(Branch 2) 00 0 0 0
(Branch 3, etc.) ( ) ( ) ( ) ()()
By addition- Go( )Bo( )
The combination of the circuits results in
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 63

1
Any number of parallel circuits may be accommodated by additional
horizontal columns as fo branch 1 and branch 2, etc., their resultant
(r/z2)’s and (x/z2)’s heling added to obtain G O and Bo.
Multiplying and Dividing Impedances. Two impedmces may be
multiplied as per the following equations:
(21) (22) = 23
21 = TI +jXl
ZP = T S +j x ,
23 = r8 +
jxa
2 3 = (TI +
jXl)(Tt + jZ2)
= (TIT2 - 2 1 2 2 ) + j(TIX2 + TBZL)
13 = (nrz - XIXZ)

j a = j(r1zz +
rczJ 1
Two impedances may be divided according to the following equations:
(1.44)

TI +j x , - jxt
=-x- TZ
r2 +j x 2 TZ - jxt

(1.45)

DETERMINING THE SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT MAGNITUDE

After the reactance diagram has been reduced to a single value, the
value of symmetrical short-circuit kva can be determined by Eq. (1.14),
(1.15), or (1.16). To determine the symmetrical short-circuit current, use
Eq. (1.17), ( l . l S ) , or (1.19).
Equations (1.14) to (1.19) do not allow for any d-c component. Table
1.4 gives figures for converting kva to amperes.
Apply Proper Multiplying Factor. The final step is to apply the
proper multiplying factor from Table 1.2. To determine the total rms
short-circuit current or kva, use Eq. (1.20).
64 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

TABLE 1.4 Amperes per Kva

Three phore Amperes Amperes "0 wire Amperes


line-to-line, ier phase rer phase V d h er kro or
volh per kva per kvo c or d-l d-c kw

110 5.25 13.200 0.0437 24 41.7


115 5.02 13,800 0.0419 48 20.8
120 4.81 14,400 0.0401 110 9.10

180 3.21 22,000 0.0263 115 8.70


I99 2.90 23,000 0.0251 120 8.33
208 2.78 24,000 0.0241 125 8.00

220 2.63 33,000 0.0175 220 4.55


230 2.51 34,500 0.0167 230 4.35
240 2.41 36,000 0.0160 240 4.17

440 1.31 44,000 0.0131 250 4.00


460 I .25 46,000 0.0125 275 3.64
480 1.20 48,000 0.0120 300 3.33

550 1.05 66,000 0.00875 440 2.27


575 1 .oo 69,000 0.00838 460 2.17
600 0.962 72,000 0.00803 480 2.08

1,100 0.525 I I0.000 0.00525 550 I .82


1,150 0.502 1 I5.000 0.00502 575 I .74
1,200 0.481 120,000 0.00481 600 1.67

2,200 0.263 132,000 0.00437 650 1.54


2,300 0.251 138,000 0.0041 9 750 1.33
2,400 0.241 144,000 0.00401 1,200 0.833

3.300 0.175 154,000 0.00375 1,500 0.666


3.450 0.167 161,000 0.00359 2,200 0.455
3,600 0.160 168,000 0.00344 2,300 0.435

3,800 0.152 220,000 0.00263 2,400 0.417


4,000 0.144 230,000 0.00251 3,000 0.333
4.160 0.138 240,000 0.00241

6,600 0.0875 330,000 0.00175


6.900 0.0838 345,000 0.00167
7.200 0.0803 360,000 0.00160

11,000 0.0525
11,500 0.0502
12,000 0.0481
-
~
/
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 65

EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

The redurtion of impedance diagrams to a single value of impedance


can he greatly simplified by using equivalent circuits for duplex reactors
and three-winding transformers.
Equivalent Circuit for Duplex Reactors. The duplex reactor consists
of two sections of winding per phase on the same core, with a t a p brought
out from the junction point. The current ratings and reactances of the
two sections arc generally equal.
Aside from the midtap connections, whirh necessitate a total of nine
leads, the construction is similar to that of the series reactor.
If 1, and l2 are the self-inductances ( X , and X , are the corresponding
reactances) of the individual sections, and f c is the “coupling factor” of
the mutual inductance betmeen sections, then the simplified equivalent

LEX REACTOR

O N E LINE DlAGRPlM

I
J

k GENERATOR

-XI fc

FIG. 1.43 One-line diagram and equivalent circuit for duplex reactor.
66 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCUUllNG PROCEDURES

circuit for the duplex reactor is as shown in Fig. 1.43. For preliminary
calculations, an average figure off. = 0.5 should give results of sufficient
accuracy.
Equivalent Circuit of Three-winding Transformer. When making
short-circuit calculations of power systems which include three-winding
transformers, there is a question on how to use the designer's reactance
values. Designers give reactance values between pairs of windings.
Figure 1.44A shows a three-winding transformer, and Fig. 1.44B shows
its equivalent circuit. The following equations are easily derived and are
the proper ones to use in short-circuit studies:

x. = x,. + 2 - XAC XBC

xs = + X2e c -
XIB XAC
(1.46)

x,= + -XBC XdC


2
XdB

All reactance6 must be on same kva base.


NOTE:The equivalent circuit and equations for a four-winding trans-
former are more complicated and will not he evident by simple analogy
from Eq. (1.46).
, A

(A1 mi
FIG. 1.44 (A1 One-line diagram and (61 equivalent circuit diagram of three-winding
transformer.

EXAMPLES OF SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATIONS'

The following examples are indicative of methods of applying the short-


circuit-current calculating procedures outlined in the foregoing.
Systems 600 Volts and Below. The system shown in Fig. 1.45
involves one source of supply through a transformer from a primary sys-
tem. The kva base for the short-circuit calculations is taken as the kva
*NOTE:Numbers in parentheses in Figs. 1.45 and 1.47 to 1.50 refer to numbers
of formulas used.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCUVITING PROCEDURES 67

INCOMING LINE
A
A

SOURCE 0.25 Yt
MOTORS

I
TRANSFORMER

750 KVA
5.5 x x
(0.055%)

REACTANCE DIAGRAM
480 VOLTS

? T ? ? USE 750 KVA BASE


FOR CALCULATIONS

M$ (0)

SOURCE REACTANCE ON 750 KVA BASE : loo,ooo


750 - 0.0075% (1.61

0.0625 1 2 5 v 1x=--XIXI%
+x2-0.0625t025
0.0625XC125-0,05% T 5 %

- yj;xo,4&
750
I
o,050
X 18,000 AMPERES SYMMETRICAL [ 1.18)
(d)

18,000 X 1.25"22.500 AMPERES ASYMMETRICAL (1.201


(el
FIG.1.45 Illustration of procedure for calculation of short-circuit currents in radial load-
center system.
68 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURREHI CALCULATING PROCEDURES

rating of the transformer. The kva of the connected motors is assumed


to be 750 with an equivalent reactance of 25 per cent. Only reactances
are used in these calculations. This problem is the type on which
Table 1.5 is based.
Large 208Y/120-volt Systems. Problems, particularly those involving
secondary-network systems in the downtown area of the large cities or in
large buildings, require the determination of the short-circuit current on a
208Y/120-volt basis. In these systems it is particularly important that
the reactance of all circuit elements, however small, be taken into account,
as they have a much more significant effect in reducing the short-circuit
current a t 208Y/120 volts than a t 480 or 600 volts.

FEEDERS
BREAKERS

- PLAN

CHANNEL B U $ - 4 0 0 0 A
150'

n
I w nus o'

II
NETWORK TRANSFORMER
NETWORK
PROTECTOR
1 3 2 0 0 - 2 1 6 ~ / I 2 5 VOLTS Z500 A
KvA

y Z
INCOMING LINE
5 O YVA SC L-
rnY"l

ELEVATION
.""...
CD"Yl
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
4000

FIG. 1.46 Arrmgement of equipment for large 208Y/120-volt spot network system.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 69

The equipment for this example is arrauged as shoirn iir Fig. 1.46. The
one-line diagram is shown in Fig. 1.47.4 which iurludes the hayir reartanre
data on the circuit elemenk. The impedauce diagram is shown i n Fig.
1.47B. Figure 1.47C shows the condensed diagram to illustrate t,he rela-
tive distribution of reactance in the system. It will be noted t,hat the
overhead bus R has 70 per cent as much impedance as the romhinatiotr of
all the transformers an8,huses ahead of it,. Elimiiiatiug this item would

J
cause a serious error in t h magnitude of short-circuit, curretit.
The intermediate steps etween Figs. 1.47H and 1.47C can be worked
out by followiug t h e fa oing text.
The short circuit is located just ahead of the maiii 4000-amp circuit
breaker as this determiires the available short-circuit, curreut, which this
circuit breaker must interrupt. As pointed out previously, air circuit
breakers are applied 011 the basis of availahle rurreiit, and therefore \\.heir
calculat,ing the short,-rirruit duty oil them, t,he impedalire of t,he rirciiit
breaker is not included.
Large High-voltage Power System. T h e examplc shown in Fig. 1.48
is typical of what might, be eucouritered i n a steel mill. The kva base
chosen is 100,000 kva. Precise data are available 011 large motors and are
used in the short,-circuit, st,udy. Since the large mot,ors roiistitute only
part of the motor load, the remaining motor load is estimated. For short
circuits on the 22-kv system t,he motor load is assumed to be equal to the
capacity supplying each 22-kv bus, or 62,500 k r a aiid 20,000 kva.
Should more precise data be available regarding ronnevted mot,or load,
these data should be used for simulating motor ront,ribution for faults on
the 22-kv system. In t,his example, the connected horsepower 011 the
6.0-kv bus mas known t,o be as shown in t,he diagram.
To check the momentary dut,y at F , 011the KY-kv bus, the primary sys-
tem should be represented by its equivalrut, subt,raiisieiit reartaure nf
12.2 per cent. For interrupting d u t y on the 6.9-kv bus, t,he primary
syst,em should be represented by a reartanre equivalent t o the iirterrupt-
irig duty on t,he 22-kv system, or 17.5 per cent.
These large complicated syst,ems should he set up 011 a calculating
board to enable accurate ausivers t,o he obtained easily.

SHORT CIRCUITS IN SINGLE-PHASE LIGHTING A N D


WELDING POWER SYSTEMS (600 VOLTS A N D LESS)

A common p r a h c e is t o use single-phase trausformers roiiuected to


three-phase primary systems t,o supply single-phase loiv-voltage power for
welders and for lightirrg rircuits in some of the older syst,ems.
When determining the short-circuit current a t the serondaries of these
transformers, it, is necessary t o use the proper impedance t o represerrt the
primary system. I n three-phase short-circuit calculations, the reactance
70 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCUATING PROCEDURES

FIG. 1.47 One-line diogram, reactance diagram,


SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURREM CALCULATING PROCEDURES 71

and short-circuit-current calculation procedure for spot network system show in Fig. 1.46.
72 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
c:
74 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

of a conductor is the reactance from the center of the condurtor to the


theoretical neutral. Assume that for eaeh phase the rurrent leaves on the
phase conductor and returus through the neutral. In a three-phase short
circuit, the three currents balance; so there is no rurrent flowing in the
neutral. With single-phase line-to-line short cirruits, the eurreut leaves
on one phase conductor and returns ou the other. Therefore this rurrent
sees the reactance of two condurtors as beiug in series. Heure, for siugle-
phase tramformers conuected line-to-hie on the primary, twire the
primary system impedance must be used to represent it in a true relation
to the rest of the circuit. The remaining calculatious are essentially the
same as for three-phase circuits using the transformer and loiv-voltage-
circuit reactances.
Single-phase tramformers used for supplying 120/240-volt single-phase
lighting circuits usually have the midtap available for ronnerting to three-
mire neutral and ground by the user and are usually relatively low iu kva.
These small transformers have a relatively high resistatire-t~reactance
ratio compared with three-phase trausformers of a higher seroridary-
voltage rating and of larger kva rating.

-7 100,000 KVA 3 PHASE


SHORT CIRCUIT OUTY

BASE 500 KVA

4tL
PRIMARY SYSTEM REACTANCE ON 3-PHASE BASIS.

PRIMARY SYSTEM REACTANCE ON SINGLE PWSE


BASIS = 0.005X 2 * 0.01Va

i PRIMARY SYSTEM X :0.01%

TRANSFORMER X =O.O3Ym

TOTAL X ~ 0 . 0 4 %

1%' o , 0 4 ~ ~ , , e o :%:26000 AMP SYMMETRICAL


0.0192
11.18 MODIFIED)

1.25 X 26000 = 32500 A M P ASYMMETRICIL K2Ol

FIG. 1.49 Short-circuit-current calculating procedure for single-phase two-wire 480-volt


system.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 75
.

The most severe short-circuit condition in this case is a line-to-neutral


short circuit because it involves a much higher primary-to-secondary turn
ratio than does a line-to-line short circuit. Hence, this is the basis on
which protective equipment should be selected.
Since the reactance and resistance of the transformers are given on the
basis of a full winding, it is necessary to convert to the proper values when
only one-half the secondary winding is involved as is the case when a
line-to-line neutral short circuit occurs. The reactance is increased by a
factor of 1.2 and the resistance by a factor of 1.41. Therefore, the pub-
lished reactances and resistances of these transformers are multiplied by
those figures.
Figure 1.49 shows a typical example where reactance only is used, as
would be the case for a relatively large 480-volt transformer supplying a
welder circuit. I n these calculations it is necessary to use twire the line-
to-neutral reactance of the primary system. In the example of Fig. 1.50
use twice the line-to-neutral reactance of the primary. Use the proper

1
F+ 100 000 KV4 3 PH4SE
SH& ClRCUlT DUTY

120,240-V )IR X =:3


1.2% ,. FULL
X ON ,. WINDING 84SIs

B4SE 5 0 KV4

0.00198
PRlM4R"X

TR4NS X
0036%
-
PRIM4RY SYSTEM RE4CT4NCE ON 3 P H 4 K 84%

:0 0005~~

PRIM4RI SYSTEM RE4Cl4NGE ON 4 SINGLE PH45E


II 61

B451S~00a)5X2iOO019~
H4LF WlNDlNG RE4CT4NCE OF TRMIYORMER42 XO0310036X
TWW R
00172%
'I RESIST4NCE " .' ~144X0012~001720/1

1.25 X 10300 i I2900 4MPS ASYMHETRICbL 11.201

FIG. 1 .SO Short-circuit-current colculating procedure for single-phase three-wire


120/24Q.volt system.
76 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

reactance and resistance for line-to-neutral short circuit a t the secondary


of the transformer. In both cases there is assumed to be no motor
feedback.

TABLES AND CURVES FOR ESTIMATING


SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
To make short-circuit protective equipment application easier, par-

:o.
ticularly in circuits of 60 volts or less, many charts, tables, and curves
have been prepared to eliminate the necessity for detailed calculations.
Some of the more usef 1 ones are presented here.

UNIT SUBSTATIONS

Standard low-voltage unit substations so widely used have standard


transformer section impedance and voltage ratings. Hence, the second-
ary short-circuit currents available can be easily tabulated, as shown in
Tables 1.5 and 1.6. The available short-circuit duty may be read directly
from the table as a function of transformer kva, secondary voltage, and
available primary short-circuit kva.
Example of Use of Table 1.5. Assume a lonn-kva unit substation for
480-volt power service having an available

%
?]-'"
"2 x,
SHORT CIRCUIT primary short-circuit capacity of 150,000
kva.
See 480-volt application table. Follow
FIG. 1.51 0 n e - k diagram the vertical column under the 1000-kva suh-
showing location of short circuit
station rating down to the 150,000-kvaavail-
for determinotion of short-circuit
currents shown in Table 1.5. able primary three-phase short-circuit kva
line in thetable. The availableshort-circuit
current a t the 480-volt bus is indicated as 30,400 amp.

REDUCTION OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT DUE TO FEEDER IMPEDANCE

The unit substation application Tables 1.5 and 1.6 make it easy to
determine the short-circuit current a t the main unit substation bus. By
the use of the simple estimating curves the short-circuit, current at the end
of the secondary feeders can he easily determined too. Henre these tables
and the curves shown in Figs. 1.52 and 1.53 make it easy quickly to esti-
mate the short-circuit current a t any point in a secondary system 600
volts and less fed by standard load-center unit substations.
The curves are for 60-cycle operation. Figure 1.52 is for cable cirruits
and Fig. 1.53 for bus feeders.
The results are in terms of the three-phase average asymmetrical rm
value during the first cycle corresponding with the basis of rating for low-
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 77

voltage air circuit breakers. The effect of circuit resistance both in


increasing the impedanre and speeding the decay of the d-c component
'has been included.
The range of operat,ing conditions encompassed is as follows:
System operating voltage (nominal) :
ZOSY/lZO volts, three phase, four wire; or 208 volts, three phase,
three wire
480 volts, three phase, three wire; or 480Y/27' volts, three phase,
four wire
600 volts, three phase, three wire
Short-circuit-current magnitudes:
10,000 t o 100,000 amp
Feeder-circuit construction :
Three-conductor cable, No. 4 Awg to 500 MCM
Busway, plug-in bus of representative designs in current ratings from
225 to 800 amp.
Interlared loiv-reactance feeder bus (LVD) rated 2,000 amp, t,hrec
phase (four bars per phase).
y/
3

.CABLE FLLOER LENCTM- FEET

FIG. 1.52 Chart for determining short-circuit current a t end of cable circuit consisting of
three-conductor cable in conduit or interlocked-armor cable (60cycler).
2
TABLE 1.5 Available Short- circuit C u r r e n t f r o m ' t o n d a r d T h r e e - p h a s e Unit S u b s t o t i o n s
SECONDARY RATING: 2 0 8 Y / l 2 0 VOLTS, THREE PHASE SECONDARY RATING: 240 VOLTS, THREE PHASE
Substation kva rating Substotion kra rclting
Available
Primary 112.5 150 225
1 1 I I I 1 1 300 500 750 1000 I500
three-
phase
short- Normol current, amp rmal current, en
-
Fi.C"it
kw 313 417 625
1 1 1 1 1 1 834 1388 2080 2780 4170 270 361 1 542 722 1 1203 1804
-
Total low-voltoge short-circuit Curlenh, thousands of amperes
. ~ ~
-
50.000 10.0 11.9 15.9 20.7 32.4 42.3 53.3 48.7 9.4 11.2 15.1 19.7 31.1 41.3 52.2 71.2
100.000 10.3 12.2 16.5 21.7 35.0 46.8 60.4 61.3 9.6 11.5 15,6 20.6 33.3 45.1 58.3 82.5
'$
150.000 10.4 12.3 16.7 22.1 36.0 48.5 63.3 74.5 9.7 11.6 15.8 21.0 34.2 46.6 60.8 87.5 2
250,000 10.4 12.4 16.9 22.4 36.8 50.0 65.9 80.0 9.7 11.7 16.0 21.2 I 34.9 48.0 63.0 92.0 5
500.000 10.5 12.5 17.1 22.6 37.5 51.3 67.9 85.5 9.8 11.8 16.1 21.5 35.5 49.0 64.8 95.9 2
Unlimited 10.5 12.6 17.2 22.9 38.1 52.5 70.2 90.0 9.8 11.8 16.2 21.7 I 36.1 50. I 66.7 100.0 $
~
-
NOTE: or different voltoge bare, multiply short-circuit current values in table by NOTE: 3. For differed wltmge hose. I tipiy 9
208 240
the ratio values in toble by the ralio
naw voltoge n o r *olt.*e
NOTE: 2. Motor short-circuit current contribution is 2.5 times the transformer normal NOTE: 4. Motor short-circuit current-contribution is 5.0 t i m n lhe t m n r
I a
current for 50% connected motors. former norm01 current for 100% connected moton.

former
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.5
impedance,
%
80 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

FIG. 1.53 Chart for determining short-circuit current (it end of feeder bur. The type
designations refer to General Electric Company bus I60 cycles).

Required Data. The basic data needed to enable the use of Figs. 1.52
and 1.53 are the following:
1. System operating voltage
2. Available short-circuit current at the source bus (average asym-
metrical)
3. Length and construction of the feeder circuit
4. Connected motor load at the feeder terminal
Procedure for Use of Figs. 1.52 and 1.53. The evaluation of feeder
terminal short-circuit current involves only four simple steps (see Fig.
1.54):
1. Locate the magnitude of source-end short-circuit current on the
proper left-hand operating voltage scale.
2. From this starting point move along to the right following along a
curve or an interpolation between adjacent curves until the desired length
of specific feeder construction (horizontal scales) is reached.
3. Project the latter point horizontally to the left and read the short-
circuit current contributed by the feeder on the same scale as used in 1.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 81

4. Add the feeder terminal connected motor-current contribution (five


times the sum total of the motor full-load current).

MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL CONDITIONS

Parallel Circuit Feeders. A feeder circuit composed of two or more


identical circuits in parallel can be readily treated by making a correction
in the apparent length. The impedance presented by a feeder consisting
of two circuits in parallel will be identical to that of a sing16 circuit of half
the length; that of three circuits in parallel will be identical to that of a
single circuit of one-third the length; etc.
In the case of parallel circuit feeders, divide the true feeder length by
the number of circuits in parallel and proceed on the basis of single-circuit
data.
.
I

t
k--
H I
.
1
i
I
,/CP)OICI I I l l I
I_ 850

FEEDER L m m " I

FIG. 1.54 Example rhowing how to use the charts of Fig. 1.52 and 1.53.
Available primary
25 137.5 I I 1
50 75 100 150 1 1 I 1
200 250 333 500

lhree-phose Normal eurrenl. ornperes a1 240 volts


hoil-circull kro
104 I 1 I 1 I 1
156 208 313 417 625 833 1042 I 1388 12083

Tolo1 lox-vollage shw-circuil c ~ ~ r e nlhousandr


l, of rms omperes for m e 120-volt winding
short-circuited, lhe olhei opon-circuiled
- -
I I I I I
25,000 6.5 9.6 12.6 15.9 20.4 28.4 35.2 32.3 37.348.9
50,000 6.7 10.0 13.3 16.9 22.1 31.8 40.8 36.9 43.5 60.2
100,000 6.8 10.2 13.6 17.5 25.1 33.9 44.2 39.7 47.4 68.1
150.000 6.8 10.2 13.7 17.8 23.5 34.7 45.5 41.0 49.0 71.1
250,000 6.9 10.3 13.8 17.9 23.7 35.3 46.6 41.7 50.1 73.9
500,000 6.9 10.3 13.9 18.0 24.0 1 3 5 . 8 1 4 7 . 5 1 4 2 . 3 1 5 1 . 2 176.0
Unlimited 6.9
- - 10.4 __
14.0 18.1
Transformei
full-winding
impadançe:
Per cent R . . ... 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.0
Per cent 2.. .... 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 5.0 5.5 5.5
- -

A short circuit invalving one of the secondrtry half windings (terminals Xi to X 2 ai


terminals X, to X , ) , Fig. 1.51, allows eansiderahly more short-çireuit current to flow
than a short circuit involving the full seeondary minding (terminals X i to X d . Con-
sequently, the circuit-hreaker seleetions are based on the half-winding value of short-
circuit current.
The eonditions on whieh the tables are hased are summsrizcd below:
1. A salid half-winding short cireuit at the tcrminals (scc Fig. 1.51).
2. Primary three-phase short-eircuit capacities vsrying from 25,000 kva to unlimited
kva. For the worst case, the single-phasr short-cireuit capaeity is me-half the three-
phase primsry short-circuit capacity, and this value has bem used in thc celculations.
This worst csse involves the assumption t h a t the primary of the transformer is con-
nected line-to-line on the high-voltage system, not line-to-neutral.
3. The full-winding per cent impedance and per cent resistances m e given in
Table 1.6.
4. The half-winding reactance was taken as 1.2 times the full-winding reactance,
while the half-winding resistance was taken as 1.44 times the full-winding resistance,
on full kva base.
5. The d-e offset multiplier for the first half eycle was taken as 1.25.
6. It is sssumed that the 120/240-volt units will supply lighting loads only, i.e., no
motor feedbaek.
7. The only source of power connected to the secondary bus is one transformer of the
capaeity indicated.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 83

Feeders Consisting of Different Circuit Construction in Series. Make


an independent evaluation of each common circuit construction starting
at the source end.
1. Evaluate the short-circuit current a t the end of the first section of
common feeder construction in the standard manner.
2. Using the answer derived from 1 as the source short-circuit-current
value for section 2, proceed in the standard manner t o evaluate the short-
circuit current a t the end of the second section.
3. Using the answer derived from 2 as the source short-circuit-current
value for the third section, proceed in the standard manner to evaluate
the short-circuit current a t the end of the third section.
Results obtained for sections beyond the first will be somewhat on the
conservative side (higher than the true short-circuit-current value). This
follows from the fact that the basic analysis assumes an X / R ratio of 12
a t the source end of the feeder. The true X / R ratio at the source termi-
nals of any feeder section beyond the first will necessarily be less than 12
since no feeder construction exhibits an X / R ratio as high as 12.
Interpolation for Intermediate Cable Conductor Sizes. Specific cable
feeder length scales have been inscribed for conductor sizes of 500 MCM,
250 MCM, No. 2/0 Awg and No. 4 Awg. For intermediate valuesof cable
size locate the horizontal scale points for the desired length of adjacent
cable sizes which are charted, and interpolate between these values. For
example, a No. 3/O-Awg conductor is about midway between a No. 2/0-
Awg and a 250-MCM. To evaluate the effect of a 100- f t run of No. 3/0-
Awg cable based on Fig. 1.52, locate the 100-ft point on the No. 2/0-scale
and on the 250-MCM scale. A point midway between these two points
will closely represent 100 ft of No. 3/O-Awg conductor.
Three Single-conductor Cables in Conduit. Results obtained from the
estimating curves without correction can be safely used to select protec-
tive interrupters.
If desired, a closer approximation of the actual value can be obtained
by increasing the apparent feeder length to account for the higher imped-
ance of single-conductor feeder circuits.

Conductor Sirs Use an Appored Lenglh of


500 M C M . . ........ 130% of lhe acluol feeder Imglh
250 M C M . . ........ 120% of the o c h d feeder lenglh
..... 110% of lhe amal feeder lmglh
No. 2 / 0 A r g . .
No. 4 Awg ......... No correction
Both the 60-cycle resistance and reactance of a three-single-conductor
cable feeder in conduit are greater than those of a three-conductor cable
feeder in conduit or steel armor in the ratios reflected in the accompanying
table:
84 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

Conductor sire Residence, 7% Reactance. Yo


I I
500MCM ..............
No. 2/0 A w g . .
No.4Awg
.........
............. I i 25
106
102 I 1-50
150
150

N OTE: Spaced open-wire circuits should be treated by conventional


calculation procedures; a suitable one is given under Circuit Analysis-
General Case.
Single-phase Circuits. Results obtained from the curves, Figs. 1.52
and 1.53, may be used with safety for the selection of protective inter-
rupters.
The true short-circuit-current value for a two-wire single-phase circuit
operating at line-to-line voltage will be about 87 per cent of the t h r e e
phase evaluation.
Frequency. The curves, Figs. 1.52 and 1.53, are restricted t o 60-cycle
operation. For operating frequencies other than 60 cycles, conventional
calculations should be used, such as outlined under Circuit Analysis-
General Case. Note that feeder circuit resistance is not appreciably
affected by frequency, while reactance varies directly with frequency.

UhIN SOURCE BUS 48O"OLTS ,.P"**E


6 0 C I C L E S SHORT CIRCUIT C W l R E N T i
4CCOOAYP

2 5 0 YCY 3IC INTERLOCKED ARMOR


CABLES IN PARALLEL

FIG. 1.55 System diagram used as on


example to illustrate the determination
of short-circuit currenk a t the end of
feeder circuits.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 85

Example of Application-Fig. 1.55. Short-circuit current at bus A ?


Source short-cirruit current = 40,000 amp
Equivalent single cable feeder length = 1595 = 75 ft
From curve Fig. 1.52 (4GO-volt short-circuit current scale; 250-MCM
feeder Irngt,h scale) :
Contribut,ion via feeder cable = 23,000 amp
Motor contribution, bus A = 5 X 310 = 1,550 ~

24,550 amp
Motor contribution, bus R = 5 X 03 = 315~

Short-circuit current bus A = 24,8G5 amp

Short-circuit current a t bus B?


Source short-circuit current for section 2 = 24,550 amp (say 25,000)
Feeder lengt,h = 75 f t
From curve (4GO-volt short-circuit current scale) interpolate between the
7 5 f t point on ;To. 210 and KO.4 feeder length scales-Ko. 2 about one-
third of the way from Xo. 4 to No. 2/0.
Contribution via feeder cable = 11,000 amp
Motor ront,ribution, bus R = 5 X G3 = ~
315
Short-circuit current bus R = 11,315 amp

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS- GENERAL CASE

The circuit, problem involved in resolving short-circuit-current magni-


tudes in low-voltage feeder systems is outlined in Fig. 1.56.
I n general, low-voltage short-circuit current,s are expressed in terms of
three-phase average asymmetrical rms amperes during the first cycle of
currcnt flwv. Since main low-voltage source systems exhibit a n X / R
rat,io of about, 10, it, is standard convention t o multiply the symmet,rical
short,-rirruit, current, by 1.25 t o obtain the short-circuit current a t the
main buses (this corresponds with a n X / R ratio of 12) (see Table 1.2).
Therefore, at the main bus
Short-circuit current = 1.25 X I symm = - X -
1.25 E
v5 z*
E
z , = 1.25
-&x short-circuit current

Considering the source system X / R ratio = 12


1.25
z . = -4
x
E
short-circuit current (A + jl) = R. +jX.
86 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

2, (obtained from reference tables) = R, j X , +


2, (impedance to end of feeder) = R, R, j ( X . + + +XI)
X , / R , ratio a t end of feeder = x. XI - x, +
R. Izi Rt + _-

M is the factor to account for d-c offset and is a direct function of


the X , / R , ratio

K
.........
XdRt ratio..
................... I 1 I I I 1
1;;s I:* s1: !l Ii6
2
1.02

I, is the local motor contribution, and the three-phase average assym-


metrical rms value may be taken as five times the motor full-load rated
amperes.
Available short-circuit current at X = I, (three-phase avg assym-
metrical rms) I, +

61 2 -SOURCE SVSTEY IMPEDANCE


'1 Rg+ j X s OHMS/PHASE

I MAIN LOW-VOLTaGE BUS

4
FEE0ER:Zf:Rf tjxf OHMSIPHASE
IFROH TABLES)

:'I
\J VAIL4ELE
SHORT ClRCUlT CURRENT DESIRED HERE
IS'CURRENT CONTRIBUTION FROM FIG. 1.56 One-line diagram for rhort-
SOURCE *"STEM circuit-current calculation ot the end of
ly*CURRENT CONTRlBUTlON FROM
LOAD LCCAL YOTORS feeder circuits-genernl core.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 07

TABLES SHOWING EFFECl OF CABLE LENGTH

Another useful way of showing the effect of length of cable in reducing


short-circuit currents is given in the Tables 1.7 to 1.10. These show how
much cable length is required to reduce the short-circuit current from one
protective-device rating level to another for circuits GOO volts and less.
Standard protective-device rating levels are:
100,000 amp rms asymmetrical
75,000 amp rms asymmetrical
50,000 amp rms asymmetrical
25,000 amp rms asymmetrical
15,000 amp rms asymmetrical
5000 amp rms asymmetrical
The tables show how long a cable with a given con<w%orsize is required
to reduce the short-circuit current from 25,000, 50,000, or 100,000 amp t o
5000, 15,000, 25,000, and 50,000 amp.
The tables give the length L of cable a t various voltages which would
change the available short-circuit current from I , to I , where I . is the
available short circuit a t the source end of the cable and I , the short-
circuit current a t the end of the cable of length L.
These calculations were based on the assumptions that the impedance
hack of the beginning of the cable is primarily reactive and that the fault
i s symmetrical for all three phases.

I 4 R X
I
I CABLE

FIG. 1.57 Equivalent circuit for determining cable lengths given in Tables 1.6 lo 1.9.

From the equivalent circuit per phase shown in Fig. 1.57 and using the
nomenclature of Fig. 1.57, a general expression for the length of cable t o
limit the short-circuit current can be derived. The equation is

L 2 R2 - X
~ Z 2 1 , 2 / I ,-
E= 221,
Where I J I , is large or R is small, the equation reduces to
88 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

In these equations R is the resistance, X is the reactance, and Z is the


impedance of the cable per unit length.
For any voltage not given, the length a t the new voltage is t o the length
a t a given voltage as the new voltage is to the given voltage, i.e., the length
is directly proportional to the voltage

where L, = length a t voltage E,


Lo = length a t voltage Eo
The lengths L for all conductor sizes from No. 1 Awg to 250 MCM were
put in the table for comparative purposes. There are certain minimum
sizes of conductors and hence certain minimum lengths of cable necessary
a t various values of I, to keep the cable from being damaged before the
protective circuit breaker operates. Referring to Chap. 3, i t will be
noted, for example, that a t 50,000 amp (I,, Tables 1.7 to 1.10) the mini-
mum size cable which a 50,000-amp interrupting rating low-voltage air
circuit breaker will protect is No. 4/0 Awg. Hence, the only values in
the right-hand column of Tables 1.7 to 1.10 that have any practical signifi-
cance are the two at the bottom of the column. The values above that
are of academic interest only.

TABLE 1.7 Lirnitina Effect of Cable on Short-circuit Currents at 400 Volts.

Conductor
Coble length 1, ft
size
__

I
- -
No. 14 A x g
No. 12 Awg
..
..
No. 10 A w g . .
26.9
42.6
67.5
7.3
11.4
17.9
::::
69.0
1:;
21.8
4.7
7.4
11.7
27.5
43.6
69.5
9.1
14.4
22.8
5.3
8.5
13.4
2.4
3.8
5.9
No. 8 Awg ... 106.5 28.0 109.4 34.2 18.3 110.0 36.0 21.1 9.3
No. 6 Awg ... 165.0 42.6 170.3 53.0 28.0 171.5 56.1 32.7 14.2
N e . 4 A w g ... 254.0 63.7 263.0 81.0 42.6 265.5 86.3 43.8 21.4
No. 2 A w g . . . 384.5 91 .O 402.0 122.1 63.0 407.0 131 .O 75.8 31.8
No. I Awg , , . 468.0 111.0 488.0 146.8 75.2 497.0 159.1 91 .4 38. I
No. 110 Awg . 564.0 126.8 592.0 175.0 87.2 606.0 192.8 110.7 44.0
No. 2 '0 A x g . 664.0 144.8 706.0 206.0 100.8 723.0 228.5 128.8 50.9
No. 3/0 Awg . 775.0 162.0 827.0 237.5 114.2 852.0 267.0 149.1 55.4
No. 4/0 Awg . 890.0 180.0 960.0 271.0 127.8 990.0 308.0 171.2 64.7
250MCM.. . . 962.0 190.5 038.0 290.5 135.5 1072.0 333.0 184.1 69.0
- - -
I , = avail le short-circu: urrent in kiloamperes a t source end of cable
I f = short-circuit current kiloamperes ior short circuit a t end of cable of length L
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 89

TABLE 1.8 limiting Effect of Cable on Short-circuit Currents at 480 Volts.


Three Phase
Three Single-conductor Cables in a Mmnetic Dud

I. 50 1005~ 100
I5
I, 25
5 / 1 25
5 / 50
5 i l 50 5 ~ 2 5 /

Conductor
Cable length 1, fl
sire
- ~ ~

No. I 4 Awg. , ... 21.5 5.8 21.9 7.0 3.8 22.0 7.3 4.3 1.9
No. 12 Awg.. , .. 34.1 9.2 34.6 11.0 6.0 34.9 11.5 6.8 3.0
No.lOAwg ..... 54.1 14.3 55.2 17.4 9.3 55.7 18.3 10.7 4.7
No. 8 A x g . . , ... 85.4 22.4 87.6 27.4 14.6 88.1 28.8 16.9 7.4
No. 6 Axg.. . ... 132.5 34.1 136.5 42.4 22.4 44.8 26.2 11.4
No. 4 Axg.. .... 203.3 51.0 210.5 64.8 34.1 69.0 39.9 17.2
No. 2 Axg.. , ... 308.0 73.0 321.5 97.8 50.4 105.0 60.7 25.5
No. I A x g ...... 374.0 89.0 391.0 117.5 60.2 127.4 73.2 30.5
No. 1/0 Awg .... 452.0 101.5 474.0 140.1 69.8 485.0 154.2 88.7 35.2
No. 210 Awg .. . . 532.0 115.8 566.0 164.8 80.6 579.0 183.1 03.0 40.7
No. 3/0 Awg . ... 621.0 29.6 663.0 190.0 91.4 682.0 214.0 19.3 44.4
No. 4/0 Awg , .. . 713.0 144.1 768.0 216.8 102.2 793.0 246.5 37.0 51.8
250 M C M . . ..... 771 . O 52.5 832.0 232.8 108.6 860.0 266.8 47.7 55.2
~ - - - - -
I. = availab short rcuit current kiloampcrcs i S O I I I ~ Pcnd of
I1 = short-c uit current in kiloarnperPs for short circuit at m i l of c
TABLE 1.9 limiting Effect of Cable on Short-circuit Currents a t 240 Volts,
Three Phase
Three Single-conductor Cables in a Mmgnetic Duct
- -
100 100
25 50
-

I
~

Conduclor
Cable length 1, ft
*i*e
- __ - - __ - ~ __
No. 1 4 A x g ....__..10.8 2.9 11.0 3.5 1.9 11.0 3.7 2.2 I .o
No.12Axg ........ 17.1 4.6 17.3 5.5 3.0 17.5 5.8 3.4 I .5
No. 1 0 A w g ........ 27.0 7.2 27.6 8.7 4.7 27.9 9.2 5.4 2.4
No. 8 Awg ......... 42.7 11.2 43.8 13.7 7.3 44. I 14.4 8.5 3.7
No.6 A x g ....__.._ 66.3 17.1 68.3 21.2 11.2 68.7 22.4 3.1 5.7
No. 4 A x g ......... 101.5 25.5 105.3 32.4 17.1 106.4 34.5 '0.0 8.6
No. 2 A w g . . ....... 153.8 36.5 160.8 48.9 25.2 163.0 52.5 0.4 2.8
No. 1 Awg ........_ 187.0 44.5 195.5 58.8 30.1 199.3 63.7 6.6 5.3
No. 110 A x g ....... 226.0 50.8 237.0 70. I 34.9 242.5 77. I 4.4 7.6
No. 2/0 A w g . . ..... 266.0 57.9 283.0 82.4 40.3 289.5 91.6 I .5 0.4
No. 3/0 A x g .._....310.0 64.8 331.5 85.0 45.7 341 .o 107.0 9.7 2.2
No. 4/0 Axg.. .. ... 356.0 72.1 384.0 108.4 51.1 396.5 123.3 8.5 5.9
250MCM ........_.385.0 76.3 416.0 116.4 54.3 430.0 !33.4 3.9 7.6
-- --- - - -
I. available short-circuit currcnt in kiloampercs at source end of eahle
=
I , = short-circuit current in kiloamperrs for short circuit a t end of cahlc of length L
PO SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

TABLE 1.10 Limiting Effect of Cable an Short-circuit Currents ot 208 Volts,


Three Phase
Three Single-condudor Cables in a Magnetic Duct

Conductor
25
5 25
50 I I
lo:

Cable length 1, h
lG
100
25
100
50

sire
-- - - -
No. 14 Awg....... 9.3 2.5 9.5 3.0 I.6 9.5 3.1 1.9 0.8
No. 12 Awg....... 14.8 3.9 15.0 4.8 2.6 15.1 5.0 2.9 1.3
No. 10 Awg...... . 23.4 6.2 23.9 7.5 4.1 24.2 7.9 4.6 2.0
No. 8 Awg........ , 37.0 9.7 38.0 11.9 6.3 38.2 12.5 7.3 3.2
No. 6 Awg........ 57.4 14.8 59.2 18.4 9.7 59.6 19.5 11.3 4.9
No. 4 Awg........ 88.0 22.1 91.3 28.1 14.8 92.2 29.9 17.3 7.5
No. 2 Awg........ 133.4 31.6 139.4 42.4 21 .9 141.4 45.5 26.3 11.0
No. 1 Awg........ 162.1 38.6 169.3 50.9 26.1 172.5 55.3 31.7 13.2
No. 110 Awg...... 196.0 44.0 205.3 60.7 10.3 210.0 67.0 38.4 15.3
No. 2/0 Awg...... , 230.5 50.2 245.0 71.5 14.9 L51.0 79.4 44.7 17.7
No. 310 Awg...... , 269.0 56.2 287.0 82.4 19.6 295.5 92.7 51.8 19.2
No. 4/0 Awg...... 308.5 62.4 132.5 94.0 i4.3 143.5 106.8 59.5 22.4
.......
,

250 MCM.. , 334.0 66.0 160.0 100.8 17. I 172.0 115.5 64.0 23.9
-

REACTANCE AND RESISTANCE DATA


FOR MACHINES AND CIRCUITS
When making short-circuit calculations, the most accurate reactance
data available should always be used. In particular, reactauce of specific
generators, larger motors, and transformers should be obtained from the
manufacturer.
Many short-circuit studies must he made without such specific data
available, as for a proposed plant or in many older plants where the time
and work required to obtain such data from the manufacturers make it
impractical to do so. Since a great many short-circuit calculations fall in
this category, it is desirable to use approximate reactance data. Such
approximate data as are commonly used are given in Tables 1.11 to 1.31.
The most applicable reactances should be selected from these tables.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 91

APPROXIMATE MACHINE REACTANCESdO CYCLES

Large Induction Motors. The approximate short-circuit reactance of


an induction motor (or induction generator) in per cent on its own kva
base may be taken as

100
Per cent X : =
times normal stalled rotor current*

The reactance of such a machine will generally be approximately as


given in Table 1.11 (in per cent on own kva base).

TABLE 1.1 1
Range M-t Common
15-25 20

TABLE 1.12 Approximate Reactances of 60-cycle Synchronous Machines


Per Cent Vdues on Moshino Kva Roting
I I

Salient-polo cpnerotors (without amortirre,url:


12 poles 0, leu. ..................... 15-35 25
14polnoimne ..................... 25-45 35
Salient-pole ganomton~(with amortiiseur):
12 pole* or In.. ..................... 10-25 18
14 poles or more.. ................... 10-35 14
Synchmnoui condenrers. ................. 18-35 27
Synchronwi converterd
600 v d h dc.. ....................... 17-22 10
250 d t s dc.. ....................... 28-38 33
Synchronous motor^'
6 pole.............................. 10-20 15 15-30 23
8-14 pole........................... 15-25 20 20-40 30
I 6 pole or more........................ 25-45 30 25-60 40

a Nearly all salient-pole generators built by General Electric Company since 1935 have
amortisseur windings.
Add transformer reactance:
For compound-wound converters add 12 per cent.
For shunt-wound converters add 7 per cent.
These data are useful for estimating reactances of individual large motors of
several hundred or several thoumnd horsepower.
* With rated voltage and frequency applied.
92 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

TABLE 1.13 Approximate Reactance of General Electric Company


Turbine Generators, 625 to 18,750 Kva

K w ..ling
w rating Volt.g* rating
__
0.8 power facer
1200 3600
rpm rpm
~

625 500 240 14.5 8.0


480 14.5 9.0
600 14.5 9.0
2,400 14.5 9.0
4,160 14.0 9.5
6,900 .... 6.5

781 625 240 .... 8.5


480 .... 8.5
600 .... 7.5
2,400 .... 9.0
4.160 .... 9.5
6,900 .... 5.5

875 700 240-4.1 60 14.0

937 750 240 .... 11.5


480 .... 7.5
600 .... 7.0
2,400 .... 7.5
4,160 .... 7.0
6.900 .... 9.0

1,250 1,000 240 .... 10.0


480 15.5 10.0
600 15.5 10.0
2,400 15.5 9.0
4,160 15.5 10.0
6,900 .... 8.5

1,562 1,250 240 .... 9.5


480 .... 8.5
600 .... 8.5
2,400 .... 9.5
4,160 .... 9.0
6.900 .... 8.0

1,857 1,500 240 .... 10.5


480 16.0 9.0
600 16.0 8.5
2,400 16.0 8.5
4.1 60 16.0 9.5
6,900 16.0 7.5
13.800 16.0
-
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 93

rABLE 1.13 Approximate Reactance of General Electric Company


Turhine Generators, 625 to 18,750 Kva. (Continued)

Kvn rating X&‘


:w ‘atin( Vdtoge ‘ding
0.8 power facto, 3600 rpm

2,500 2,000 480 P.5


600 10.5
2,400 10.0
4,160 10.0
6,900 10.0
l1.500-13.800 8.0

3.125 2,500 480 9.0


600 8.5
2,400 9.5
2.400/4.160 8.5
6.900 9.0
I 1,500 10.0
13,800 10.5

3750 3,000 480 9.0


600 10.5
2,400 9.5
2,400/4,160 10.0
6.900 9.5
11,500 10.5
13,800 10.5

4,375 3,500 480 8.0


600 9.0
2,400 9.0
2,400/4,160 9.0
6,900 9.0
11,500 10.0
13,800 10.0

5.000 4,000 480 10.5


600 7.5
2.400 7.0
2,400/4.160 8.5
6,900 9.0
1 1,500 9.5
13,800 9.5

6,250 5,000 600 12.0


2,400 7.5
2.400/4,160 7.5
6,900 8.0
I 1,500 8.5
13,800 8.5
94 SHORT.CIRCUIT~CURRENTCALCULATING PROCEDURES

TABLE 1.13 Approximate Reactance of General Electric Company


Turbine Generators. 625 to 18.750 Kva. (Continued)
-
Kvo rotinp X;
w rating Voltage rating
0.8 power f.Ct0. 3600 rpm
-
7,500 6,000 2,400 9.0
2,400/4,160 10.5
6.900 9.0
1 1,500 9.5
13.800 9.5

9.375 7.500 2,400 9.0


2.400/4,160 10.5
6,900 9.0
11.500 9.5
13,800 9.5

12,500 10,000 2,400/4,160 10.0


6,900 8.0
11.500 9.0
13.800 8.0

i 8750 15,000 6,900 11.0'


11,500 11.0'
13.800 11.0'
-
* 0.5 psig hydrogen pressure.

TABLE 1.14 Reactances Based on Kvo of Connected Motors


I 1
Tranrient
reactance
Itern Motor rotings ond connections

I per rent
Xi.
per cent
-I 1
600 "0th or less-induction 28'
600 volts or lewynchronous l i t e m 1 end 2 indude motor leads1 21 29
600 volh or l e u i n d u c t i o n 34'
600 volts or les-ynchronour litems 3 and 4 indude motor leads 27* 35
and step-down bansformen1
Motors above 600 volt-induction 20
Motors above 600 volt-ynchronwr 15 25
Motors above 600 volh-indudon 26
Motors o b w e 600 voltriynchromur litems 7 and 8 include step- 21 31
down transformers1
I
* Based on AIEE Standard No. 20.
1 -
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 95

Assumed Motor Reactances- Group of Small Motors. In many


short-circuit studies, the number and size of motors, either induction or
synchronous, are not known precisely. However, the short-circuit contri-
bution from these motors must be estimated. In such cases Table 1.14 is
used to account for a large number of small induction and synchronous
motors.
The proportions of synchronous and induction motors (at all voltages)
should be known for short-circuit investigations. Some typical ratios of
total plant motor load which are usable in preliminary work are given in
Table 1.15.
The kva of the motors which are energized at one time varies also with
the type of plant and should be investigated for the more complete
studies. Approximate relations of energized to installed motors and of
energized motors to source (transformer and/or generator) capacity are
given in Table 1.16.

TABLE 1.15 Rotio of Induction and Synchronous Motors

Motor mio, par cent

Plant

Induction Sydrnnom

Cement .............................. 40 60
Machine shops ond IexHIe.. ............. 85 15
Rubber and rolling mills................. 50 50
Paper (excluding grinder mobs). ........ 67 33
Commercial ond offiso.. ................ 50 50

TABLE 1.16 Rotio of Energized and Instolled Motors

Installed
Energized
motor k w to
motor kva source kva
PI.3 to insbled (excluding
motor k w ,
SPW").
per cent por cent

Continuous PIOLOS .............


(cement. textile). 100 110 110
Semicontinuous (paper, reflnerier, rubberl.. ....... 90 1 67
Rolling mills................................. 80 215
Intermittent operotiom. ....................... 75 400
96 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

APPROXIMATE IMPEDANCE O F TRANSFORMERS

The impedance of transformers ronsidered in a short-circuit study


should be obtained from the name platc or the manufacturer. However,
where such data cannot be obtained, the values given in Tables 1.17 to
1.19 may be used in short-rircuit studies for estimating the short-circuit
currents in the usual case.
I n the usual short-circuit study, the transformer reactance and imped-
ance may be assumed t o be the same without causing significant error for
transformer banks above 300 kva. This assumption is useful because
transformer name-plate data include impedance and not reactance.
TABLE 1.17 Approximate Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance of
Single-phase Distribution Transformers

High voltage: 2400/416OY volts and


High voltage; 7200/12,47OY v01b
2400/4800/8320Y "Olt.
ow voltage: 120/240. 240/480,600 volts-
ow voltage; 120/240,240/480.600 volts-
60 cycles
60 yclos

Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per. cent Per cent
R X z R X z
~-
3 1.7 I .5 2.3 2.2 1.7 2.8
5

10
15 1.5 1.7 2.3 I.6 I .6 2.3
25

37> I. 3 2.2 2.6 1.3 2.0 2.4


50

75
100 I .2 2.3 2.6 1.2 3.5 3.7

1 67 1.1 3.8 4.0 1.0 3.6 3.7

250 I.o 4.7 4.8 1 .o 5.1 5.2


333
500

APPROXIMATE REACTANCE A N D RESISTANCE O F CABLES

The reactance of a cable circuit is, generally speaking, a function of the


spacing between conductor centers and the conductor diameter. Know-
ing the conductor spacing and diameter, the reactance of three-conductor
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 97

TABLE 1.18 Approximate Impedance of 60-cycle Power Transformers


IAbovs 500 Kva)

Impedance at kvo bole


Inwlotion doss, k r equal lo 55 C rating of
largest Capacity winding for

Self-cooled or Forced-oil
High voltage Low voltage woter-cooled cooled
rating, per cent rating, per Cenl

I 5 or lower. ..... 15 or lower 5%


25.. ........... 15 or lower 5%
3 4 . 5 . . ......... I5 or lower 6
4 6 . 0 . . ......... I 5 or lower 6%
6 9 . 0 . . . ........ I 5 o r lower 7
9 2 . 0 . . ......... I 5 or lower 7%
I 15.0. .......... I 5 or lower 8
138.0 ........... 15orlower 856

For high-voltagr insulation elassrs intermediatr of those given, use the imppdancr
of thc next higher listpd insulation class.
For transforrncrs with a load-ratio control add 0.5 prr ccnt to the vaIu?s IistFd
abovc crcrpt in those eases in which a IOWPY impedaner has heen sprrifirtl.
Thc p ~ cr m t resistance on the hase given above rangrs from 1.0 down to 0.06.

TABLE 1.19 Approximate Reactance o f Load-center-type Transformers,


60 Cycles
(Three-phase)
15-kv Maximum Primary Voltage
600-volt Maximum Secondarr Voltaoe -
Kro Range Per cent Reactance on O w n K r o Bore*
Il256-l50 3.0
225-500 5.0
750-2000 5.5
* Per cent resistance on own kva base is apptoiirnatcly 1.5 p ~ ccnt
r for 150 kva
snd b&w and varips from approxirnatdy 1 down to 0.8 p ~ cr m t on ratings above
150 kva

cables in nonmagnetir ducts and without maglietic binders can be deter-


mined by the formula

X =
(
0.023 log, D
2s
+ K)
X = reactance, ohms per 1000 ft at 60 ryrlrs; S = spacing of couduc-
tors (center t o center), in.
D = diameter of ronductors, in.; K = a rocffirient dependent upon ratio
of iriside diameter of a ronductor to outside diameter of condurtors. For
standard strand construction K = 0.25
98 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

This formula does not take into account any increase of reactance due
t o the spiraling of the strands. Such increase is usually negligible in
three-conductor cables and in large single-conductor cables, but it may
amount to 1 to 2 per cent in small single-conductor cables.
The effect of irregular spacing of the conductors and of magnetic
binder causes an increase of reactance of single-conductor cables, com-
pared with otherwise equivalent three-conductor cables. Cable insula-
tion thickness varies with different types of insulation for a cable of a
given voltage class. The approximate reactances of cables taking into
account these variables are shown in Tables 1.20 t o 1.22.

TABLE 1.20 Approximate Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance of


600-volt Cables in Magnetic Ducts per 100 Ft

Three single-conductor cables per dud. Three-conductor cable including inter-


ohms per 100 fi locked armor cablo, ohms per 100 fi
Coble size

R' X R' X Z

No. 14 Awg. 0.3135 0.00765 0.3135 0.3135 0.00468 0.3 1352


No. 12 Awg . 0.1972 0.0071 0 0.1972 0.1972 0.00456 0.19720
No. 10 Awg. 0.1240 0.00687 0.1240 0.1240 0.00448 0.12410

No. 8 Awg .. 0.0779 0.00638 0.0782 0.0779 0.00427 0.07460


No. 6 Awg .. 0.0498 0.00598 0.0500 0.0493 0.00391 0.04899
No. 4 Awg .. 0.0318 0.00551 0.0322 0.0312 0.00362 0.03140

N . 2 Awg . .
O 0.0203 0.00513 0.0209 0.0197 0.00344 0.02000
No. I Awg.. 0.0163 0.00500 0.0171 0.0157 0.00342 0.01606
No.l/OAwg. 0.0131 0.00495 0.0140 0.0125 0.00340 0.01296

No.Z/OAwg. 0.0106 0.00490 0.0117 0.0100 0.00336 0.01 054


No. 3/0 Awg
No.d/OAwg
. 0.00860
0.00700
0.00486
0,00482
0.00986
0.00850
0.00800
0.00640
0.00333
0.00327
0.00866
0.00721

25OMCM... 0.00608 0.00480 0,00778 0.00547 0.00322 0.00632


300 M C M . . . 0.00520 0.00474 0.00704 0.00460 0.00316 0.00557
350 M C M . . . 0.00461 0.00469 0.00658 0.00400 0.0031 0 0.00510

400MCM... 0.00419 0.00462 0.00625 0.00354 0.00304 0.00469


500MCM... 0.00359 0.00450 0.00575 0.00292 0.00295 0.00412
750 MCM.. . 0.00280 0.00438 0.00520 0.00208 0.00284 0.00346
-- --
* Based on 75 C.
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 99

TABLE 1.21 Approrimote Resistance. Reactance, and Impedance of


5000-volt Cables in Magnetic Ducts per 100 Ft

Three dngle.condudor cobler per duct, Three.conductor cable including inter-


ohms per 100 ft locked armor cable, ohms per 100 ft
Cable size ___.

R* X z R' X z

No. 14 Awg
No. 10 Awwg.
. 0.3135
0.1240
0.00969
O.OO8M
0.3135
0.1240
0.3135
0.1240
0.006664
0.005745
0.3291
0.1241
No. 8 Awg .. 0.0779 0.00788 0.0781 0.0779 0.005308 0.07808

No. 6 A w g . . 0.0498 0.00748 0.0503 0.0493 0.004941 0.04944


No.4Arg.. 0.0318 0.00681 0.0325 0.0312 0.004619 0.03154
No. 2 A x g . . 0.0203 0.00623 0.0212 0.0197 0.004366 0.02017

No. 1 Awg.. 0.0163 0.00588 0.0173 0.0157 0.003964 0.01619


No. 110 Awg 0.0131 0.00567 0.0143 0.0125 0.003792 0.01304
No. 2/0 Awg . 0.0106 0.00545 0.0119 0.0100 0.003677 0.01061

No.3/0 A x @ . 0.00860 0.00535 0.0101 0.00800 0.00363 1 0.008785


No.4/0 Awg. 0.00700 0.00529 0.00877 0.00640 0.003585 0.007535
250 MCM.. . 0.00609 0.00525 0.00802 0.00547 0.003562 0.006527

300 MCM.. . 0.00520 0.00519 0.00735 0.00460 0.00351 8 0.005791


350MCM... 0.00461 0.00514 0.00690 0.00400 0.003477 0.005299
400 MCM.. . 0.00419 0.00506 0.00657 0.00354 0.003436 0.004923

500 MCM.. . 0.00359 0.00495 0.00611 0.00292 0.003344 0.004439


750 MCM. .. 0.00280 0.00474 0.00551 0.00208 0.003088 0.003723

Based (1 75 c.
-- ---
TABLE 1.22 Correction Factors for Nonmagnetic Ducts
Single-condudor a b l e ,

Focton for correcting redrlmces


Fo&r for conesting
reactancn, dl rizor
of cable No. l 4 t o
No. 8 A x g
I No.610
No. 0 Awg
1 No.00to
250 MCM
1 30010
500 MCM
11 750 MCM

0.8 I 1.0 I 0.96 I 0.93 0.83 0.72


100 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

TABLE 1.22 Correction Factors for Nonmagnetic Ducts. (Continued)


Three-conductor Cables
Determine correct Z from corrected d ~ eofi X and R. N o ~orreclioni s required for interlocked
armor.

Factors for correcting resistances


Factor for correcting
reoctancer. di sizes
of coble
No. 14 to No. 00 Awg No. 0000 Awg to 750 MCM

0.87 1.0 1 0.98

TABLE 1.23 Per Cent Reactance of Typical Three-phase Cable Circuits


Per Cent Reactance of 1000 Circuit Feet on o 1000-kva nose

System roltoge 1 ! 1230 460 575 ~ 2,400


I
j
I
4,160 ~ 6.900 1 13,800

Cqble sire. No. 4 to 1 Awg

Three single-condudor cables in


iron conduit.. ..............
Three-conductor coble in iron con-
duit or interlocked armored I
98.3 24.6 15.74 1.075 0.358 ~l I

cable ..................... 71.8 18 11.5 0.669 0.222 0.11 0.0276


Three-conductor cable in nonmag-
netic duct.. ................ 58.5 14.7 9.4 0.581 0.194 0.0955 0.024

Cable size, No. I f 0 to No. 410 Awg

Three single-conductor coblei in


iron conduit. ...............
Three-conductor cable in iron con-
duit or interlocked armored
I
92.5
I
23.2
I
14.85 0.955 0.318 1 !
cable. .................... 68 17.1 10.9 0.6 0.2 0.0943 0.0237
Three-conductor cable in nonmog-
netic duct.. ................ 54.8 13.72 8.8 0.52 0.173 0.0818 0.0205

Cable Sire, 250 to 750 MCM


~

Three ringlo-conductor cables in


ironconduit. .............. 85 11.3 13.63
Three-conductor cable in iron con-
duit or interlocked armored
coble ..................... 61.4 15.4 9.85 0.538 0.179 0.0796 0.02
Three-conductor cobie in nonmog-
netic duct.. ................ 51 12.8 8.19 0.477 0.159 0.07 0.0176
- __
1
y 2.
SHORT.CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 101

Where more precise data are not available, the values given in Tables
1.20 t o 1.23 may be used in short-circuit-current calculations without
significant error.

APPROXIMATE REACTANCE OF BUS B A R S 6 0 CYCLES

Unlike cable circuits the resistance of bus-bar circuits is so low com-


pared with the reactance that the resistances of bus bars may he neglected
in all a-c short-circuit calculations without significant error. There haye
been many papers written on the subject of bus-bar reactance calcula-
tions, and a complete bibliography is included in t,hc 1945 A I E E Tran-
sactions, Vol. 64, page 385, The Design of Bus-bar Indust,rial Distribution
System: An Epitomization of Available Data, by T . .J. Higgins. For
practical short-circuit calculations, the reactance of bus bars may be
taken from Figs. 1.58 to 1.G2 or Tables 1.24 and 1.25.
TABLE 1.24 Reactance of Typical Three-phase Low-voltage Copper
Busway Circuits
Per cent reoctonce of 1000 circuit feet on D 1000-kva base

System voltage

Butuoy rating, amp

240 1 I 480 600

Plvg-in type:
Upto600 ............. 98.8 24.7 15.8
60110 1000 ........... 62.4 15.6 10.0
Lox-impedance type:
Upto600 ............. 45.2 11.4 7.3
60110 1000 ........... 17.2 4.3 2.7
135010 1600 .......... 10.8 2.7 1.7
2000 ................. 7.6 1.9 1.2

Although not gcnerally used in short-circuit calculations the resistance


of typical copper busway circuits is giveu in Table 1.25.
TABLE 1.25 Resistance of Typical Copper Busway Circuits
Current Capacity Resistance.
of Bvsroy, Amp Ohms p e l 1000 Ft
250 0.114
400 0.033
600 0.023
800 0.016
1000 0.012
I350 0.0096
1600 0.0073
2000 0.0055
102 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

FIG. 1.58 Chart showing reactance VI. spacing of rectangular bus bars 160 cycler).

FIG. 1.59 Chart showing reactance VI. spacing of rectangular bur bars I60 cycler).
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

FIG. 1.60 Chart showing reactance YI. spacing of rectangular bus bars (60cycled.
104 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

FIG. 1.62 Chart showing reactance VI. spacing of channel bus bars I60 cycler).

REACTANCE A N D RESISTANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES

To assist in obtaining the conductor spacings, two typical crossarm


arrangements are shown in Fig. 1.63. The arrangements used in practice
will vary from system t o system, but hecause of space limitations only
these two are shown.
For ordinary single-phase circuits, the equivalent spacing is the dis-
tance between conduct,ors. For ordinary t,hree-phase circuits, the equiva-
lent spacing is exprcssed by the formula + A X t( X C where A , B , and
C are the distances, center t o center, of the conductors as follows:

-
~ - B - I -A- I ~

The resistance of overhead lines may not always he neglected without


significant error. In general, long runs of overhead lines (several miles)
at 2.4 t o 13.8 k v with small conductors 250 MCM or less have significant
resistance compared to reactance; therefore resistance should be con-
sidered in short-circuit calculations for short circuits a t the ends of such
long overhead lines. Resistance should he considered in all low-voltage
(600 volts or less) overhead lines.
Reactances and resistances may be taken from Table 1.26 for small
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 105

spacings (up t o 8 ft) and from Figs. 1.64 and 1.65 for spacings up t o
20 ft.
Under usual application conditions, transmissiodine reactance
varies over quite a narrow range. Table 1.27 includes the usual varia-
tions as well as “average ohms per mile” which are normally satis-
factory for quick estimating work. Very large conductors, used to
carry unusually large amounts of power for short distances, have abnor-
mally low reactance so that this tahlr is not applicable.
L--- 67“

4 - P I N CROSSARM
AND SPOOL- TYPE
SECONDARY RACK

6 - P I N CROSSA-M

FIG, 1.63 Spocing of pins on four- and six-pin crossarms for vie in calculating line reoc-
tance on 2400/4160-Y or 48OO-volt circuits.
106 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

FIG. 1.64 Chart showing poritive-phaie-sequence reactonce of transmission lines using


hard-drown stranded copper conducton (60cycle).
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCUUTING PROCEDURfS 107

POSITIVE SEQUENCE 60 CYCLE

EQUIVALENTA SPACING OF CONDUCTORS IN FEET

FIG. 1.65 Chart ahowing poritive-pha**.requence reactance of trammission liner uting


ACSR conductors (60cycler).
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCUUTING PROCEDURES I09

TABLE 1.27 Approximate Equivalent Delta Spacing and Average


Reactance r M i l e of Three-phase 60-cycle Transmission Lines

Normal tronrmiirion
Approximate
Line in.ul.tion equi*o1ent
class, kv dell. spocing of Reoctonce,
conductors. ft ohms per mile
size
lslrmded ~ o p p e i l

5 2.5 40. 4 1 0 Awg 0.61 0.65


No. 6 Awg 0.74
~- __
15 3.5 250 MCM 0.64
No. 4 Awg 0.75
23 4 250 MCM 0.65
No. 4 Awg 0.77 0.70
34.5 4.5 400 MCM 0.64
No. 2 Awg 0.75
46 5.5 500 MCM 0.65
No. 1 Awg 0.77

69 8
14
115
138 16 0.70-0.80
161 20 411 UIUDI sizes both copper 0.75
220 20 and oluminum
287 40

TABLE 1.28 Reactance of Typical Three-phase Medium- and


Low-voltage Distribution Circuits*

System Yoiloge.. , ..., . ~ 230 ~ 460 575

I". . . .... .... . ..... 6 / 11 28 1 ~1 8 1 d / I 2 / 1 8 1 3 0 1


Equivalent delta spacing, ~ 6 ~ 1 2 ~ 301 3 6 1 42

Wire sire Per cent reoctance of I000 c i r ~ u i feet


l on D 1000-kvo bore

N0.4loN0.1Awg __... 180208~22345.052.156.028.833.335.8 2.19 0.7620.286 0.073


No. I i O A w g t a 2 5 0 M C M 155 i8520238.846.550.724.8 29.732.4 2.06 0.6880.258 0.067
300 lo 750 MCM.. ..... 134 1631180 33.6 40.8 45.0 21.5 26.1 28.8 1.87 0.625 0.235 0.061
I
110 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

Volts Equivalent dslto spacing, Kv line- Equirdent delta rpmcing,


(line-to-lid in. to.li". ft

* 115 12 44 5.5
230 12 66 8.0
460 I8 I10 14.0
575 I8 112 16.5
2,300 30 I54 20.0
4,160 30 220 29.0
6,900 36
13.800 42
22,000 48
33,000 54

APPROXIMATE REACTANCE O F LOW-VOLTAGE ClRCUll


BREAKERS A N D DISCONNECTING SWITCHES

In some low-voltage circuit calculations, the reactance of such switch-


ing equipment may be significant. The reactance of circuit breakers
varies greatly, depending upon the rating and design. For approxima-
tion, however, the reactance in ohms of a circuit breaker may be taken as
0.2
continuous rating of circuit breaker in amperes
The reactance of lever switches and disconnecting switches for low-vol-
t,age circuits (600 volts and below) is of the order of magnitude ranging
from 0.000050 to 0.000080ohm per pole at fiO rycles,for sizes ranging from
4000 to 400 amp, respectively, depending on the ampere rating, design,
and phase spacing of the switches.

APPROXIMATE REACTANCE O F CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

These data are useful o~ilyfor calculation of short-circuit currents ill


circuits rat,ed 600 volts and below.
The reactance of current transformers depends 011 their current rating
and design arid varies over a wide range. Therefore, a sirigle value of
reactance applicable to a variety of current transformers cannot be
given.
Current Transformers with Primary Circuits of t h e Wound Type.
Approximate data on renctarice a t 60 cycles for current transformers of
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES Ill

type W, covering current ratings from 100 t o 800 amp based on tests
at short-circuit currents, are given in Table 1.30. The values in Table
1.30 apply t o t,ransformers with a serondary burden of I volt-amp or
less at 5 amp or a t normal i:urrent. For higher burdens, the impedance
referred t o the primary side will be somewhat increased, but the increase
is far less than that occurring a t normal currents, berause of the reduced
mutual inductance between primary and secondary windings. The
reactance values based on low burden are conservative fur calculations
of maximum short-circuit current.
TABLE 1.30 Over-all Reactance of Type W Current Transformers,
Referred to Primary Winding
Approximate Values at Short-circuit Cvrrenh with D-C Component, Rms Symmetrical Component
Ronging from 15,000 to 55.000 Amp
Current Rating of Reactance (11
Primary Winding, 60 Cycles,
Amp Ohms
100 0.0035
I50 0.0017
200 0.0010
250 0.00066
300 0.00050
400 0.00032
500 0.00022
600 0.00019
800 0.00012
These values are also representative of t,he order of magnitude of the
reactance for current transformers of the following types, rated a t 5000
volts: JW1, JW4, JW6, JW14, WC12, WFI, WF6, and WF12.
Reactances for other designs of current transformers of the wound
primary type may be estimated by applying the folloming approximate
factors t o the values of Table 1.30.
Type of Current Foctor to Be Applied to
Transformer Reactance Vduer in Table 1.30
KF85-7,500 volt 1.8
JSI-15,000 volt 0.4
Current Transformers Having a Bar-type Primary Conductor. For
bar-type current transformers with currerit rat,ings from 1000 t o 4000
amp, such as t,ypes bS2-GO0 volts, WC15-5000 volts, KC60 7500 volts,
the react,arice has an approximate order of magnit,ude of 0.000070 ohm
a t currents within the range from 10,000 t o over 80,000 rms symmct,rical
amperes, with or ait,hout d-c component,.
T h e reactauce depends on the spacing bctweeu phases, since a COIL-
siderable amount of air flux links the primary bar conductor. The
value given is t,hat for !&in. phase spacirig wit,h the t,ransformers side by
side, reprcserit,ing an average value for the three phascs for t,hree-phase
short circuits. Strictly speaking, the reactance in the three phascs will
I12 SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES

he unequal i n a side-by-side assembly of current transformers, but for


short-circuit-current calculations an average value can ordinarily be
used without serious error.
To say that the reactance for bar-type transformers is equal to the
air reactance of the primary conductor, considering its length, size, and
shape, and the spacing between phases, is a fair approximation.

APPROXIMATE REACTANCE O F A - C REACTORS AND FEEDER REGULATORS

The reactance is proportional t o the rating.


The voltage drop through the reactor at rated current and frequency
divided hy the line-to-neutral voltage of the circuit gives the per-unit
reactance on the current rating of the reactor. (This will also he the
per-nnit reactance on the kva rating of the circuit if the rated reactor
current is the same as the rated current of the circuit.)
The reactanre of a given step regulator is modified by the position
of the tap changer and becomes a maximum a t maximum voltage boost.
It is minimum at neutral position, while at maximum buck, the impedance
is higher than at neutral.

TABLE 1.31 Short-circuit ImDedance of Feeder Reaulators of

I
Per cent ,O(lCt(l"L*
Ion base of C ~ C .k rd
No. of No. of Circ. Kva of
Type phoier core, "Oil, r.g"l.tol

!-
Min Avg Max
~ _ _ -~~
Indue.. ......... I or 3 .. 2400 I?
I n d w . . ......... Ior3 .. to I0 0.65 0.85 1.00
4800 96
_____ _ _
Amp
rO~Y1.101
~ _ _ _ _
Step ............ 1 1 2400 Allrolings O.O+ .... 0.6
Step. ........... 3 I lo to160omp O.O+ .... 0.7
Step. ........... 3 3 13,800 Over 160arnp 0.15 .... 1.0
SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATING PROCEDURES 113

REFERENCES
1. A I E C Committee Rrport. Simplified Calculation of Fault Currents, E k e . E’ng.,
Octobrr, 1912.pp. 509-511.
2. A I I * X Committee Ilrport. Simplifird Calmlation ai Fault Currmts. Trans.
AlEE’. 1942, Vol. G I . pp. 113:3-11:35.
3. Revision Made to AIICI: Report, Simplified Calculation of Fault Currents, Efec.
Emf,.. February, 194d. p. 65.
4. Darling. A. G., 4-C Short Cirrriit Caleiilating Procdure for Lon--roltage Systems,
‘I‘mns. A I E E . l!)41, Vol. GO, pp. 1121-1136.
5. Srhurig, 0. It.. Fault Voltngr Drop and ImpPdanre a t Short-circuit Ciirrmts in
Low Voltngr Circuits. Trans. A I E E , 1941, Vol. 60, pp. 479-486.
6. AIEE Committw Rrport. Simplifird Calculation of Fault Currents, Trans. A I E E ,
1948, Vol, 67, p. 1433.
Chapter 2 by R, H. Kaufmann

Symmetrical Components as Applied


to Short-circuit-current Calculation
on Three-phase Systems

The unhalanred circuit problems eucountered in short-circuit analysis


can be resolved by using symmetrical-component analysis. This
analysis technique is used extensively by power-system invest,igators
and authors. Developed in this chapter are concepts and procedures
for the application of symmetrical-romponent aualysis t,o the deter-
mination of short-circuit currents. While this procedure is built up
from base fundamentals, it is aimed expressly a t the solutiori of electrical-
systcm short-circuit problems. For other possihlc applications of sym-
metrical-component analysis such as the determination of unbalanced
currents in certain circuits or machines, it is suggested that reference be
made t o a more elaborate texthook* which explores the full field of appli-
cation more completely.

THE USE OF COMPONENTS

The separation of an electrical vector quantity into components t o


simplify computation procedure is familiar t o all. It has been common
practire t o consider an alternating voltage or alternating current to he
composed of two components a t right angles t,o each other. It should he
evident that the process is not limited to two quantities, nor is it necessary
t h a t the components be 90" apart.
*Edith Clark?. "Cirruit Analysis of A. C. POIVPISystrrns." vol. 1, John W i k y &
Sons, Inc., NPWYork, 1943.
I14
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 115

For example, take the expression


E = IZ
It is entirely valid t o express this as
E = (I, + I,)Z = IIZ + I,%
provided that
I, +I, = I
or as
E = (I1 + +IJZ
1 2 = I1Z + I2Z + IaZ
provided that
I, + I2 + I3 = I
Thus there is 110 mystery about the use of components. It is applicable
so long as the equations are linear (as they will be in electrical-cirruit
work).
E = IZ I = EY I, = ZJ, etc.

SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

If the Z per phase as illustrated in Fig. 2.1 could he represented as a


firm fixed value, the circuit analysis would be-simple. Since the con-
ductors of the three phases are magneti- z
cally coupled, the voltage drop in the A I A -b
JWVL Nl
phase depends not only on the current in
the A phase but on the current in the
other two phases as well.
Consider the induction-motor imped-
ance diagram of Fig. 2.2. Assume the
FIG. 2.1 A simple i y m m e t r i c d
rotor t o be turning a t normal speed in
ryrtem,
the direction produced by an impressed
voltage of sequence ARC. What I Z drop will be produced in the -1phase
because of a current I , alone? That is a tough one; although there are
some relationships of which we are sure.
Under the conditions of balanced currents of sequence ARC there
will be balanred terminal voltages of sequence ABC. With normal
rated voltage and light load the current will he of the order of one-fourth
or one-third rated value. Under this condition all three phases appear
t o have identical impedances of 1/0.25 or 1/0.333 or three or four per-unit
(300 or 400 per cent).
On the other hand, had the impressed voltage been applied with
opposite sequence (.4CB), i t is evident that this would he equivalent t o
116 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

plugging. There mould he a balanced set of currents, but this time the
application of rated voltage would cause currents of about six times
rated value. In other words, the impedance appears to be the same in
all three phases, but its value is now $6 = 0.16 per-

kJ!
unit, or 16 per cent. The effect of mutual winding
coupling alone may make the effective impedance
per phase as low as 16 per cent or as high as 300
or 400 per cent.
There is one significant observation. So long as
the three currents are equal and separated by the
same angular displacement, the effect of currents I s
and I , on the voltage drop in phase A will be iden-

'IG, '.' Induction-


motor impedance dio-
tical with the effect of currents I , and I , on the
voltage drop in phase B and also with the effect
grcm.
of currents I , and I , on the voltage drop in phase
C . Thus the effective impedance will appear to be
identical i n all three phases; that is, the impedance voltage drop in the A
phase will bear the same relationship to the current in the A phase as the
impedance drop in phase B bears to the current in phase B and as the
impedance drop in phase C hears to the current in phase C . Or expressing
this symbolically,
InZn
_ = BZB -
_ I_ _ ICZC
I, IS I C

Thus Z , = Z B = Z c .
This also identities the fact that the impedance voltage drops I a Z A ,
I,Z,, and I c Z c are separated by the same angles as I,, I , , and I c .
These are two very important facts which emphasize the value of
symmetrical components.

POSSIBLE SYMMETRICAL COMBINATIONS

There are but three possible symmetrical combinations in a three-phase


system in which the three phase quantities are equal and separated by the
same angle. The displacement angle must be a multiple of 120" since
the three phases of a three-phase system are separated by 120". This
is shown in the following three cases using currents for illustration.

Case 1. I , is 120' behind I , and Ic is 120° behind I,.


Case 2 . I , is 240" behind I d and I , is 240' behind I,.
Case 3. I , is 360" behind I , and Ic is 360" behind I,.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 117

The vector relationships represented by these three cases of sym-


metrical displarement are shown in Fig. 2.3. Henceforth reference will
he made to case 1 as the positive-sequence component denoted by a suh-
script 1 characterized by three equal vectors 120' apart in the normal
sequenre A R C ; to rase 2 as the negative-sequence component denoted by
a subscript 2 charact,eriaed by three equal vectors 120" apart hut with a
sequence A C B opposite normal; and to rase 3 as the zero-sequence com-
ponent denoted by a subscript 0 chararterized by three equal vectors
with zero angular separation (in phase with each other).
Even a t the risk of unnecessary repetition, the two important properties
of these three symmetrical components are repeated.
The circulation of any one of the three symmktrical three-phase current
patterns in a symmetrical three-phase circuit, even though the phase
windings are mutually coupled, yields a balanced three-phase impedance
voltage drop whose sequence pattern is identical with that of the current
pattern. Likewise, the application of any one of t,he three symmetrical
three-phase voltage patterns on the circuit will give rise to a balanced
three-phase current whose sequence patterti is ideutical with that of the
voltage.

1. Current flow of one sequence pattern produces voltage drops of the


same sequence pattern only.
2. Applied voltage of one sequence pattern produces currents of the
same sequence pat,tern only.
3. For each sequence pattern, the impedance can he regarded as a
definite fixed quantity identical in all three phases.
This then is the significance and identity of the symmetrical compo-
nents (of which there are three types in t,hree-phase systems) and may be
applied to voltages as well as currents.

Ic
CASE I CASE 2 CASE 3
lPOSlTlVE SEOUENCEl (NEGATIVE SEWENCE) (ZERO SEOUENCE)

FIG. 2.3 Symmetrical patterns of current.


118 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

THE OPERATOR 0

I n the application of symmetrical-component analysis there will be


repeated need t o shift a particular vector by multiples of 120". Particu-
larly in analytical studies it will be advisable merely to indicate the
desired operation, leaving the actual resolution until the final solution is
approached. Invariably it will be found that combinations of operations
appear modifying a particular vector which can be directly reduced t o
much simpler form, or often simply vanish.
The small letter a is used to indicate an angular advance of 120' in the
vector t o which it is appended. Its use parallels the use of j as a 90"
advance operator, i.e., aIb would mean a vector of the same magnitude as
labut advanced 120'; while azZbwould mean a vector of the same magiii-
tude as Ib but advanced 240'.
0-12
O+j1.732

-02
0.5tj0.866
f /71:a2
/ ,
,1.5tJO.866
/ /

\+
/
I /
/
I/ /
//
//' a3

\
Ir-0.-50.866
0.5 1.5-~0.866
:I a

FIG, 2.4 Functions of the 120' operator 0.


SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 119

The significance of commonly encountered combinations of a operators


is indicated in Fig. 2.4. For instance (az-a)Iswould indicate a vector fl
times as large as laand advanced 270' in angle.
Comparing the operators j and a in more detail to explain Fig. 2.4, a
vector 1 t o the right on the horizontal, Fig. 2.4, when multiplied hy .i
+
would be 0 jl. That same vector multiplied by a becomes (in terms
+
of j ) - 0.5 j0.866; multiplied by u2 it hecomes - 0.5 - j0.866. 1-a
+
then becomes 1 - ( - 0.5 jO.866) = 1.5 - j0.866 or an advance of
270" and 4 times as large.

RESOLUTION OF SEQUENCE C O M P O N E N T S

It develops that any possible patt,erri of three-phase currents or three-


phase voltages can be resolved exactly into rombinatioris of the three
types of symmetrical components. Some properties of the three sym-
metrical-sequence components will he of interest in showing the nature of
their independence and the manner in mhirh they may he separated.
Referring to Fig. 2.5 it will he seen that, if the vertor sum of the three
vectors of each component is made, the answer will be zero for the posi-
tive-sequence and negative-scquence systems and 3 for the zero-sequence
system. If first the B-phase quantity is advanced 120' and the C phase
advanced 240" and the vector sum then evaluated, the answers will he 3
for the positive-sequence system and zero for the negative- and zero-
sequence systems. But if first the B-phase quantity is advanced 240" and
the C-phase quantity advanced 120", the vector s u m will then be zero for

ADVANCE B 120" ADVANCE 0 240-


,I C240* c 1200

FIG. 2.5 Properties of rymmetriccll-component quantitiei.


I20 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

the positive-sequence system, three for the negative-sequence system,


and zero for the zero-sequence system.
This suggests that the three sequence components have independent
degrees of freedom.
Suppose that the three actual line currents I,, I,, and I , are to he
resolved into three balanced-sequence components of types positive,
negative, and zero. If I,, I,, and l c are added vectorially, it may be
expected that whatever positive-sequence and negative-sequence com-
ponent were contained therein would add u p to zero, and the answer
should he three times the value of the zero-sequence component.
IA + I B + I c 31.0 =
Pi + I s + I c
I.0 =
3
If the B-phase currerit is first advanced 120' and the C-phase current
2.40' and then added, it can be expected that whatever negative-sequence
and zero-sequence component were coutained therein would add u p to
zero, and the sum should thus he three times the positive-sequence
component.
1, + a l , + a Z I c 3I., =
11 + a l a + a21c
I., =
3
In similar fashion hy first advancing the B-phase current 240' and the
C-phase rurrent 120' the sum should then he three times the negative-
sequeuce component in the A phase.
I, + a z I B+ a I c = 3I,,
1-2 =
11 + a2Ia+ aIc
3
Sinre each of thc sequence systems is symmetrical, one can immediately
identify the corresponding comporierits in the other phases. Refer to
Fig. 2.3 to cherk the angular positiou of phase components.
Zero sequence:

Id = Ih0 = 1.0 =
I, + I, + I,
3
Positive sequenre:

I,, =
1, + a l e + a21c-
2
-

IS,= all., =
a21A I S+ + alc
3
I C 1= aI., =
aIA + + Ic
a21a
3
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 121

Srgativc sequence:

I,, =
I, + a2IB+ a l e
3

.\I1 three i.urrctits whii.11 romprise each of the three component systems
now have been dekiiicd. The sum of all t,hree compotrcnt currents of
each phase should equal the original actual phase current.
Phase il :

Phase 13 :
I B + la? f
= Ib, IbO

-
- a?IA + I I I+ a l c + aIr -t I , + azIc + I , + I , + I c
3 3 3
= >SIA(aP + a + 1) + I a ( l + 1 + 1) + I c ( a + a2 + 1)
= !5(0 + 31, + 0) = I B
Phase C:
Ic = + I,, + I d
I,,
- + a21e + IC a'IA + a l a + IC + I., + 1, + I c
+

3 3 3
= 4$IA(a + az + , I ) + IB(a* + a + 1) + I c ( 1 + 1 + 1)
= >$(O + 0 + 3Ic) = Ic
? >
1 hus a means now has been devised of separat,ing the three actual line
currents (or voltages) into t,hree systems of symmetrical components, and
further it, has bee11shown that the sum of the three component quantities
of earh phase does exactly equal the original true line current (or voltage).
Several fuiidamental equatioiis and commonly used relationships are
listed i n Tahle 2.1.

INDEPENDENCE OF SEQUENCE SYSTEMS


The fact has been developed that, in symmetrical circuits, currents of
one sequence produce voltages of the same sequence only and likewise
122 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

impressed voltages of one sequence produce currents of like sequence only.


I n other words, there is no mutual coupling between scquence systems.
Thus the voltage drops in impedances can be separately evaluated for earh
sequence componerit of current and the resulting volt,agc drops added t o
get the total voltage drop. Thus in Fig. 2.1 the t,otal impedance drop
across the impedance Z in the direction of current flow is
Phase A :
(IZ). = IdZI + I,,Z, + I,OZ,
Similar expressions could he written for the other two phases, hut a
simpler attack is possible from concepts already acquired. The positive-
sequence drops will all be of equal magnitude and of positive sequence,
the negative-sequence drops will all be of equal magnitude and of ncgative
sequence, and the zero-sequence drops will he of cqual magnitude and of
zero sequence. Therefore,
Phase B :
(IZ), = a21.,Z, + aIa2Zr+ I,,Zn
Phase C:
(IZ), = a,I.,Z, + aZIa2Zz+ I,oZO
Here for the first time the advantage of the symmetrical-component
approach can be appraised. For each symmetrical-compoiierit system,
impedances can he regarded as having a definite fixed value identical in
all three phases. The impedauce values in the three component systems
may he widely different, howcver. That is, Z, may he altogether differ-
ent from Z2 or Zo. Unt,il the actual currents were resolved into sym-
metrical componcnt,s, there seemed no alternate t o thc use of self atid
mutual impedances in each phase.
At this point note that under balanced-load (wnditioiis the current is
entirely of positive sequence. Thus t,he usual solution of balanced
operation is really a special case iiivolving only the positive-sequence
system, i.e., positive-sequence voltages, poshive-sequence currents, and
positive-sequence impedances.
The application of these principles t o the solution of unbalanced-load
problems now may he studied. It seems appropriate at this point to
review some physical concepts of the three compi~neutsystems.
All source machines generate only positive-sequence vokage. The
winding pattern in the A phase will he repeated in the B phasc 120 elec-
trical degrees later and i n the C phase 240 electrical degrees later. Thus
identical voltages will be generated in each phase minding except that the
B phase mill be 120' behind the A phase arid the C phase will he 120"
behind the B phase.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 123

TABLE 2.1 Fundamental Equations

With line currents I A , I*, I c known, sequence currents are

1.0 =
In + Is + I c = I,, = I d
3

NOTE:Voltages E., Eb, and E. generated vithin halaneed-winding rotating machines


are entirely positive sequence.
Commonly Used Relationships:

Negative- and zero-sequence voltages result from the impedance drop


produced by the flow of negative- a n d zero-sequence components of cur-
rent. Generally, positive-sequence voltages will he greatest at the source
machines and diminish as one moves toward the short circuit. On the
other hand, negative- and zero-sequence voltages will he greatest a t the
124 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT5 FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

short-circuit point and diminish as one approaches the source machines,


Positive-sequence voltages and currents produce (and are associated
with) magnetic fields within rotating machines which rotate in the same
direction as normal rotational dirertion.
Negative-sequence voltages and currents produce (and are associated
with) magnetic fields in rotating machines which rotate in a direction
opposite to normal rotation. The latter thus produce machine torques
tending to slow down a motor rotor, and the positive-sequence electrical
quantities must produce a torque equal to the load torque plus that
resulting from the negative-sequence current if normal running speed is
to be maintained.
Zero-sequence currents are in phase in all three conductors. For such
currents to flow a t all it is evident that the electrical neutral must be con-
nected to a fourth conductor or ground. Being in phase, the currents add
up numerically at the neutral ronnection and become 31.0 in the neutral
circuit, Zero-sequence currents produce a stationary pulsating magnetic
field in the rotating machine stator winding which is predominantly of
stator-leakage character, very little of which crosses the air gap to enter
the rotor. Zero-sequence current will rarely be found in motors since the
motor neutral is almost never grounded.

PER-UNIT SYSTEM'

While symmetrical-component analysis is valid regardless of the system


of units used, it will be found desirable to adopt the per-unit system.
In the per-unit system, potentials are expressed as a fraction of an
arbitrarily assigned line-to-neutral voltage (usually the normal operating
voltage). Currents are expressed as a fraction of an arbitrarily assigned
circuit current. This base current is usually selected to correspond with
a convenient round-number kva such as 1000, 10,000, etc.
Only two quantities can be arbitrarily assigned, i.e., base voltage and
base kva or base voltage and base current. Unit values of all other
quantities become fixed as soon as the first two are assigned.
Unit base voltage and current are arbitrarily assigned a t some one part
of the system. The values of unit voltage and current at other partsof the
system become those which would result from the turn ratio of intercon-
necting transformers.
The per-unit impedances define the fraction of base voltage which will
be produced by the flow of unit base current.
The value of the per-unit system is a t once apparent. The impedances
of generators, motors, and transformers when expressed in per-unit on
their own rating as a reference base assume almost a constant numerical
* S e e Chap. 1, p. 52.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 125

value throughout a wide range of physical size and voltage rating. For
example, the impedance of a transformer mill be about 0.05 per-unit (6 per
cent) on its own rat,ing as a base quite independent of size or voltage
rating. If expressed in ohms, the numerical value of Z would vary
widely wit,h 110 sigu of any common denominator. Also, in the per-unit
system a particular per-unit value of current flowing into one side of a
transformer comes out the other side as the same per-unit value.
Refer to Chap. 1, page 54, for a complete list of equations relating
~ e r - u n i tvalues.

SYSTEM APPLICATION

The approarh to circuit problems consists of writing the relations


existing between geuerated voltages and impedance drops in the usual
conventional manner except that three sequelice systems may he involved.
In t,he simple cirruit arrangement shoivu in Fig. 2.0 it cau he seen that
oue can directly evaluate (in terms of the A phase)
Positive sequence:
E. = r.,(zol +
zLl zr,) + + v.,
Val = 8. - Z,I(ZC, ZL, + + ZTd

Segative sequence:
0 = I.dZm + + +
ZL2 ZTJ Tio*
v., = + +
-ra2(zGs zL2 zr2)
Zero sequence:
0 = I.o(Zo0 + + Zro) +
ZLO v.0
vm0= -r,,(zoot z t o+ zTd
Combined :
Ti" = v.1 + ve/02+ v.,o
= E, - Iai(Zoi + Z L I+ Z T -~ Za,(Zci + Zr.2 + Z T ~
- I~O(200 + ZLO + ZTO)
It will be useful to draw the individual sequence circuits such as indi-
cated on Fig. 2.7. Xote that the circuit for the positive sequence is

"WY
ZG ZL
.".. 1A-h
vb

Ec/
".,. ..."
E+T I6 -w
V0

. .....
FIG. 2.6
.,.A
tc * vc
Typical symmetrical three-phase circuit.
126 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

262 z L2 zT2 102-


I Vaz I- SEQUENCE1
N

E a = 101 ( Z G I + Z ~ I + Z T ~ I ~ V O I
0 = 102 ( Z G Z t Z L 2 1 Z T Z 1 t VO2
0 - 100 (ZGO+ Z L O t Z T O I t YO0
VA = v o l t v02+v00
= E o - I o l ( Z G l t Z L l tZT11-102 (ZGZ+ZLZ+ZTZI
-1w ~~tz,~+z,l
FIG. 2.7 Equivalenl sequence circuits of Fig. 2.6 (in terms of the A phase)

identically that which mould be used alone for balanced-load prohlems.


In the treatment of unbalanced loads, two additional circuits are involved
(negative and zero sequence) which appear about the same evcept that
there are no generated voltages therein and the respective sequence
impedances are used.

TYPE OF APPROACH

Through experience in the application of symmet,rical-component


analysis, partirular types of approach, appropriate selection of reference
phase, and useful equivalent circuits have been discovered vhich lead to
a solution in the simplest manner.
Generalized solutions of problems presented in short-circuit studies of
three-phase systems (circuit-breaker selection or relay appliration)
include the following forms of short circuits:
1. Three-phase
2. Line-to-line
3. Line-to-ground
4. Double line-to-ground

THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUITS

The three-phase short-circuit condition represents a balanced three-


phase short circuit on the system. Only positive-sequenre quantities are
involved; hence only the positive-sequence impedance system will be
needed. The solution thus simplifies to an analysis of a single-rircuit
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 127

network involving only positive-sequence impedances and is done in the


familiar conventional mariner as follows, using Figs. 2.8 and 2.9:

Balanced operation [ ( l ) (2) (3) tied together]


For balanced load Z, per phase, make Z, = Z,
For thrce-phase short circuit, make Zx = 0
Reference phase: L4
E.
I , = I., =
z,+ z x
I, = a21A
Ic = all
The solution becomes simply
I, = I,, = ~ E.
total Z I
I s = a21A
I , = aIn

FIG. 2.8 Actual three-phore circuit pattern.

_ _ _ _~_ _ - _ - - 1 Ib=lol EO

POSITIVE
I 2, +ZX
SEQUENCE I IS= 0216

N+ v,; zx
- -v/JI.- - -2
I IC = o h
_c
1.3

FIG. 2.9 Equivalent circuit for three-phore short-circuit analysis.

LINE-TO-LINE SHORT CIRCUITS

The generalized solution works out in the simplest manner by consider-


ing the short circuit t o exist between the B and C phases, using phase A
as the reference, as illustrated in Fig. 2.10.
I28 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

E2F
The boundary coiiditioris a t the short-circuit point are

I, =0
I, = -Ic
v, = vc
LINE-TO- LINE SHORT CIRCUIT (SOLID1

vc

II' - 0
Ig =-Ic
vg =vc
SHORT CIRCUIT

EQUIVALENT SEOUENCE CIRCUITS IN TERMS OF THE A PHASE

(b) LINE-TO-LINE SHORT CIRCUIT (SHORT CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE ZF)

EcE5 :.
v b<' VB vc

SHORT CIRCUIT
EOUIVALENT SEQUENCE CIRCUITS (A PHASE REFERENCE )
PER PHASE

FIG. 2.10 Circuits involved in line-to-line short-circuit bnolyrir,


SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 129

So zer(i-sequenre rurrent is involved since

Ian =
I* + I , + 5 -- o + I* - I ,
=o
3 3
The positive- and negative-sequence currents in the A phase will he
diametrirally opposite sinre

Id =
+ aIll + a l l , -- 0 + a I s - a l l , --~
I, (a-aa)IB
3 3 3
I,, + d l , + a I c - - 0 + a l l a -_
a I= s _ (az-a)Is
_ - - _- _ (a-a’) I ,
I,? =
3 3 3 3
I., = -Id
The solution now hinges 011 the equality of voltage on the B- and
(‘-phase ronductors at the short rircuit.
V B = a2E. - a21.1Z1 - aI.*ZZ
V , = aE,, - aI.lZ1 - azI.zZz
To make V” = ITc

a2E, - a21.,Z1 - aIo2Zz = aE. - aI,,Z, - a21.,Z,


Substituting - I., for I a 2 and collecting terms
(a2-a)E. = (a2-a)I,,,ZI - ( a Z - a ) ( - I . , ) Z 2
E. = 1.1z1 IdZ9 +
= IG1(Z, ZJ +

aE.
al., = - aIa1 - -
z , + z,
la, = ~

I, = la, + l a z = (a‘-a) z , E.+ z* 6


~ =
-
B.
- -Ic
mz
The portion of the solution which contains the circuit parameters
E./(Z, +
Z , ) suggests an equivalent circuit in whichthe positive-sequence
system Z (containing the driving voltage E . and impedance Z , ) is in series
with the negative-sequence impedance system Z,. Also i t is noted that
in the reference phase A the negative-sequence current is the negative of
the positive-sequenre rurrent. This leads t o an equivalent circuit con-
nertion shown in Fig. 2.11.
The magnitude of total rurrent in the B- or C-phase conductor is 6
times as much as either of the components. I n most applications, only
130 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSlEMS

the magiiit,ude is of interest,, in which case 110 attentioil need bc given the
relative phase angle between this current and the refereure voltage.
The same generalized siilution ran bc applied to a rase in vhich the
short circuit contains impedanre. Suppose the linc-to-line impedance t o
be Z F . This can be simulated by i.onsidering the systcm to he extended
through an additional symmetriral branch containing an impedance
ZF/" per phase. 4 solid line-to-line fault at, the end of this branch pro-
dures the efleot nf an impedance Z P ronnerted line-to-line on the basic
system.
The solution is as follows, using Figs. 2.8 and 2.11:
Line-to-line connect,ion (line B to line C )
( 2 ) connected to (3); (I) open
For a line-to-line impcdance Z F , make ZX = Z F / ~
For a line-to-line short rircuit, make ZX = 0
Reference phase: A
(Bourrdary conditions: I , = 0, I , = - I c , V ( , ) = V ( , ) ]

. .
- EG
- -j
+ z,+ z,
Resolving further, the solution hecomes simply
E,
Is = v3 z, + ( Z F / 2 ) + z*+ ( Z P / 2 ) = - I,
En
= 41P.F z1+ z, + z,

POSITIVE
SEQUENCE
I
I
I
I
Iai -
~

- Val
-"W&
zF/2

NEGATIVE
II
SEQUENCE I

N 22 va 2 zF/2
* - +v'AVP
1a2-
FIG. 2.1 1 Equivalent circuit for line-to-line short-circuit analysis.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 131

LINE-TO-GROUND SHORT CIRCUITS

Refer to Fig. 2.12 for circuit conditions.


SOTE: Circuit is symmctrical except for short-rircuit connect,ions.
The simplest solution is arrived at by sclecting as the reference phase
t,hat phase on which the short circuit, exist,s.
IMPOHTANT SOTF:: Zero-sequence current flows through the neutral
impedance Z,, but in Z , the magnitude is 31a0. Thus thc voltage drop
will be three timcs as much as would be produred by Z , inserted in each
phase. Since Z,is defined as the impedance per phase, the corrert value
of Zo t o represent the neutral impedance Z, mill be 3 2 , . This mill he
true of all circuit impedances appearing in the neutral conductor. Thrir

{+:%:
equivalent Zomill be three times the value of Z,.

L-0 SHORT CIRCUIT ON PHASE A


Zn
BOUNDARY
vc CONDITIONS
vp. = o
ID+ IB+ IC+ Ig = o
- Ic = o

..
EOUIVALENT SEQUENCE
CIRCUITS I N TERMS OF
T H E A PHASE
3Zn

FIG. 2.1 2 Circuits involved in line-to-ground short-circuit analysis.

Solution.The three sequence circuits are defined in Fig. 2.12.


The boundary conditions whirh must be satisficd at, the short circuit, are
v, = 0
I, = 0
I, = 0
The relat,ionships which prevail in the symmetrical part of the system
are
E. = I J i V-1 +
0 = I O Z Z l v.2 +
0 = I.oZ0 v0
. +
132 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

Equating these to satisfy boundary conditions,


V , = V-1 + V,, + Van E, - l o i Z i - Io2Zs - I,oZo
= =0
I, = IS, + I,, + Ian a21.1 + al,, + I.u 0
= =
I C = I,, + Ic2 + I,n al., + a21a2+ 1.0 0
= =

Subtracting IC from l e gives


l a- I , = (az-a)lal + (a-a2)ia2+ 0 = 0
(a2-a)I., = (a2-a)I,z
I., = 1-2

Substituting t,his result into I , gives


+
IB= a21a1 al,, 4 I.u = 0
= a21,1+ +aI,l I,, - I., I,, = 0 +
(a' + +
a 1)1., - 1-1 I,o = 0 +
I,, = I d
Thus:
I., = id = I,,
This fact might have been evident by the geometry of line currents at
the short circuit. The sum of the three component currents in the B and
i n the C phase must be zero. Only if the individual component currents
are equal and 120' apart in both the B and C phases could this be possible.
But this would mean that in the A phase the component currents would
be equal and in phase.
Substituting = I,, and IaO = I., into the V Aequation gives
v, = E. - I,,,Z, - I*,Z%- I.,ZO = 0
Ea = I , I ( Z I + Z , + Zu)
E.
I
- z , + z*+ z,
-

This suggests that the solution can he made in terms of an equivalent


circuit in whirh the generated voltage E. is impressed on the three imped-
anre networks Z,, Z 2 , and Z o in series. It is more accurate to think of
this to he in the form
Ea = I,IZI + I d 2 + 1,oZo
This still suggests the series ronnection of the three networks hut
in Z 2 is lo2,
recognizes that the current in Z , is Ia1, and in Zois Io0. Since
1-1= i 0 2 = Ia0 there is no conflict with Kirchhoff's law at the junction
between the individual sequence networks.
The important result is the equivalent-circuit concept by which the
sequence networks ran he interconnected to yield an answer for the value
of I., = I,, = 1,". The equivalent-circuit concept is helpful even when
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 133

the solution is to be obtained by numerical computation, hut it is of


partirular importance if use is to he made of a d-e or an a-e network
analyzer (calcuiating hoard).
Knowing the value of I.,, the value of current in the fault (I,,) is
10 = I A = 1.1 + 2.1 + I,, = 31.1
whirh is t,hree times the current found directly from t,he equivalent
circuit.
Where t,here is impedance in the short circuit or in the neutral path,
the procedure outliiied above is modified as shown in Fig. 2.13.
z
..

I L-G CONNECTION

:- I THROUGH IMPEDANCE ZF

M 4 G h E TnE SYSTEM S
EXTEhDED THRObGh Q
BALAhCED C.RCJlT OF ZF
PER PhASE LZFI’ZF~=ZFO=ZFI

A SOLID SHORT CIRCUIT TO GRD


NOTE: SINCE I B = I c = O ,THE BEYOND THIS IMPEDANCE
INCLUSION OF ZF IN THESE RESULTS IN ZFCONNECTED
PHASES PRODUCES NO ERROR, LINE-TO-GROUND.
THbT I + : LUSETHESAME PROCEDURE

FIG. 2.1 3 External impedance in the line-to-ground connection.

ZERO
N _---__-__- -1
I
I
SEQUENCE zo ZF I
VVAv “20 .,,* +*., -1
Iao --t

FIG. 2.14 Equivalent circuit for line-to-ground short-circuit analysis.


134 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

Summarizing, the solution becomes (see Figs. 2.14 and 2.8)


Line-to-neutral connection (line A to ground)
(1) zonnected to ground; (2) open; (3) open
For a line-to-ground impedance Z,, make Zx = Z ,
For a line-to-ground short-circuit, make Z , = 0
Referenee phase: A
[Boundary conditions: I , = 0, ZC = 0, V ( , ) = 01
E.
I., = I., = I,o
+ z*+ zo + 32" + 3 2 ,
=
ZI
I d f Id + Id
3E.
I A =
z,+ Z? + zo + 3z,2+ 32,
=

Other Cases. The equivalent circuits by which other common cir-


cuit conditions can be evaluated are worked out in a similar manner as,
for example, a double line-to-ground fault would he solved as follows
using Figs. 2.8 and 2.15:
Double line-to-ground solid fault (line B t o C to ground)
(2) and (3) connected to ground; ( 1 ) open; Zx = 0
Reference phase: A
[Boundary conditions: I , = 0, V(,) = V(,) = 01
ZZO
v,, = v,, = Vao = E, - I,,Z,= I,,
z,+ Z"
~

Rotating-machine Characteristics. Positive-sequence currents are


associated with mmf patt,erns which rotat,e at synchrouous speed in the
normal rotational dirertion. The effective pi)sitive-sr(ioetice reactance
is consequently influenced by time. For the first cyrle of short-circuit
current, the subtransient rcact,ance of synchronous machines and the
standstill reactance of induction machines apply. Within a few cycles
the subt,ransient effects have decreased t o negligible proportions and the
transient reactance of synrhronons marhines is i t i control while the effec-
tive impedance of induction marhines has inrreased to a value close to t,he
normal running impedanre ( i t 1 the order of 100 per cent, 011 its o\vn base).
During t,he next, serond or t,wo, t,wo artions are taking place in the
synchronous machine. Induced field currents are decaying, and t,he
- -
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

FI
I35

POSITIVE
SEOUENCE
'
I

I $+EO

Iai+
&
z vl:
- - -1
I I

I
ZERO
SEOVENCE VOO I
+--A
100-
FIG. 2.1 5 Equivalent circuit for double line-to-ground short-circuit analysis.

effective machirie reactance is approaching the synohrooous reactance.


The effective voltage ahead of synchronous reactance is approaching the
value established by the steady-state field current and may he influenced
by the operat,ion of a n automatic voltage regulator.
Rarely nil1 it be neressary to evaluate short-circuit-current magnitudes
for prolonged time intervals, but it will he well t o recognize that special
treatment will be needed t o obtain correct results in such cases.
Negative- and zero-sequence impedances of rotating machines car1 he
considered as remaining constant regardless of the duration of short-
circuit-current flow.

TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS

The zero-sequence circuit produced by various transformer connections


is often a source of trouble; so a considerable number of typical comhi-
nations are defined in Fig. 2.16.
The positive- and negative-sequence impedauces are equal as are those
of all stationary winding circuits.
There is one tricky aspect associated with Y-delta or delta-Y trans-
formers. There is an inevitahle phase displacement hetween the high-
and low-tension line circuits. Standard convention has agreed that the
terminals designated H , and X I shall be those which are only 30" apart.
Present st,andards also st,ate that when operated with electrical sequence
A B C ou t,erminals HI, H,, H 3 the high-tension system will lead the low-
tension system by 30'.
This displacement is the result of winding geometry and is not of the
136 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

CONNECTION
ZERO SEQUENCE CIRCUIl

-(
ZT
4-- --
x x
F 3 2
131 ( - P H
-
Y

-7:
SPECIAL CASE- 3 - P H CORE TVPE

---(
N

WYE-WYE WITH DELTA T E R T I b R I

131 I-pn
P
N

* CLOSED IF THE CORRESPONDLNG TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL


I S GROUNDED. LT IS THE NORMAL TRANSFORMER Z (SAME
AS POSITIVE SEQUENCE 2 1

FIG. 2.16 Zero-sequence circuits clrrocioted with common three-phase transformer


connections.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 137

nature of an impedanre voltage displacement angle. Thus if the standard


transformer is operated with reversed sequence, i.e., electrical sequence
.,IN' assuriated with terminals H,, H , , HI, the high-tension system will
lag t,he low-tension system by 30".
l3y reason of these fa&, in a Y-delta or delta-Y transformer with
standard ronnertions operating with normal sequence, the positive-
sequenre rurrerit and voltage iii the high-tension circuit will be advanced
30" with respect to that i n the low-tension circuit, while the negative-
sequenre mrrent i n the high-tension -cirruit will be retarded 30", as is
defined in Table 2.2.
Tronsformer Zero-sequence Circuits. The zero-sequence circuit pro-
duced by various transformer couiiectious is ofben a source of trouhle;
so a considerable number of typical combinations are defined in Fig. 2.1G.
By first examining the zero-sequence properties of simple winding
patterns, it ivill then be possible t o identify understandably the sero-
sequetirc circuits of more complicated practical transformer connections.
Delto Winding Connection. Zero-sequence current cannot flow in the
circuit t o a deltt-connected 11-inding (see Fig. 2.17) sinre there is no elee-
trical conuection t o ground by which it could return, even though zero-
sequenre current can flow within the closed delta circuit. Thus the zero-
sequence circuit is always interrupted at a juiirt,ion with a delta-connected
minding.
Y Winding Connections. Zero-sequence current cannot flow in a cir-
ruit ronnerted to a Y-connected winding if the neutral is not grounded

-
(see Fig. 2.18). Thus the zero-sequence circuit will be interrupted at the
jurirtion with a Y-connected winding if the neutral is.uugrounded.
Iao

FIG. 2.17 A circuit connecting with (I delta-connected transformer winding.

FIG. 2.18 A circuit connecting with an ungrounded Y-connected transformer winding.


138 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

TABLE 2.2 Transformer Phase Shift

With standard d-lta-Y or Y-delta transformms, H I (high voltage) will hc 30" shcad
of X I (law voltage) for normal phase sequence. H I will hc 30" behind X , with oppo-
site phase sequence.

PHASE SHIFT I N A-> OR )-ATRANSFORHER

Standard, H , 30" ahead of X I

Many investigators pwfer to exprrss the relationship hetween high- and low-ten-
sion line currents in B slightly different manner so as to simplify the associated phase
shift opcration, for example,

Standard, H I 30" ahead of X I


I:, = -jr o, = +jZO
ZC = -jZo1 1;. = +jI-*
I., = -jib, = +j1bx
H I 30" behind X ,
I:, = i i I b , 1:, = -j1tIs
z;, = +I,, z: = +I<>
I:, = + j ~ * , Z'r2 = -jIa9

NOTE: If currents w e not in per-unit, the transformation ratio must also he fac-
tared in.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS I39
Zero-sequence current, in a circuit connect,ed t o a grounded-neutral
Y-connected winding can flow if zero-sequence rurrent, in t,he secondary
windings can he caused t o flow in the direct,iori iiidicat,ed by the secoridary
arrows, (see~Fig.2.19).

FIG. 2.19 A circuit connecting with 0 grounded Y-connected tronrformer winding.

If the secondary currents in Fig. 2.19 cannot flow, the primary zero-
sequence current is limited t o the magnetizing current of the core (in t,he
order of 5 per cent of rated current for 100 per cent impressed voltage).
This represents a Z O of ahout, 2000 per cent on the transformer rating,
which for practical purposes may he regarded as infinite.
A n exception to this rulc is presented hy the thrce-phase core-type
design whose construction is as indicated in Fig. 2.20. The flow of zero-
sequence current, in the primary windirig produces magnetic flux whii,h
is in phase in the same direction in all three core legs. Since there are no
external core legs between upper and lower core yokes (as would exist in a
shell type of three-phase design),
the zero-sequenre flux must re-
turn largely through the air.
The steel tank walls provide a
fairly low reluctance path forpart
ofthereturn circuit, but thecross-
over to t,he core yoke at both the
topand bottom isdirectly through
air. The magnetizing reactance
represented by this flux path c
FIG. 2.20 The three-phase c k - t y p e tronr-
usually he in the order of 30 to ,-, ..
50 per cent on the t,ransformer
rating, which is low enough to have practical significance.
Zero-sequence current in a circuit connected to a grounded-neutral
Y-connected winding can flow if another set of transformer wiridiiigs is
connected in delta as in Fig. 2.21. The closed delta provides a circuit for
t h e flow of zero-sequence current. The impedance presented to the flow
of current is the interminding impedance Z, (the same as the normal
positive sequence ZT), Kote, however, that the zero-sequence currents
are not repeated in the outgoing line circuit but are short-circuited within
the delta winding.
140 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

111 a Y-Y-connected transformer& b&L neut,rals grounded, as in


Fig. 2.22, zero-sequence current can flow if the 'reflected zero-sequence
current in the other winding finds a closed circuit at some point along the
connected circuit. I n this case the tramformer t,ransfers zero-sequence
current from primary circuit t o a serondary circuit in the same manner
that it transfers positive- or negative-sequence current. The transformer
simply inbroduces a series impedance in t,he zero-sequence circuit which in
magnitude is identiral with the normal positive-sequence impedance Zr.
With this understanding of elemental behavior, the equivalent zero-
sequence circuits for the usual transformer connections can he directly
resolved. Some of the more rommon ones are identified in Fig. 2.16.
When drawing zero-sequence circuits for extensive systems, it is a good
plan t,o designate transformers in the manner shown in Fig. 2.16, showing
an interruption of the zero-sequence circuit by an open gap. By this
method one ran be constantly aware that a break in the cirruit was inten-
tional and not the result of an oversight.
Circuit Resolution Example. I n Fig. 2.23 is illustrated a particular
typical syst,em. The resuking composition of the positive-, negative-,
and zero-sequenre circuits is also portrayed. Suppose that the immediate
problem concerns the evaluation of various performance qualities on the
2.4-kv system radiating from bus L1.
The first step involves a resolution of equivalent impedances by which
the entire hulk system t o the left of hus L4 is expressed as a single equiva-
lent impedanre. This would be accomplished by successively paralleling,
etc., until firially a single equivalent impedance value connecting with
bus L , is obtained which would then look like Fig. 2.24. In many cases

FIG. 2.21 A circuit connecting with a grounded Y-connected transformer winding with a
delta winding on the same core structure.

FIG. 2.22 A circuit connecting with a grounded Y-connected transformer winding with
another grounded Y winding on t h e same core structure.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 141

i t vill he at onre apparent that the impedanre of transformer T swill he


the major rontrolling impedance in the circuit from Ai',. I n this case it
may be entirely reasonable t o consider that rated voltage is sustained on
the high-tension side; or consider the short-circuit rapacity at the high-
tension terminals to be about equal t o the interrupting rating of the

MOT MOT

.S. 2.23 Typical system example.


142 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

switching equipment on the bus M,. Obviously, some such approxi-


mation will be required in practically every problem since the actual line
interconnections will otherwise extend over the entire electrical distribu-
tion system of several states.
It will be of interest t o note that the zero-sequence system is quite
discontinuous, which is typical of practical systems. In the present
illustrative problem the zero-sequence system associated with bus L 4 is
independent of that on bus M2.
For comprehensive studies of extensive system networks, the equiva-
lent sequence circuits shown in Fig. 2.23 might he set up on the d-a or a-c
network analyzer. T o examine an operating characteristic at the point
P I , each individual sequence circuit would be tapped at the point PI.
For each sequence system the correct impedance network is that
obtained from the tap lead P I and it,s own neutral bus N . The intercon-
nections between sequence networks will he governed by the type of
unbalance (see Figs. 2.8, 2.9, 2.11, 2.14, 2.15). Provision is made in the
network analyzer directly to measure current in or voltage across indi-
vidual branches of all three networks.
Measurement of Individual Components. Useful measurement con-
nections by which a particular sequence quantity may be independently
resolved, or a particular sequence quantity excluded, are identified 011
Fig. 2.25.
The circuits for obtaining 10 or Eo alone are frequent,ly used. (In
applying potential transformers for measuring EO on an urigrounded
neut,ral system, line-to-line rated transformers and secondary loading
resistors should he used t o avoid overvoltage hazards.)
The delt,a-connected current transformer circuit (which excludes l o
in the output) is useful in providing internal-short-circuit protection for
grounding transformers.
The circuits for individually segregating the sequence quantities I , and
E', are only rarely used. Possible applications would be (1) making a
single-roil voltage regulator responsive t o positive-sequence voltage of

F I G . 2.24 Simplification of Fig. 2.23 for study of performance on bur 14.


SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS FOR THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS 143

the three-phase system, ( 2 ) providiug a protective relay which will trip


if the sustained negative-sequence voltage exceeds a preassigned value.
It is of interest t o note that the usual open-delta line-to-line connected
potential transformer application excludes goin the secondary.

C U RR E N T IK=CTR.VIOI

ZERO SEQUENCE NEG4TIVE SEQUENCE

VOLTAGE l i = mR A T I O I
ZERO SEO'lENCE POS!TIVE SEQUENCE

JO 8661

-
NOTE - 8"
INTERCWNGING LINES B B C
METER WILL READ Vo2

FIG. 2.25 Measuring circuits for segregating specific components.


Chapter 3 by Donald Beernan and R. H. Kaufrnann

Selection of A-C Short-circuit


Protective Devices and Circuit
Equipment

HOW TO BE SURE OF ADEQUATE


SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTION
To design an industrial power distribution system adequate from a
short-cirruit st,andpoiiit, the maximum short-circuit current at any point
should he less than the short-circuit rating of the equipment applied at
that piiint. When systems are so designed, it is common t o speak of them
as having adequate short-circuit protert,ion. I n other cases, they are
said t o have adequate int,errupting capacity (IC). Horn can one be sure
that, a plant, dist,ribution system is adequate for all short-circuit eondi-
tions? Mere are the steps t,o follow:
1. First accurately determine the available short-circuit currents a t all
sigriificant poir1t.s in t,he system, using the methods outlined in Chaps. 1
atid 2. These rdrulat,ing procedures have been verified by many tests on
actual systems and in short-cirruit testing lahoratories. Nariy former
fallarious ideas w1iir.h led to the installation of inadequate short-circuit
prot,ectire devires arid circuit elemerit,s hare beerr dispellcd. For exam-
ple, the idea that, ouly about 20,000 amp maximum short-circuit rurreiit
could he obtairied at -180 rolt,s has heen dispelled by actual measurements
of short-circuit currents of over 100,000 amp a t this voltage.
L'iitil t,he magnitude of short-cirruit currcnt is known, one cannot be
sure thitt adequate short-rircuit protcrtion is provided.
2 . Iiistall only short-circuit protect,ive devires such as circuit breakers,
s\ritvhes aiid fuses, and r~ombinat,ioumotor starters of known adequate
I44
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 145

interrupting sating. Use circuit elements of known adequate short-


circuit-current rating. Equipment of adequate short-circuit rating can
be obtained t o meet the requirements of all industries when proper con-
sideration is given t o system design from a short-circuit-protectiorr
standpoint.
3. Prepare for load growth. If the system is installed with circuit
breakers that are large enough only for present requirements, the cirruit
breakers will become too small from ail interrupting standpoint when
capacity is added. The system should be designed and the circuit
breakers should be selected on a hasis that will enable expaiisioii without
exceeding the circuit-breaker interrupting ratings. Short-circuit stresses
must be checked too, as the stresses increase as the square of the short-
circuit-magnitudes. Future expansion can be accomplished at prac-
tically no added expense in the initial installation by employing a modern
poiver-distribution-system layout (see Chaps. 11 t o 15).
Main and auxiliary switchboards in hundreds of plants in operation
today were installed years ago when the plants were small. The power
demand was limited then, and only small transformers were required t o
supply the plant. At t h a t time the switchboards may possibly have been
adeqnat,e. However, as the plants grew, more power was needed. Xew
feeders were added t o carry the new load, arid new transformers were
added t o the bus t o supply the added load. 111 many cases no thought
was given t o t,he circuit, breakers because t,hey carried their load currents
satisfactorily. Hovever, when new transformers were added, the capac-
it,y of the power supply inrreased. Consequently, the available short-
circuit current also iiirreased. This higher short-circuit current imposed
added interrupting duty on the old circuit breakers when they were
required t o clear a faulty feeder cable. Often this added short-circuit
current was sufficient t o bring the total short-circuit current beyond the
rating of those existing circuit breakers. However, through oversight
nothing was done about it, leaving the plant vulnerable t o a major shut-
down if a fault occurred which one of these old circuit breakers failed t o
clear.
Failure t,o consider the effect of increased short-circuit currents has
heeti one of the most common causes of many of the older installations
being unsafe.
4. Do not he complacent, Many systems which have been operating
for years have never had a major short circuit. Operators of these sys-
tems have come to believe t,hat short circuits never occur; so they do not
bother about interrupting rating of rircuit breakers. This belief com-
pares with the assumption that fire insurance is not necessary because the
factory has never burned down. The older the system grows, the weaker
the insulat,ion becomes and the greater the possibility of major short cir-
146 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

cuits. The circuit breakers too are often inadequate in these old syst,ems.
Thus, when a short circuit does occur it is almost cert,ain to cause a major
shutdown with possible damage t o other propert,y as well as loss of
production.
5. Use an engineering approach. If the short-circuit,-protection proh-
lem is approached on an engineering basis instead of depending on good
luck, the plant investment can be more adequately protected and undue
risks eliminated. Good luck over a period of years may give a false
assurance that failures are never going t,o occur, but, good luck eventually
runs out as it has in so many cases. The cost of a loss due t o a failure
then is far more than it would have been to modernize the switchgear oil
a planned step-by-step basis.
In the engineering approach a study is made to determine t,he weak
spots in t,he electric system and remedy them hefore a major shutdown
occurs, with attendant financial and production loss. The engineering
approach is of a prevent,ive nature, i.e., finding the weak spots and correct-
ing them before a failure does occur.
No one would t,hink of running a boiler indefinitely just hecause “ i t
had never failed.” Preventive maint,enance involves continually repair-
ing and replacing weak parts hefore they fail. The results of the failure
of an inadequate circuit breaker can he as serious as a boiler failure; so the
same intelligent engineering approach should be used in providing safe,
adeyuat,e circuit breakers as is used with other machinery even thongh
one has heen lucky enough over a period of years t o avoid the failure of an
inadequate circuit breaker. Luck might change for the worse tomorrow;
so it may pay real dividends not t o be complacent ahout short-circuit
conditions.
To have a safe power system with low maintenance cost and high
service continuity, adequate circuit prot,ertive equipment is necessary
throughout the ent,ire system from the place where the power system
enters the plant down t o t,he smallest motor or light.
An Example of W h a t Can Happen When Available Short-circuit Cur-
rents Exceed the Interrupting Rating of Short-circuit Protective Devices.
An inadequate circuit breaker mas mounted in a svit,ch riiiim which was
part of the distribution system. A short circuit occurred in the outgoing
rable. The short-circuit duty was well above the interrupt,ing rating of
the circuit breaker i n the switch house. As a result, the circuit breaker
attempted to open the circuit hut did not havetheability todoso. There-
fore, the circuit breaker failed, blew up, and when it did two things hap-
pened. First, the circuit breaker at the source had t o clear the fault in
t,he failed circuit hreaker and thus drop all the load instead of just the one
load on the fauky hranch. This meant unnecessary loss of prodwt‘ * ion.
Second, a fire resulted and completely destroyed the switch house.
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 147

FIG. 3.1 Rerull of foilure of inodequote oil circuit breaker on heovy short circuit.

Fortunately the switrh house was isolated from nl.her I~uildit~gs, and orily
the switrh house burned dn\vn. llad this fsilurc ocwrrcd i n a fiict,ory
tiuilding, the damage could have been much more cxLensive.
r.
Ihe picture, Fig. 3.1, tells the st,nry of what happened hotter thaii ii
book of mords could.
The irony of this fiiilurc was that, the plant, erigineer had ri~cogriizetlt h e
inadequacy of the circuit hrcakers in this swit,ch house aiid was replacing
t,hem with adequat,e ones. The ot,her circuit breakers in this switi.h
house had already hcen rcplaced mit,li adequat,e unes, and t.liey \wre
destroyed too.
One can never tell how long hia luck will last wii.h inat1t.quat.e circuit
breakers or fuses. It, may rim out sooner tliaii one thinks.

SELECTION OF THE TYPE OF


SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICE
r l
1 here are marly features t o he cnnsitlered in t,he sr?lcvtioii of short-
circuit protective devices t,n provide adequate short-circuit prntertinn for
an industrial power syst,em. One of the most import,ant,is that t h e short-
eircuit protective device be adequate for the service. The adrqiuicy of
circuit breakers, fuses, or motor st.art,ers can be determined from t h e pro-
cedures outlined in Chaps. I and 2. Ariother important function of mnst
short-circuit, prot ive devices is that t,hey also provide a means of
switehi!ig circuits nder normal operat,irig conditions. T o m(
requirements fully and eomplctcly for both circuit switching and short-
148 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

circuit protection, a protective and switching device should fulfill the


following basic specifications:
1. It should be capable of being safely closed in on any load current or
short-circuit current within the momentary rating of the device.
2. It should safely open any current that may flow through i t up t o the
interrupting rating of the device.
3. It should automatically interrupt the flow of abnormal currents u p
t o the interrupting rating of the device.
There are two fundamental devices that are commonly used for or have
as one of their functions short-circuit protection. These are:
1. Circuit breakers
2. Fuses
Some motor starters are used for short-circuit protection, hut in general
these have either circuit hreakers or fuses as the short-circuit protective
element.
A basic comparison of fuses and circuit breakers will be made and their
area of application outlined. More detailed comparisons are made on
the basis of syst,ems voltage classes, i.e., (1) 600 volts and below and (2)
above 600 volts.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS-GENERAL

M e e t s All Requirements. A modern circuit breaker meets all the basic


requirements listed above. It is designed and rated to be capable of
heirig safely closed in on any current within its momentary rating (some
oil circuit breakers do not fully meet this requirement). It can safely
open any current within its interrupting rating. When proper relays or
tripping devices are applied, i t is capable of automatically opening any
current which is above the pick-up setting of the tripping device and
below its interrupting rating. It combines in one unit a device for safely
switching the circuit under normal as well as abnormal load conditions
and t o automatically open abnormal rurrents up t o its interrupting rating.
Eliminates Single Phasing. Circuit breakers, in all except a few special
cases where single-phase switching is used in transmission-line circuits,
open all ungrounded conductors of a circuit. Therefore, the probability
of single phasing of three-phase circuits is eliminated from a practical
standpoint in so far as the circuit protective equipment is concerned.
Adjustable Tripping Time and Pickup. The total time t o operate
under various overcurrent conditions is adjustable for practically all cir-
cuit breakers. The adjustment is either in the built-in tripping devices or
in the relays associated with the circuit breakers. The adjustability of
time of operation makes the circuit breaker ideally suited t o selective
operation as is required for circuit protective service in a system.
Electrical Operation. Circuit breakers in general are suitable for elec-
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT I49
trical operation, which means they can be used for automatic control,
remote operation, etc. Furthermore, auxiliary circuits are available on
practically all electrically operated circuit breakers for the control of
external auxiliary or process circuits.
Wide Selection of Time-current Characteristics. Various types of
relays with special characteristics to meet particular service requirements
can be used with circuit breakers to broaden their scope of application.
For example, time-delay overcurrent relays which match motor-heating
curves can be used to enable the circuit breaker to be used for motor start-
ing and running and short-circuit protection. Or the relays may he
specially designed to protect transformers or any ot,her piece of equipment
or circuit. This makes the circuit breaker and its associated relays
almost universally applicable as a short-circuit protective and switching
device .
Repeated Operations. Circuit breakers can repeatedly open abnor-
mal currents without destroying t,he interrupting element, Of course,
inspection and some maintenance may be required after each duty cycle
at or near their interrupting rating. When the circuit, openings are
repeated a few cycles or seconds apart, derating factors must be applied.
But fundamentally the circuit breaker does permit repeated operations
without destroying itself or affecting the accuracy of operatirlg time.
Same Degree of Protection after Operation. Since when a circuit
breaker operates it does not destroy itself, there is little likelihood of
affecting calibration of time and pickup settings; hence the same protec-
tion is afforded all the time.
Minimum Temperature Effect. Most circuit-breaker time overcurrent
tripping devices and relays are not appreciably affected by temperature.
Hence, greater accuracy as a function of ambient t,emperature can be
maintained than by devices that depend upon t,hermal conditions to
activate them.
Moderate Operating Speed. Circuit breakers in general are not so
fast in operation a t high overcurrents as are most fuses.
Wide Choice of Current Ratings. Circuit breakers are available up to
4000 amp cont,inuous current rating at GOO volts and less and up to 1200
to 5000 amp a t higher voltages. Trip-coil ratings run from 15 amp up.
Interrupting levels are available from 5000 to 100,000 amp a t GOO volts or
less and from 15 mva to 25,000 mva at higher voltages.
Rigid Industry Standards. Circuit breakers are made under rigid
industry standards which prescribe complete interrupting ratings for
them and methods of test for establishing interrupting ratings. These
permit the application engineer to apply them on a sound safe basis and
within their rating. Proper derating factors must be applied for repeti-
tive-duty cycles and high-altitude applications. *
* Refer to applicable NEMA standards.
150 A-C SHORT.CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND ClRClllT EQUIPMENT

FUSES-GENERAL

Fuses are often considered for circuit protection because of their low
first cost. Before selecting fuses in place of circuit breakers, there are
certain general characteristics and limitations which must be recognized
and considered as well as cost.
While fuses have their proper applications, one must look rarefully a t
the fuse picture in general and then more closely a t specific fuses to see
how many of the hasic requirements are met.
Generally Do Not M e e t All Requiremsnts. One of the first and fore-
most considerations is that fuses in themselves do not meet the basic
requirements for a complete short-circuit protective device. Fuses alone
(except t,he oil-fuse cutouts) do not incorporate any switching means to
permit closing in on high currents or to switch load currents. T o meet
the basic requirements it is necessary that a fuse other than a n oil-fuse
cutout be used in conjunct,ion with a properly rated interrupter or safety
switch. In this combination the fuse provides the ability to open ahnor-
ma1 currents automatically. The switch should provide the ability to
open load currents and moderate overcurrents which are below the blow-
ing point of the fuse and should provide the ability t,o safely close in on
short-circuit currents up to the interrupt,ing rating of the fuse. When
the switch is in the closed position, it should be able to carry safely what-
ever current the fuse will pass.
The operation of fuses in combination with interrupter switches at
moderate overcurrents imposes problems not easily overcome. The
fundamentals of the problem can be seen by referring to Fig. 3.2. To
illustrat,e one phase of the problem, let us assume that it takes $6 see only
to close and open a switch manually. Should there be a moderate over-
load when the switch is opened and closed rapidly, as there may well be
because of connected motors, etc., the switch would have to open perhaps
several times its rating because the operation took place so quickly that
the fuse did not have time to melt. This area is represented by the
crosshatched section of Fig. 3.2. For example, an interrupter switch
might he rated to make 20,000 amp, carry 20,000 amp momentarily, and
to open 100 amp. This switch, when used with a 100-amp E-rated fuse*
or even a much smaller rated fuse, may not be adequate on moderate
values of current,. At 1000 amp, for example, the blowing time of the
fuse may be 3 see. An operator may close the switch and open it within
36 see. The fuse would not have had time to melt, and the switch vould
be required to open 1000 amp, or ten times its rating. Whenever
the circuit interruption takes place in two separate devices which are
* E-rated fuses will carry their rated eurrmt eontinuouslv and blow in 5 to 10 min
at 200 to 264 per cent of rated current.
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 151

interdependent on each other for complete functioning over a wide range


of currents, there is always this problem of operation on moderate over-
loads which is much more difficult t o overcome than operation a t very
high short circuits where the time for the fuse to clear is very short.
As a precautionary measure for increased safety, the switch element of
fused switches should be closed with a fast positive action and not opened
immediately. This will give the fuse a chance to melt on moderate over-
currents before the switch is again opened.

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF FUSES

Possible Single Phasing. Fuses are single-phase devices; therefore,


one fuse may blow, leaving a multiphase circuit supplied with only single-
phase power. It may not completely isolate a faulty circuit.
Nonadjustable Tripping Time or Pickup. When fuses are used, their
pickup setting and time-current setting are changed by changing the size
or type of fuse.

AMPERES
FIG. 3.2 Interrupter-switch rating and fuse time-current characteristics showing per-
formonce on moderate overcurrent..
152 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

Limited Choice of Characteristics. Because fuses are thermal devices,


the choice of shape of time-current characteristics is very limited for
coordination purposes.
Nonrepetitive Operation. Fuses, once they have operated, must be
replaced. Certain types of fuses have removable links which permit
salvaging part of the fuse after it has blown. Replacement cost of fuses
varies widely, depending on type and size of fuse.
Protection M a y Be Reduced or Lost after Operation. Because the
interrupter destroys itself, care must be taken to replace a blown fuse
with one of the same rating and characteristics. Otherwise, protection
may he lost. There is always the danger that if no fuses are available
short bars or wires may be inserted to keep power on. When this is done,
all protection may be lost.
Affected by Ambient Temperature. Fuses are thermal devices; there-
fore, their operation is subject t o variation due t o ambient temperature
changes. This effect in fuses is much greater than in relays or cir-
cuit-breaker tripping elements. It is less important in high-voltage
circuits.
Fast Operating Speed. Fuses are generally divided into two classes:
(1) non-current-limiting and (2) current-limiting. The current-limiting
fuses possess two important advantages, particularly for branch-circuit
protection: ( 1 ) Berause of extremely fast operation, they limit the damage
due to the flow of short-circuit current. (2) They actually limit the short-
circuit-current magnitude to far less than the available short-circuit cur-
rent, thereby allowing the use of smaller conductors and equipment in
branch circuits.
This current-limiting ability is one of the most useful characteristics of
the fuses in branch-circuit protection.
Non-current-limiting fuses also operate faster than circuit breakers at
currents near their interrupting rating.
The fast operat,ion of most types of fuses, however, makes it difficult
and often impossible to coordinate them with other short-circuit protec-
tive devices located beyond the fuse in the circuit. Therefore, fuses in
general are best suited for branch-circuit protection where they need not
operate selectively with other protective devices between the fuse and the
load.
Choice of Current Ratings. Fuses are now available for low voltages
(600 volts and less) up to 4000 amp. For circuits above 600 volts, the
upper limit of fuse ratings is in t,he range of 100 to 400 amp.
Fuses are generally limited in size hecause of thermal considerations.
Large fuses may produce so much heat that ventilation and mounting
become severe problems. Also, as current-limiting fuses become larger
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DNICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT I53

and larger, they lose more and more of their current-limiting ability.
Sinre the current-limiting ability of fuses is most useful in branch-circuit
protection, the handirap of having to use small ratings to get effective
rurreut-limiting artion is not so pronounred, as most branch circuits are
of small rurrent rating anyway.
Industry Standards. Fuses above 600 volts are made according to
indnstry st,andardsesrept, that standardized levels of interrupting ratings
are not set up. Low-voltage fuses have no a-c interrupting standards,
although surh st,andards may be available in the future. See further
disrussion nuder voltage classification.
Mechanical Simplicity a t Low Current Ratings. Fuses and their asso-
ciated switches for low-current circuits, i.e., about 200 amp or less, are
simpler mechanically than circuit breakers. For higher current circuits
t,he switrh, if built, t o have the necessary momentary and interrupting
abilit,y, loses its advantage of mechanical simplicity.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS VS. FUSES-GENERAL

I11 selecting circuit breakers YS. fuses, the techniral ronsideratious cer-
tainly favor the rirruit breakers in most rases. Because of this, circuit
breakers are generally considered the only acceptable protective devices
by most engineers for all'lorations in industrial plants where switching
and short-rirruit protectioii is required except for some hranch circuits
and control circuits and motor starters. Fuses and switches are pre-
ferred for some hranch rircuits because of the fast operation of the fuse.
Besides the technical roiisiderations, economirs is a factor. While cost
is very important, it is secondary to the technical considerations noted
above and secondary to select,ing the devire that has an adequate inter-
rupting rating for t,he servire. Berause there may he in some cases a
wide difference in rost between circuit hreakers and fuses, there is a tend-
ency to get so involved in economic issues in the selection of circuit
breakers vs. fuses that technical ronsiderations are lost sight of. AS a
result many hazardous syst,ems are installed to save a few dollars in first
cost, a saving that may soon be lost because of the poor performance and
higher maintenanre of inadequate equipment, particularly in low-voltage
circuits. It is for that reason and because the technical cansiderations
vary somewhat with voltage that the technical considerations are reviewed
in further detail as a function of voltage class.
There are other factors in the selection of fuses for overcurrent protec-
tion. These factors involve mainly coordination with relay time-current
characteristics or the time-current characteristics of built-in devices on
circuit breakers (see Chap. 9).
I54 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES A N D CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT


FOR SYSTEMS 600 VOLTS AND LESS
For low-voltage systems rated 600 volts or less, there are three com-
monly used types of short-circuit protective devices for protecting main
power circuits, secondary feeders, and branch circuits. These devices are
1. Large air circuit breakers (sometimes referred to as magnetic circuit
breakers) of which the one shown in Fig. 3.3 is typical.
2. Molded-case circuit breakers of which those shown in Fig. 3.9 are
typical.
3. Fused safety switches of which the one shown in Fig. 3.11 is an
example of a high-quality safety switch and fuse.
There are panel boards which are used for protection of small branch
circuits. These are used mainly in lighting and in small power systems
and employ either small molded-case-type circuit breakers or fuses as
their overcurrent protective means.

LARGE AIR CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Description. The large air circuit breaker, Fig. 3.3, consists of a n


operating mechanism, contacts, an arc interrupter, and usually a built-in
overrurrent tripping device. These circuit breakers are characterized by
their sturdy construction, ample electrical clearances, availability in high-
current-carrying and interrupting and momentary ratings. The tripping
devices are adjustable as to their pickup setting and operating time, and
various shapes of time-current characteristics are available. The ratings
available are listed in Table 3.1.
TABLE 3.1 Ratings of Low-voltage Large Air Circuit Breakers for A-C Service

1nterrvpting roting., rm, amp a.ymmetric.al Range l r i p - d ratings,' omp


_____ ~

240 volts 240 voitl


241-480 volts 600 volts and below 241-480 volts 600 volts
and below
__. ~ ~ _____

30,000 25,000 15,000 30-225 25-225 15-225


50,000 35,000 25,000 150-600 100-600 35-600
75,000 60,000 50,000 60+1,600 400-1.600 200-1,600
l00,000 75,000 75,000 2,000-3,000 2,000-3,000 2,000-3.000
150,000 100,000 I00,000 4,000 4,000 4,000

* Standai rating8 are 15, 20, 25,35, 50,70,90, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250,275,
.> - - ., .__.)-__., ....

Application. These circuit breakers are intended primarily for appli-


cation in main switchboards where pou'er may be generated a t low voltage
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES A N D CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 155

FIG. 3.3 Large air circuil


breakers mounted in drawout
metal-enclosed low-voltoge
rwifchgear.

or where it may he received from the utility at low voltage and for the
secondary svitchgear of load-center unit substations or in main subdis-
tribution centers, Fig. 3.4. They are also applicable for individual
branch-circuit prokction where t,he highest qualit,y device is required and
where special time-current characteristics are necessary for coordination.
They are particularly applicable for braneh-circuit protection for larger
loads over 200 amp or for smaller loads where, as stated above, highest
quality protection is desired or electrical operation is required. These
circuit breakers have longer life built into them than do other types of
low-voltage circuit breakers and are, therefore, suitable for many more
operations, particularly where there is moderately repetitive duty imposed.
Selective Tripping vs. Cascading. Large air circuit breakers may
be used either in selective tripping systems or in cascade systems. Selec-
tive tripping systems, Fig. 3.5, are those in which the circuit breakers are
set to trip selectively so that the one nearest the fault operates first so
that only the faulty portion of the circuit is deenergized. I n this case all
circuit breakers should have adequate interrupting ratings, that is, their
rating should be equal to or greater than the short-circuit duty a t the
156 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND ClRCUlT EQUIPMENT

point of application. There are additional problems of selecting the


time-current settings which are discussed more fully in Chap. 9.
I n cascaded operation, Figs. 3.6 and 3.7, circuit breakers may he used
under certain circumstances beyond their interrupting rating. This
applies where the main circuit breaker (commonly referred to in applica-
tion tables as the A' circuit breaker) has adequate interrupting rating,
that is, its rating is equal to or greater than the short-circuit duty imposed
a t the point of application. The feeder circuit breakers (commonly
referred to in application tables as the B circuit breaker) in this case,
Fig. 3.6, may be used to twice their interrupting rating provided that the
following conditions are met. The total kva of connected synchronous
motors should not exceed 25 per cent of the supply transformer or
I
A /
GENERATOR
A
nlnUNIT
LOAD CENTER
SUBSTATION
- A
3
Y
MAIN SECONDARY
BREAKER

ELECTRICALLY
OPERATED
SU0 - DISTRI0UTlON
CENTER

FURNACE LOAD MOTOR WELDER


200 HP
FIG. 3.4 One-line diogrom showing typical applications of large air circuit breakers.
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECnVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT I57

generator rating. In addition t o the main circuit breakers having ade-


quate interrupting ratings, their instantaneous tripping attachment must
be set t o operate when the current through the backed-up or B circuit
breakers is not more than 80 per cent of the interrupting rating of the
backed-up or B circuit breakers. This ensures that the main circuit
breakers will operate whenever the short-circuit duty exceeds the inter-
rupting rating of the B circuit breakers.

-
& 1500 KVA LOAD CENTER
A
UNIT SUESTDTION

MDIN CIRCUIT BREAKER


RATE0 DT LEAST 50.000
DMP INTERRUPTING

FEEDER CIRCUIT EREDKERS


RDTED 50,000AMP INTERRUPTING

SHORT CIRCUIT DUTY DT THIS POINT


50.000 DMP RMS ASYMMETRICDL
WOOD DMP FROM THE TRANSFORMER
DND 9000 DMP FROM THE MOTORS

ERANCH FEEDER
CIRCUIT BREDK-

+FEEDER CABLE
/
SHORT CIRCUIT DUTY
DT THIS POINT 32.000 ~UE-BU~
DMP RMS DSYMMETRICDL 7
A

*
/I' ERDNCH FEEDER CIRCUIT
)BREDKERS RATED 25000
DMP INTERRUPTING
V
SHORT CIRCUIT DUTY
DT THIS POINT 22000
DMP RMS DSYMMETRICDL

NOTE: SHORT CIRCUIT LEVELS


DT SUB E u s s E s n am
REDUCED DUE FEEDER
CAELE IMPEDDNCE
FIG. 3.5 One-line diagram showing large air circuit breakers applied in selective
tripping system. Time settings of overcurrent trip elements must be properly set to ob-
tain selectivity.
158 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

-
I

&I500
i KVA LOAD CENTER
UNIT SUBSTATION

MAGNETIC TYPE

I I '
MOTOR
I SHORT CIRCUIT DUTY
AT THIS POINT 50.000AMP
CONTRIBUTION RMS ASYMMETRICAL
9000AMP

NOTE: INSTANTANEOUS TRIP ELEMENT ON MPIN


BREAKER A MUST BE SET TO TRIP AT
16400 AMP THIS IS 0.8 OF 2 0 5 0 0 AMP
20500 AMP IS THE CURRENT FLOWING
FROM THE MAIN TRANSFORMER THRU
BREAKER A WHEN CURRENT FLOWING
THRU FEEDER BREAKER 0 I S 25.000 AMP
THE R A y i N G O F B R E A K E d B

FIG. 3.6 One-line diagram showing large oir circuit breakers applied in cascade with
only one source of low-voltage power.

Motor contribution must be considered. The duty including motor


contribution should not exceed twice the interrupting rating of the
backed-up circuit breaker. However, the motor contribution may not
come through the main circuit breaker. Therefore, the main A' circuit-
breaker instantaneous trip setting may be less than 80 per cent of the
backed-up circuit-breaker interrupting rating because the main A' circuit
breaker must trip instantaneously when the total rms asymmetrical short-
circuit current through the backed-up circuit breaker is 80 per cent or
more of the interrupting rating of the backed-up B circuit breaker. For
example, in Fig. 3.6 if the backed-up or B circuit breakers are rated
25,000 amp interrupting rating, the short-circuit duty a t the point of
application of the B circuit breaker should not exceed 50,000 amp rms
asymmetrical. This may he made up of 41,000 amp from the main
source and 9000 amp from the motors. The main-source circuit breaker
must trip instantaneously a t 0.8 X 20,500 or 16,400 amp rms asym-
metrical. It makes no difference whether the circuit breaker is applied
a t the bus or a t some point remote from the bus. When the backed-up
circuit breakers are applied a t points remote from the bus, such as circuit
breakers B' in Fig. 3.7, the interrupting duty a t the circuit breaker ahead,
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 159

B in Fig. 3.7, may be in excess of twice the interrupting rating of the


backed-up B' circuit breaker, but because of cable impedance the short-
circuit current a t the point of application of the backed-up circuit breaker
B' must be limited to twice its interrupting rating. Circuit breakers
operating a t beyond their interrupting rating in cascade mustbe inspected
after each operation and may require more than normal maintenance
after interrupting currents beyond their rating even though the main
circuit breaker does open.
Another qnalification is that the circuit breakers must be of the same
manufacture and of similar characteristics. Feeder circuit breakersshould
be electrically operated because the forces incident to closing against
short circuits in excess of the circuit-breaker rating may preclude success-
ful manual closing. Circuit breakers of two widely different interrupting

I
f
&I000 KVA LObD CENTER
-UNIT SUBSTATION

I I I -knunar

I
NOTE! INSTbNTANEWS snom CIRCUIT DUTY
T R I P E L E M E N T ON HERE 26000 AMP RMS
FEEDER B R E I K E R B ISYMUETRICbL
MUST BE SET bT
12000 bMP(OQ X I 5 0 0 0 1

FIG. 3.7 One-line diagram showing large air circuit breakers in cascade applied
remote from the main source of power.
160 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTEtTlVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

ratings cannot be cascaded. As a guide to this, refer to Table 3.2 which


shows the maximum interrupting rating circuit breaker which can he
used to back up any given interrupting rating feeder circuit breaker.
The ratio of the columns may be more than 2 : 1. The higher interrupt-
ing duty in the main circuit breaker often comes about because of having
t o select it for continuous current-carrying rating rather than inter-
rupting rating. Regardless of the interrupting rating of the main cir-
cuit breaker, the duty cannot exceed twice the interrupting rating of the
cascaded B feeder circuit breaker.
TABLE 3.2 Range of Large Air Circuit Breakers Which Can Be Cascaded with
Each Other
Main Circuit Breaker A' Minimum Interrupting Rating of
Interrupting Rating, Coscaded Feeder Circuit Breaker B,
Amp Rmr Amp Rmr
25,000 15.000
30,000 15,000
50.000 15.000
60,000 25,000
75,000 25,000
100,000 50.000
120,000 75,000
150.000 100.000

Where there are two or more sources of current to a bus with cascaded
feeder rircuit breakers, the following rule applies, Fig. 3.8. All main A'
circuit breakers (i.e., A : , A : , A : ) must be tripped instantaneously when
the total short-circuit current through the hacked-up B circuit breaker
exceeds 80 per cent of its interrupting ratings.
The example in Fig. 3.8 shows what the various instantaneous over-
current trip settings of the main circuit breakers should be for a given
case. The rule is that the instantaneous setting must be proportioned t o
the short-circuit current delivered through the main circuit breaker in
question. The interrupting rating of the B circuit breakers is 50,000
amp. When the total current reaches 40,000 amp, the current delivered
by these various sources is 6000 amp, 8000 amp, and 18,800 amp. The
motor contribution is 7200 amp. All currents are rms asymmetrical.
Cascaded operation is a means of lowering the cost of short-circuit pro-
tection in secondary systems. In the cascaded system, smaller feeder
circuit breakers are used than in the selective system; therefore this
differential favors the cascaded system from an economic standpoint.
I t must be recognized, however, that the service reliability of a cascaded
system is poorer than that of a selective system because in a cascaded
system, whenever a feeder short circuit draws a current in excess of 80
per cent of the interrupting rating of the feeder circuit breaker, the main
circuit breaker is tripped out and service on all feeders served by that
main circuit breaker or breakers is lost until the service is restored by
reclosing the main circuit breaker. This application has proved satis-
factory from a service-reliability standpoint for many industrial processes.
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE OEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 161

However, mhere critica1 processes are iiivolved, selective tripping is gen-


erally considered essential.
Selection of Large Air Circuit Breakers. As a guide t o selertion of
Iarge air circuit breakers for selective or cascade service, three-phase and
single-phase, see Tablc 3.3.

d:3J)
7 4 7 , 0AMP
0 0

TOTAL SHORT CIRCUIT


CURRENTAT THIS POINT
18,000AMP 100,000 AMP R M S
ASYMMETRICAL

WHEN TOTAL CURRENT THRU BREAKER B IS 0.8


OF ITS RATING I.E. 40,000 AMP BREAKERS n'i,
"'2 8 d j MUST TRIP. THE CURRENT FLOWING
IN THIS CASE AND THE INSTANTANEOUS TRIP
ELEMENT SETTINGSX ON BREAKERS ~ ) . n ; . eA; A R E : -

rMOTOR
CONTR IBUTION
7200 AMP
THIS FAULT DRAWS
40.000 AMP R M S
ASYMMETRICAL
FIG. 3.8 One-line diogram showing lorge air circuil breakers in cascade wilh more
ihan m e source of power to ihe main low-volloge bur.
-
bJ
m
TABLE 3.3 Air-circuit-breaker Application Tables-Cascade System and Selective System
600 Volts ond Less
Ratings required for equipment for Ironsformer and feeder circ~itl,with selection of circuit breaker 8 on basis of cascade sydsm and selective trip system. Other
fadois than short-circuit duty ore important in the selection of circuit breakers for selective trionine. Refer to monvfocturer for other lirnitotions.

208Y/120 Volts. Three Phoie I 240 Volts, Three Phase 3rn


__ 2
Tmnsformer
Short-circuit current, Short-circuit current, 5
rating, Recommended interrupting rating Recommended interrupting rating
rrni amp rmr amp
three-phore Norm. of o i r c i r w i t breaker Norm0 of air circuit breaker
(overage three-phase (average three-phase (see flgures above)
z5
load (see flgurer above) load
.Zmpe.& ompore.) A
Con-
ti""O"l
, >
:".,O"t Trans- 100% B 6
Imped. relec-
Kvo once, amp A" A' ca+
ti*= c?
per CeP alone load
! I
,
I
code
trip
;
c
I
____________ __
112.5 4 313 8.400 1,350' 9,750 50,000
150 1 4 417 11,200 1.800
13.550 50,000
225 5 625 13,400 2,700 16,100 50,000
300 5 834 17.900 3.600 21 500 7 5 0 0 0
500 1,388
750 ~ 5% 2,080
2,780
4,170 95,900 150000 I00000 50000 100.000
1 ' 1 'I,
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT I63
I64 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

Standards. The XEMA Standards that, apply to all large air circuit
breakers are KO. SG3-1951.

MOLDED-CASE CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Malded-case circuit breakers, Fig. 3.9, are smaller in dimension, less


sturdily constructed, and do not have t,he electrical &ararrces t h a t large
air circuit breakers have. They are distinguished from large air cir-
cuit hrcakcrs primarily because of the fact that t,hey are mounted in a
molded plastic case. These circuit, breakers have built-in trip element,s,
and in some cases they are adjustable. Also marly functions cannot, be
huilt into these smaller molded-case circuit-breaker tripping elements that
can be huilt into the large air circuit-breaker tripping e1ement.s. It, is
not easy t o make t,hem electrically operated or t o provide large numbers
of auxiliary swit,ches.
Ratings Available. Ratings are available as given in Table 3.4.

FIG. 3.9 Molded-care air circvit breakers mounted in a panel board.


A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 165

I
&75D

A
1:
KVA MAX
CIRCUIT
CASE
MOLDED {1h
1 )

LOAD CENTER BREAKERS I 1 I I


SUBSTATION
WITH
MAGNETIC
CIRCUIT
BREAKERS

)
+MOLDED CASE

BREAKERS
I N PLUG-IN
DEVICE
INDIVIDUAL
MOLDED CASE
BREAKERS

DISTRIBUTION CENTER
MOLDED CASE
BREAKERS
FIG. 3.10 One-line diagram showing where molded-core air circuit breakers can be ap-
plied in a low-voltage power distribution system.

Application. Because of their small size and lower cost, the molded-
case circuit breakers find application for branch-circuit, protection where
the interrupting duty is within their interrupting rating, Fig. 3.10. They
also find applicabion on the secondaries of some small light-duty Ioad-
center unit substations.
Not Suitable for Cascade Operation. These circuit breakers are not
suitable for cascade operation wit,h large air circuit breakers berause they
operate so fast that the large air circuit breakers are not able to protect
them (see iVEhlA Standards for Large Air Circuit Breakers, Section
SG3-3.43). Xeither are they suitable for cascading vith ot.her molded-
case circuit breakers. This conclusion mas reached after exhaustive tests.
166 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

Selection of Interrupting Ratings. As a guide, the portion of Table 3.3


referring t o circuit hreakers for selective operation may be used mhere the
continuous current is less than 600 amp and iiiterrupting duty is within
the available ratings of molded-case circuit breakers.
Table 3.4 gives the interrupting ratings as defined by applicable
NEMA standards.
TABLE 3.4 Interrupting Rotings of Molded-cose Circuit Breakers for
A-C Service

Interrupling iatingi, r m i amp orymmetrical


Range of trip-coil
240 ~ o l t s
and below i 241-480 volts

I
600 ~ 0 1 1 s
rrrtingr amp

~-

7,500 15-100
20,000 15,000 15.000 15-100
25,000 20,000 15.000 125-225
30,000 25,000 25,000 125-225
50,000 35,000 25.000 125-600

)O, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250,

Standards. At preseiit there are no applicable NEMA standards for


molded-case air circuit breakers.

FUSED SWITCHES

Fused switches, Fig. 3.11, consist of an interrupter switch and a fuse


mouuted on a common base and usualiy in a metal enclosure. There are
many types and varieties available.
There are severa1 types of fuses available. The most common variety
is the standard N E C (Kational Electrical Code) cartridge fuses. These
fuses practically a11 corisist,of a fusible link enclosed in a cylindrical cart-
ridge with connectors a t each end t o slip into the fuse clips of the switch.
Xew and improved designs of fuses and switches for low-voltage service
have been developed recently. The fuses are mainly of the current-
limiting high interrupting capacity silver-sand type, typical of which is
the General Electric type EJ-6 fuse shomn in the smitch in Fig. 3.11.
Typical of the improved switches is t,he type HCI switc,h as manufac-
tured by the Trumhull Components Department of the General Electric
Company. To be specific in the follomiiig discussion of the improved
types of fuses and switches, the type HCI smitch and EJ-6fuseivill beused.
Ratings Availoble. There is a wide variety of lon-voltage fuses and
switches available. These ratings run from as low as a few amperes up t o
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 167

FIG. 3.1 1 High-copocity interrupting (HCI) enclosed switch with high interrupting-rating
current-limiting silver-rand fuses (EJ-6).

several hiindred amperes. Cnfortunately most, of them do not have


short-cirruit rat,ings assigned. Again, t,o be specifio, t,lie type IICI
switch and E.J-6 fuse will be used t,o illusirate a-c short-circuit abilities
which have hem established hy test,. The preserit availahle data are
listed in Table 3.5.

TABLE 3.5 I n t e r r u p t i n g Ability of Type HCI Switches and EJ-6


C u r r e n t - l i m i t i n g Fuses (1954)

Type HCI switch


II Type EJ-6 fuses lnterrvpling ability of
I combination HCI rwilch

Volts
! -I,
Amperes Volts 1
I
Amperes

15-20-30
and EJ-6 fuse. amp
byml

100.000
100.000
100,000
200 l00,000

Application. All small hiRh-interrupting-ability loix~-voltagefuses are


current,-limit,ing in t,heir action, hence are very fast in their operation, and
from this staidpoint they are partieiilarly well suited t o branch-circuit
168 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMEW

-L LOAD CENTER
UNIT SUBSTATION

INDIVIDUAL WALL MOUNTED


H C I SWITCHES AND E J - 6 FUSES
FIG. 3.12 One-line diagram showing whsre safety switches m d fuses may be applied as
the lost protective device in low-voltage distribution circuits.
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 169

AVAILABLE SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT-


ASYMMETRICAL R M S AMPERES
1.25 I SYMMETRICAL (AVERAGE FOR THREE CONDUCTORS)

AVAILABLE SHORT CIRCUIT

FIG. 3.1 3 Curves showing the current-limiting choracterirtics of type EJ-6 silver-sand
current-limiting fuses (60cycler).
I70 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

will withstand 9000 amp rms for 0.2 cycle. So, the 30-amp fuse vill pro-
tect a wire which will be required to carry 30-amp load current.
This current-limiting feature, in addition to protecting small wires in
systems of high short-circuit-current capacity, can protect small switching
devices. It is for this reason that the type HCI switch can he used with
type EJ-6 fuses 011 circuits where the available short-cirruit-current duty
is as high as 100,000 amp.
The t,ype HCI switch and EJ-G fuse combination has high interrupting
rating arid is current-limit,ing in its operation which enables it to beusedin
many places where molded-case circuit breakers would not have adequate
interrupting rating and where large air circuit breakers would be too ex-
pensive, too large, or not applicable from an engineeriug standpoint. For
example, a circuit breaker for a 30-amp circuit fed from a certain low-
voltage bus may require a circuit breaker with 100,000 amp interrupting
rating. The wire or cable mould have t o be of the order of 350 MCM t o
withstand the short-circuit current. I n the first place, a 100,000-amp
interrupting rating circuit breaker cannot be built with a 30-amp trip coil
that will withstand the short-circuit forces or heating. I n the second
place, any 30-amp load devire mould not have terminals that would
accommodat,e 350-MCM cable, the size required to withstand 100,000
amp. The use of an EJ-G current-limiting fuse and the HCI switch rated
30 amp would provide adequate short-circuit protection, and the current-
limiting effect of the fuse mould enable a wire of smaller size t o be used.
The switch and fuse comhinat,ion is not generally suitable for main feeder
circuit protection because of the fact that it is difficult to make the fast
current-limiting fuses operate selectively with other overcurrent protec-
tive devices that would be in the circuit between the fuse and the load.
Standards. Information for standards on fuses may be obtained from
the Underwriters Laboratories, Incorporated, bulletin, Standard for
Fuses.
Information on st,aridards for enclosed switches (safety switches) may
be obtained from IJnderwriters Laboratories, Incorporated, bulletin,
Standard for Enclosed Switches or NEMA Publication No. 42-78,
Enclosed Switch Standards.

SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT


FOR SYSTEMS ABOVE 600 VOLTS
There are in general two types of short-circuit protective equipment
available for systems above GO0 volts. These are:
1. Power circuit breakers
2. Power fuses
A-C SHORT.CIRCUlT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 171

POWER CIRCUIT BREAKERS

There are many types of power circuit breakers availahle, but basically
they are divided into the oil t,ypc and the nillcss type. I n the field 2.4- t o
13.8-kv t,he oilless-type cirruit breaker, Fig. 3.14, has largely superseded
t h e oil-t,ype circuit breaker. In indoor metal-enclosed switehgear of the
st,ation t,ypc for circuits 13.8 Lo 34.5 kv, the air-type circuit breakers are
in general superseding the oil-type vircuit breakers. I n the field above
11.A kv for outdoor switchgear, oil circuit breakers are most commonly
used, Fig. 3.15. For the sake of the discussion here relative to d e c t i o n
of equipment>fiom a short,-rircuit standpoint, it makes no difference
whcthcr the rircirit breakers are of t,he nil or oilless type.
Ratings Available. High-voltage power circuit breakers are availahle
in ratings from 2.4 kv up to over 300 kv and in interruptirig ratings from
15 mva up to 25,000 mva. Complete listings of power circuit breakers
can he found iii the latest copy of S E R l A Standards SG&l954. T h e cir-
cuit, breakers most comtnonly used in industrial plants are the oilless or
air type, sho\rn i n Fig. 3.14. The available ratings of this type of cir-
cuit breaker are given in Table 1.1 (Chap. I).

FIG. 3.14 Typical ille err (air) power circuit breaker ar wed in metal-clad switchgear for
c i t w i t s rated 2.4 to 13.8 kv.
172 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

FIG. 3.15 Outdoor frome-type oil circuit breaker 01 used in circuits rated above 15 kv.
This circuit breoker i s rated 34.5 kv.

Application. Power circuit breakers are applicable anywhere in the


syst,cms rated 2.4 kv up t,o the highest a-c voltages in use today. They
combine all the essential characteristics for circuit switching and protec-
t,ion and therefore may be used at main buses supplied by generators or
transformers or i n connection with unit substations. They are also
applirable at, loral switching points and for protection of primary branch
circuits (see Fig. 3.16).
Motor Starting or Other Repetitive Duty. Certain of the power circuit
breakers, particularly the oilless type, are suitable for motor-st,arting duty
within the limitations outlined by the manufacturer. It should be noted
that compared with contact,ors the principal limitation of power circuit
breakers for motor-starting duty is the degree of repetitive duty that can
be withstood. Contactors are designed for more operations and longer
life under severe operating duty cycles than are power circuit breakers.
A-C SHORT-CIPCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES ANO CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 173

Selection of Interrupting Ratings. The selection of interrupting


ratings of power circuit breakers for industrial applications is out,lined in
Chap. 1. A detailed description of the various faetors to consider in
applying oilless eircuit breakers as used in metal-clad switchgear is given
there.
I I 69 KV

Q P OUTDOOR POWER
C I R C U I T BREAKERS

Q GENERATOR T TYWI

GENERATOR TRANSFORMER
CIRCUIT BREAKER SECONDARY
CIRCUIT BREAKER

!
' MAlN FEEDER
CIRCUIT BREAKER

A AHEAD O F L I N E
OF L I M I T A M P
MOTOR STARTERS

LARGE OU
HIGH VOLTAGE
MOTORS

FIG. 3.16 One-line diogrorn rhowing where oilless power circuit breakerr in metal-clad
rwitchgeclr and outdoor power cirwit brecikerr may be applied in industrial power dir-
tribution ryrtemr.
174 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

Standards. Poiver circuit breakers are eovered by NEMA Standards


SG1-19%

POWER FUSES A N D OIL-FUSE CUTOUTS

There are many types of power fuses available for circuits rated 2.4 kv
and above. These t,ypes of fuses, generally speaking, divide t,hemselves
into three categories. The first is the power fuse, typical examples of
which are shown in Fig. 3.17 which are for high-rapacity power circuits.
The second type that is slightly differeni, i n construct,ion i s the oil-fuse
cutout, which i s really a combination of a cntout and a fuse immersed
in a container of oil, Fig. 3.18. The third type of fuse is used mainly in
distribntion cutouts for overhead opcir-wire outdoor distriliutioii systems
of utilit.ics in urban and suburban areas, Fig. 3.119.

FIG. 3.17 Typical high-voltage (above 600 volts1 power furer: Ifeft) current-limiting non-
enpulrion silver-rand type, (right] "on-current-limiting expulsion outdoor type.
176 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DNICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

The last type of fuse mentioned is applicable toindustrial power systems


for outdoor installations only where the interrupting rating is less than
the duty on the system. This fuse is not metal-enclosed and is not for
indoor installation.
I n general, power fuses divide thcmselves into two classes, i.e., current-
limiting and non-current-limiting. Typical of the current-limiting
category are the silver-sand fuses, Fig. 3.17(left). Typical of the non-cur-
rent-limiting type are the oil-fuse cutout, Fig. 3.18, the expulsion fuses,
Fig. 3.17(right), as well as the “boric acid” fuses and “liquid” power fuses.
A further classification is that some are expulsion type, i.e., expel hot
gases when they operate. These are not suitable for indoor application
because of the hazard of the expelled hot gases. Such fuses are the
expulsion fuse, Fig. 3.17(right), and the “boric acid” fuse without a con-
denser and the “liquid fuse”. Typical of the nonexpulsion type are the
silver-sand fuse, Fig. 3.17(left), and the “boric acid’’ fuse with condenser.
Application- General. All types of power fuses operate faster than
power circuit breakers a t or near their interrupting ratings. Because of
the fast operating time of the fuses, they are generally employed as the
last circuit protective device in each voltage level in a primary power sys-
tem, as shown in Fig. 3.20. Typical applications are in motor starters
and ahead of primaries of transformers stepping down to a lower volt-
age. The silver-sand fuse, Fig. 3.17(left), is often the preferred type of
fuse for power circuits because of its fast operating time and current-
limiting ability. However, in some cases where coordination is required,
it may be necessary to use non-current-limiting types of fuses which have
longer time delay. However, when the longer time delay is obtained,
the benefits of reduction of damage to the circuit through which short-
circuit current passes is lost to a large degree.
Interrupter Switches and Fuses. Nonexpulsiori-type power fuses suit-
able for indoor use are often applied in a metal enclosure with an inter-
rupter switch to form a switch-and-fuse cornbination for high-voltage
circuits. Interrupter switches are desirable for this application because
they have interrupting ratings usually in the range of 100 to 400 amp.
Plain disconnecting switches are generally not satisfactory for this service
because they have no interrupting ability, and therefore the combination
of the plain switch and fuse cannot be used as a load-switching device.
The oil-fused cutouts combine in one unit the fuse and the interrupter
switching element. Interrupter slyitches and fuses and oil-fused cutouts
find wide application in industrial plants as the primary swit,ching and
protecting section of a load-center unit substation (see Chap. 11).
Application of Fuses in O p e n Switching Structures. Open-structure
switches or disconnect,ing mountings without current-interrupting ability
are often used with power fuses. These can be considered for isolation
purposes only. Hazards in operations are materially increased in this
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DNICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 177

type of appliration. That is the reason that such applications should be


limited t o outdoor structures Ivhere the operator is a considerable distance
from the disconnecting switch when operating it. The use of such
isolatiug switches i n series with fuses in indoor metal-enclosed structures
is not coilsidered safe practice bemuse of thc proximity of the operator
to t,he sivitrh and the possibility of the operator inadvertently operating
the switch under roiiditions i u which the switch will hare to interrupt or
close in on currents ronsiderably beyond its ability. Failure may result
eveti though there is a fuse in series with such switches.
33 K V

P UTDOOR TYPE FUSE

SMALL POWER
IyTy\ TRANSFORMER

I
LIMITING

AHEAD OF SMALL LOAD CENTER UNIT SUBSTATIONS-


USE INTERRUPTER SWITCH AND POWER FUSE OR
FUSED OIL CUTOUTS.

FIG. 3.20 One-line diagram rhowing where high-voltage (above 600 VOllS) Power
may be applied in industrial power distribution systems.
178 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

Selecting Fuse-interrupting Rating. Fuses are generally rated in


amperes interrupting ahility. CMculate the short-circuit duty in rms
amperes asymmetrical at the first half cycle as outliiied in Chap. 1, and
select a fuse whose interrupting rating is greater than the duty imposed.
Equivalent three-phase iiiterrupt,ing ratings may also be considered.
Since the ratings of fuses are not too well st,andardized, refer t o t h e fuse
manufacturer for complete data before applying fuses.
Standards. Power fuses are covered by S E M A Standards, Cutouts,
I’orer Fuses, and Current-limit,ing Resistors, Publication S(2-1954,
and AIEE Standards S o . 25.

MOTOR STARTERS

There are in general three kinds of motor starters:


1 . The contactor
2. The combination motor starter
3 . The circuit breaker
Contactors are in general of two types, the most common variety being
t,hose which have a n interrupting rating of only ten times normal rated
current. These are completely inadequate for short-circuit protection
and must have addit,ional short-circuit protection provided b y either
fuses or circuit breakers.
When a short,-circuit protective device such as a fuse or circuit breaker

FIG. 3.21 Typical low-


voltage 1600 volts and
below) combination motor
starter with current-limit-
ing silver-rand furer for
short-circuit protection.
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 179

is used in comhinatiori with contactors, it forms what is commonly called


a combination motor starter.
Circuits 600 Volts and Less (Fig. 3.21). In systems 600 volts and less
there are t w i types of cornhination motor starters, both employing the
same type of cont,act,or. The first employs a fuse disconnecting sm.itch
alirad of t,he conta,ctor, and the other a circuit, breaker, usually a molded-
case-type circuit breaker, ahead of t,he cout,actor. The select,ion between
t,hese two is based mainly on the fuudamerital differelice betveen fuses
and circuit, breakers as short-circuit protective devices. The fused
combinatirin motor starters have an over-all inter-
rupting ahility so that the combination motorst,arter
can successfully irit,errupt an available short-circuit
current equal t,o 50,000 amp rms asymmetrical wheri
equipped wit,h high-interrupt,ing-capacity current-
limiting fiises. This is for a short circuit outside ”
the case of t,he mot,or starter and using type E.14
fuses.
The molded-case circuit-breaker comhiiiat,ion
mot,or starters are limited to a maximum duty of
15,000 or 25,000 amp rms asymmet,rical.
Circuits above 600 Volts (Fig. 3.22). For circuits
of 2.4 kv aud up t o 5 kv, the combination motor
starter commonly used consists of current-limiting
silver-sand fuses and contactors with the fuses
mount,ed in disconnecting-type supports and placed
in a metal enclosure s o interlocked that the fuses
cannot be disconneeted unless the coritactor is in the
open position. In this way the disconnecting fuse
mounting has no current to interrupt. Since the FIG.3.22 Typicalhigh-
fuses are for short-circuit protection only, suit,able (2,4to 4,8 kv)
running overload relays should he provided in the bin tio motor
motor st.art,er. These motor starters have inter- starter using current-lim-
rupting ratings of 150 mva at 2.4 kv and 250 mva iting rilver-rand power
a t 4.16 kv. From a short-circuit standpoint they furel for short-circuit
protection.
may be appIied up to their momentary and int,er-
rupting rat,iiig. Since these devices contain fuses as the short-circuit
protective element, they are naturally best suited t o application as the
last protective device in the circuit. When used as motor starters, they
are t,he last protective device, and therefore the fast operating time of
the fuse is a very dist,inct advantage in limiting damage in the motors
when a failure occurs. The fast operating time of the fuse also permits
low settings on other relays further back in t.he system.
180 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

SELECTION OF CONDUCTORS AND OTHER CIRCUIT


COMPONENTS FROM A SHORT-CIRCUIT STANDPOINT
The floiv of short-circuit current in an electric system imposes mechani-
cal and thermal st,resses (heating) on all component,sof the system through
which such currents flow. This includes cables, bus bars, current trans-
formers, disconnecting switches, as \veil as circuit breakers, fuses, and
motor starters. The following is intended t,o aid in the selection of circuit
component,s, ot,her than circuit breakers, fuses, and motor starters, from
a short-circuit,-current standpoint.

POWER-CABLE SELECTION FROM A SHORT-CIRCUIT STANDPOINT

Multiple-conductor power cables possess high mechanical strength


because of the compact conductor lay and the continuous concentric bind-
ing arsist,ed many times by armor or lead sheath. KOlimit on mechanical
stresses in such cables has been assigned.
This is not true with regard to thermal effects. In common with ot,her
current-carrying parts of the electric system during short-circuit-rurrent
flow, the abrupt elevation in conductor temperature will be limited only
by the ability of the conductor metal to absorb the heat developed. The
magnitude of the temperature increase is greater (1) as the current magni-
tude becomes greater (as the square of the current), (2) as the conductor
cross section becomes smaller, and (3) as the duration of current flow
becomes greater.
Temperature limits. Power-system short-circuit-current magnitudes,
feeder-conductor cross section, and short-circuit protective device inter-
rupting time should be coordinated to avoid severe permanent damage to
cable insulation during an interval of short-circuit-current flow in the
system. The effect should be limited to a moderate reduction in useful
cable life (possibly 1 per cent of normal life).
Reasonable maximum-peak transient temperatures for various cable
insulations and operating potentials have been designated and in general
are approximately 150 C (see Table 3.6). At a slightly higher tempera-
ture (approximately 175 C), destructive disint,egration of organic mate-
rials may occur, accompanied by smoke and combustible vapors. At
somewhat higher temperatures large quantities of combustible vapors are
expelled which increases the risk of explosion and fire.
It is important to note that the abnormal temperature persists much
longer than t,he duration of short-circuit-current flow. For example, the
flow of 20,000 amp in a KO. 4/0-Awg copper conductor will elevate the
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 181
copper temperature from an initial temperature of 75 C to 150 C i i i ahout
34 see. With the current then redured to zero, about 1000 see d l be
required for the copper temperature to return to 75 C in a 30 C ambient.

TABLE 3.6 Conductor Rated Maximum Continuous Operating Temperature


and Peak Transient (Momentary) Temperature for Various Types
and Operating Voltages
-
MOX
lollogl lronrienl
Cable type d.**, copper
kv temp.
C
-
Vc type V or VL, single conductor or three conductor.. ....... I 85 I50
5 85 145
8 84 135
I5 77 120

Impregnated paper (slid), single conductor.. .............. 1 85 I50


5 85 I45
8 85 140
I5 81 135

lmpregnalod paper (did), three mnductor. ............... 1 85 I40


5 85 135
8 85 I30
I5 81 125

Type R*. ............................................ I 60 I40


5 60 135
8 60 130
15 60 125

T i p s RH ............................................ 1 75 I50
5 75 145
8 75 140

Coronol ............................................. 1 80 I50


5 80 145
8 80 I40
15 80 I30
- -
* Applies to newtype R (1947 code specification).
t Actual operating temperature may be lompr because of consprvative application
or a favorable ambient temperature.

Conductor H e a t i n g . On the basis that all heat produced by short-


circuit-current flow is initially absorbed by the rondurtor metal (wbirh
I82 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DNICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

TABLE 3.7 Quick Estimating Table o f Minimum Conductor Sire'


A. Low-voltoge Air-circuit-breaker Protection

Short-circuit current.
~ ~~

omp
11.25 X rymmetricall 1.5 to 2 cycles
linrt. trip)
>g s*c

5,000 No. 8 Awg No. 4 Awg No. 2 Awg


I0,OOO No. 4 Awg No. 1 Awg No. 1/0 A w g
15,000 No. 2 Awg No. 2/0 Awg No. 3/0 Awg
25,000 No. I Awg No. 4/0 AWQ 300 M C M

35,000 No. 1/0 Awg 300 M C M 400 M C M


5o.m No. 3 / 0 A w g 400 M C M 600 MCM
75,000 300 M C M 600 M C M 800 M C M
100.000 350 M C M 800 M C M I000 M C M

Short-circuit Interrupting kvo at Duration of hort-sircuit current


current, amp
(1.0 x
symmetricoll

3,000-3.500 ...... 25mvo ....... 75 m w N o . 6 A w g No. 2 Awg No. 2 Awg


3,500-4.000 ........................... No. 4 Awg No. 2 Awg No. 1 Awg
4.000-4.500 ............. 50 mva ....... No. 4 Awg No. 2 Awg No. 1 Awg
4.500-5.000 ........................... No. 4 Awg No. 2 Awg No. 1/0 Awg

5,000-6.000 ........................... No. 2 A w g No. 1 Awg No. 2/0 Awg


6.000-7.000 25 mva 50 m w ....... I50 mva No. 2 Awg No. 1 Awg No. 2/0 Awg
7,000-8,000 ........................... No. 2 Awg No. I / O Awg No. 3 / 0 Awg
8,000-9.000 ............. 100 mva ....... No. 1 Awg No. 2/0 Awg No. 3/0 Awg

9,000-1 0,000 ........................... No. 1 Awg No. 2/0 Awg No. 4/0 Awg
10,000- 12.500 50 mvo .............. 250 mvo No. 1/0 Awg Na 3/0 Awg 250 M C M
12.500-15,000 ...... 100 mva 150 m w ....... No. 2/0 Awr No. 4/0 Awg 300 M C M
15.000-20.000 ........................... No. 3 / 0 A w r 300 MCM 400 M C M

20,000-25.000 00 m w 150 m w 250 m w 500 m w No. 4/0 AWI 350 MCM 500 M C M
25,000-30.000 ........................... 250 M C M 400 MCM 600 M C M
30.000-35.000 ...... 250 mva ....... 750 mvo 300 M C M 500 MCM 750 M C M
35.000-40.000 5 0 m r o ....... 500 mvm ....... 350MCM 600 MCM 750 M C M
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQVIPMENT 183

has been proved to be valid for canductor sizes of No. 8 Awg or larger*),
the conductor heating is governed by the following:
For Copper:

t = duration of current flow, see


I = rms amperes during entire interval of current flow
em = conductor cross sect,ion, cir mils
T I= initial copper temperature, C
T 2= final copper temperature, C
To simplify a n application, these relationships are presented graphically
in the large chart in Fig. 3.23. The permissible time for various ternpera-
ture ranges can be quickly evaluated with the aid of the auxiliary curve B ,
shown in Fig. 3.23. For quick estimating purposes, minimum safe con-
ductor size is given in Table 3.7, subject to application conditions as
shown.
For Aluminum. The problem of joining and terminating aluminum
conductors without creating local “hot spots” deserves very careful
attention. There are available, however, materials and methods which
laboratory tests and experience have proved to be satisfactory.
In the absence of abnormal local heating, a rough approximation of per-
missible current duration may he made on the basis of the same limiting
temperatures as for copper. (For a particular current and conductor
cross section, the permissible duration of short-circuit-current flow will
he 45 per cent of that for copper.) It may be more convenient to make
an artificial correction in current. Consider the current to be 150 per
cent of the actual value, and proceed on the chart (Fig. 3.23) as if the
conductor were copper.
Rms Current. Rms current as used here is defined as the root-rnean-
square value for the total interval of short-circuit-current flow. The
temporary d-c component encountered in a-c circuits increases the rms
current, but to a lesser extent as the interval of current flow becomes
longer. The appropriate factor K , by which the symmetrical current
value shall be multiplied to determine the true rms current is given in
chart A , Fig. 3.23, for several typical ratios of circuit 60-cycle reactance
* B. W.Jones and J. A. Seott, Short-time Current Ratings for Aircraft Wire and
Cable. AIEE Technical I’sper, 1946.
184 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT 18.5

"I. -8.
FIG. 3.23 Short-time bhort-circuit) heating limits of copper cables and correlation of
current and time to elevate the copper temperature from 75 to 150 C (dlheat is oirumed
to be stored in the copped.

to resistance (distribution circuits will generally fall in thc region of


X / R = 10 or less).
Circuit X / R ratio is generally not known and requires numerous circuit
constants for an evaluation. Conservative factors ( K , ) for the more
common application conditions are
Low-voltage circuit breakers tripped instantaneously K , = 1.25
Power circuit breakers, eight cycle, instantaneously tripped K I = 1 . 1
Any industrial power-distribution problem with current dura-
tion of 35 sec or more K , = 1.0
Short-circuit Protective-device Interrupting Time. Circuit Breakers.
The minimum time duration of short-circuit-current flow in a rircuit
protected by a circuit breaker tripped by an instantaneous element will
vary with the type of circuit breaker used. Typical values are shown in
the lower left-hand corner of the large chart in Fig. 3.23.
When interruption is purposely delayed by time-delay relays or time-
delay trip coils, the duration of current flow will be governed by the time-
delay relay or trip coil plus the inherent delay in the circuit breaker.
Fuses (Current-limiting) , Current-limiting fuses (silver-sand and
National Electrical Code low voltage) tend progressively to limit the
time interval of current flow to lesser values as the magnitude of current
increases. As the current magnitude increases toward the maximum
interrupting ability of the fuse, the magnitude of Z't approaches a fixed
value (approximately) for a particular fuse ampere rating. This is
equivalent to a fixed temperature rise in a particular size of conductor.
Data accumulated indicate that a fuse (of the types mentioned in this
paragraph) whose ampere rating is not greater than 1.5 times the conduc-
tor continuous-current rating will protect against dangerous conductor
106 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DNICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

temperatures for severe overcurrents up to the maximum interrupting


rating of the fuse.
Table 3.8 shows the wire sizes which will have less than 75 C conductor

TABLE 3.8 Silver-sand Fuse Protection at High Overcurrents Based


on Copper Conductor

Fuse S m a l l ~ twire
Sm.lle.t wire
roting, normally vied,
protected
amp RH insulation

30 No. 10 Awg No. 14 Awg


60 No. 6 Awg No. I2 Awg
I00 No. 3 Awg No. 10 Awg
IS0 No. 1/0 Awg No. 0 Awg
200 No. 3/0 Awg No. 6 Awg

temperature rise because of the flow of short-circuit current when pro-


tected by silver-sand fuses.
Fuses (Nou-current-limiting). Non-current-limiting fuses accomplish
current interruption at a normal current zero, and thus the current con-
duction time cannot be reduced below that of the first current loop of
short-circuit-(.urrent flow which may be as much as about one cycle of
the power frequenry. Applications should thus recognize one cycle as
the minimum time of short-circuit-current flow.
Application Procedure. 1. Evaluate the symmetrical short-circuit
current or currents that may be critiral.
2. Define the short-circuit protertive device clearing time at this or
these current magnitudes.
3. Apply the rms correction factor to allom for the d-c component for
each time interval involved.
4. Make an initial check on the current-time chart for the smallest
conductor size being considered (permissible time should exceed short-
circuit protective-device interrupting time).
5 . If critical, it is advisable to rorreet for the exart temperature range
(see Table 3.6 and temperature-range correction curve).
F. If an oversize ronduetor is considered, but the continuous-load rur-
sent is to remain fixed, advantage can be taken of the lower initial ron-
ductor temperature.

EXAMPLES

Example 1. A transformer feeder cable is being selected to accom-


modate a 1000-kva 2.4-kv transformer. The rated current of the t,rans-
former (240 amp) indirates a rahle conductor of 250 MCM. The trans-
A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT I87

former iri question is good for full short-circuit current (sixteen times
normal) for 5 sec. It is desired that the feeder cable have the same
ability.
Solution: Rms symmetrical amperes = rated current X 16 = 240 x
16 = 3900 amp. The duration of this current as defined by the condi-
tions of the problem is 5 sec.
Assume X / R ratio = 10 or less
From chart A of Fig. 3.23, K 1 = 1; ( X / R ratio of 10 and time of 5 sec)
Henre, the total rms amperes affecting cable heating = K , X 3900
= 1.0 X 3900 = 3900 amp
On the large rhart of Fig. 3.23, locate the intersection of the horizontal
3900-amp line and the 250-MCM conductor diagonal line. The per-
missible time (read on the bottom scale) is indicated to be 12 sec (75 to
150 C hasis).
The 250-MCM cable will adequately meet the 5-sec requirement.
Example 2. Feeder circuits are t o be run from a 480-volt 60-cycle
load-center unit substation at which point the short-circuit duty is
25,000 amp (20,000 symmetrical rms amperes). What is the smallest
reasonable feeder conductor size based on the use of a 25,000-amp inter-
rupting rating air circuit breaker which trips instantarieously (1.5 cycles)
a t currents in excess of fifteen times the normal rating?
solulion:
Symmetrical current = 20,000 amp
Time duration = 1.5 cycles
Rms amperes = 20,000 X 1.25 = 25,000
See preceding text for explanation of 1.25 factor K ,
On the large rhart of Fig. 3.23, locate the intersection of the horizontal
25,000-amp line and the vertical 1.5-cycle line. The minimum size con-
ductor (75 to 150 C basis) whose curve is above the intersection is a
KO.1 Awg.
Example 3. A 4-kv feeder is t o be run from a substation at which the
symmetrical short-circuit current is 25,000 amp. A continuous load
caparit,y of 1000 kva is desired (113 amp), and a KO.2/0-Awg coronol
cable run is being considered. Line relaying is to consist of standard
time-overcurrent relays on the &amp tap and S o . 5 time-lever setting
v i t h 250/5-amp rurrent transformers. Instantaneous attachments are
not planned, but could be used if set at 3000-amp line current.
Solution:
Symmetriral short-circuit current = 25,000 amp
Case 1. No instantaneous attachment on relay
Rms symmetrical short-circuit current = 25,000 amp
Relay operating time = 50 cycles; (From published time-current
curves)
Circuit-breaker operating time = 8 cycles
188 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

Total time = 50 + 8 = 58 cycles


Assume X / R ratio = 15 or less
From chart A of Fig. 3.23, K 1 = 1
Hence, total rms amperes affecting cable heating = KI X 25,000
= 1.0 X 25,000 = 25,000 amp
On the large chart of Fig. 3.23, locate the intersection of the 25,000-amp
horizontal line and t,he 58-cycle vertical line. The smallest conductor
whose curve lies above this intersection is a 500 MCM. Therefore, a
Xo. 2/0-Amg conductor is inadequate.
Case 2. Instantaneous attachment, on relay set to operate at and above
3000 line amperes.
Two point,s must, he checked: (1) a current of 3000 amp and time delay
of overcurrent relay (just below the operating current of the instantaneous
element) and (2) the maximum current with instantaneous relay operation.
1. From published relay data, the relay time a t 3000 line amperes is 66
cycles, circuit-breaker time is 8 cycles, making a total time of 66 + 8 =
74 cycles.
From chart A of Fig. 3.23 for X / R ratio of 10 and time of 7 1 cycles,
K I = 1.
Total rms amperes affecting cable heating = KI X 3000 = 1.0 X 3000
= 3000 amp.
The intersection of 3000 amp and 71 cycles on the large chart of Fig.
3.23 s h o m that a Xo, 2/0-Awg conductor is amply large to carry the
3000 amp for 74 cycles.
2. At the maximum current, instantaneous relay operation will be
obtained.
The total current duration will be the relay time ?,g cycle plus circuit-
breaker time 8 cycles, or 836 cycles.
For 8>i-cycle time interval, K , = 1.1.
Total rms current affecting cable heating = K , X 25,000 = 1.1 X
25,000 = 27,500 amp.
The intersection of the 27,500-amp horizontal line and the 84g-cycle
vertical line on the large chart of Fig. 3.23 indicates a No. 4/0-Awg con-
ductor (75 to 150 C basis) and shows that point 2 cont,rols the cable size.
However, a No. 4/0-Awg conduct,or mould operate at less than rated
temperature. A specific check may show that a KO. 3/0-Awg conductor
is adequate.
Rated conductor temperature coronol cable = 80 C (see Table 3.6),
ambient temperature = 40 C. Xormal temperature rise produced by
rated current = 80 - 40 = 40 C.
Rated continuous current for No. 3/0-Awg coronol cable = 185 amp.
The temperature rise will be roughly proportional to the square of the
current.
A-C SHORTT-CIRCUITPROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

r
189

T i m e - seconds

I
190 A-C SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

Hence, the normal conductor temperature of a No. 3/0-Awg conductor


operating a t 143 amp would he expected to be

(g)’ (full-load rise) + ambient =

= 63.8 C, or 64 C
The maximum momentary temperature for coronol at 5 kv is 145 C
(see Table 3.6).
From detail chart B , Fig. 3.23, the correction factor K for an initial
conductor temperature of 64 C and final of 145 C is K = 1.13.
From the large chart of Fig. 3.23, the permissible time for 27,500 amp
in No. 3/0-Awg conductor (75 to 150 C basis) is 6.7 cycles.
The permissible time corrected t o a 64 to 145 C basis is K X 6.7
= 1.13 X 6.7 = 7.6 cycles.
Therefore, a No. 4/O-Awg conductor is the correct selection since a
No. 3/O-Awg conductor would fail t o meet the 8.5-cycle requirement.

FUSING CURRENT TIME FOR COPPER CONDUCTORS

The fusing current time curves for copper conductors are shown in
Fig. 3.21. The curves are based on the folloiving assumptions:
1. Radiatiou may be neglected because of the short time involved.
2. Resistance of 1 cu cm of copper at 0 C is 1.589 microhms.
3. Temperature-resistance coefficient of copper a t 0 C is 1/234.
4. Melting point of copper is 1083 C.
5. Ambient temperature is 40 C.
Data are an adaptation from the eight,h edition of “Standard Handbook
for Elect,rical Engineers.”*
* A . E. Knowlton (editor-in-chief), “Standard Handhook for Electrical Engineers,”
8th ed., Chap. 4, McGraw-Hill Book Company, h e . , S e w York, 1949.
Chapter 4 by W. R. Crites and Maynord N. Halberg*

Voltage-Standard Ratings, A llowable


Variations, Reduction of Variations,
Calculation of Drops

The purpose of any industrial power system is to maintain voltage a t


the terminals of power-using equipment. This voltage should be-
within acceptable limits-equal to the rated voltage of this equipment.
The standard voltage ratings for utilization equipment are discussed in
this chapter, along with the standard voltage ratings for power generation
and distribution equipment.
KOpractical power system can maintain voltage a t rated value a t the
utilization equipment a t all times. The voltage variations allowable and
the methods which can be used in the design of a power system to keep
the variations within acceptable limits are discussed. I t is necessary to
calculate the voltage drop in the power system for steady-state conditions
and during the starting of the larger motors to determine whether or not
the voltage mill remain within acceptable limits. Methods of calculating
these voltage drops are presented in this chapter.
* The following men, formerly in Industrial Pawcr Enginwring. General Electric
Company, made substantial contributions to the material in this chapter: W. K.
Boice, General Electric Company, l e w Haven. Conn.; D. F. Capehart. General
Electric Company, Cincinnati, Ohio; J. R. Eliason, General Electric Company,
Sehenectady, N.Y.
191
192 V O L T A G F S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

VOLTAGE DESIGNATIONS *
It is necessary t o have a n understanding of the voltage names of sys-
tems and t,he voltage rat,ings of various pieces of apparatus used in the
system before start,ing a discussion on system-voltage problems so t h a t
the proper voltage identification can be used throughout. It is also
necessary t,o know v h y the voltage designat,ions are applied t o help in
understairding the system-voltage disussion in the following sections.
The volt,age-identification structure is summarized iu Table 4.1. For
each of the nominal syst,em voltages listed, t,he table gives voltage ratings
of generators, transformers, motors, and (in some cases) lamps. T o
illustrate the use of Table 4.1, consider a 13,800-volt system. The
generators would be rated 13,800 volts. Transformers stepping power
down from transmission voltage would have secondary windings (I?,
Fig. 4.1) rated 13,800 volts. Transformers steppiug power down t o
utilization vokage in load-center substations would have primary mind-
ings (C, Fig. 4.1) rated 13,800 volts. Motors connerted directly to the
13,800-volt bus would lie rated 13,200 volts.
From the foregoing summary and Table 4.1 it is evident that care must
tie exercised in using the proper voltage ident,ifiration for each piece of
equipmelit as well as for the system. Some fundamental rules are as
follo\vs :
1. When speaking of equipment, the rated voltage is used, aud it is the
voltage to which the operating characteristics are referred.
2. When speaking of systems, rat.ed voltage is not an applicable term
because various piwes of equipment in a given system often have different
voltage ratings. Therefore, t,he term n o m i n a l s y s t e m vollage is used for
convenient designation of systems and circuits t o define the voltage class.
The problem of proper identification would be easier if all apparatus
of a given voltage class had the same vokage rating. Then, of course,
tem voltage could have that same value. Possibly if the
industry were starting over again, vokage ident,iticatioii mould be made
that simple. But, as syst,ems grew, voltages were ini,hed up t o compen-
sate for t,he voltage drop between source arid load.
As a result, of t,hese changes that have taken pla(.e over a period of years,
transformer arid generator voltage rat,ings are generally higher than
utilization-eiiuipment vnltagc rat,ings. There is logic in this in that the
voltage rating of transformers, for example, is t,heir no-load rating.
Since most plants are supplied by transformers, the concept has beeri
acceptcd that, supply equipment will have a higher voltage rating than
utilization equipment,. This means that in a 480-volt system, for cxam-
* For a iiirthrr rrpansion of t h i s srihjpet F W l < I ~ ~ I - X 1 5 MKPport.,
A l’refrrrrd Volt-
age I h t i n g s of :\(: Systrrris and Equipmmt, N I X l’uhliration lo. R-6. S E M A
I’ulilirstion l o . 117, \lay, 1‘JIU.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS. VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 193.
ple, transforniers or geiierators supplying motors ivoiild have a ratiiig of
480 volts whereas t,he motors irould have a ratiiig of 440 volts. Part of
this ditrereiicc: is compeiisated for by voltage drop iii the traiisformer aiid
in the distributioii system betiveeii the traiisformers aiid the motors.
Therefore, in general, the voltage at the motors is reasoiiably iiear thc
iiame-platc ratiiig iii the average system.
I n older types of distrihiitioii systems it i m s commoii prartire to use
step-doivii trmçformers irith a Iower primary voltage ratiiig thaii thc
transformers which ivould siipply that systcm. For example, the ti'aiis-
former steppiiig dowi from the iitility voltage ofteii hnil a ratiiig of 2400
volts oii the secoiidary, aiid the traiisformer steppiiig doi\-ii to the utiliza-
tioii voltage of 480 or 240 volts had a ratiiig of 2300 volts oii tlie primar?..
Becausc of the desigii of preseiit-day systems n-itli smaller drgi'ers of
volt,age drop, aiid judirioiis m e of taps i i i traiisformers, the prartirc is, as

INCOMING

4\
1
MASTER U N I T
SUBSTATION
( P R I M A R Y SUBSTATIONI
( A I P R I M A R I WINDING
u (IF USEDI
ml SECONDARY WINDING

X
P L A N T P R I M A R Y D I S T R I B U T I D N VDLTAGE

LOAD C E N T E R U N I T
SUBSTATION
(SECONDARY SUBSTATION IN FACTORYI

PRIMARY WINDING

WINDING

FIG. 4.1 Typicol industrial plont power ryrtern


194 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

evident from Table 4.1, t o use the same voltage rating for all traiis-
former windings connected t o a given system voltage. This is true
whether the transformers are stepping down to this system or steppiug
down from this system.
TABLE 4.1 Boric Pattern of Voltage Identification

No min0 I Genordor Transformer Transformer Motor and L.mp


system rated secondory primary control rated rated
*olt.ge voltage rated voltage rated voltage rottoget YoltDge

120 or 120/240 I20 or 120/240 I20 or 120/240 120


240 or 120/240 240 or 120/240 240 or 120/240 240 230
208Y/120 208Y/120 208Y/120 I20 115 118or120

Three-phase Systems

208Y/120'
240
480*
600
20sY/l20
240
480
600
208Y/120
240
480
600
208 or 120
240
480
600
440
I
220 or 208 208.118. or 120
220 236
165

2,400' 2.400 2,400 2,400 2,300


4.160' 4,160 4,160 4,160 4,000
4,800 4,800 4.800 4.800 4,600
6,900* 6,900 6,900 6,900 6,600
12,000 12.500 12,000 12,000 11,000
13,200 13.800 13,200 13.200 13,200
13.800' 13.800 13,800 13.800 13.200
23,000 ........ ........ 22,900
34,500 ........ ........ 34,400
46,000 ........ .... .... 43,800
69,000 67,000
1 1 5,000 ....... I I0,OOO

* In ~ P I Vinstallations, or W ~ P ~ P Ya srlwtion
P ~ oi voltngr can l i p ~ n a d rthrsr
. i ~ r cprc-
ferrrd s y s t m valtagrs.
t Specifying t h e w valiirs for motor voltsgcs is itnportarrt: For instnnw. motors to
opprste on -IltiO-. GWC-, or 18,800-volt systrins should Iw rntcil 4000. (i(iO0. or 1:1,200
volts, resp2ctively.
The one-line diagram (Fig. 4.1) shows a t y p i i d method of distributing
power in industrial plants and will be used as referenre to identify some
portions of the systems and equipment referred to.

RATED VOLTAGES OF TRANSFORMERS

Transformer voltage ratings are hased on the no-load values, and the
ratio of primary to secondary rated wltages is equal t o the turn ratio.
The transformers have a voltage rating for each xindiiig. These are
VOLTAGSSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 195

the voltages a t which characteristics are measured. What then are


standard transformer voltage ratings for industrial plants?
First, consider primary or master unit substations and transformers
which step down from some voltage above 15 kv to plant primary dis-
tribution voltage, which is generally below 15 kv (see Fig. 4.1, top sub-
station). The standard primary-winding ( A , Fig. 4.1) voltage ratings of
this class of substation and transformers are 110, 67, 43.8, 34.4, and 22.9
kv.
These are the actual transformer-minding ratings. They are derived
from the old rating structure based on secondary ratings in multiples of
115 volts. When secondary ratings were boosted to multiples of 120
volts, the high side rating was raised to maintain the same turn ratio.
For instance, 33,000-2300 volts was once a standard rating. Thc corre-
sponding present-day transformer would be rated 34,400-2400. The
familiar designations 115, 69, 46, 34.5, and 23 kv refer to the classes of
insulation used with these transformers.
Secondary-winding ( B , Fig. 4.1) voltage ratings of this class of industrial
substat,ions and transformers are 13.8, 13.2, 12, 6.9, 4.8, 4.16, and 2.4 k v .
S e x t consider transformers in load-center unit substations (see Fig. 4.1,
bottom substation) used in t,he industrial plants for stepping down from
plant primary distribution voltage to utilization voltage. As stat,ed
above, the plant, primary voltage is usually less than 15 kv. Therefore,
the list belox includes only voltages below 15 kv.
The primary-winding (C, Fig. 4.1) voltage ratings of load-center unit
substations are 13.8, 13.2, 12, 6.9, 4.8, 4.16, and 2.4 kv. .
Note that the primary voltage rating of this class of transformers (bot-
tom, Fig. 4.1) i s the same as the secondary voltage rat,ing of the primary
substation transformers (top, Fig. 4.1).
The voltage ratings of secondary substations in the plant which supply
motors and other utilization equipment are divided into two classes-
those for serving utilization equipment above 600 volts and those for
serving utilization equipment below BOO volts. Standard rat,ings are
listed in Table 4.2.
TABLE 4.2 Transformer Secondary Voltage Ratings ( I ) , Fig. 4.1)
Supplying Utilizoti0n Supplying Utilization
Equipment Roted Equipment Roled 600
Above 600 Volts, Kv Volt, or 0e1ox. Volt.
6.9 600 IY or delta1
4.8 400 IY or delta1
4.16 240
2.4 208Y/l20

All standard unit substation transformers have taps in the primery


winding to allow compensation for voltages that vary from the trans-
former rating. The most common are four 255 per cent taps, two above
196 VOLTAGkSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS. CALCULATION OF DROPS

aiid two below normal, giving a total adjustment of plus or minus 5 per
cent,. With these t,aps in the primary winding, a transformer actually
has five different ratios. I t vould he very cumbersome to refer to all five
of these ratios in all discussions; therefore, when in the following dis-
cussion a transformer is referred t o as having, for example, a rating of
2400-480 volt,s, the discussion will apply equally well whether the trans-
former is operated 00 the cenher t a p or other taps. Regardless of the tap
used, the t,raiisformerwill still be referred to as a 2100-480-volt transformer,
Comhined light arid power systems are frequently used where motors
are supplied a t 180 volts, for example, and lights are supplied at 120 volts
from the same 480-volt system, using dry-type transformers. The
standard primary volt,age ratings for t,hese light,ing transformers are 600
volts, 480 volts, arid 240 volts, aiid the standard secondary vohage ratings
are 208Y/120 volts and 120/240 volts. Two rated kva 5 per cent below
normal t,aps are provided in these transformers t,o allow for operation of
120-volt lamps near t,heir rated voltage when the voltage on the 480-volt
system is below 480 volts as it normally vill be.

TRANSFORMER VOLTAGE REPRESENTATIONS

Transformer voltage designations become rather complex. For


illstance, windings may have series-parallel connections. Or they may
be designed for connection line-to-neutral on higher rated volt,age sys-
tems, such as 3400-volt transformers which are suitable for line-to-
neutral operation OIL 4160-volt systems. These and other complex
arrangements make exact identification desirable.
These variables in t,ratisformer voltage ratings have long been expressed
by various symbolic met,hods. Such methods are essential because t o
fully describe the \\-indings of transformers often would require a fairly
lengthy paragraph. However, t o bc of any value a transformer rating so
expressed should meao the same to everyone. To further a consistent
use of symbols, hot,h KERIA and ASh standards have been established
t,o rci~ommenda standard transformer “shorthand.”
Four symbols are used: the dash (-), t,he slant (/), the X, and the Y.
In general terms, their uses are as follows:
Dash (-). Used to separate the voltage ratings of separate windings in
a specific transformer.
Slant ( I ) . Used t o separate voltages t o be applied to or obtained from
the same windiug.
X. Used to designate separate vokagcs obtainable by reconnection of
the coils of a winding in series or multiple combinations.
Y. t!sed t o designat,e a winding t,hat is Y-connected. The absence of
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS I97

this symbol in a three-phase transformer rating indicates that the winding


is delta-connected.
The use of the dash, slant, and Y can he easily illustrated by the voltage
rating of the transformer for a typical load-center suhstation.
4160-480Y/277: Note that this meaus the 4160-volt high-voltage wind-
ing is delta-corinected while the 480-volt winding is Y-couiiected with t,he
neutral brought out. A three-winding t,ransformer might have this
voltage rating: 13,800-2400-480Y/277.
In three-phase transformers the slaut is ofteri used to indicate wiiidiiigs
connectable either in delta or Y. For iiistauce, a 2400/4lCiOY windiug
can be couiiected either for 2400 volts deka or 4160 volts Y. Xote that
the delta voltage is expressed first. When a Y-connected winding has the
neutral brought out it is siguified like this: 2OSY/lZO. Here the line
voltage is expressed first, fol1oir.d by the line-to-neutral voltage. If the
neutral is brought out with reduced insulation, that fact is shoivu by 208
Grd Y/120.
Another use of the slant is to indicate taps, especially 011 single-phase
transformers. For instance, a 240-volt wiuditig with a midtap is expressed
240/120. When a single-phase t,ransformer with a series-multiple wind-
ing is vound to be suitable for three-wire service on the series conoectioii,
it is designat,ed 120/240. When a winding has several taps close to the
rated volt,age, it is cust,omary to specify them as illustrated in t,his specific
case: four 255 per ceut rated kva taps, t x o above and tI5-o below rated
voltage.
The X symbol is used to separate t,he volt,ages obtainable in a series-
mukiple minding not, suitable for three-wire operation. For example, a
minding rated 120 X 240 can be connected with t,he coils in parallel to
obt,ain 120 volts or Tr.it,h the coils iu series for 240 rolt,s.

RATED VOLTAGES OF GENERATORS

Siiice the generator is a source of elect,ric poir-er aud is ofteu i u parallel


wit,h primary substation transformers (see Fig. 4,1), its voltage aud ('oii-
scquently its rat,itig is in practically all cases the same as the transformer
in a giveu voltage class. Listed in Table 4.3 are the three-phase generator
ratings that, are recommended by the latest EEI-SE5I.i report.
TABLE 4.3 Generator Voltage Ratings*
208Y/120 "Olt. 2,400 volts
240 volts 4,160 volts
480 volts 4.800 volts 13.800 "011.
600 volts 6,900 volts 14,400 volts
* Ratings of 11,500 and 12,500 volts are n s ~ dfor genrrators on smnr rstablislird
systems hut are, not rrrommmdrd for nmv systim~s. Thc corrcsponrling trnnsfornii,r
rating is 12,000 w i t s and transformcr taps sllon for paralirl oprration.
198 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

The 14,400-volt rating has been adopted largely in large generating


stations where the input is transformed up to higher voltage in a unit
transformer generator arrangement (see Fig. 4.2).

2
mTwI
4I HIGH VOLTAGE BUS
FIG. 4.2
merit,
Unit transformer generator arronge-

RATED VOLTAGES OF MOTORS

A t the other end of the system are the motors, and their rat,ings reflect
the fact that voltage at utilizatioii equipment is somewhat loirer t,haii a t
the sources of power because of voltage drop.
Single-phase motors are usually rated at 115 or 230 volts.
The standard voltage rat,ings of polyphase motors are given in Table
4.1.
TABLE 4.4 M o t o r Voltage Ratings
110 "0111 550 "011. 6,600 Volt.
208 volt. 2,300 ~011s I1.000 volt,
220 wit. 4,000 ~ o l t i 13,200 volts
440 rolls 4,600 volts

hlot,or-cotit,rol equipment has the same voltage rating as the associated


motor.

RATED VOLTAGES OF LAMPS

Inrandescent lamps are standardized at 120 volts. Higher voltages


have not in general heeo found sat,isfactory.
Fluorescent lamps offer a wider range of operation and are commotily
rat,rd a t 118, 208, 230, and 265 volt,s (for line-t,o-neut,ral on 480-volt
systems).

OTHER APPARATUS

Some other types of equipment such as capacitors and industrial heat-


ing equipment have compromised between the extremes of generator
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS I99

rating and motor rating in a given voltage class. For instance, industrial
heating devices are rated at 115,230, 4G0, and 575 volts. Capacitors are
rated at 230, 460, 575, 2400, 4800, 7200, 12,470, and 13,800 volts.

NOMNAL SYSTEM VOLTAGES

The choice of the numerical value t o represent nominal system voltage


is purely arhitrary and does not attempt to indicate an average system
voltage. It is merely a name. However, it is very desirable that a con-
sistent practire in designating nominal voltages be followed. When used
properly, the nominal voltage should give a good picture of the voltage
struct,ure of a system with a minimum of misunderstandings. The
standard values for nominal system voltage correspond t,o the ratings of
source equipment.
TABLE 4.5 Standard Nominal System Voltages

Singlo Phase

120
120/240
240

Three Phore

208Y/l20 4,800 34,500


240 6,900 46,COO
480 12,000 69.000
600 13,200 115,000
2,400 13,800
4,160 23,000

Table 4.5 is not complete but is representative of industrial practice.


To repeat, it is extremely important to identify properly the voltage
rating of each piece of apparatus in a system as well as to identify the
nominal system voltage. The voltage ratings of the various pieces of
apparatus, as ran he seen from the foregoing, may be different even
though the apparatus is for use on the same given voltage class system.
Therefore, correct identification of each piece is of paramount importance.
For example, if one is buying equipment to supply a 180-volt system, the
secondaries of t,he transformers should he specified as -180-volt rating.
The motors and control should be specified as 440-volt rating. The sys-
tem nominal voltage is referred to as 480 volts. Other apparatus on this
system may have different voltage ratings. For example, capacitors
would be rated 460 volts; heating equipment would be rated 460 volts.
It is also important to remember that transformer and generator voltage
200 VOLTAGE- STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

ratings are always higher than utilization-device ratings. This is logical


because the transformer voltage ratings are the no-load voltage ratings,
and as load is applied to the system the voltage drops to near the name-
plate rating of the lower rated utilization apparatus.

VOLTAGE SPREAD AND FLICKER REQUIREMENTS*

STEADY-STATE VOLTAGE REQUIREMENTS

An ideal electric power system is one which will supply constant fre-
quency and volt,age at rated name-plate value t o every piece of apparatus
in the system. I n modern power systems, frequency is a minor problem.
It is impractical, however, t o design a power system which will deliver
absolutely constant rated name-plate voltage to every piece of apparatus.
Since this cannot he attained, what are the proper limits of voltage varia-
tion in a n industrial plant? These should be determined by the charac-
teristics of the utilization apparatus. First, certain definitions are
essential to underst,arid clearly the discussion of this problem.
Voltage Spread. Voltage spread is the difference between the maxi-
mum and minimum voltages which appear at any location in a system
under riormal operating conditions. Voltage spread is not intended to
cover momentary voltage changes uf a transitory nat,ure such as those
due t o switching surges, motor starting, welders, etc. The first part
of this discussion is primarily concerned with voltage spread a t utiliaatiori
equipment. This is the diKercnce between the maximum and minimum
voltages a t the terminals of the utilization equipment under normal
system operating conditions (Fig. 4.3). Maximum values usually appear
during light load and minimum values a t full load on the electric system.
Another important type of voltage spread is primary or supply voltage
spread which is the difference between the maximum and the niinimum
voltage a t the service entrance or plant primary bus of a particular plant
under normal operating conditions.
Voltage Zone. Voltage zone is the envelope of all voltage spreads for
a particular voltage class of system.
For any specific voltage class designated by a nominal system voltage
there inherently exists an appreciable range of operat,ing voltages between
the systems having the highest and lowest voltages for this class. Coun-
trywide, this zoue is larger thaii the voltage spread at, ariy one location
because of recognized differences in practices of different companies.
* The data in this sretion arc l a r ~ c l yadapted from an AIEE Industrial Power Sys-
tem Coinmittre 1Lpurt. Industrid Voltag- Ilrquirpmeats, Elec. Eng., vol. 6 i , 1948,
pp. 358-374.
3.3 7. z
PRIMARY 5 , LONGEST SECONDARY FEEDER
SYSTEM

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _NO_ LOAD
_ _ _VOLTAGE
_~ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 480

1
2500--

PRIMARY VOLTAGE SPREAD. NO LOAD TO F U L L LOAO AT


:z: PLANT SERVICE ENTRANCE

s
r SPREAD
2400- IN

-
0
Y Y
0 SECONDARY
2 SYSTEM
>
E 0
N
Y
v)
>
E
TRANSFORMER VOLTAGE DROP
k9 Q

2 2300-
(L
P
FEEDER VOLTAGE DROP
T.
Y
NO LOAD VOLTAGE
<
0

5
>
0
> 2200- PRIMARY VOLTAGE SPREIO, NO LOAD TO F U L L LOAD AT VOLTS

*
I PLANT SERVICE LNTRANCE
I I
E
L 0
MINIMUM FULL TRANSFORMER VOLTAEE DROP
LOAD VOLTAGE

C U R V E A - T R A N S F O R M E R OPERATING ON HIGHEST TAP-


RATIO 2 5 2 0 - 4 8 0 VOLTS AT NO LOAD.
CURVE 8 TRANSFORMER OPERATING O N LOWEST TAP-
RATIO 2260-480 VOLTS AT NO LOAD.

FIG. 4.3 Examples of voltage zone, spread, and drop.


202 VOLTAGFSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

difference in voltage in various parts of the power system. The other


cause is primary voltage spread a t the service entrance of the plant.

EFFECT O F VOLTAGE DROP

To show the effect of voltage drop in a plant it will be assumed that the
primary voltage is maintained a t a constant value regardless of plant load.
The simple circuit shown in Fig. 4.4 will be used as an illustration. The
primary voltage is assumed to be of such magnitude that the secondary
voltage on the transformer is 480 volts a t no load. Referring to Fig. 4.5,
a t extremely light load there is essentially no voltage drop through the
transformer or in any of the secondary circuits connected to the trans-
former. Consequently, the voltage is substantially the same throughout
the plant, and any lights or other incidental load connected a t this time
is subject to practically the no-load voltage. It is particularly significant
a t this point to recognize that transformer voltage ratings are the no-load

SECONDARY BUS

TRANSFORMER

CIRCUIT

FIG. 4.4 Typical industrial plant power circuit,

480 .- 400 VOLTS ZERO VOLTAGE DROP


2 A

2 470-

:rp
4 6 0 ~

y)

3
9 460

450
_ _ _ _ _ ~.

----
TOTAL VOLTAGE
TRANS FA NO
VOLTAGE DROP
THRU
15 VOLTS

sE~!~48oro~?p~"2~Ts
G?!E?
LOAD VOLTAGE-480 VOLTS

]----____________________
TRANSFORMER-
l,z
VOLTAGE DROP IN

SECONDARV
FEEDER-IOVOLTS

_________________-__
--- -___
IN BRANCH
CIRCUIT-
5 VOLTS
_
A
DROP

FIG. 4.6 Full-load voltage conditions for circuit shown in Fig. 4.4. No primary voltage
spread.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 203
ratios. For example, a transformer rated 4160-450 volts will produce
480 volts a t no load with 4160 volts applied to the primary.
When load is connected to the transformer, current flows, and this
causes a voltage drop in the secondary circuits as shown in Fig. 4.6. At
t,he secondary bus the voltage drop caused by the current flowing through
the transformer is assumed to be 15 volts. With constant primary volt-
age the secondary bus voltage varies from 450 volts a t no load to 465
voks at full load--the voltage spread a t this point is 15 volts. There are
assumed additional drops of 10 volts in the secondary feeder and 5 volts
in the branch circuit, making a total drop to load A of 30 volts. If the
lowest voltage in the plant exists a t load A , then the maximum voltage
spread is 30 volts (450 a t no load to 450 volts a t full load, or 30 volts).
In designing an industrial power system the voltage spread should be
kept t o a minimum consistent with reasonable first cost. If the spread is
too great,, the voltage may be too high a t light load, causing equipment
operating during that period to burn out, or voltage may he too low a t full
load a t much of the utilization apparatus, impairing the performance and
reducing the production obtained from the equipment,
The second cause of voltage spread is the primary voltage spread a t the
plant service connection. This may be caused by voltage drop in the
primary system, or it may be due to regulation of the primary system by
voltage regulators. To show the effect of primary voltage variation,
assume that the primary voltage drops as load comes on in the plant.
The transformer taps have been selected so that the no-load voltage is
450 volts as in Fig. 4.5. When load comes on the power syst,em,the same
voltage drop occurs as in Fig. 4.6, but in addition, the primary system
voltage is assumed t,o drop sufficiently to cause an additional 10-volt drop
in the vokage at the secondary of the transformer. This primary voltage
spread adds to the total voltage spread in the plant, making the spread
480 to 440 volts or a total of 40 volts as is shown in Fig. 4.7 instead of only
30 volts as shown in Fig. 4.8 where there was no primary voltage variation.
The primary voltage spread may not always be in the direction shown
in Fig. 4.7. The primary voltage may rise when the load comes on
because of voltage regulators in the primary feeder circuit or because of
other voltage regulators in the primary power system. This voltage rise
of the primary reduces the voltage spread in the plant, as shown in Fig. 4.5.
Very weak primary systems with a high drop or regulated primary sys-
tems whose load cycle does not coincide with the load cycle of the plant
may cause excessive voltage spread in the plant-beyond the limits shown
in Table 4.9. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.9. Automatic voltage regula-
tion is required in such cases to bring the voltage spread within the limits
shown in Table 4.9. Changing transformer taps to increase the vo1t:ige
a t full load will not solve the problem because that will increase the
no-load voltage beyond 450 volts.
204 VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

-
480- ----

470-
VOLTAGE DROP THRU VOLTAGE DROP IN
y1
TRANSFORMER SEOWDARI FEEDER
9 15 VOLTS
VOLTAGE DROP IN
450 -
TOTAL VOLTAGE SPREAD

440 _________________________________
I
480 TO 440 VOLTS 140 VOLTS1 --- -______
FIG. 4.7 Full-load voltage conditions for circuit shown in Fig, 4.4 with 10 volts (on 480-
volt baris) primary voltage spread. Primary voltage varies from maximum at no load to
minimum a t full load.

VOLTAGE DROP I N
SECONDARY FEEDER-
10 VOLTS

FIG. 4.8 Full-load voltoge condition3 for circuit shown in Fig. 4.4 with 10 volt. (on 480-
volt basis) primary voltage spread. Primory voltage varier from minimum at no load to
maximum at full load.

_____

;1
_________NO LOAD VOLTAGE - 480 VOLTS

470 ~

460; PRIMARY VOLTAGE SPREAD - 40 VOLTS

4SO

G 440 ___---
VOLTAGE DROP THRU
VOLTAGE DROP IN
SECONDARY FEEDER
430 TRANSFORMER lo VOLTAGE DROP
2s__vw3
420
TOTAL VOLTAGE SPREAD
4 8 0 TO 410 VOLTS 170 VOLTS)
410 .
.
J
V O L T A G b S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 205

EFFECT OF VOLTAGE SPREAD O N UTlLlZATlON EQUIPMEN?

G e n e r a l Effects. Whenever the voltage a t the terminals of a utiliza-


tion device varies from name-plate rating of the de\.ice, something is
sacrificed either in life or performanre of t,he equipment. The effert,may
be minor or serious, depending upon the chararteristirs of the device,
how the device is applied, and the amount the voltage deviates from the
device rating. KESIA Standards provide for rert,ain tolerances whirh
may he taken advantage of without seriously affertiiig the performanre of
the apparatus. However, with usbge of electrir pover for precise opera-
tions, there is often a major sacrifire in produrtion for volt,age variations
of considerably less than given in t,he NERlA Standards.
So that the plant engineer can better judge the effect 11f vokage varia-
tion on t,he electric equipment in his plant, the rharacteristics of many
commonly used derires are given here. I t is these rhararteristirs rvhirh
have been used as a st,arting point for establishing the desired voltage
spread of Tables 4.8 and 4.9.
Effect on Induction Motors. Induction motors are the most rommoir
utilization derires in industrial plants. Thr variatioii i n rharactrristiw
as a function of voltage for the widely used inductiotr motors is shoivn i n
Table 4.G. The material in this section deals only n-ith the cffert 011
motor chararterist,ies of rhaiiges in voltage magnitude. The effect, of
unbalanced voltages is also very importatit and shonld he rotrsiderrd.
The rurrent may hecomc esressive for only a small voltage iuihalanre.
The XEBIA St,andards should be consulted for detailed information on
this subject,.
Principal Effects of l o w Voltage on Induction Motors. The most sig-
nificant effects of too lox voltage are reduction in starting torque a t i d
increased full-load t,emperature rise. The redurtion of st,arting torque
may be significant i n mot,or applications driving high-inertia rqnipmeirt.
The lower torqne i d 1 result, in longer armleration periods. Torque
mot,ors are also very materially affected hy redured voltage as thi. torque
decreases as the square of the voltage; thus a t 10 per reut helow normal
voltage, the torque is redured 19 per cent.
The increased heating at low voltage aiid full load rediirrs thr lifr of
the insulat,ion.
Principal Effects of High Voltage on Induction Motors. The most,
significant efferts of too high voltage are inrreased tnr(lue, inr,rrasrd
starting rurrent, and decreased p o r e r factor.
The increased torque may muse rouplings to shear off or damage t o
driven equipment. Increased starting curretit raiiscs greater voltage
drop in the power system, henre increases light, flirker. Uecreased p o ~ v z r
factor is particularly disadvantageous where power-fartor peualty rlanses
206 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATiNGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

TABLE 4.6 General Effect of Voltage Variation on


Induction-motor Characteristics

I Voltage Variotion

90% voltage Functionof voltage 110% voltage

Starting and maximum running


torque... ................. Decrease 19% (Voltage)’ InCreOle 21
Synchronous speed.. .......... No change Cons1.nt N o change
Per cent d i p . . ............... Increase 23% 1 (voltagel~ Decrease 17%
Full-load speed. .............. Decreore 136% ISyn. speod--.llpl Increase 1 %
Efficiency:
Full load.. ................ Decrease 2 points .............. Small increo*e
9% load. .................. Proclicolly no change .............. Procticdiy no change
)i l o a d . . ................. Increase 1 to 2 point$ .............. Decrease 1 to 2 points
Power faclor;
Full land.. ................ Increase 1 point .............. Decrease 3 points
I( load................... Increase 2 lo 3 point! .............. Decrease 4 points
36 load................... Incrcoie 4 lo 5 points .............. Decrease 5 lo 6 points
.............
Full-load ~ u r r e n t . Increase I1 Yo .............. Decrease7%
.............
Starting w r r e n l . . Decrease 10 to 12% Voitoge Inc,eo.e 10 to 12%
Temperature rise, full load...... Increose 6 to 7 C .............. Decrease I lo 2 C
Maximum torque capocity.. .... Decrease 19% IV0ltogeJ~ Increa3e 21 %
Magnetic n0ire.m load in parlicu-
lor.. ..................... Decrease slightly .............. Increase slightly

This table s h o w gencral effcets, which will vary somewhat for specific ratings.

are applied by the utilities. The higher the motor voltage rises, the lower
the power fartor mill become. This may result in a greater penalty and
hence a higher power bill.
While the temperature rise at full load on standard motors decreases
slightly for moderate overvoltages, the temperature rise may increase on
certain types of sperial motors a t even very small overvoltages. Over-
voltages of 10 t o 1.5 per cent have caused numerous burnouts on special
four-speed grinder motors. Motors rated for intermittent load are also
materially affected by overvoltagcs.
While marry drive applications are not seriously affected by voltage
deviations as much as plus or minus 10 per cent from rated voltage, there
are import,ant applications that are.
Effect on Synchronous Motors. The effect of voltage variation on the
performance of synchronous motors is similar t o that on induction motors.
However, while t,he starting torque varies as the square of the voltage,
the maximum or pull-out torque varies directly with the voltage.
From the above discussions it will be noted that, in general, voltages
slightly in excess of motor name-plate rating have less detrimental effect
V O L T A G k S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 207

on motor performance than voltage helow the name-plate rating. This


is one of the bases on which the voltage spreads in Table 4.9 mere deter-
mined. A s a n example, the figures show a recommended spread of 420
t o 180 volts for the 480-volt nominal system voltage, which is approxi-
mately 4 per cent below and 9 per cent above the 440-volt motor rating.
Effect on Incandescent lamps. The light output and life of incan-
descent filament lamps are critically affected by the impressed voltage.
I n Table 4.7 is shown the relationship of lamp life arid output t o voltage
for a vokage range from 80 t o 120 per cent of rated voltage.
I n general it may be said that for incandescent filament lamps a 1 per
cent deviation from rated voltage causes a change of 3 t o 335 per cent in
light output. It can be seen from Table 4.7 that a 10 per cent reduction
in lamp voltage results in a 30 per cent reduction in light output. In
other words, when the voltage is 10 per cent low, the investment in the
lighting system is working at only 70 per cent efficiency-thus, 30 per

!
3
i!
a
2

0
c PER CENT NORMAL VOLTS
3
9
a
FIG. 4.10 Characteristics of large gar-filled incandescent type C lampr. There are the
average of many lampr.
208 V O L T A G b S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

cent of the investment is lost. With an overvoltage of 10 per cent the


lamp-life is reduced t o less than oue-third~-t,hus lamp-replacement costs
are three times as great as a t normal voltage. Other dat,a arc shown in
Fig. 4.10, from which it, should be noted that the lumens per watt., or lamp
efficieilcy, rises sharply at voltages above 100 per cent. I n some cases,
operating eronnmies result from hurriing lamps at higher efficiency and
short life, or vice versa.
TABLE 4.7 Effect of Voltage Variations on Gar-filled
Incandescent-lamp Choracteristics

Per cent Per cent Per <en1


Socket
rated rated heoretical*
voltage
voltage lighl output life
~

96.0 80 47 1900
102.0 85 58 850
108.0 90 70 400
110.4 92 75 300
112.8 94 81 225

115.2 96 87 170
117.6 98 93 130
120.0 100 I00 100
122.4 102 105 75
124.8 104 115 60

127.2 106 I20 45


129.6 108 I30 35
132.0 110 I40 30
138.0 115 I60 15
144.0 I20 185 10
~-
* Throrrticnl lifv in thc nhsrrrcc of any mcrhanicnl hrcakagc.. In onlinary sprvire,
mcchanird hrrakage r c d n r r s t h p liip expectanrc a t tlrr lo\ver roltagrs.
Effect on Fluorescent l a m p s . The changes in lamp characteristics
iI-ith rariatioii in cirruit, voltage arc given in Fig. 4.1 1. IIIgeneral, 1 per
cent variatiim i n line voltage n-ill changc t,he lumeir oudput only about
1 per cent. Toltage is a factor in starting reliahility, and voltages l o w r
than recommeiided may result in unsatisfactory starting. It will be
noted that the ores-all efficiency (if the fluoresrerrt, lamp decreases if the
line volt,age is raised above normal. The increased line volt,age causes
the choke t,o pass more current to the lamp. This loivers the resistance
of the arc. column, rcsulting in a lower voltage drop i n the lamp itself.
The input, Ti-atts t o the lamp are slightly increased, and t,herefore the
lumen output increases over a cert,aiii range. In this condition, however,
the higher currcnt density priiduces the short ultraviolet radiation less
effirieutly; wilserpently t,he luminous efficiency of the lamp decreases.
VOLTAGGSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 209

Fluorcsreiit lamps are f a r less af'ectrd hy circuit voltage variatioli tllan


filament lamps, from t,he standpoint of life.
The life of preheat-type lamps should he quite satisfartmy throrlghollt,
the range of published voltage fur the various Iiallasts; tlicsr volt:tg(.
ranges, iii general, are 110 ti] 125, 100 t o 2l(i, 220 to 250. :ind 240 t o 280.
There may be some derrease i n life performalire \\-3ir11 o p w i t c d a t maxi-
mum vokage as compared with that, at miiiimiim vdt:igr. I I ~ i ~ e v t ~ r
there are a numher of other fartors, SWIM: of whidi arc i ~ i r p r ~ ~ d i r ~tlr;lt,
tal~l~
affect life.
There is ?onsideral)le differenre i l l this rrsprct het ~ C ~ slimlillp
I I atill
regular preheat-type lamps. The iiistairt-start rathodr whivh is ~ l s r di l l
all slimline and instalit-start lamps van Iw o p e m t d ovrr ii ividr ~'angr,if
current, from 120 to 430 ma, with rrlatiwly littlr d f c r t 1111 life.
Ballasts also affert life. Even though they mtsrt sprvitivatioll r ~ y ~ i ~ i r c , .
meiits, they have maiiufactnriiig toleranre and t h i w a r c drsigit rliffwvnws
b e t w e n types.

DECREASE0 LIGHT OUTPUT ANP INFERIOR LAMP PERFORYANCE


UNCERTAIN STARTING AND AN0 DANGER OF OVERHEATING
OPERATION MAY RESULT AT AUXILIARY MAY RESULT AT
EXCESSIVE UNDER VOLTAGE. EXCESSIVE OVER VOLTAGE.
/ \

i
x I RECOMMENDED OPERATING RANGE
BEST PERFORMANCE
I I

L I N E VOLTAGES

FIG. 4.1 1 Characteristics of fluorescent lornpr OI function of voltage applied to bollort.


210 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS. CALCULATION OF DROPS

Fluorescent lamps also differ from filament lamps in that the frequency
of start,irig is a factor iii the life obt,ained. Rated life is usually based on
3 hr of operation per start,. For 10 hr operation per start, the lamp's life
is increased approximat,ely 35 per cent.
Therefore, ally data 011 life vs. circuit voltage for the normal range in
operat,iiig voltage ivould have little significaiice. At voltages below the
lower limit, insufficient preheat current for proper cathode emission prior
t o starting may result in short life. At voltages heyoiid the upper limit,
the overcurrent operat,ioii may rcsult in unsatisfartory lamp life.
Effect on Mercury Lamps. The effect of voltage variation on mercury
lamps is shown in Fig. 4.12.
Effect on Resistance Heating Devices. The energy input and there-
fore the heat output of resistaiice heaters varies in general with the square
of the impressed voltage. Thus a 10 per cent drop in voltage will cause
a drop of 19 per cent in heat, output. This, however, holds true only for
an operating range over which the resistance remains constant.
M a n y healing devices are conservat,ively designed arid if thermostati-
cally controlled may operate satisfactorily even if the voltage varies 10
per cent or more.
However, in many rases the designer must confine his heating units into
a miiiimum of space and must, therefore, operate them near maximum
rating. Also the temperature requirements for many heating applica-
tioiis IiecessiMe the operation of the heating units a t maximum tempera-
ture. h drop i n voltage meaiis a drop in heat input, varying with the
square of the voltage, and a loss in production. On the other hand,
excessive voltage will increase the temperature of the heating units and
therefore will reduce their life. This condition applies especially t o fur-
naces operating at high temperatures near the maximum permissible for

I I I I /I/ I I I

I I I I
I
I I
I

u OC

60

40

I
0
U
10
I
60
P R I M V0LTIT.F -I
70
I
rn
CCYI
I
90
1
wo
I
110
I
iao
I
130
0 s TIIANSFORMER TAP SETTING
I
140

FIG. 4.12 Choracterirticr of mercury type H 400-watt lamps.


VOLTAG&STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATtON OF DROPS 211

the type of heating unit used. To assure uniform high production and the
best operating conditions, the voltage should be maintained mithiu a
spread of plus or minus 5 per cent of rated voltage.
Effect on Infrared Heating Processes. Although the filaments of the
lamps used in these installations are of the resistance type, the energy
output does not vary with the square of the voltage because the resistance
varies a t the same time. The radiated energy vs. voltage is shown in
Fig. 4.13 for the rating of 115 volts used on industrial infrared lamps.
The wattage input is nearly proportional t o the energy output for a volt-
age range of 50 t o 150 per cent of rated voltage. The change in wattage
and radiated energy is only 7 per cent for a 5 per cent change in voltage.
However, this might he more harmful thau a larger change in typical
resistance heaters employing thermostatic controls, if the product dryiiig
is very sensitive t o temperature differences. For the usual paint-drying
applications, no voltage coutrols are required with infrarcd lamps.
Uniformity of product speed in the oven is the usual objective for coii-
veyerized operations. Differences in heating requirements are rea,dily
accomplished by connecting the infrared lamps to a number of circuits,
so that some of the lamps can be switched on and off in accord with t,he
exact, heat,ing needs. I n t,he cases vhere lamp sivitching cannot rom-
pensat,e for the volt,age variat,ions, it may be necessary to use a voltage
regulator to maintain conveyer speed and product quality.
Effect on Electronic Equipment. The current-carrying ability or emis-
siou of all elect,ronic tubes is affect,ed seriously by voltage deviation from
rating. Figure 4.14 shows typical emission curves plotted agairist
cathode heater voltage. Curve 1, entitled Oxide Coated, applies t o most
of the thyratrons, pliotrons, and rereiving tubes. Curve 2 for thoriated
tungsten applies t o the small transmitter tubes and some of the hattery-

FIG. 4.13 Radiant-energy output of General Electric Company industrial infrared lamps
QI a function of impressed voltoge.
212 VOLTAGE- STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

heated tubes. Curve 3, Pure Tungsten, applies t o the oscillator tube


such as used in high-frequeiicy induction and dielectric heaters.
The rathode-life curve f o r pure tungsten indicates that, the life is
redured by half for esrh 5 per rent iiiwease iii cathode volt,age. This
redured life is due t o the higher rate of evaporation of the rathode mate-
rial. At voltages below rating, the loss d emission has very serious sec-

40LL
20
0

30 40

FIG. 4.14 Calculated values of electronic-tube emission and life


VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 213

ondary effects. In a vacuum tube surh as the pliotron and kenet,ron a


small loss of eniission below that needed means rednced ont,put and some-
times excessive tube heating which is reflerted in a shorter life. However,
for gas-filled tubes such as thyratrons and phanotrons i n ivhirh t,he rurrent,
is not limited by the tube spare rharge, if insuffirient emission is available
t o carry the load current, the gas molecules bombard the rathode surfare
and may destroy t,he tube in a matter of minnt,es. Therefore, it is
extremely important that the rathode voltage be kept up near rating on
these tubes for sat,isfactory service.
I n addition t o the above factors there are ot,her important things to be
taken into ronsiderat,ion. If the volt,sge is too high, the evaporated
material from the cathode may contaminate the grid or anode and cause
grid current and arc-back, making the tuhe iuoperativc.
If the rathode voltage is too low in the gas-filled tuhe, the snrfare call-
not be activated properly and loses its emitting effiiknry very quirkly.
This permits bombardment, as explained above, and destruct,ion of the
cathode.
T o permit the voltage t o fall helow rather than t o rise slightly above
rating i s serious. Standard industrial t,uhes are desigued t o operate \vith
a voltage tolerance of plus or minus 5 per cent. Iloivever, if a closer
tolerance than this can be maiutained, thc user will he amply repaid i n
increased tube life and reliable operatioil. If voltage sij-ings must he
tolerated, it is more desirable t,hat,t,he minimum s\ving be t o not less thau
95 per cent, of rating even hhuugh the average voltage may he slightly
above rating. While this prartice \\-ill, of course, give somewhat redured
tube life, it is preferablc t o low xwltage rr-hich rauees rapid tube drterio-
ration. While t,he effect of voltage change is most, important on the tube
cathode, it is also undesirable ill ot,her parts of the ririwit. Electrotiic
circuits, as all other electric cirruits, lost power mparity rapidly if the
voltage is decreased from rating. Although critiml circuits normally
contain voltage-regulator tubes and other mealis t o hold a constant
reference vokage in spit,e of line-voltage variat,ions, economic reasons pre-
vent voltage regulation on t,he majority of rirruits, and henre thcir funr-
tion will naturally be impaired by excessive voltage variation. This is
especially true when magnetic sat,uration is part of the roiitrol function.
Effect on Solenoid-operated Devices. I n this group fall solenoids,
brakes, valves, and rlutrhes. The pull of the a-c solenoid varies approxi-
mately as t,he square of the voltage. There is some deviation from this
law, depending upon which part of the brake-horsepower cnrve the sole-
noid is working. The temperature rise, too, varies approximately a s t h r
square of the vokage.
I n general, solenoids are liberally designed and standard rommerrial
solenoids are designed to operate satisfartorily on 10 per cent overvoltage
214 V O L T A G F S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

and 15 per cent undervoltage. Since an a-c solenoid has an inrush current
of approximately ten times the sustained value when sealed, the branch
circuit sJpplying it should be of ample capacity to prevent an excessive
voltage drop.
Effect on Capacitors. The corrective capacity of capacitors varies
with the square of the impressed voltage. A drop of 10 per cent in the
supply voltage, therefore, reduces the corrective capacity by almost 20
per cent, and where the user has made a sizable investment in capacitors
for power-factor correction, he loses the benefit of 20 per cent of this
investment.

RECOMMENDED VOLTAGE SPREAD AT UTILIZATION EQUIPMEN1

Rased on the foregoing effects of voltage variation on utilization equip-


ment and an extensive poll of industrial plant operating engineers, the
AIEE Committee on Industrial Power Applications established the
recommended voltage spreads at the terminals of devices in industrial
plants. These are shown in Tables 4.8 and 4.9.*
TABLE 4.8 Recommended Voltage Spread a t the Terminals of Utilization
Devices in Industrial Distribution Systems 600 Volts and Below

Nominal Commonly "red Recommended limib


Iyllem ulilizolion-device of volloge at terminals
volt.ge "Oltage rating. of ulilizolion devices

480
A00 ! 440,* 460
550,* 575
! 420-480
525-600

Drsigriations for nominal system voltages are those commonly used in industrial
plants.
* ThPse are standard polyphase-motor voltage ratings.
t Polyphase power loads may not operate satisfactorily a t this l o m ~ rlimit
In designing industrial power distribution systems, the system design
engineer should design for voltage spreads not in excess of those mentioned
in Tables 4.8 and 4.9. If anything, it would be desirable to design for
closer limits to allow for critical utilization apparatus that may be devel-
oped and widely used in the future. The history of electricity in indus-
trial plants has been to extend its use to more and more functions. As
* Thcse rwommcndstions are in iuhstantial agreement with thP recommmdations
of the joint EM-SEMA Committce whirh puhlishrd their findings in a report, Prc-
ferrpd Voltage Ratings of AC Systems and Equipmcnt.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 21s

TABLE 4.9 Recommended Voltoge Spreod a t the Terminols of Motors


Served ot Primory Voltoge

Recommended limits af
voltage at terminalr of
high-voltage moiors
Nominal syitem Motor-nome-plote
dtage *oltoge rating

2400
2400 ~ 2300" 1I 2160
2250
3920
2380
2480
4320

1
4160
4800 4600 4500 5000
6900 6600 6470 71 30
I
* I'rmrnt standard rnot,or voltagc rating.

well as driving the utilization equipment, it is alço used for a11 types of
rritical proccss control systems; therefore, its role is hecorniiig exceedingly
important, and t o fulFiI1 this role effectively, good voltage must he rnain-
taiiied iii industrial plants.

L I G H T FLICKER V O L T A G E REQUIREMENTS

Relatively slom chaiiges in voltage are associated mith voltage spreads


as discussrd iii tlie foregoiiig. There are, however, maiiy types of voltage
changes 1rhii.h are of a traiisient nature aiid last only a feiv cycles. Thcse
are commiiiily referred to as voltage flicker, aiid its primary effect is to
cause flicker iii t h r light ciiitput of lamps. The arnount of voltage varia-
tioii as a fiiiirtioii of frequency of variation which can be xvithstood on
iiicaiidesrent larnps aiid not cause ohjei:tionahle psychological effects is
shown iii Fig. 4.15. These curves were preseiited in the General Electric
Review, hugust, 1925.
Fluoresceiit lamps are less suhject t o flicker over a range of voltage that
is beloiv that whirh mil1 piit them out. Iii industrial plants, voltage
flicker i s caiised primarily hy the followiiig types of load: repetitive motor
starting, large rei,iprocatiiig cornpressors, punch presses, etc., which dram
a fluctiiating load; resistarice wcldcrs; aiid arc furnaces.
T o elimiiiatc objcctionable light flicker, the design of the systcm should
be siich that the lirnits of Fig. 4.15 are adhered to. Wider lirnits may be
iiscd uiider certaiii coiiditioiis without cornplaiiit from the personnel
orrupyiiig tlie affei,tcd arca. Ho!rcv&, this subject is so cornplicated
aiid involved t h a t general guides other than Fig. 4.15 would probably not
be of much use.
216 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS. VARIATIONS. CALCULATION OF DROPS

FLICKER OF INCANDESCENT LAMPS


CAUSED 81 RECURRENT VOLTAGE DIPS

5
0
Y
w 3
5
0
' t
t-
z
Y
0
,'w
a
0
DllO PL" "0"I DlPI PLI1 SECOND

10 82 6 J 2 I 30 12 L
YlUUlLI IFCOYDL
TIME BETWEEN DIPS

FIG, 4.15 Relation of magnitude of voltage dips to frequency of dips for incandescent
IWlPS.

METHODS O F REDUCING VOLTAGE SPREAD AND FLICKER

REDUCING VOLTAGE SPREAD (See Fig. 4.271

\Vitlr recommended values of voltage spread established by the N E E


Industrial Power Systems Committee a i d EEI-SEA\Z.%, it is possible to
study specitiv syst,ems to see hon. they romparc with these rcquiremerits.
Where voltage spreads arc found t,o be heyorid t,hose limits, there are four
11-aysof reducing the voltage spread.
1 . Carry the power further a t a higher voltage and a t a lesser dist,aim
at 1o\vcr voltage, i.e., use the load-center power system.
2. 1tediii.p the impedance of the systrm.
3. Use regiilat,iiig equipment t o rompelisate for volt,age drop.
4. Use s\~iti~Iied capacitors.
llaintaiiiiiig the volt,age at an average desirable I e i d also requires the
judicious use of traiisformer ratios and taps. Traiisformer taps (for
changing a t no load oilly) do trot, reduce the spread but affect only t,he
general voltage level arid particularly the light load voltage in the plallt.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 217

Load-center Distribution Systems. The load-ceiiter distribiitioii sys-


tem is 11011- almost uiriversally used i n industry for, among othcr reasons,
it provides Ion- voltage drop, henre small voltage spread, berausc the
power is carried right t o the load i.etiter at high Iwltage. Refer to Chap.
11 for a one-liiie diagram of a typical load-retiter system.
Table 4.10 illustrates the advantage of higher voltage distribution. I t
is obvious from this table that the tiig gaiii is made by going from voltages
iii the (i00-volt class to voltages i l l the 2.4- to 13.8-kv class for rarryitig
poll-er from the source to the load ceuter. T o illust,rate furthcr, supposc
that the voltage drop i n a 480-volt system Tx-ith long serondary feeders is
20 per relit total in the secondary feeders oiily. Should this power he
carried a t 4160 iiistead of 480 volts, the percentage voltage drop x~ould
have been only slightly ovcr one-quarter of 1 prr rrnt. Siirrc the load-
center system minimizes the length of low-\.oltage feeders, it minimizes
one of the chief causes of voltage drop atid herive redures voltage spread.
TABLE 4.10 Per Cent Voltoge Drop as a Function of Circuit Voltage for a
Feeder of a Given Cross Section
circcuit Relative Per Cent
V0ltoge Voltage Drop
240 400
480 100
2,400 4
4,160 I .33
13.800 0.12

Some examples will serve t,o illustrate the better voltage conditions in
the load-cetit,er system. The average 480-volt load-renter substatioii is
rated 750 h a . With ail average load density of 10 va per sq ft, this sub-
statioir will servc a i l arca of 73,000 s q ft,. Ideally, the load area would be
a square, with the substatioii esartly i i i the renter; then the longest feeder
length ivould tie about l(i5.ft. Rut it i d 1 he assumed t,hat t,he area is
somewhat rcctaiigular atid that the suhstatioii rannot he lorated exactly
at the center. The artual length of the longest feeder might then he
ahout 200 ft.
Figure 4.16 rontains charts showing the voltage profiles for this 480-volt
suhstatioii. The trairsformcr taps should lie set for 480 secondary volts
when the primary voltage is at its maximum atid with no load on the sub-
station. The highest, voltage that is eticoi~titered by ally equipment
served hy this substatioii is 480 volts. At maximum load, voltage drop
has its maximum effect. A 4 pcr rcnt voltage reduction i u the primary
system is assumed, to illustrate the Ion--voltage rondition. This could
he due to a dcrreasc i n the power-vompauy supply voltage with inrreased
load on its system. h drop of 15 volts due t,o traiisformer react,ancc can
he experted. Assuming the 200-ft feeder t o ronsist of a 250-MCM cahle
per phase and to he fully loaded a t 80 per rent power factor, i t mill~iutro-
218 V O L T A G b S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
duce about another 7 volts drop. h final 5 volts may be lost in the branch
circuit. The result is a minimum voltage at the end of the branch circuit
of 433 volts. In this system, voltage varies between the limit,s of 433 volts
and 480 volts---a voltage spread that should, in general, be satisfactory.
The old-type system often uses a suhstatioii as large as 3000 kva at 480
volts. And not heing of unit substation construction, it has to be located
at one edge of the load area-probably with the t,rausformers outdoors.
With the same load density as before, 10 va per sq f t , the 3000-kva snb-
station must supply an area'of 300,000 sq ft,. I n this substation the
longest feeder will probably be ahout 900 ft. The corresponding feeder
voltage drop will be 29 volts. Here the voltage spread is from 411 to 480
volts. Such a spread is well heyond the recommeuded limits. A full
load voltage of 411 i s too low t o be coiisidered good practice; 420 i s the
recommended minimum voltage for 440-volt motors.
7 5 0 KVA
SU0STATlDN

460

2440
420

400
NO LOAD VOLTAGE CONDITIONS WITH PRIMARY
VOLTAGE a T M A X I M U M

2 440-- --
> SECONDARY FEEDER/
420 -- VOLTAGE DROP- 7 VOLTS
VOLTAGE DROP-
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS. VARIATIONS. CALCULATION O F DROPS 219

60

48
w
0
a
3
0
> ABLE FULL LOAL
k 51ZE AMP
3
U U0.4 90
n
U vo. I I40
w 000 210
z 500 MCM 4 0
7 24l -
201 -
W
z
J

( -
5
SECONOARY FEEDER LENGTH(FEET1
FIG. 4.17 Chart showing length of three-conductor 600-volt cable in iron conduit to
produce 2 3 per cent voltage drop a t the most unfavorable power factor and full load
on the cable.

Tolerable Secondary-feeder Voltage Drop. Figure 4.17 offers a


guide as to about how far fully loaded cables for circuits 600 volts and less
can be run and not encounter voltage-drop troubles in a n average indus-
trial plant. Thcrc are many variables which can alter the maximum
feeder length materially, such as power factor of load, primary voltage
drop, load per feeder, etc. The chart of Fig. 4.17 is based on representa-
tive conditions, i.e., primary voltage drop 5 per cent, transformer drop
355 per cent, branch-circuit feeder drop 156 per cent. The remainder is
the secondary-feeder drop of 2>5 per cent, the basis of Fig. 4.17. The
allowable spread a t 480 volts is 480 t,o $20, or 60 volts or 1255 per c e n -
the sum of the percentages just ment,ioned. Secondary-feeder drops
greater than 235 per cent should be cherked under conditions expected at
the plant, t,o see if t,hey can be tolerated without c-using undesirably wide
voltage spreads.
Looking at this another way, 480-volt secondary feeders longer than
250 f t for small cable sizes and 400 f t for larger cable sizes should be
220 V O L T A G G S T A N D A R D RATINGS. VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

avoided from a voltage-drop st,andpoint. If longer feeders must he used,


check the voltage drop. The tolerable secondary feeder lengths are some-
what longer for 600-volt cirruits, i.e., abont 300 and 500 ft, respectively,
aud considerably shorter a t 240 and 208 volts, i.e., about 125 arid 200
f t , respectively, a t 240 volts and 100 and 175 ft,, respectively, a t 208
volts.
Reducing Impedance. Sirirc volt,age drop is a product of current
t,imes impedance, anything t,hat, is done t,o reduce the impedance of a
circuit will reduce its voltage drop. The following are some suggestions:
1. t-se closely spaced cotidurtors, i.e., use cable instead (if open wire
with widely spaced (.onductors.
2. I'se interleaved huses, that is, bnses wit,h several cotiduvtors per
phase arratiged 8 , B , C; -4. B , C ; -4, R, C , etr., instead of liuses with all
conductors of one phase widely separated from the other phases.
3 . Use t x o smaller vahles in parallel instead of one larger cahle.
4. Use standard-rea(.tattce instead of high-rea(.tanre transformers.
€Iigh-reart,ance transformers reduce short-circuit rurrciits but increase
voltage drop, particularly lrith poor power-factor loads. A compromise
is necessary hecause a lover t,hari standard-reactanre transformer, n-hilc
reducing voltage drop, may invreasc short-circuit, rurrents so high as t o
require unreasonable switchgear for protection of the circuits fed by the
transformer.
5 . Keep feeders-particularly low-voltage feeders- as short as possible.
6. Use series caparitors t o neutralize the i n d u h v e reactance of a rir-
wit. There are few if any general applira.tions of the series capacitors
for this purpose in indust,rial plants except in coiiriect,ion wit,h resistanre
welders as n o k d later in this chapter. In a few rases they have heen used
in connection with motors t o maintain sufficient vokage a t the motor
terminals when starting a large motor oii a soft, system or t o neutralize
system impedance t,o maintain good voltage on lights, etc.
U s e Regulating Equipment. Even where the plaiit power system
uses a load-center system t o rarry t.he power the great,est practical dis-
tance at high voltage, where impedances have been kept, t o a minimum
and lorn-voltage feeder lengths as short as possible, it, may not be able to
meet the required voltage spreads because of too much voltage variation
in the primary supply system or because of a process requiring unusually
close voltage spread. In some old plants, low-voltage feeders may he
large and long, giving excessive voleage drop i n the secoiidary system.
Marry plants operate at 240 or 208Y/120 volts and have excessive voltage
spread that would be reduced t o tolerable limits if 480 volts were used
instead. However, the change may not he practical or ecoriomical a t t,he
moment. I n such cases voltage-regulating equipment provides the
answer t o the problem.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 221

Voltage Regulation of M a i n Power Source. Where a transmission or


disl,ribution h i e supplies a plant with power whioh has a voltage spryad
greater than a’.iout 5 per rent,, it may tie difficult t o mairrtairi the desired
voltage spread even wiLh the best designed plant power system. In these
cases sonic form of voltage regulatioii is often required. If the supply is
at, high v d t a g e arid must, he stepped down t,o below 15 kv (commonly
-Ll(i0 or 13,800 volts) for distritiut,ion, regulation rain tie built int,o the
transformer. This regulation is accomplished by automatic t a p changing
which xi11 operat,e under load (load-rat,io (:oiitrol). Usually t,here are 32
(76 per cent) steps to enable close volt,age control over a range of plus or
minus 10 per cent..
1,oad-ratio control for plus or niiriirs 10 per cent range is a very low cost
iii the over-a11 plant costs, arid yet because the load-ratio corit,rol provides
good voltage, it will improve prodii(tiiin and quality of maliufartured
goods. Iienc,e, the dividend from t,his small investment \rill often repay
the investmerit many t,imes over earh year. It is strongly rei~ommcrided
tha.t load-ratio control tie cmsidered itt every transformix stepping down
from voltages ahorc 15 k r to plant primary voltage iii the raiige of 2:I to
13.8 ku. The systems aliove 1.5 kv arc not dn-ays regulated to suit, t,he
industrial plant but for most, r f i r i i ~ n ot x r - a l l opcratioli of t,lie poiver sys-

FIG. 4.18 A typical outdoor packoged substation in which bod-ratio control con be
incorporated.
222 VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, 'VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

tem. When load-ratio control is installed, both the utility and industrial
plant can operate their systems independently and to their own best
advautage without interference voltage wise.
Figure 4.18 illustrates an outdoor substation, typical of those whose
transformers can include load-ratio control.
Voltage Regulators. If power is supplied by the utility at below
15 kv, the only transformation required is at the individual load-center
substations. Load-ratio control in each industrial load-center unit sub-
station is uneconomical and even may he impractical. Hence, where the
primary-voltage spread is wide enough to require voltage regulation,
separate voltage regulators should be installed in the primary supply,
Fig. 4.19. For this service either three-phase step voltage regulators
(Fig. 4.20) or induction voltage regulators (Fig. 4.21) can be used. Their
standard range of voltage regulation is plus or minus 10 per cent. The
question is sometimes raised as to whether two induction regulators
should be connected in open delta. This is slightly less expensive than
three regulators to regulate three-phase circuits. However, the open-
delta connection creates an unbalanced voltage condition that should be
avoided. The voltage unbalance is small but may be enough to increase

STEP OR
INDUCTION
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR

REGULATOR HOLDS
CONSTANT VOLTAGE
HERE
\ v v
t
Y

NOTE : THE BY-PASS PERMITS MAINTENANCE O F SERVICE


TO PLANT WHERE REGULATOR IS BEING MAINTAINED
- -
FIG. 4.19 One-line dioorom rhowino the a d , .i c o t i o n of steD or induction voltom r e d o -
tori for holding constant voltage on the plant primary bur for plants served at primary
voltage.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 223

FIG. 4.20 Typicol three-phore step voltage regulator roted 13,200 volts, 208 kvo, plus
or minus 10 per cent voltage regulotion.

FIG. 4.21 Typicol induction voltage regulator rated 225 kvo, 4330 volts, plus or minus 10
per cent voltoge regulation.
224 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

the heating appreciahly in fully loaded polyphase motors. For this rea-
son, best prartice avoids the open-delta conneition in favor of three-phase
regulation.
It is rerommended that serious consideration be given the addition of
t,hese regulat,ors i n the plant supply lines whenever the expected voltage
spread in the primary supply lines exceeds ahout 5 per cent.
Regulators may he hypassed for maintenance and a t the same time
maint,ain unregulat,ed service t o the plant. Itegulat,ors, like any other
piece of apparatus, must be given consideration from a short-circuit,
standpoint.
Feeder Voltage Regulation. trt,ilit,iesoften regulate individual feeders
at distribution voltage (2100 or 416F volts, for example) t o compensate

480 VOLTS

SECONDARY FEEDER
INDUCTION VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
FEEDERS TO
MOTORS, ETC
LIGHTING FEEDER

LIGHTING LOAD
120 VOLTS
FIG. 4.22 One-line diagram showing the opplication of air-cooled induction voltage
regulators for secondary feeder regulation.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 225

for the voltage drop i n that, feeder. The itidustrial plaut does iiot often
ry, since \.oltage drops in individual primary ferde
usually small, less illan 1 or 2 per cent. Thus, regulation of voltage a t
the main h s is more rwmmotily used.
While there seems t o he little, jirstifiratioii for irrdividuul primary-feeder
regulation, there may be many appliratioris for individual seroiidary-
feeder reeulation.
._ . ,tlie voltage spread may I)<> satisfartory
For examuk,
for t,he majorit,y of utilization e q u i p
ment, such asmotors, welders, etr., but
not, considered good cliough for lights.
I n such cases, t,he lighting feeder may
be regirlat,ed and the rest irnregulated,
Fig. .4.2%. For such applications, air-
~ooledregirlalorslikethat shown in Fig.
4.23 may be used.
I n other cases, individual loads a t
GOO volts or less may require voltage
regulation t,o obtain the desired per-
formance from the equipment,. Rirh
loads might he heating unit,s, process
cont,rol, infrared ovens, hluepririt ma-
chines, lights, radio arid television
transmitt,ers, brooders, etc. Where
these loads are served at, utilizat,ion
voltage, aii iridrictimi regulator like
that, of Fig. 4.23 may be used.
lnductrol P o w e r Pock. A iie\\- dc-
velopment is a regulating loi\~-voltage
subst,atioII known as the Inductrol
Power Pack. It, is a itiiit made up
primarilyof an indurtioii voltage regu-
lator arid a dry-t,ype transformer.
The transformer is rat,ed 480 or 600
volts on t,he primary aiid %08Y/lZOor FIG, 4.23 A modern induction voltage
120/240 volts on the secondary. A regulator for circuitr 600 volts and leis.
Typical of either single 01 three phase.
primary switching- arid protective de-
vice arid secondary terminals complete the package. This unit may
be used for supplying regulat,ed lighting power from general-purpose 480-
or 600-volt feeders or for supplying any other loads with regulated 120-
volt power from 480- or 600-volt power systems.
Shunt C a p a c i t o r s . Refer t o Chap. 8 for a comp1et.e discussion of the
application of shunt capacitors t o improve voltage conditions.
Autotransformers. I n some cases where the general voltage level is
226 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

lorn and transformt?r taps cannot he used t,o correct for it, autotrans-
formers may he used t o provide a permanent boost i n voltage. T h e
autotrausformer does riot reduce t,he spread.
A t,ypiral appliration xvouid lie in the case of a, 208Y/120-voll system
supplying 220-nolt, mot,ors. The volt,ege may be proper lor the lights
hut not high eiiimgh for t,he 220-volt motors. An autolrmisformer could
he used l o step 208 volt,s up t o 220 volts for the motors only.
Generator Voltage Regulators. Where power is generated by t h e
plant,’s oxvti geiir.ralors, the voltage on t,he powerhouse bns can be held
constant or exwi varied with load to compensate for voltage drop as load
comPs on. Problems of voltage rcgulat,ion where industrial generators
are operalnd iri parallel with utility systems are referred to in Chap. 15.

REDUCING FLICKER (See Fig. 4.27)

Reduction of flicker is often a much more difficult prohlem than the


reduction of voltage spread previously referred to.
Flicker due t o reciprocating motor-driven loads such as compressors,
purich presses, et,c., can often be reduced by increasing the inertia of the
met:lranical system to smooth out the pulsations. Where this is not
ive, t,wo t,liings may be done. One is to separate flicker-producing
load from the lights or critical load, i.e., use separate supply circuits. The
nther is to use a voltage stabilizer, Fig. 4.24, to feed the critical load.
Sometimes the critical load is fed through a motor-generator set t o pro-
vide good voltage for tliet load. This, lioxvevrr, is more expensive over
all thaii voltage stabilizers and in gcmral offers no advantage in this

FIG. 4.24 Typicol voltage stabilizer.


VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 227

application. Voltage regulators previously discussed are not fast enough


to correct flicker, but for single-phase circuits, and in small sizes, auto-
matic voltage stabilizers are available to hold voltage mit,hin very close
limits. A typical model is designed to maintain an output voltage of
115 volts with maximum variation of plus or minus 1 per cent, even
though the supply volt,age may vary between 95 and 130 volts. The
volt,age stabilizer has no moving parts and no electronic tubes; its opera-
tion is obt,ained from the properly coordinated characteristics of reactors
and caparitors.
Series Capacitors. Series capacitors can be of value in reducing volt-
age flicker. C:hapt,er 8 contains a complete discussion of the application
of series capacitors.

SELECTION OF TRANSFORMER TAPS

All modern transformers in ratings above 100 kva and most or those
helow that kva rating have taps in the windings to change the turn ratio.
The taps do not materially affect the voltage drop through the trans-
former; they merely change the turn ratio, hence the no-load voltage
ratio. For example, a standard transformer rated 2400-480 volts may
have four 2>5 per cent taps in the 2400-volt winding. The standard for
these taps in transformers used in industrial systems is to have two 256
pcr cent, taps above 2400 volts and two 24i per cent taps below 2400volts.
The no-load ratios of such a transformer would be as given in Table 4.11.
TABLE 4.11 No-load Voltoge Ratios of Standard Transformer Rated
2400-480 Volts
2520-480 “0th 5% obove tap
2460-480 volts 236% obove top
2400-480 volts Norrnol rating top
2340- 480 volts 2>P% below top
2280-480 volts 5% below tap

These taps do not improve voltage regulation but are only for changing
the general vokage level iq the plant. If a 2400-480-volt transformer is
connected to a system whose maximum voltage is 2520 volts, then the
2520-480-volt tap could be used which would provide a maximum of 480
volts no load on the system, as shown by curve A , Fig. 4.25. If, for
example, another system had a maximum no-load voltage of 2400 volts,
then the 240&480-volt t a p could be used to provide 480 volts no load in
the plant. This would be as shown in curve B , Fig. 4.25. Similarly if a
plant had a maximum voltage of 2280 vo!ts, then the 2280-480-volt tap
could be used to provide a maximum of 480 volts no load in the plant, as
shown in curve C , Fig. 4.25. It will be noted that in all cases the second-
ary no-load voltage is 480 volts; so the secondary system does not know
2600-
-
-
-
- 4 8 0 VOLTS MAX

U - 440 V
c 480 -
2 2400 ---- ---- _ _ _MAX
VOLTS ____-- MIN
> - -?
>
(r
- B 40
VOLTS
U - SPREAD
I
(L
-
a 440V
2300-
- --------- ________
480 VOLTS MAX MIN
VOLTAGkSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 229

no-load voltage. By using the next tap u p on the transformer, that is,
the one rated 2460-480 volts, the turn ratio of the transformer has now
been changed so that the no-load voltage is 472 volts, as shown in curve
B , Fig. 4.26. The voltage spread will be substant,ially the same, i.e.,
40 volts, so that the minimum voltage is now 432 volts, which is well
above the recommended minimum for plant distribution systems.
By judicious selection of the transformer t a p t,he voltage within the
plant can he kept Tyithin acceptable 1imit.s provided that the primary
voltage does not vary more than about 5 per cent and that the plant dis-
tribution system is designed along modern lines with the load-center sys-
tem using short secondary feeders and transformers not larger than about
1500 kva a t 480 volts or proportional sizes a t other secondary volt,ages.
Changing taps cannot, correct conditions where voltage spread is t,oo
great. For example, suppose a plant suffered from low voltage at remote
points and had a large volt,age spread. T o be specific, suppose the spread
was 80 volts and the minimum voltage at the remote end was 400 volts,
then the maximum voltage would be 480 volts. If taps are changed to
raise the general voltaga level, the spread will not change but the 400-volt

I
- -- --4-
8 5-VOLTS - --- -_-
---MAX
g 2400 40
a VOLTS
I- SPREAD
J
0
5
> 440 V MIN
a
a
I
-
LL
P

FIG. 4.26 Voltage profile showing that rotisfactory voltages con be obtained without
excessive no-load voltage by proper election of taps on transformer.
230 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

Volloqe Correction For


TypicoI Feeder Circuits

FIG. 4.27 Summary of methods of improving


VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 231

LOW LOAD VOLTAGE


Feeder
VOltoge Ci.<"iI iee
Condition Loading

1 . tow Normal 1A1


(81
ICI

2. High leeden Normal (81


drop ID1
ICI

3. High feeder Normal (El


drop. I81
4. High feeder Overload IEI
drop. IF1

-
HIGH LOAD VOLTAGE

I . Normal
drop.

2. Normol NO load
i I Volt.ge r e g d o t o r
Tronlformer ,ap setting

Voltage 'egulalor
IBI
1A1

101
drop. Tranrformer top 'elting (A1

3. vo1t.g. "No b o d " Leoding Aulornotic switching o f capoci- IGI


rile Except shunt ot no lood tors
<apa<itorl Voltage regu1otor lif no peno1ty
o r e on1 CIQYX for leoding power factor1 IF1

IVolt.ge regulator is Only P'"<tiC.l I0l"tiO"J IHJ

LIGHTING FLICKER

Lood Causing Correcl by m e o n r of


Flicker

I . Rerirtan<e welders Series r a p o d o r with welder to reduce dernond


>POI or seom. by power.farlor correction
Series c"Po<itor in line to ne",r.lize ,y,,em
.eO<ta"Ce
Separote welder supply r i r 4 l
Volloge stabilizer l o r lighting circuit
2. Flmh. rssislmnre Separate welder supply c i r w i t
welders.
Voltoge Ifobiliier for lighting circuil
3. Motor loads. such Series coparilor in line to "e",,.lize 'y'lem
01: sow mill^, Rubber re.artance
milli. Grinders. Sep..ate motor '"pply Ci.CYil
Voltage slmbilirer for lighting circuit
4. Arc furnorer. Sante 0 s for lmotonl

voltoge conditions in an indurlriol p l a n t


232 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

minimum may he raised t o 420 volts. At the same time the maximum is
raised to 500 volts, too high for generally sat,isfactory performance.
Conversely if the maximum voltage is too high and a wide spread exists,
the chatrgiug of taps, to reduce t,he maximum voltage, reduces the mini-
mum vokagc still further.

CALCULATIONS O F VOLTAGE DROP

CALCULATION OF STEADY-STATE VOLTAGE DROPS

Steady-state voltage drops are duc t,o current flowing through a n


impedauce. T o calwlate the steady-state voltage drop, the circuit
impedance, circuit current, and power factor of that curreut relative t o
some voltage must he known. I n this discussiou the power factor will be
that of the load.
Rigorous methods of calculating voltage drop can he very involved and
complicated, particularly in cases \\.here the sending-end voltage only is
kiron-u and t,he current and poiver factor of the load vary with variation
of receiver-end voltage. For the purpose of ordinary use in industrial-
plant problems, approximate methods are generally satisfartory.
Two methods of determining voltage drops are described. The first is
hy calculation using either the sending- or receiving-end voltage, the
magnitude and power factor of the load current, and the total impcdance
of the rircuit. The second method involves using charts of voltage drop
vs. load for the various circuit, components.
Voltage Drop by Formula. Thc voltage drop in a power system may
he calculated by selecting the formula which is most snitahle as t o accu-
racy desired and the voltage n-hieh is known, such as the receiver- or
seuding-end voltage of the circuit.
111all the following formulas except Eq. (4.8) the voltages are line-to-
ueutral voltage drops. T o obtain t,he liue-to-line voltage drop in a three-
phase system, multiply the line-to-neutral voltage drop by 4.For
single-phase syst,ems t,he line-to-line voltage drop is obtaiued by multiply-
ing the line-to-neutral voltage drop by 2.
I t is possible under some (~ouditionsto oht,aiu an answer with a negative
sign from t,he folLo\yiiig formulas. I n such ('ases t h e auswer should he
interpreted as showiug that the receiver voltage is higher thao the send-
ing-end voltage. These cases will be rare, however, since the great
majorky of systems will have receiver or load voltages which are lo\\-er
than the source or sendiug-end voltage.
Nomenclature for Formulas
e = line-to-ucutral voltage drop
es = line-to-neutral voltage at source end
en = line-to-neutral voltagc at load end
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 233

8 angle whose cosine is the load power factor


=
I line current
=
R = resistance of the circuit, ohms
X = reactance of the circuit, ohms
(By convent,ion, inductive reactance is positive and capacitive
reactance is negative.)
cos 8 = load power fact,or in decimals
sin 8 = load reactive factor i n decimals
(By convention, sin B is positive for lagging power-factor loads
and negative for leading power-factor loads.)
Approximate data on circuit and transformer impedances may be
obtained from Chap. 1 and trigonometric functions from the Appendix.
Exact Formulas. If eR is known,

Line-to-neutral voltage drop


= d ( e B cos 8 + I E ) ? + (ee sin 8 + I X ) p- eR (4.1)
If es is known, -
Line-to-neutral voltage drop
= es + +
I R cos 8 I X sin B - .\/es* - ( I X cos 8 - I t l sin 8)' (4.2)
The voltage drop can also he obtained hy a proportional method.
Both the voltage drop and phase shift due t o voltage drop can be obtained
by

where all quantities are expressed vertorially and Z, is the equivalent


load impedance and Zsis the system impedance including ZL.
Voltage drop = es - eR (numerically) (4.4)
I n Using Eq. (4.3) it should he noted that the load impedance is assumed
to he constant, whereas all other formulas are based on the load current
remaining constant.
A p p r o x i m a t e Formulas. I n practical cases, the results of these
approximate formulas are suffiriently accurate where a slide rule is used.
If e R is knomn,
Line-to-neutral voltaee droD Y

-
- I ( R cos '+ sin
( I X cos 8 - I R sin S ) l
+
+ 2(en I R cos 8 + I X sin 8 )
If es is known,
Line-to-neutral voltage drop
= I R cos 8
- I R sin 8)*
+ I X sin 8 + ( I X cos 8 2e.
234 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

Most Commonly Used Approximate Formula. Where either e R or es


is known, then
Line-to-neutral voltage drop = I ( R cos 0 +X sin 0 ) (4.7)
Equation (2.7) can he converted as follows to calculate the per cent
voltage drop :

Per cent voltage drop =


kva (R cos 0 + X sin 0 )
(4.8)
10 (kv)*
where kva is three-phase kva and kv is line-to-line kilovolts. For single-
phase circuits the per cent drop is twice this value.
From the vector diagram in Fig. 4.28 it can he seen that, whilc Eqs.
(4.7) and (4.8) are approximate, they are close enough for practical pur-
poses. In practical cases the angle between e,; and ey will he small. In
these formulas the error diminishes as the angle between e R and es
approaches zero and is exact if that angle is zero. The latter condition
will exist when the power factor of an inductive load is the same as the
power factor of the inductive circuit through which load current is caus-
ing the voltage drop. In Fig. 4.28, 0 is the power factor of the load.
Effect of Nonlinear Loads. The error caused by variation of load cur-'-_
rent and power factor with voltage applied to the load is not taken into
consideration in any of the foregoing formulas. If this error is significant,
it may he compensated for by using the cut-and-try method; that is,
first assume a given load or receiver-end voltage eR in the formulas. Then
if the value obtained by subtracting the calculated voltage drop from the
sending-end voltage is considerably different from the assumed receiving-
end voltage, make another try. Generally such refinement is not neces-
sary when the total plant voltage drops are less than 10 per cent.

SENDING END
OR BUS VOLTAGE

\
R E C E I V E R OR
LOAD VOLTAGE

CALCULATED
VOLTAGE DROP

F ACTUAL
VOLTAGE DROP
ERROR

FIG. 4.28 Diagram indicating magnitude of error when using Eqr. (4.7) and (4.8).
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 235

STEADY-STATE VOLTAGE DROP BY USE OF CHARTS

Voltage Drop in Transformers. Figures 4.29 and 4.30 may be used to


determine the approximate voltage drop in single-phase and three-phase
60-cycle liquid-filled self-cooled transformers. The charts are applicable
for single-phase transformers by entering the chart a t three times the
single-phase kva rating.
Figure 4.29 covers transformers in the following ranges:
Single-phase :
250-500 kva, 8.6-15-kv insulation classes
833-1250 kva, 2.5-25-kv insulation classes
Three-phase :
225-750 kva, 8.6-15-h insulation classes
1000-10,000 kva, 2.5-25-kv insulation classes
An example of the use of the chart is given below.
Example. Find the voltage drop in a 2000-kva three-phase KO cycle
236 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

transformer rated 4160-480 volts. The load is 1500 kva at, 0.85 power
fact,or.
Solution: Enter the chart on the horizontal scale a t 2000 kva. Extend
a vertical line t o its interpeetion with the 0.85-power faetoP t u n e .
Extend a line from this point horizontally to the left t o its intersection
with the vertical scale of per cent voltage drop for rated load. Multiply
this value by the ratio of actual load to rated load.
Per cent drop at rated load = 3.67
Per cent drop at 1500 kva l5Oo X 3.67 = 2.75
= ~

2000
Actual voltage drop = 2.75 per cent X 480 = 13.2 volts
Figure 4.30 applies to the 34.5-kv insulation class transformers in
ratings from 1500 to 10,000 kva. These curves can be used t o determine
the voltage drop for transformers in the 46- and 69-kv insulation classes
by using appropriate multipliers a t all power factors except unity. To
correct for 46 kv, multiply the per cent vokage drop obtained from the
chart by 1.065, and for 69 kv multiply by 1.15.
Example. Find the per cent voltage drop in a 5000-kva 69,000-
13,800-volt three-phase 60-cycle liquid-filled transformer carrying 3500
kw a t 0.8 power factor.
Solution: Enter chart Fig. 4.30 a t 5000 kva and read per cent voltage
drop where this transformer size intersects the 0.8-power factor curve.
Per cent voltage = 4.25 for 5000 kva

6
NOTE: CURVES ARE BASED ON 6 PERCENT
Q IMPEDANCE FOR 34.5 KV CLASS
5 I I I I I I I
05
w
I
4-
&

54
a
0
U
0
u
0
3
4
5
8
I-
,
z
Y
Y
U
Y I
a

TRANSFORMER RATING-THREE PHDSE KVA

FIG. 4.30 Tronrformer voltage-drop curves for three-phase transformers, 34%-kv volt-
age class.
VOLTAGbSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 237

Transformer load 3500


= -
0.8
- 4380 kva
Multiplier for 69-kv insulation class = 1.15
4380
Actual per cent voltage drop = 4.25 X 1.15 X - = 4.28 per cent
5000
Voltage Drop in Cable. Voltage-drop curves, Figs. 4.31 to 4.34, may
be applied with reasonable accuracy to all types of paper-insulated,
rubber-insulated, and varnished-cambric-irisulated cable insulated for 600
or for 5000 volts. Two charts were prepared for each of these two voltage
classes of cable to cover the different t.ypes of installat,ions for cable sizes
No. 14 to X o . 4/0 Amg and 250 to 750 MCM. Voltage drop for loads
between 0.7 power factor lagging and unity is shown for t,his range of
cable sizes for three-conductor and three single-conductor cables in mag-
netic conduit.
The resistance and reactance used in preparing these charts are taken
from Chap. I. They are calculated values based on 75 C copper tempera-
ture and scattered tests. In determining reactances, it was assumed that
for three conductors in conduit the cables d l lie a t random in the hot-
tom of the conduit. If the cables are twisted together so that they oper-
ate in contact with each other, they should be regarded as a three-conduc-
tor cable.
The chart,s are prepared for three-phase voltages. For single-phase
circuits consisting of a two-conductor or two single cables in a conduit,
the. voltage drop measured line-to-line will be 16 per cent higher than
indicated in the charts.
Use of Voltage-drop Charts for Cable. First, select the chart apply-
ing to t,he problem with regard to voltage and type of installation.
Enter the chart a t the abscissa with the power factor of the load. Extend
a line vertically from this point to the correct size cable. On the ordinate
read the volts drop per 100 amp per 100 ft or per 10,000 amp-ft. Multi-
ply this value by the multiple of 10,000 amp-ft, for the problem under
consideration to get line-to-line voltage drop in a t,hree-phase system.
For a single-phase system multiply the three-phase drop by 1.IG.
Example. Assume that a 500-ft three-conductor rubber-insulated size
KO. l/O-hwg cable in magnetic conduit is the feeder for a three-phase
440-volt 60-cycle 150-amp 0.8-power factor inductive load. Find the
voltage drop.
Solution: Enter chart, Fig. 4.31, at 0.8 power factor and move upward
to the KO.l/O-Awg cable curve. From the point of intersection move
to the left and read thc voltage drop as 2.08 volts per 10,000 amp-ft.
Ampere-feet in cable = 500 X I50 = 75,000
Actual voltage drop = E 0
10,000
X 2.08 = 15.6 volts
238 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

W
LL
w
n
I
4

8
0
0
LL
w
0
u)

3
0
>
z
-
&
z
n
W
c
3
4
50
>
VOLTAGGSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 239

FIG. 4.32 Voltage-drop curves for three single-conductor 600-volt a b l e r in magnettc


conduit.
240 VOLTAGbSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

FIG. 4.33 Voltage-drop curves for three-conductor 5000-volt cable in magnetic conduit
or interlocked-ormor cable.
242 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

Voltoge Drop in Busway. Figures 4.35 and 4.36 may be used to deter-
mine the approximate voltage drop in a busway. Figure 4.35 applies to
a busway that is designed specifically for low-voltage drop. Figure 4.3F
applies t o a typical feeder busway of the type used with plug-in switches.
Figure 4.35 gives the line-to-line voltage drop in volts for GOO-, 800-,
1000-, and 1350-amp low-voltage-drop busway. These curves apply
only for balanced loading of the busway at an operating temperature
of 70 C.
The voltage drops for other than rated load may be obtained by multi-
plying the voltage drop for rated load by the ratio of actual load to rated
load, Similarly, the voltage drop for lengths other than 100 ft may he

M 40 60 BO W O 20 40 60 80 100
LOAD POWER FACTOR LOAD POWER FACTOR

W A D POWER FACTOR
FIG. 4.35 Voltage-drop curves for low-voltage-drop burwoy ot rated load. 70 c
operating temperature assumed.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 243

obtained hy multiplying the voltage drop for 100 f t by the ratio of actual
length to 100 ft.
These corrections are expressed in the following formula:
Actual line-to-:ine voltage drop
actual load actual length
= voltage drop for 100 feet at rated load X
rated load 100 ft
Example. Find the voltage drop on a 200-ft run of 800-amp husway
carrying a 600-amp load a t a 90 per cent power factor.
Solution: Enter Fig. 4.35 for au 800-amp husway at 90 per cent power
factor on the horizontal scale. Follow a vertical line to its intersection

4 . 5 X 3 = 13.5 V O L T S
FIG. 4.36 Voltoge-drop curves for typical plug-in bvrwcly carrying rated load.
244 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

0 0 the curve and proceed horizontally to the left. The intersection of


this line with the vertical scale is the voltage drop per 100 ft for an
800-amp busmay, 2.4 volts.
600 200
Line-to-line voltage drop = 2.4 X X - = 3.6 volts
800 100
~

Single-phase voltage drops may he obtained by multiplying the three-


phase voltage drop times 1.16.
Figure 4.36 gives the line-to-line voltage drop in volts for a plug-in
type busmay. An example is given with the curves to illustrate their use.
Example of System Voltage-drop Calculation. The power system
shown in Fig. 4.37 is used t o illustrate the use of the foregoing charts and
formulas. Using the most critical feeders from the standpoint of voltage
33.5 KV TRANSMISSION L I N E
60 CYCLES

OVERHEAD LINE

10,000 KVA PERCENT 2 =


I.OPERCENTti6.0 PERCENT
34.400 -4160 VOLTS
BUS A LOAD
9000 KVA 0.8 PF LAGGING
4160 VOLTS

3- CONDUCTOR 250 MCM

1500 KVA, 4160-480


PERCENT t = I . O PERCENT
T t j 5 . 5 PERCENT
1300 aus a LOAD
KV A 0.8 PF LAGGING *-480 VOLTS
480 VOLTS
I I I 3 - k S o O MCM V C L
I N CONDUIT

OHMS ?=0.0072tj0.009200 FEE1

A
W
250 KVA
440 VOLTS
0.7 PF LAGGING
FIG. 4.37 System one-line diagrom used 01 a baris for examples of system voltage-drop
Calcdatio".
V O L T A G k S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 245

drop, four solutions involving varying degrees of accuracy were made to


determine the operating voltage at the 4160- and 480-volt utilization
buses and at the load end of a 480-volt feeder.
In each solution except 4, it is assumed that the indicated load kva,
power factors, and efficiency remain constant for voltage variatious due
to regulation. I n other words, the load current varies with applied
voltage to keep the kva constant.
Table 5.12 lists the operating voltages obtained by the four methods of
solution used.

TABLE 4.12 Operating Voltages as Calculated by Four Methods

Solution
1
1
Equations'
used
I
I

Bur A I
i

Bur 8 I
I
Secondary
feeder load

1 14.7) 3900 425 418


2 14.31 end 14.41 -~
3910/-2.2" 426/--4.40 419/~4~50
3 Charts 3925 429 422
4 Charts 3932 432 425

* Sce Eqs. (4.3), (4.4), and (4.7)

Solution 2 was made by using the exact formulas Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4).
It shows that the phase angle of each successive voltage level is shifted to
lag slightly the no-load voltage. It should he recognized that the use of
this exact formula does not necessarily mean that the answer is exact,
because it is necessary to use a cut-and-try process in the solution. As
with any cut-and-try process, a point is reached where the added accuracy
to be obtained does not justify another trial, and therefore the answer is
not absolutely exact.
In solution 3, voltage-drop charts were used to determine voltage drop.
The error involved in this method results from the greater margin of
error in reading charts and in the arithmetical additiou of voltage drops
slightly out of phase.
Solution 4 involved the use of charts but neglected t,he cut-and-try
procedure necessarily employed in the other solutions. The cut-and-try
procedure was used in the other solutious because the load kva x a s
assumed to be constant as the voltage changed and therefore t,he load
currents changed. In this solution the current x a s assumed to remain
constant as the load voltage varied.
Solutioii 1 is given helow as an example.
Solution 1: Calculatiou by approximate Eq. (4.7).
246 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

where v = line-to-line voltage drop


I = line current, amp
R = circuit resistance, ohms
X = circuit reactance, ohms
e = load power-tactor angle

Bus A Voltage. From Fig. 4.37,


Overhead line resistance = 1.97 ohms
Overhead line reactance = 1.52 ohms
Converting transformer per rent resistanre and reactance t o ohms by
the formula
%ohms X (kv)' X 10
Ohms =
kva
and using the principle that transformer impedance varies approximately
as the square of the per cent voltage tap used,
X (0.975)' 1,12 ohms
K,. = 1.0 X (34.4)*
10,000
X 10 =

6.73 ohms
x, = 6.0 X (34.4)'10,000
X (0.975)' X 10 =

Total ohms resistanre = 1.97 + 1.12 = 3.09


Total ohms reactance = 1.52 + 6.73 = 8.25
Assuming 4lFO volts at bus A and considering constant load,
9000 kva = 1250
Bus A amperes =
4X 4.160
1250 X 4.16 = 155
Overhead line amperes =
34.4 x ,975
Suhstitutingin the voltage-drop formula with cos 0 = 0.8 andsin 0 = 0.6,

v = 4X 155(3.09 X 0.8 +
8.25 X 0.6)
= 4X +
155(2.48 4.95)
= 4 X 155 X 7.43
= 1990 volts
Bus A volts
= (source voltage - voltage drop) X (power transformer ratio)
4.160
= (33,500 - 1990) 34,4
o,975
VOLTAGE- STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 247

Recalculating the voltage drop assuming 3910 volts on Bus A ,

Overhead line amperes -X


= 4160 155 = 165
3910
Y = 4X 165 X 7.43 = 2120 volts
4.160
Bus A voltage = (33,500 - 2120)
34.4 x 0.9%

This value is assumed t o he close enough for practical purposes.


Bus B Voltage. From Fig. 4.37,
5-kv cable resistance = 0.1094 ohm
5-kv cable reactance = 0.0712 ohm
Transformer resistance = 1.0% on its own base

Transformer reactance = 5.5% on its own base


-
-
5.5.X (4.16)'X 10
1500
~~

= 0.634 ohm

Total ohms resistance = 0.109 + 0.115 = 0.224 ohm


Total ohms reactance = 0.071 + 0.634 = 0.705 ohm
Assuming 450 volts on bus B ,
1300 kva
Bus B amperes = = 1670
&X
0.450
480
5-kv cable amperes = 1670 X -- = 193
4160
v = 4 I ( R cos 0 +
X sin 8 )
cos 0 = 0.8, sir1 0 = 0.6
v = 4X193(0.224 X 0.8 0.705 X 0.6)+
= 43 X 193(0.179 0.423) +
= fi X 193 X 0.602 = 201 volts

Bus B voltage = (bus A voltage - v) (transformer ratio)


480
= (3900 - 201) -
4160
248 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

I{rcali~ulatrngI> a\suming 4"(i volts on bus H with same load,


450
5-kv cahlr amperes = 193 X - = 204
4%
v = 4 3 X 204 X O.GO2 212 volts
=
480
Hns B voltage = (3900 - 212) -
4160

Secondary load voltage, assuming q20 volts a t load,

Load amperes 250


=
= 344
0.420 X 4
Cable resistance = 0.0072
('able reactance = 0.0090
v = 4x r ( x cos B + X sin 8 )
ros B = 0.7, sill B = 0.714
c = 4
3 x 344(0.007" x 0.7 + O . O O ~ Ox 0.714)
= 4X 344(0.00504 + 0.00643)
= 43 X 344 X 0.01147
= G.9 volts
Load voltage = 425 - G.9 = 418.1 volts
Since the most i.ritii.al feeders n-ith respect, t o voltage drop have been
selerkd, the ralrulated load voltages a t hus A , bus B , arid at the sec-
ondary-load trrminals provide sufkieirt information t o analyze the sys-
tem from the standpoint of voltage drop. Xct,ually, the 480-418 voltage
spread at the serondary-load terminals iiidicates that the system is on
the horder line and should he stiffened, possibly'hy using a larger 5-kv
feeder cable. Howevw, this is beyond the scope of this problem, which i s
mcrcly iriteiidcd to out,liiic t h e method of det,ermitriiig voltage drop.

CALCULATION OF VOLTAGE DROPS DUE TO MOTOR STARTING

INTRODUCTION

I t is rharactrristic of most a-c motors that the riirrent, which they draw
oii startiirg is mu(.h higher t,han t,heir rrormal running ( w r e n t . Syn-
i~hronousand sqnirrel-rape iudi~rtionmotors started 011 full voltage may
draw a c u r ~ w i tas high as sevt!ii or eight t,imes their fnll-load running
rurrcnt. This sriddeir increase in the (.usrent, drawn from the power
system may r c s i i l t iii csressive drop i n volt,age unless it is considered in
VOLTAGbSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 249

the design of the system. Folloii-ing are methods for ralculatiug the
voltage drop which results from startiug of three-phase induction aud
synrhronous motors.

M O T O R - S T A R T I N G METHODS

The motor-startiug kra, imposed on the power-supply system, and t,he


available motor torque are greatly aKected by the method of starting
used. l'ahlc 4.13 gives a conlparisoii of several common methods.
Full-voltage Starting. This method usually provides the most torque
hut muses the greatest load t o be applied to the system. The load
applied equals (at motor rated voltage) the full-voltage starting kva of
hhe mot,or. Frill xwlt,age is the least espeosive method of startiug.
The full-voltage starting kva of syurhroiious and squirrel-cage indur-
tion motors ruuges from 230 to 800 per cent of their full-load h a input.
The latter is approsimately cqual to t,hc horsepower rating of induction
and 0.8-pomr-factor syirrhrorious motors and is approximately 80 per
eelit of the horsepower rating of 1.0-poiver-factor syrichronous motors.
If the starting curreut in ampercs is kno\vu, the startiug kva (of three-
phase motors) may he ralrulated from the formula
line-to-line volts
Kva = 1.73 X amperes X
looo
Reactor Starting. With t,his method, a reactor is connect,ed in series
with the motor aud is shorted out when the motor approaches full speed.
4 reactor starter redures the line current in proportion t o the tap used.
For example, with a 50 per cent tap, the current is cut in half. The
torque is reduced hy the square of the tap used. Hence, the torque is
reduced more rapidly than the line current. Reactor st,arting is com-
mouly used for large motor-generator sets.
Resistor Starting. Resistor starting is similar t o reactor starting
except that a resistor is used in series with the motor, instead of a reactor.
The torque available for a given reductioti in startiug current is the same
as with a reactor. The hie-voltage drop may be somewhat less because
of the better power factor of a resistance-st,arting load.
Resistor starting seldom offers a cost advantage, except wheu several
steps are required, t o meet limitations established for the maximum kva
applied at any oue step. Power companies sometimes establish such
limitations.
Use of several steps may permit a generat,or voltage regulator to restore
voltage between steps. It also tends to make light flicker less noticeahle,
even if most of the drop is in the distribution system and cannot be
reduced by regulators.
250 VOLTAGE- STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

Autotransformer Starting. If an autotransformer starter is used, the


line current is reduced approximately as the square of the tap setting.
For example, if an autotransformer at a 50 per cent tap is used, a motor
starting load of 100 per cent of the rating of a generator will be redured
to about 25 per cent. Table 4.13 shows 30 per cent because it allows for
autotransformer magnetizing current. Autotransformer starting may
cost more than reactor starting, but may be needed to provide adequate
torque.
The tap selected should always be high enough to accelerate the motor
to a speed a t which the current will not be excessive after transfer t o the
running connection. If the load torque is high a t the time of transfer to
the line, a high transient inrush for a few cycles may occur at this time
even if the speed is high. This is seldom sustained long enough to cause
troublesome voltage dip, but may cause tripping of instantaneous over-
current protection for the motor circuit.
TABLE 4.13 Comparison of Motor-starting Methods

Line voltage = motor-rated voltage


-
Type of starter* t.rting tolqY*
Motor voltage
f"ll-"oltoge
line voltage
tarting torque

........................
Full.roltage stmrter. 1 .O 1 .O 1 .O
Autotransformer:
........................
80 Per Cent t o p . . 0.80 0.64 0.68
65 per cent tap.. ........................ 0.65 0.42 0.46
50 per cent tap.. ........................ 0 .so 0.25 0.30
Resistor storm, single step [adjusted for motor
voltage to be 80 per cent of line voltogel 0.80 0.64 0.80
Reoctor;
50 per cent tap..
45 per <*"I top..
.......................
........................
.I 0.50
0.45
0.25
0.20
0.50
0.45
......................
37.5 per Cent t o p . . 0.375 0.14 0.375
Part-winding starter [low-speed m o l ~ r sonlyl:
75 per cent winding. ..................... 1 .O 0.75 0.75
50 per cent winding. ..................... 1 .O 0.50 0.50

* The settings given %rethe more common for each type.


Part-winding Starting. Some motors can be provided with taps for
part-winding starting. In such cases, power is first applied to a portion
of the winding and later the entire winding is connected to the line. This
is sometimes done in several steps, using increasing proportions of the
winding.
When only part of the winding is energized, the current and torque are
VOLTAGbSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 251

less than for full-voltage starting. They are both changed approximately
in proportion t o the amount of winding connected. That is, for a typical
low-speed motor, at the half-winding connection, the current and torque
are approximately equal t o one-half their full winding values. This
method is comparable in cost with autotransformer starting, and also
provides a smoother transfer to the running connection. However, this
method is seldom advantageous for motors above 514 rpm (fourteen
poles), because it provides relatively less torque for such motors.
Starting of Wound-rotor Motors. Wound-rotor motors are invariably
started on full voltage, but control is provided which inserts a high
resistance in the secondary winding on starting and short circuits this
resistance in one or more steps as the motor comes up to speed. This
serves to limit the starting current drawn by the motor-usually to
about 150 per cent of full-load current. Furthermore, this current will
have a high power factor. Consequently, the voltage drop caused by
starting this type of motor is comparatively small. On the other hand,
wound-rotor motors and their control have a relatively high cost.

TYPE OF VOLTAGE DISTURBANCE PRODUCED BY M O T O R STARTING

Generator Voltage. Figure 4.38 shows the behavior of the voltage of


a generator when an induction motor is started. Starting a synchronous

100

90
80
$ 70
2
d"
>
5 50
Y
u 40
IL
f 30
20

ov
10

0 2 3 4 5 6

TIME- SECONDS

MOTOR-STARTING XVd*IDDPfR CENT OF DENEMTOR RATING

A - NO INITIAL LOeiD ON GENERATOR


B - 5 0 PER CENT INITIAL LOAD ON GENERATOR
N - NO REGULATOR
FIG. 4.38 Typical generator voltage behavior.
151 V O L T A G S S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

motor is essentially similar, up to the time of pull in. I n the case illus-
trated, a full-voltage starter is used, and the full-voltage starting kva is
ahout 100 per rent of t,he generator rating. I t is assumed that the gen-
erator is provided with an automatic voltage regulator.
Curves .A and R show the performance, with the regulator operating,
for init,ial loads on the generator of zero and 50 per cent, respectively.
The minimum voltage is about 75 per cent and is not affected much by the
iriitial load. This is typical with most initial loads which consist of a
combination of lighting loads and partially loaded iuduction motors.
The voltage regulator restores the voltage ton-ard normal in about 2
see. At, this time the motor is usually st,ill at low speed and drawing a
high current.
The initial load on the generator has an important effect on the value t o
which the voltage is restored by regulator action. This is illustrated by
curve B , for whirh the voltage is restored by the regulator to only about
85 per cent of normal. This restored voltage is the voltage available for
breaking away and accelerating the motor. When the motor comes up
to speed, its current becomes much less, so that t,he regulator then restores
the generator voltage to 100 per rent. The reason the regulator usually
cannot restore the voltage to 100 per cent when a large motor is started
on a heavily loaded generator is that the exciter maximum (ceiling)
voltage limits the available generator excitation.
Sometimes it is only necessary to calculate the minimum voltage. In
other cases it is also necessary to calculate the restored voltage available
for break away and accelerations. Methods of estimating each of these
voltages are included.
Minimum voltage is needed to determine whether undervoltage devices
and contactors connected to the system mill drop out, or running motors
stall, during the disturbance. The minimum voltage is also a determin-
ing factor in light flicker. The restored voltage is necessary to estimate
the torque available for starting the motor.
Usually it is sufficient to determine the minimum voltage and the
restored voltage based upon the current drawn by the motor at standstill,
i.e., upon the locked-rotor current. It is sometimes necessary, however,
to determine the restored voltage throughout the acceleration of the
motor. Although the current drawn by a motor decreases as it comes u p
to speed, resulting in an increasing generator voltage, the load torque
may also increase with speed so that a higher voltage is necessary to
ensure acceleration.
In the case of a synchronous motor i t may be necessary to check the
restored voltage at the speed at which field excitation is applied (95 per
cent of synchronous speed or higher) to make sure that the motor will
pull into step. The pull-in torque of a synchronous motor varies approxi-
VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 253

mately as the square of the voltage at the motor terminals just before
application of field.
Distribution-system Voltage. Frequently there are transformers,
lines, or cables between the motor starter and the generator or generators
supplying the power for starting. The drop in the transformers, lines, or
cables will be additional to the generator drop. Often practically all the
drop is in this distribution equipment. The drop in this equipment is
not reduced by the action of voltage regulators. Consequently, when
practically all the drop is in transformers, lines, and cables, the voltage
falls immediately and docs not rerover till the motor approaches full
speed.

ESTIMATING GENERATOR VOLTAGE DROP

Minimum Voltage. The curves of Fig. 4.39 may he used for estimating
the minimum voltage occurring at the terminals of a generator supplying
power to a synchronous or squirrel-cage induction motor which is being
254 VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

started. The initial load on the generator, if any, is assumed to be of


the constant-current type.
The three sets of curves shown are for three ranges of generator speed.
The generator reactances assumed to apply for each speed group are also
given in Fig. 4.39.
The curves show the minimum voltage, in per cent of the initial gen-
erator voltage, plotted against the "motor-starting kva" in per cent of
generator rated kva. The "motor-starting kva" is the kva which would
be drawn by the motor being started if the generator voltage were main-
tained at rated value. Since there is a drop in generator voltage, the
actual kva drawn by the motor will generally be less than the value
defined above, but the effect of this is taken into account by the curves.
The several curves in each speed group-except those marked N a n d E-
apply for various values of a factor K. This factor is the exciter response
in volts per second divided by the exciter voltage for rat,ed generator
voltage at rated load and multiplied hy the generator open circuit field
time constant in seconds. Approximate values of K are given in Fig. 4.40.
The values of Ii in Fig. 4.40 are based on the use of a self-excited excit,er
controlled by a direct-acting rheostatic voltage reguhtor (such as the

GENEIIbTOR e I T E O K"&

~ W T DIRECT-CONNECTED
" EXCITER * HULTlPLlERS TO *ILLOW FOR "IMIAITION OF EXClTER
.....~ WIT"
~ BELTED
.. EXCITER RESPONSE WlT" GENERATOR IN1TIAL L o l o
NUMBERS ON CURYES ARE R P N lNlTlbL LOAD (PER C E N T , UULTlPL" I( B"
NUMBERS I" BRACKETS &RE EXClTER R P H (00 ,70
75 I55
50 I"5
25 I25
0 ,oo
FIG. 4.40 Typical valuer of performance factor K for (I-c generators.
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 255

A-C
GENERATOR

EXCITER
FIELD 1 u
GENERATOR
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR ''lL

FIG. 4.41 Excitotion system for a-c generator.

General Electric Company Type GDA) as shown in Fig. 4.41. In this


system the response of the exciter depends not only upon its design hut
also on the setting of the exciter field rheostat. The latter is determined
by regulator requirements. The rurves of Fig. 4.40 are based on a setting
of the exciter field rheostat which makes available a maximum generator
field current of 120per cent of its rated value. The K fartors given by the
curves are typical only, and in an individual case K may vary considera-
bly from the value shown.
The curves of Figs. 4.39 and 4.40 allow an estimate to be made of the
generator miuimum voltage directly from the generator kva rating, the
generator speed, the exciter speed, and the motor starting kva. If
guarantees of performance are required, a study based on romplete data
should be made considering the characteristics and adjustments of gen-
erator, exciter, regulator, exciter rheostat, initial load, and the motor
being started.
Restored Voltage. The curves of Fig. 4.42 may be used for estimating
the restored voltage of a generator, that is, the voltage attained after the
regulator has acted to apply maximum excitation current to the generator
(or has restored the voltage to its initial value) following the starting of a
squirrel-cage induction or synchronous motor.
The curves show the restored voltage in per cent of rated generator
voltage plotted against the kva which would be drawn by the motor being
started if rated generator voltage were maintained. The several curves
apply for various values of initial load which is assumed to be a constant-
current load of 0.8 lagging power factor.
The excitation system is assumed to be such that a maximum excita-
tion current of 120 per cent of rated generator field current can he
obtained.
If guarantees of performance are required, a study based on complete
data should be made considering the characteristics and adjustments of
generator, exciter regulator, exciter rheostat, initial load, and the motor
being started.
156 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

MOTOR S T I R T l N G I("& I N P E R C E N T O F G E N E R l T O R K Y A A T R A T E O O E N E R ~ T O AVOLThQE

( B A S E D O N Y l x l Y u Y EXCITATION-IZOPER C E N T O F R A T E D G E N E R A T O R F l E L O C U R R E N T I

NOTE: RESTORED VOLTAGE E W I L S VALUE READ FROM CURVE OR THE


INITIaL YOLTlGL (REGULATOR SETTING1 WHICHEVER I S LOWER

FIG. 4.42 Restored generator vollage.

Advontages of Voltage Regulators. Figures 4.38, 4.39, and 4.42


show dashed curves, marked N , which indicate the results t o be expected
if no regulator is used. It is apparent that regulators are very beneficial.
They practically always justify their cost whenever the starting of large
motors is involved. For example, consider a 480-volt 125-kva 1200-rpm
generator. From Fig. 4.40 this may have a performanre factor K of
about 1.7 with a regulator. From Fig. 2.39, 110 per cent motor-starting
load or 138 kva will cause a 28 per cent voltage dip.
This load would correspond t o starting a 25-hp motor at full voltage.
T o obtain the same motor-starting performance without a regulator
would require a 438-kva generator, because the curve N shows that about
32 per cent motor-starting load will cause a 28 per cent voltage drop if no
regulator is used. (138 kva is about 32 per cent of 438 kva.) The
438-kva generator would cost over twice as much as a 125-kva machine.
The best and least expensive arrangement mould be t o provide a regulator
adding less than 15 per cent to the cost of the 125-kva generator. This
mould permit successful starting of the 25-hp motor even against full-load
torque and would improve normal generator performance.
I n Fig. 4.39 are curves, marked E , which show the performance avail-
able when using an electronic exciter or some other very high-response
excitation system. It shows there is a definite limit to the improvement
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS. CALCUUTION OF DROPS 157

which can be obtained by greatly inrreasing response; that is, the genera-
tor voltage will dip a t least a certain amount before the excitation system
can do anything about it.
Effect of Initial Voltage. Often the voltage rating of the generator
supplying a motor is higher than that of the motor. A 440-volt motor
might he supplied by R 480-volt generator and a 2200-volt motor by a
2400-volt generator.
In such cases, the motor-start,ing kva should be adjusted t o take this
into account,. The kva drawn hy a motor increases as the square of the
line voltage. If t,hr startiiig inrush of a 410-volt motor is 1000 kva a t
440 volts, it will be 1190 kva at 480 volts because (480/440)* = 1.19.
This is the value which should be used to determine the generator mini-
mum voltage (from Fig. 4.39) regardless of the actual initial voltage.
For example, assume that, with an initial voltage of 480 volts, the starting
of the 440-volt motor (drawing 1190 kva at 480 volts) causes the voltage
t o drop t o 75 per rent of the initial value, or 3G0 volts. If the voltage
regulator is set t o hold a voltage of 440 volts, starting of the same motor
will produre approximately the same voltage drop in per cent of the
initial voltage, i.e., the voltage will drop t o approximately 75 per cent of
440 volts, or 330 volts. This shows that, from the standpoint of the
minimum voltage, the regulator should be set t o maintain rated voltage
on the generator even though the motor voltage is lower.
As far as the restored voltage is concerned (Fig. 4.42), this is not
affected by the initial voltage except that the voltage mill not recover t o
a value higher than the initial voltage since this represents the setting of
the voltage regulator. For example, if the initial voltage (setting of volt-
age regulator) is 90 per cent of rated generator voltage, the recovery
voltage in per cent of rated generator voltage will be as shown by the
curves of Fig. 4.42, except that all curves will become horizontal lines at
90 per cent voltage.
Effect of Initial load. The voltage curves of Figs. 4.39 and 4.42 were
prepared on the basis that the initial load on the generator draws con-
stant current duririg the voltage disturbance. This sort of load charac-
teristic is representative of many systems and results from the use of
induction motors, all of which are not fully loaded.
An induction motor at no load will draw a current approximately
proportional t o the applied voltage, because the current is principally
magnetizing current. A fully loaded induction motor will tend t o have
constant kva input since its speed and power factor do not change much
with variations in line voltage. Consequently, a fully loaded induction
motor will draw more current if the voltage is lower, t o maintain the
power constant, A system load consisting of both heavily loaded and
258 VOLTAGbSTANDARD RATINGS. VARIATIONS, UL6UUTION OF DROPS

lightly loaded motors will therefore tend to draw nearly constant current
since a lowering of the voltage causes a reduction in the current to some
motors and an increase in the current to others.
A constant-current type of load will have very little influence on the
minimum voltage during motor starting. It will, however, have an
important effect on the value of the restored voltage of generators, as
previously described.
Lighting loads usually have little effect upon voltage disturbances due
to motor starting. This is true because lighting loads usually constitute
a small proportion of the total load on a generator, and also because of
their high power factor.
If the system load consists primarily of lightly loaded induction motors,
the per cent minimum voltage and recovered voltage will both tend to be
higher than indicated by the curves.
If the initial load consists entirely of heavily loaded induction motors,
the voltage disturbance from motor starting will be more severe than
indicated by these figures.
Initially connected synchronous motors are beneficial in reducing the
disturbance due to motor starting. They are most beneficial when
lightly loaded. Therefore, it is helpful to start synchronous motors first
in a plant so that they will be on the line to help in the starting of large
induction motors later. Synchronous motors will not be helpful, how-
ever, if the voltage disturbance is so great as to cause them to pull out of
step.
Although the curves in this section are based on initial loads of the
constant-current type, they may be used for cases involving other types.
This is done by adjusting the motor-starting kva by an amount corre-
sponding to the change in current to the initial load, caused by the drop
in voltage. The increase or decrease in motor-starting kva is such as to
change the motor-starting current, a t the minimum voltage, by the same
amount as the change in the lagging wattless component of the initial
load. That is, the effect of the initial load is primarily due to a change
in the wattless component, and this can be simulated by a change in the
motor-starting kva. Since the change in current and the minimum volt-
age are dependent upon each other, a trial-and-error procedure is involved.
The first trial is often sufficient,if the change in current is determined a t
the voltage corresponding to the case of a constant-current initial load.
For example, consider a generator whose voltage would dip to 75 per
cent if a 100 per cent motor-starting load were applied when a 50 per cent
constant-current initial load is being carried. If, instead, the initial load
consisted of fully loaded induction motors a t 0.8 power factor, the dip
would be more severe, because a t 75 per cent voltage the lagging wattless
current to the running motors would be increased from 30 per cent of the
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 259

generator rating t o about 40 per cent. This increase could be approxi-


mately simulated by an increase of the motor-starting kva from 100 per
cent to 113 per cent. This is true because a motor-starting load which
would draw 13 per cent of generator rated kva a t full voltage will draw
10 per cent current a t 75 per cent voltage.
Figure 4.43 shows the amount by which motor-starting kva should be
increased to allow for the effect of an initial load consisting of fully loaded
induction motors.
Effect of Starting Power Factor. The power factor of most motor-
starting loads lies between 10 and 40 per cent. Variations within this
range do not materially influence voltage drop of generators.
Wound-rotor motors have a starting power factor of about 80 per cent
lagging. At this power factor the resulting voltage drop (initial voltage
minus the minimum voltage) will not generally exceed 75 per cent of the
drop caused by the same kva a t low power factor. Resistor starters

PF __
-R C F N T
VOLTAGE
DROP
18
17 30
16
U 25
> 15
Y
14
20
z0 13
12 15
2 I ! 10
10 5
09
g 08

'
07
LL 06
05
a 04
w
2 03
F 02
1
3 01
= o
0 0'2 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20
I N I T I A L LOAD KVA
RATIO OF
MOTOR STARTING KVA

INCREASE MOTOR STARTING KVA BY MULTIPLIER SHOWN


BEFORE USING CURVES OF FIG.4.39AND FIG.4.42 ( ! N I T I A L LOAD MAY
THEN BE CONSIDERED AS CONSTANT CURRENT T Y P E )
FIG. 4.43 Approximate effect of initial lood consisting of fully loaded induction motors.
260 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

seldom cause the starting power factor to he high enough to reduce volt-
age drop greatly, except for the first steps when several are used.
Effect of Drop in Generator Speed. Since the power factor of motor-
starting kva is low, the amount of kw load applied to a generator is seldom
large. Furthermore, the voltage drop, by reducing the electrical output,
also reduces the new load applied. For example, a motor-starting load
of 100 per cent of generator-rated kva at 0.3 power factor will involve a
suddenly applied km load less than 30 per cent of rated kva, or 37.5 per
cent of rated kw for an 0.8 power-fartor generator. The speed drop is
not likely to be excessive if good governing means are employed. For
most motor-starting problems, it may safely be neglected.
As speed dips, a corresponding dip appears in the voltage, which is in
addition t o the voltage drops considered in this section. For cases where
speed dip may be sufficiently great to be important, this should be con-
sidered, but calculation of speed drop is beyond the scope of this book.

ESTIMATING DISTRIBUTION-SYSTEM VOLTAGE DROP

The voltage drops in lines, cables, and transformers are often as impor-
tant as generator voltage drop. In fact, they are frequently more impor-
tant. For example, if the total kva of connected generators in the power
system is more than 100 times the horsepower rating of the motor being
started, then the generator voltage dip will be less than 1 per cent, and it
will be quickly eliminated by regulators. In such a case, however, the
motor will probably be supplied through a transformer bank. If the
transformer-bank kva rating is only slightly larger than the motor rating,
the voltage drop may be quite severe.
Voltage Drop of Transformers. The curves of Fig. 4.44 may he used
for estimating the voltage drop through typical transformers when start-
ing a synchronous or squirrel-cage induction motor connected to the
secondary of the transformer. The secondary voltage on starting of the
motor, in per cent of the initial secondary voltage, is plotted against the
motor starting kva. The latter is expressed in per cent of the trans-
former-hank kva rating and is the kva which wouldhedrawnhythemotor
being started if rated transformer secondary voltage were maintained.
The curves of Fig. 4.41 neglect the effect of primary-voltage drops
caused by motor starting. Methods of taking these into account will he
explained later.
Note that the secondary voltage is plotted in per cent of its initial
value. This initial secondary voltage is determined by the initial pri-
mary voltage, the t a p setting, and the initial load. It may he deter-
mined by measurement or by suitable calculations. It is usually slightly
less than the rated secondary voltage.
VOLTACbSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 261

MOTOR STARTING KVA


1% OF B & N I K V A aiT RATED TRANSFORMER SECoNOAR” VOLTAGE1

FIG. 4 44 Transformer secondary voltage

The curves of Fig. 4.44 were prepared on the basis that the initial load,
if any, draws constant current during the voltage disturbance. This is
typical of a system consist,ing of both lightly loaded and heavily loaded
inductiou motors. If the initial load consist,s largely of fully loaded
induction motors, the curves of Fig. 4.44 may still be used provided that
the motor-starting kva is first multiplied by the fartor shown in Fig. 4.43.
The curves of Fig. 4.44 apply for motor-starting power factors in the
usual range of 10 t,o 40 per cent. For wound-rotor motors which have a
starting power factor of about 80 per cent, the drop in voltage will be
about 70 per cent of that shown.
Voltage Drop of Cables and Overhead Lines. The curves of Figs.
-1.45 and 4.4G may be used for estimating the voltage drop through cables
and overhead lilies n-hcn start,iiig synchronous and squirrel-cage induction
motors supplied through these circuits.
I n using these figures, it is first necessary t o determine the length of the
circuit in feet, the initial voltage at the load end of the circuit, and the
motor-starting kva a t the iuitial voltage. These quantities are combined
to obtain the loading factor .If as follows:

motor-starting kva
M =
at the initial voltage x (% )
ci:ri ne):,t
(initial voltage)2
262 VOLTAGkSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

For example, if the motor-starting load were 1000 kva, the circuit 1000
ft long, and the initial voltage 2400 volts, the loading factor M would be
1000 x 1000 = o,1,3
(2400)'
Figure 4.45 shows that for this case the voltage drop at the load end of
a typical three-conductor cable is 1.5 per cent.
This illustration gives data for three circuits: a three-conductor cable,
a single-conductor cable, and an overhead line. It will be noted that the
voltage drop in an overhead line is greater than that for a cable.
If two circuits are in parallel, the drop is equal to that for a single cir-
cuit of one-half the actual length of each circuit.
The voltage drop in a line or cable depends upon the conductor size and
spacing. Consequently, for different cases than those illustrated in Fig.
4.45, the voltage drop may be somewhat different. This is illustrated by
Fig. 4.46 showing the voltage drop for a range of circuit configurations.
The points corresponding to the circled cases in Fig. 4.45 are circled in
Fig. 4.46.
Figure 4.46 applies for the condition hf = 1.0. It may be noted,
however, that the curves of Fig. 4.45 are nearly straight lines. Hence,
the voltage drop for other values of M may be estimated by multiplying
the values of Fig. 4.46 by M . This provides a simple method of esti-
mating the voltage drop for motor-starting loads.
The power factor of the motor-starting load is assumed to be 0.3 power
factor. For conductor sizes above No. 0 Awg, variations over the usual
range from 0.2 to 0.4 power factor will not have an important effect on
voltage drop.
Figures 4.45 and 4.46 are based on a frequency of 60 cycles per sec.
Lines and cables for systems operating a t lower frequencies mill have less
voltage drop. The voltage drop will be reduced approximately in pro-
portion to the frequency for all couductor sizes above KO. 0 Awg. For
smaller sizes, the reduction will he less.
Voltage Drop of Reactors. The voltage drop in a current-limiting
reactor on starting a squirrel-cage induction or synchronous motor may
be estimated from the transformer curves of Fig. 4.44.
Current-limiting reactors are usually described as having a certain
per cent reactance on a specified system-kva and syst,em-voltage base.
The motor-starting kva of Fig. 4.44 should be that drawti at the specified
system voltage expressed in per cent of the specified system kva.
If the per cent reactauce of a reactor does not lie between 5 and 8 per
cent, multiply the motor-starting kva by the ratio X / 5 , where X is the
actual per cent reactance of the reactor, and read the voltage correspond-
ing to this equivalent motor-starting kva on the 5 per cent reactance
curve.
V O L T A G E - S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 263
100 0

"
Y
Q
90 10

80 20

70 30

0
0 0.1 02 0.3 0.4 05 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
LOADING FACTOR, M = ~ ~ ( L E N G T H IN FT.) ~
(A) 3- CONDUCTOR C A B L E - (NO. 4 / 0 - A W G - I 5 K V )
(6) I - CONDUCTOR C A B L E - ( N O . 4 / O - A W G - 6 IN. SPACING)
(C) O V E R H E A D L I N E - N 0 . 4 / 0 - A W G - 1 5 K V
CIRCLED P O I N T S APPEAR O N FIG. N O 4 46
FIG. 4.45 Variation of voltage drop with looding factor M for typical liner and cables.

c:

CONDUCTOR DIAMETER (INCHES)

FOR MOTOR-STARTING LOADS OF 0 3 POWER FACTOR


LO~DING FACTOR M: (MOTOR-STARTING KVAI (LENGTH IN FEET1 I0
(INITIAL VOLTAGE)^
*FOR FL4T SPACING, EQUIVALENT TRIANGULbR SPACING'; I 2 6 TIMES SPACING BETWEEN
ADJACENT PHASES

FIG. 4.46 Voltage drop in lines and cables with loading factor M of unity.
264 V O L T A G b S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
Effect of Series Capacitors. Sometimes it is advantageous t o include
series capacitors in the distrihut,ion system t o neutralize the reactance of
lines, cahles, or t,rausformers. Series capacitors redure voltage drop.
The amount of redurt,ion depends upon the raparitor rating. For further
informat,ion on series capacitors, refer to Chap. 8.
Voltage Drop of Power Systems. Motors are frequently supplied
from power systems cotisistirig of complicated uetworks of lines and
cables for which a calculation of the voltage drop ~vouldhe difficult.
The voltage drop may be est,imated, however, if t,he short-circuit current
is known at the point of power delivery.
The short-circuit rurrent is usually expressed in kva.
When motor-starting kva is drawl from a system, the voltage drop in
per cent of the initial voltage is approximately equal to 100 times the
motor-startiiig kva divided by the sum of this kva and the short-circuit
kva. The motor-starting kva used should be that drawn by the motor if
the initial system \&age were maintained. For example, if a 1000-hp
motor has a startirig kva of 5000 if initial system voltage were maintained
and the system short-cirruit kva is 50,000, the voltage drop will be
approximately
5000/(5000 + 50,000) X 100 = 9 per cent of the initial voltage
In many systems the short-circuit kva varies over a wide range, depend-
ing upon the number of parallel h e s that are in service, system inter-
connections, etc. In such cases the highest short-circuit kva is the one
usually determined since it must he the one used in selection of equipment
which is t o carry or iritcrrupt the short-circuit current. For calculating
voltage drop, oil the other hand, the minimum short-circuit kva should
be used since the corresponding operating condition will give the highest
voltage drop.
The short-circuit kva of power systems varies over a wide range, as
shown in Table 4.14. A corresponding variation occurs in the voltage
drop produced by a certaiu motor-starting kva.
TABLE 4.14 Power-system Short-circuit Kva
Usual Range of
System Voltage Short-circuit Kvo
2,400 15.000-1 50,000
4,160 25.000-250.000
6,900 50.000-500.000
13.800 100.000-1,000,000
23,000 I50.000-1,500,000
34,500 150.000-1,500,000
69,000 150,000-I,500,000
I 15.000 250.000-2.500.000

The method of calrulating voltage drop given above is not applicable


at system locations where the short-circuit kva would be appreciably
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION DF DROPS 265

affected by reactance of generators. I t should be used only when the


impedances of transmission lines, transformers, reactors, and cables
largely determine the short-circuit current.

COMBINED VOLTAGE DROP

Series Circuits. Often a motor is supplied through cables, trans-


formers, overhead lines, and generators, all in series. In such cases, the
total voltage drop may be roughly estimated as the sum of the voltage
drops given by the foregoing illustrations for each of the different parts
of the system. However, the simple addition of voltage drops is not
quite accurate because addition of impedance in series tends to diminish
the current supplied to the motor.
For more accurate work, the following procedure is suggested:
1. Determine the voltage drop in the circuit element nearest the motor,
neglecting the other elements. For example, for a motor supplied from
a generator, transformer, and cable in series, determine the drop in the
cable first.
2. Multiply the motor-starting kva by the ratio of the load-end voltage
to the initial voltage of the cable just determined.
3. Using this new value of motor-starting kva determine the voltage
drop in the next circuit element. In the example selected, this is the
transformer drop.
4. Now multiply the motor-starting kva by the product of the ratio
of the load-end voltage to the initial voltage of the cable and the ratio of
the secondary voltage to the initial secondary voltage of the transformer.
5. Using this new value of motor-starting kva determine the voltage
drop in the next circuit element. In the example selected this is the
generator voltage drop.
6. Continue the process until all elements in series have been considered.
7. Multiply the initial voltage a t the motor by the product of the final
to initial voltage ratios of all the circuit elements. This result is the final
voltage a t the load.
An example a t the end of this chapter illustrates the procedure described.
Parallel Circuits. If several sources are in parallel, the voltage drop is
less than if the motor-starting load is supplied through any one of them.
To determine the combined voltage drop, it is suggested that groups of
similar generators may be treated as a single generator having the same
total kva rating and the same performance factor as the individual
machines. Transformer banks may also be grouped if they are supplied
from the same primary bus and have the same per cent reactance and the
same tap settings.
To find the combined voltage drop for several parallel sources of dif-
ferent characteristics, it is suggested that the motor-starting load first
266 VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
be divided equally and the corresponding voltage drops determined.
Then a new trial division of load can be made so as to increase the pro-
portion of load carried by the sources with the least voltage drop. Usu-
ally oiily one or two trials are required to obtain a sufficiently accurate
result.
For example, consider the case of a motor which has a startiug kva of
1000 and is furnished with power by a 500-kva generator and a 300-kva
transformer bank. The first trial division of load will he 500 kva each.
Let us assume that this results in a minimum voltage of 75 per rent on
the generator and 90 per cent on the transformer secondary. This means
that the generator will actually accept less thari half the load. The drop
in the generator is 2.5 times as great as in the transformer. Then assume
that the transformer accepts 2.5 times as much load as the generator.
This results in 285 kva being accepted by the generator and the remainder,
715, being imposed on the transformer (715 is 2.5 X 285). The voltage
drop in the transformer for 715 motor-starting kva will be found to be
practically the same as for 285 motor-starting kva applied to the gen-
erator. The drop obtained is the combined voltage drop. For the case
illustrated, this voltage drop is about 14 per cent.
A final check of the amount of voltage drop through each source is
advisable, because the drop in a generator does not always vary directly
with the amount of motor-starting load applied to it. This is especially
true of the restored voltage obtained through the action of voltage
regulators.

FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING VOLTAGE DROP

The various curves and other data that have been presented allow
estimates of the voltage drop due to motor starting to be made quirkly
with minimum iuformation on the motor and circuit elements involved.
For cases not adequately covered by these data, the formulas given below
may he used.
Static Circuit Elements Only. First assuming that all the voltage
drop occurs in static circuit elements such as transmission lines, cables,
transformers, and reactors, the voltage at the motor starter mill he
equal to
Z.W

d(ttMRd2 + + ( X , + Xd* X initial voltage at motor starter (4.9)

where Z, impedance of motor being started (ratio of applied voltage


=
to current drawn)
R, = z, cos a,
X , = Z, sin eM
VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 267

cos B., =power factor of current drawn by motor being started


Rs =total resistance of circuit, between motor and point in sys-
tem where voltage remains constant, i.e., is not affected by
start.ing of motor
X s = hotal reartance of circuit between motor and point in system
where voltage remains constant
The impedance, resistances, and reactances in the above formula should
all he expressed in ohms or all in per rent (or per-unit) on any convenient
kva and voltage base. The mot,or impedance Z.,, expressed in ohms is
Voltage rating of motor in volts
(4.10)
4 X starting current in amperes a t rated motor voltage
If a reduced voltage type starter is used, the starting current is that drawn
from the line with rated motor voltage on the line side of the starter.
Similarly, cos Ox is the poiver factor of the current drawn from t,he line.
The voltage at the starter must, be multiplied by the motor voltage-line
voltage ratio of the starter (see Table 4.13) to obtain the voltage at the
motor t,erminals.
The resistance and reactance of a transformer hank ran he expressed
in ohms by multiplying its per cent resistance and per cent reactance,
respectively, by
(Secondary voltage rating in kv)2 X 10
(4.11)
Kva rating of bank
Circuit elements separated from the motor by a transformer should have
their actual resistance and reactance values in ohms multiplied hy the
square of the no-load voltage transformation ratio, that is, by

(4.12)

before adding to the ohmic resistances and reactances of the motor and
other circuit elements on the serondary of the transformer. If two or
more transformers are in series between the circuit element and the
motor, the actual resistance and reactance in ohms should be multiplied
by the square of the product of the various no-load voltage transforma-
tion ratios. For transformers equipped with taps 011 either primary or
secondary winding, the voltage ratings used in the above formulas should
correspond to the t a p setting.
Using the per-unit system, it is generally convenient to select as base
kva the kva drawn by the motor at rated motor voltage, which is
X starting current in amperes X rated motor volts (4.13)
1000
268 VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS
and select rated motor voltage as the base voltage. Iii this case Z , = 1.
The per cent resistanre and reactance of a transformer, with the motor
connected t o its secondary, should be multiplied by
f Motor-starting kva at \ Isecondary voltage ratiug\'
rated motor voltage
\ G t i n g of transformer ) \ of transformer
rated motor voltage
1

(4.14)
A second transformer in series would have its per cent resistance and
reactance multiplied b j the above expression and also bj' the square of
the no-load volhage transformation ratio (secondary voltage divided by
primary voltage) of t,he first transformer. The resistaiice and reactaiice
of circuit elements that are expressed iii ohms should be multiplied hy
Motor starting kva at rated motor voltage
."
(Rated "r )
volts ' x 1000
(4.15)

except where the circuit element is separated from the motor by a trans-
former, in vhich case the multiplier is
Motor-starting kva at rated mot,or voltage
(~~__
Prjmary voltage r a h g of transformer
-x
Secondary voltage rating of transformer
rated motor volts
1000
) x 1000
(4.16)
If t v o or more transformers are in series bet,ween the circuit element and
the motor, the transformer no-load voltage ratio which appears in the
above espression should be replaced by the product of the no-load vokage
transformation ratios of the various traiisformers. Where voltage taps
are provided on a t,ransformer, the voltage ratirigs used in the above for-
mulas should correspoiid t o the t a p sett,ing.
The resistance and reactance of circuit elements connected in series
can be added directly. For circuit elemeots connected in parallel, equiva-
lent wlnes of resistance and react,ance can be det,ermined hy the method
given in Chap. 1.
If current to other loads is flowing in one or more of the circuit elements
between the motor and the const,ant voltage point mhen the motor is
started, the above formula for voltage a t the motor mil1 still apply,
assuming that these other loads are of the constant-current type, i.e.,
the current drawn does not change ivhen the voltage drops. Such load
currents must, of course, be considered io determining the initial voltage
at the motor starter. A method for taking into account loads whose
current varies u i t h voltage will be given later.
Often it is desirable t o know the effect of motor starting on the voltage
V O L T A G b S T A N D A R D RATINGS, VARIATIONS. C A L C U U T I O N OF DROPS 269

a t various points in the system as well as a t the motor. The voltage a t


the motor starter divided hy rated motor voltage and multiplied hy the
current drawn at rated motor voltage gives the actual current drawn
from the line. This current can be comhined with any load current
flowing through the various circuit elements and the voltage a t any point
calculated hy the methods given earlier in this chapter. For the case
where motor starting current only flows in the circuit elements between
the motor and a point in the system, the voltage a t this point will he
equal to

d(Rw
d(RX + Rs)*+ (x.w
(X, +
+ R i ) 2+ + x1)2
XS)2
X initial voltage a t motor starter (4.17)

where R I = resistance of circuit betweeo motor starter and specified point


Xi = reactance of circuit between motor starter and specified point
R a , X,, Rs, and X s are as previously defined
If any load drawing current through the circuit elements in series with
the motor is not of the constant-current type, the voltage a t the motor
starter can still be calculated hy the formula given provided that the
initial voltage a t the motor starter is calculated using the current drawn
by the various loads aft,er the motor is started. Since these currents will
depend upon the voltage drop occurring when the motor is started, a
trial-and-error solution is necessary. Thns the voltage a t the various
loads eaii first be estimated from calculations based on ali loads drawing a
constant current. The current drawn by each load a t the estimated
voltage is used to calculate a new value of initial voltage a t the motor
starter from which the voltage a t the motor starter and a t the various
loads can be recalculated. If the load voltages do not agree closely with
those estimated, nem estimates can be made and the process repeated.
In many cases the voltage drop can he caleulated with little error,
considering only Lhe reactance of the circuit elements in series with the
motor and using the formula
zx
z.w + x s x
Voltage a t motor starter = initiai voltage a t motor starter
(4.18)
where X s = total reactance of circuit betmeen motor and point in system
where voltage remains constant
Z, = impedance of motor heing started
When the reactance-to-resistance ratio of the eircuit elements (X,/Rs) is
2 or greater, this formula gives a voltage drop which is generally within
10 per eent of the correct value. Transformers rated 100 kva or larger
usually have a reactince-to-resistance ratio greater than 2.
270 VOLTAGF-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS. CALCULATION OF DROPS

Effect of Generators. h’ext consider the case ivhere generator voltage


drop as well as the voltage drop through static circuit elemeiits must be
considered. If there is no initial current flowing through the circuit
elemeiits mhen the motor is started, the voltage a t the gerierator termi-
nais may be determined from the curves of Figs. 4.39 aiid 4.42 using a
value of “motor-startiiig kva at rated geiierator voltage” equal t o
Starting kva drawn by motor
if voltage at motor starter mere
maintained at the initial value

X
+ n,)z +
d(fi,,
Z I,
(x,“+ xsjz
rated geiierator voltage
x(.initialgeiieratorvoltage
.. ) (4.19)

where Z,,,, R , , and X , are as previously defined


Ra = resistance of circuit betweeii motor starter and geiierator
terminals
X, = reactaiice of circuit betmeeii motor starter aiid geiierator
termina Is
The pomer factor of the current drawn from the generator will equal

(4.20)

Haviiig dctermiiied the voltage a t the generator termiiials, the voltage


at the motor starter cari be calculated as it xill equal
zw
+ K s ) ? + (XI, +
d(&, XS)*
voltage a t generator
_ terminals
_ X initial
~ motor voltage (4.21)
initiai generator voltage
If currents t o other loads (of constant-current type) are floniiig through
the circuit elements mhen the motor is started, the voltage drop may be
determined by trial aiid error. The formula gireri above, Eq. (4.19j, for
motor-starting kva a t rated generator voltage may be used for the first
estimate and the correspoiiding value of generator voltage determiiied.
From this the voltage at the motor starter may I i c calculated. It is
equal t o
/initial voltage at motor\
z >< starter which mould ap-
(4.22)
pear if generator voltage
drop had already occurred
Having the voltage a t the motor starter, the kva drawn by thc motor caii
be calculated. The equivalent motor-starting kra a t rated generator
voltage wili equal the actual kva drawn by the motor multiplied by
V O L T A G L S T A N D A R O RATINGS. VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 271

(Rated generator voltage)z


(4.23)
Actual voltage at motor starter x actual voltage at, gcrterator
~~ ~ ~

If there is a transformer between the generator arid the motor, the vollagc
a t the mot,or starter should be multiplied by the no-load volt,agc traus-
formation ratio (primary voltage ratiiig divided by secondary voltage
rating) of the transformer before suhstitutiiig it in the above formula.
With t,wo or more transformers in series, use as a multiplier the product
of their no-load voltage transformation ratios. If the calculated mot,or-
st,arting kva a t rated generator vokage differs appreriably from the first
estimate, a serond estimate based on the calculated value can be made
and the calculatioiis repeated until a close rherk is obtained.
Motor-starting Power Foctor. Use of the preceding formulas requires
a knoivledge of the motor-start,ing power fartor ((WS 8.,,). The starting
power factor of squirrel-cage induction and synchronous motors var-
ies over a rather wide range, depending upon the rating and desigii
characteristics.
Approximat,e values of starting power factor for typiral squirrel-rage
induction motors are given in Fig. 4.47.
Low-speed (450 rpm aiid below) synchronous motors for reriprovatirrg
compressor drive usually have a start,itig p o m r fartor bet,ween 0.20 aiid
0.40. Synchronous motors for rrntrifugal pump drive, on the other
hand, have starting power fartors generally between 0.15 and 0.35.
Where motor-start,ing power factor must be kuo\vn more acrurately, a
value should be ohtailled from the motor manufacturer.
With reduced voltage starting, the p o m r factor of the rurreut drawl
from the line may be somewhat different from the motor-starting power
factor. An autotransformer starter has oiily a small effect on the porver
fact.or, but the magnetizing current of the autotransformer makes the
power factor of the current drawn from the line slightly less t,han the
motor-starting p o w r factor. With a reactor st,arter, the power factor

-"
50.60
0.70

-=
A
0.50

0.40

0.M

=w 0.20
B O.I0
0.001 I I I I l l I I 1 1 I I I I
5 K) I5 20 30 40 50 75 100 150 M o 300 500 700 1000
HORSEPOWER RATING

FIG. 4.47 Approximate 3tor:ing power factor of typical squirrel-cage induction motors.
272 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS. VARIATIONS. CALCULATION OF DROPS

of thc. riirri.iit dmwi from t h r liiie \ri11 eqiial the motor-startiiig power
f w t o r miiltiplird Iiy thi: volt,age ratio (motor volt,age divided hy liiie
voltage) of t h r startcr. .i rc:sist,»r starter, oii the other haiid, results i i i a
power fartor for t h r riirreiit drawii from the liiie equal t o

To illiistrate, assume t h a t a motor Iiaviiig a startiiig poirer factor of 0.30


is providrd with a resistor starter dcsigtied t o reduce the voltage applied
t o the mot,or t o íi3 pcr cciit of ratcd motor voltagr. Thc p o w r factor of
t h r (wrrriit drawii hy tliis motor-start,cr combiiiatioii \vil1 iie
~~

-\/I- ~(0.íi5)2X [1--(0.30)*] = 0.785

REDUCED-FREQUENCY STARTING

Ociasioiially i i i ordcr to start a largc motor, t,he system frequeiicy is


rcduccd to a Ioiv valiic i i i ordcr to iiirrcasc t,hc ratio of tlie motor torquc to
thc motix-startiiig ciirreiit. At rcduced frcqiiciicy the applied volt,age is
l o w r , liiit i i i thc iisual applicatioii of tlic schcmc, thc applied voltage is
rrdiii,rd oiily to t h r samr rxtriit as the frrqiieiivy; that is, t,hc geiicrator
exvitatioii is maiiitaiiied at tlie same valiie as heforr. Motor torqiie aiid
wrrriit varg irith rediiiiiig frequeiivy i i i t,he samp iray as t,hey do with
iiirrrasiiig spwd. sitiw i i i either rase t,he rotor frequeiicy is redured.
C:«iiseqiieiitly, at 10 pcr i c i i t frcqiiciicy, the torqiie delivered and the
wrreiii d r a w i \vil1 iic approsimatcly thc same as at 90 prr r r n t speed.
IItari: tlir torqiie is griierally highcr aiid the ciirreiit loi\-er thaii at stand-
still. h t ttirse lon- freqiiriiries the effertive liiir resistarire is grcatly
iiirrrast:d so that RII this iortliic is iiot rcalizcd. Severtheless, t,he scheme
will eITrctively iii(.rcase t,lic toripie a\-nilat>lefor startiiig aiid aweleratiiig
tlie motor. H o w v e r , thcre are scvcral disadvaiitages which usually
makr it impractical:
i . T o ohtaiii miich improvemriit thí! frequciicy must be redured t o a
\-cry Iow valiie, iisiially M o \ \ - 50 per w i i t frequeiii.y, ivhich is difficult for
some typcs of geiirrator ilrives.
2. i i i i iiidcpciideiit drive for the exeiter must he proridcd as direet-
coiiiiectcd (ir I>rltrd exriters uill iiot provide suficieiit excit,atioii at 1ow
geiicrator speeds.
3 . Loivcriiig tho system freqiieiiry may adversely affwt other equip-
meiit coiiiiected to tlie systrm.
Coriscquciitly, t h r svhrme is usually applicahle only for a generator
supplyiiig a siiiglr motor ivheir excitatioii is supplicd by ai1 excitcr driven
by a sepaiate steam tiirhiiic or aii eqiially iritiepeiidciit excitation source.
111 siicli cases, t h e schemc may be quite advaiitagrous.
V O L T A G ~ S T A N D A R DRATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 273

EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION OF VOLTAGE DROP DUE T O M O T O R STARTING '

Data (see Fig. 4.48)


Generators:
Two identical turbine-driven generators, 3600 rpm
Total output rating = 10,000 kva
Voltage rating = 6900 volts
Voltage-regulator setting = 6700 volts
Overhead line:
3-ft equivalent delta spacing
Length = 5000 f t
Conductor size = KO, 4/0 Awg
Transformer hank:
Output rating = 2000 kva (three-phase)
Transformer voltage rating = 6600-2400 volts
Motor starter:
Autotransformer type
Tap = 65 per cent
Motor:
Synchronous motor
Output rating = 1000 hp
Full load input = 1000 kva, 0.8 power factor
Voltage rating = 2200 volts
Full-voltage starting kva = 500 per cent
Full-voltage starting torque = 65 per cent
Initial conditions:
Initial voltages
At generator bus = 6700 volts (regulator setting)

I LINE

TRANYORMER
rrT" BANK

FIG. 4.48 Circuit diagrcm of power


supply to motor. MOTOR
274 VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS

At transformer primary = 6700 volts


At transformer secondary = 2440 volts
Initial loads
At generator bus = 5000 kva (50 per cent of generator rating) of
constant-current type
No initial load on overhead line or on transformer
Requirements :
Minimum allowable voltage a t generator bus = 90 per cent of initial
voltage
Motor starting torque must be at least 25 per cent
Voltage calculations:
Starting kva drawn with rated motor voltage a t autotransformer
starter
= full-voltage starting kva X multiplier from Table 4.13
= 5 X 1000 X 0.46 = 2300 kva
Kva applied to transformer a t rated secondary voltage

rated secondary voltage


= starting kva a t 2200 volts X
2200
= 2300 X 2400
(2200)
= 2735 kva = 137 per cent of bank rating

Transformer secondary voltage (neglecting primary voltage drop) is


obtained from Fig. 4.44. For banks rated 15 kv and below and a starting
kva of 137 per cent, it is 93 per cent of the initial secondary voltage.
Kva applied to transmission line a t initial voltage
secondary voltage of transformer
= starting kva a t initial voltage X
initial secondary voltage
= 2300 X (
. 4)'
~~,
X 0.93 = 2620 kva
Loading factor = kva applied a t initial voltage
length in feet
- = 2620 X 5000 -
(initial volts)* (6700)*
- 0.292
~

From Fig. 4.46, for M = 1, 4/0 line, 3-ft spacing, voltage drop is 11.5
per cent. Since M = 0.292, drop in line is 0.292 X 11.5 = 3.36 per
cent. Voltage a t end of line (neglecting generator voltage drop) is
100 - 3.36 = 96.64 per cent of initial voltage (6700 volts).
Kva applied to generator a t rated generator voltage
voltage a t end of line
= starting kva a t rated generator voltage X
initial line voltage
VOLTAGLSTANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 275
i

( itransformer
n i t i a l secondary
X 0.9664 X 0.93 =
secondary
voltage
2690 kva
voltage ) = 2300 X (
6900 X mo
22002400)

= 26.9 per cent of generator rating


From Fig. 4.40, performance factor K for a 5000-kva 3600-rpm gener-
ator a t 50 per cent initial load is 1.9.
From Fig. 4.39, minimum generator voltage, for 26.9 per cent starting
kva and K = 1.9, is 92.5 per cent of the initial voltage (6700 volts), or
6200 volts.
From Fig. 4.42, restored generator voltage for 26.9 per cent motor-
starting kva and 50 per cent initial load is equal to the initial voltage or
6700 volts.
The minimum voltage a t the motor starter is equal to the initial voltage
a t the motor starter multiplied by
Minimum generator volts secondary voltage of transformer
Initial generator volts ) ( initial secondary voltage
voltage a t end of transmission line
( initial voltage a t end of line
= 2440 X 0.925 X 0.93 X 0.966 = 2030 volts
The restored voltage a t the motor starter is equal t o the initial voltage
at the motor starter multiplied hy
Restored generator volts secondary voltage of transformer
Initial generator volts ) ( initial secondary voltage
voltage a t end of transmission line
( initial voltage a t end of line
= 2440 X 1.00 X 0.93 X 0.961 = 2200 volts
Since the restored voltage is equal to rated motor voltage, the starting
torque on the 65 per cent autotransformer tap = 65 X (0.65)' = 27.5
per cent
The minimum voltage a t the generator bus (92.5 per cent of initial
value) and the motor starting torque (27.5 per cent) both meet the
requirements.
Next the formulas for calculating voltage drop will be used to solve this
problem. I t will be assumed that
Motor-starting power factor = 30 per cent
Transformer resistance = 0.7 per cent
Transformer reactance = 5 per cent
Transmission-line resistance = 0.0573 ohm per 1000 f t
= 0.287 ohm total
276 VOLTAGE-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION O F DROPS

Transmission-line reactance = 0.121 ohm per 1000 f t


= 0.605 ohm total

The per-unit system will be used n.ith base kva equal to the motor-
starting kva a t rated motor voltage (2300 kva) and base voltage equal to
rated motor voltage (2200 volts). On this basis, the motor constants are

z, = 1
cos On/ = 0.3 B M = 72.5'
R.u = Z . w cos BM = 0.3
X M = Z M sin Bar = 0.954

The resistance and reactance of the transformer vill equal the per cent
values multiplied by
Motor-st,arting kva a t secondary voltage rat-
rated motor voltage ing of transformer
Kva rating of transformer rated motor voltage

Transformer resistance = 0.7 X 0.0137 = 0.0096


Transformer reactance = 5 X 0.0137 = 0.0685
The resist,ance and reactance of the transmission line will equal the
ohmic values multiplied by
Motor-starting kva a t rated motor voltage
Primary voltage rat- rated motor
ing of transformer volts
Secondary voltage 1000
x 1000
rating of transformer
-
-
2300
= 0.06275
(4.16)
1000
Line resistance = 0.287 X 0.06275 = 0.0180
= 0.605 X 0.06275 = 0.0380
The total resistance and reactance between the motor starter and the
generator will be
+
Rs = 0.0096 0.0180 = 0.0276
X s = 0.0685 +
0.0380 = 0.1065
The equivalent motor-starting kva at rated generator voltage = start-
ing kva drawn by motor if voltage at motor starter were maintained at
the initial value
VOLTAGE.-STANDARD RATINGS, VARIATIONS, CALCULATION OF DROPS 277

X
z Y (rated generator voltage
d ( R , ,+ &)2 + (X,, + Xs)*
~~

initial generator voltage


= 2300 X (-)2440
2200
X
+
1
+
d ( 0 . 3 0.0276)* (0.954 0.1065)' +
x (o)* = 2700 kva (4.19)

This is substantially the same as previously determined; so the gener-


ator voltage drop will h r essentially the same, that is, the minimum volt-
age will be 6200 volts a i d the restored voltage, 6700 volts. The voltage
at the motor starter will equal the voltage at the geuerator multiplied by
initial motor voltage
zw x ( .initial
. . generator voltage
+ n,)z + ( x ,+~xS)2
d(~,,
+ 0.276)' + (0.954 + 0.1065)* X '6700
zo0.328
- 1
~ = (4.21)
d(0.3
Thus t,he minimum voltage at the motor starter will he
6200 X 0:328 = 2030 volts
and t,he restored voltage i d he
F700 X 0.328 = 2200 volt,s
Chafiter 5 by R. H. Kaufmann and Maynord N. Halberg

Sys tern Overvoltages-Causes and


Protective Measures

Electric insulation in energized systems is continuously under stress.


To make the most economical use of insulation, operating overvoltages
should he curbed in so far as is reasonably possible. The application of
additional insulation to accept higher overvoltage levels entails several
rather obvious disadvantages: (1) increased cost, ( 2 ) increased size and
weight, (3) increased resistance to the flow of heat from the current-
carrying conductors.
In the case of a-c systems, the electric potential is varying substantially
as a sine wave. The crest potential will be 41 per cent greater than the
rms value.
Under ideal conditions the line-to-ground voltage stress mill he less
than the line-to-line operating voltage. In the case of direct current
or single-phase alternating current, this ideal line-to-ground voltage
would he E L L / 2 ,or 50 per cent of the line-to-line value. In the case of
three-phase a-c systems, this ideal line-to-ground voltage would be
E L L / f i , or 58 per cent of the line-to-line value. Throughout this
section, overvoltages will he expressed as multiples of the ideal balanced
voltage stress in three-phase systems.
Electric systems are subject to disturbances of many types which
unavoidably produce overvoltages. However, the application engineer
has at his command many system design principles which will greatly
curb the magnitude of overvoltages. It is important to note that a-c
systems are subject to many types of overvoltages not to be found in d-c
systems; hence a-c systems deserve more careful consideration of the
overvoltage problem.
Electric insulation exhibits the effect of fatigue. Insulation will fail
upon repeated or prolonged application of a given voltage stress which is
278
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 279

far below the single-impulse \vit,hstaiid abilit,y. One may conclude that
a reduct,ion in either the magnitude or duration of overvoltage stress will
in general result in longer useful life.

OVERVOLTAGE SOURCES
There are many varied sources of overvoltages of sufficient magnitude
to be damaging t o the insulation of a-c industrial power distributioii sys-
tems. 111t,liis chapter the mechanism by which the more prominent over-
volt,ages are created v i l l be described and preventative measures sug-
gested. ‘Treatment of t,he following will be included:
I . Static
2 . Physical contact nith a higher voltage system
3. I1esouani.e effects ill series inductive-capacitive circuits
4. Repetitive int,ermittent short circuits
5 . SIT-itrhing surges
(i. Forced-current zero-current interruptiou
7. Autotransformer connections
8. Lightiiitig
Of these, most are the result of effevtsdirectly within the electric system
itself. I n contrast, lightning (a vicious source of overvokage) is com-
municated to the electrical system from nature’s powerhouse in the
heavens above.

STATIC

Wind-blown sand or dust can become highly charged and impart rela-
tively high voltage to exposed overhead electric conductors. Moving
belts rutiiiing on iioiimet,allic pulleys can also develop high voltages by
st,at,icmeans which may in turn be communicated t o electric system con-
ductors if electric enclosing frames arc improperly grounded. The rate
a t wtrirh electric i,harge is communicated t o electric system conductors
by stat,ir means is extremely low. Even a rather high-resistance ground
i~iiincrtionon the electric system n d l discharge these stat,ic currents t o
ground as fast as they are rereived with negligible overvoltages. I n
addition to grounding the elect,ric service system, it is important that
electric machiue frames arid all metallic enclosures which contain electric
circuit conductors be effectively grounded (see Chap. 7).

PHYSICAL CONTACT WITH A HIGHER VOLTAGE SYSTEM

If the conductors of a high-voltage electrical circuit come in contact


with those of a lower voltage circuit, then the same potential will exist on
280 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES A N D PROTECTIVE MEASIJRES

both circuits at the point of contact. If Lhe low-voltage circuit does not
have its neutral grounded, its potential will be increased t o t h a t of the
high-voltage system or flashover mil1 occur. If Lhe low-voltage system is
anchored close t o ground potential as hy Lhe use of a solidly grounded
neutral, high values of current may flow from the high-voltage system,
b u t a much lower voltage will appear than with an isolated neutral system.
Accidental cootacts hetmeen primary and secondary voltages on indus-
trial systems are guarded against by the use of metal enelosures and metal
barriers which separate conductor systems of different operating poten-
tials. In some cases overhead circuits have both primary and secondary
on the same pole, but substantial clearances reduce Lhe danger of acci-
dental contact t o a minimum. Occasional cross-ups have occurred
between primary and secondary on overhead circuits, and a few cases are
known where failure has occurred between primary and secondary inside
a transformcr.
UNINTENTIONAL
CONNECTION

PHYSICbL CONNECTIONS
7
'..
N O R M b L POSITION O F
P, / 4 8 0 V VOLTAGE TRIbNGLE C xq
I \:ol,
I I \,\
I
I 1
I 3-
L-
2 Eb= 2 4 0 0 V

b
L,--'
I
e0

RESULTING VECTOR VOLTbGE DIbGRbM

FIG. 5.1 Overvollage on 480-volt ungrounded ryrtem rerulting from contcxt with a higher
roltoge ryrtem.

Figure 5.1 illustrates this type of fault connection. It can be responsi-


ble for dangerous overvoltages on ungrounded low-voltage systems. The
most effective protection against that type of overvoltage is grounding
of Lhe lowvoltage system mith the grounding impedance made low enough
t o accept Lhe maxirnum line-to-ground fault current of the high-voltage
system without biasing the neutral of the low-voltage system by a danger-
ous amount.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 281

RESONANT EFFECTS I N SERIES INDUCTIVE-CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS


(LIMITED TO A-C SYSTEMS)

Ungrounded-neutral a-o systems are most commonly subject t o over-


voltages originatiiig from this cause. It is import,aot t o recognize that
ungrouiided-iieutral systems are actually capavitively roupled t o ground
rather than truly divorred from ground. They are ungrounded in the
sense that no int,er(.oiinection with ground has purposely been made, but
every element of the electric system incorporates some capacit,aiice t o
ground which constitutes an inherent caparitive impedance interconnec-
tion tietween the elertrir system conductors and ground.
Every ungrounded elertric system contains the essential elements
presented i n the upper diagram of Fig. 5.2. The electrical behavior of
any one phase conductor relative t o ground rail be determined by a much
simpler equivalent rirruit, as indicated in the lower sketrh of Fig. 5 . 2 .
A . 'S A PHASE
I

GENERATOR OR
TRANSFORMER

3- PHASE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

xs A PHASE
"A"*"

Eg -E'.c
%

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT REFERRED TO A PHASE CONDUCTOR

FIG. 5.2 Elemental composition of an ungrounded system

In terms of this simpler equivalent circuit it will be possible t o understand


readily the effect of connecting different types of impedance hetween line
and ground as shown in Fig. 5.3. I t becomes evident that the connection
of any value of either resistance or raparitanrc tietween one line and
ground produres no dairgerous overvoltages. The potential on the phase
to which the impedance is connected progressively diminishes from nor-
mal value t o zero. The potential t o ground on the remaining two phase
conductors will be increased t o full line-to-line value at the time the first
282 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
6

5
I
I
.

" 4
Y
J

z
LL
4 3
"Y
7

Ec
' 2
.i

FIG. 5.3 Overvoltages on


I
ungrounded systems result
from a high-inductive-reac-
tonce connection between line
0
0 2 3 4 S 6 and ground.
R4TlO OF ZF TO X C O , ~

phase conductor has been reduced to zero potential. This represents an


overvoltage of only 73 per cent, which is not dangerously high and will
normally produce no ill effect unless continued for a long time.
The connection of an inductive reactance between line and ground, on
the other band, can be responsible for the production of serious over-
voltages to ground. It is the ratio of the inductive reactance of the line-
to-ground circuit to the total capacitive reactance of the system to ground
which controls the degree of overvoltage. The highest overvoltage will
occur when these two reactances are equal, and a t this point they may be
as much as ten times normal. It is significant to note, however, that over
a two-to-one range of reactance, overvoltages of three times normal or
more would be produced.
The unintentional connection of an inductive reactance between a
phase conductor and ground can occur in a number of ways, some of
which are illustrated in Fig. 5.4. The operating magnetic coil of a motor-
starter contactor may be inadvertently connected between phase and
ground by a ground short circuit in the control wire to the push-hutton
station or the slip of a maintenance man's screwdriver. Any time that
the inductive-reactance value, which becomes connected from phase to
ground, falls in the danger region indicated on Fig. 5.3, dangerous over-
voltages to ground will be produced which are communirated over the
entire metallic conductor system of that operating voltage.
Overvoltages originating from this canse can be completely suppressed
by a relatively light-resistance ground on the electric system neutral. A
grounding resistor of about the same ohmic value as the total charging
"--
II _
I
B

-
f
BROKEN L I N E
GROUNDED

C4SE I CbSE 2 CbSE 3

AN INDUCTIVE WINDING :CIDENTbLLY b GROUNO FAULT bT A F U S E PROTECTED ONE BROKEN OVERHEbO LINEGROUNDED
CONNECTED BETWEEN 01 PHASE h N D T R I N S F O R H E R C I N BLOW ONE FUSE ON T H E L O A D SIDE OF T H E B R E A K
GROUND LEbVING THE REACTbNCE OF TRANSFORMERS CONNECTS T H E REACTANCE OF TRANSFORMERS
12 4 N D T 3 I N P b R A L L E L B E T W E E N L I N E AND 12 AND 13 I N PARbLLEL B E T W E E N L I N E
GROUND 1 NOTE I I b N D GROUND [NOTE II

NOTE I
Y U N G R O U N D E D T R I N S F O R M E R CONNECTIONS
WOULD PRODUCE T H E SAME EFFECT

FIG. 5.4 Examples of unintentional high-reactance connections between line and ground.
284 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

capacitive reactance t o ground is sufficient t o eliminate overvoltages


almost completely. It will be evident t,hat there is good reason t o adopt
electric system neutral grounding with a much lower value of grounding
resistance for ot,hcr reasons (see Chap. 6).
Figure 5.3 has been computed on the basis t,hat the inductive reactance
is linear. If this reartance incorporates a n iron core which during the
mode of operation being considered should encounter magnetic saturation,
the performance will be somewhat different. Under such conditions the
effective reactance of t,he inductive circuit can become much lower than
the unsaturated reactance, and the voltage will tend t o oscillate auto-
matically betveen vokage limits which cause the effective inductive
reactance to match the capacitive-reactance value. This character of
operation has been named ferroresonance. The maximum voltage so
developed may not be so high as would be produced by a linear reactor
but, may still be in excess of two or three times normal. Substantial
overvoltages may result by ferroresonance when the unsaturated reactance
is many t,imes the capacitive reactance to ground.
The application of grounded-Y potential transformers on ungrounded
systems with a Y or broken-delta secondary connection can be responsible
for damaging overvoltages as a result of resonant or ferroresonant action
since the magnetizing reartance of the pot,ential transformers becomes
GROUNDED WYE- BROKEN DELTA connected from phase con-
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMEIS FOR GROUND
INDICATOR OR ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE
ductors t o ground. A com-
plete descriptionof thisphe-
nomenon need not be taken

r UNGROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEM


u p here as it has been ade-
quately treated in an AIEE
technical paper (see refer-
ence3). Thesesystemvolt-
age oscillations will not oc-
U cur if the electric system
neutral is grounded. Free-
dom from this particular
TO INSTRUMENTS type of voltage oscillation
can be obtained even with
R
ungrounded-neutral opera-
tion byusingpotential trans-
TO INSURE FREEDOM FROM UNWANTED LINE-TO-
GROUND VOLTAGE OSCILLATIONS : formers with a line-to-line
Tz. T3, W I T H THE L I N E - T O - L I N E
I SELECT P T s TI.
RATED VOLTAGE
2 APPLY A SECONDARY LOADING RESISTOR WITH A
RESISTANCE NOT GREATER THAN 4 0 PERCENT OF FIG. 5.5 Grounded-Y broken-
THE TRANSFORMER MAGNETIZING REACTANCE. delta potential transformers for
NOTE- THE LOADING RESISTANCE CAN BE APPLIED TO
EACH SECONDARY BUT WILL THEN CDNSUME POWER
ground indicator or zero-se-
AND LIBERATE HEAT CONTlNUOUSLY quence voltage detector.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 285

voltage ratiiig and the applirat,iori of shuiiting resistors on the secondary


windings as is outliried iii Fig. 5.5.
Series-capacitor melders are occasionally applied, particularly in the
case of large-sim machiiies because of their ability t o reduce the kva
demaiid aiid improre the operating poiver fartor t o substantially unity.
However, the series-raparitor welder preseiits a definite voltage hazard
to aii uiigrouiided-iieutral a-c supply system. Duriiig welder operation
the voltage arross hoth t,he series raparitor and the weldiiig transformer
primary v i l 1 he severa1 t,imes the rated line-to-liiie voltage. The physical
electrir roiiiieitioiis aiid the associated vector voltage relationships are
iiidicated iii Fig. 5.íi.

48OV 3-PH 6 0 C Y
o

s i i o m m ~ uTO~GROUND -
PHVSlCbL CONNECTDNS
NORMAL POSITION
OF
?--.
IP
UOLTME TRIANGLE; -,,,
/'
b

RESULTING VECTOR VOLTbGE OIAGRPH

FIG. 5.6 Overvoltager on ungrounded syrtemr os a rerult ot o ground contact on a


ieriei capocitor welding mochine.

Should a fault t o grouiid occur at the juiiction hetveeii the series


capacitor aiid the weldiiig transformer (poiiit, P ) , the lorat,ioii of ground
poteiitial will teiid t o become t,hat of this juiictioii poiiit iiistead of the
center of the a-r system voltage triangle. The t,otal system eapacitiye
impedaiice t,o grouiid would geiierally be expeeted to be high, relatire to
that of the welder series rapacitor, aiid thus offers practically no opposi-
tion t o this shift in the loration of ground potential. Iii the case illus-
trated iii Fig. 5.G, it will be evideiit that the poteiitial of the A-phase roii-
ductor may be elerated to ahout 2000 volts to grouiid, which is about
seveii times iiormal. As iii the other cases, this overvoltage is commuiii-
cated to a11 equipmeiit metallically iiiterroniierted a t this commoii
operatiiig voltage.
AI1 these resonant inductive-caparitive overvoltage hazards can be
elimiiiated by electric system neutra1 groundiiig.
186 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

INTERMITTENT GROUND FAULTS

Substantial overvoltages can he developed in ungrounded a-c industrial


systems by sputtering or intermittent ground-faulting connertions. The
intermittent character of the short-circuit path may be the result of
vibration which causes an electrical conductor to make contact inter-
mittently with ground, the result of scattering particles of molten con-
ductor metal which intermittently establishes a conducting path to
ground, or as a result of successive breakdown and seal off of the sepa-
rating space between conductor and ground. In the last case involving a
fixed separation between conductor and ground, a progressively increasing
breakdown voltage across this gap is an essential element in the build-up
of severe overvoltages.
Intermittent ground-fault conditions on lom-voltage ungrounded-
neutral systems have been observed to create overvoltages of five or six
times normal quite commonly. An unusual case involved a 480-volt
ungrounded system. Line-to-ground potentials in excess of 1200 volts
were measured on a test voltmeter. The source of trouble mas finally
traced to an intermittent ground fault in a motor-starting autotrans-
former. About two hours elapsed while the source was being located,
during 13 hich time between 40 and 50 motors broke down.
Electric systems which are grounded through reactanre of too high an
ohmic value ( X a more than ten times XI) are also subject to overvoltage
by this same mechanism acting in a little different form.
An understanding of the manner in which a discontinuous electric
connection can he responsible for the generation of overvoltages can he
most easily acquired by examining the case of a sputtering or intermittent
line-to-ground fault on an ungrounded-neutral system.
I n Fig. 5.7 at A is shown the vector voltage pattern of a three-phase a-c
system as it would operate under normal balanced conditions. The
voltage vectors E., Eb, and E, rotate about the neutral at synchronous
speed. The electric neutral is a point of central symmetry and remains
constant at ground potential if the individual phase voltages are pure
fundamental-frequency sine waves.
Should the A-phase conductor become grounded, the system voltage
triangle mould become displaced as illustrated in B . At the phase posi-
tion illustrated in B , the A-phase voltage is at its maximum value at
which instant the charging current to ground (90' ahead of the voltage)
is passing through zero. In case the short circuit contains a small gap or
an arc, the arc current would become extinguished at this point. Note
that the trapped charge on the line-to-ground capacitance will tend to
maintain the voltage triangle in the same displaced position. I n other
words, the potential of the neutral (relative to ground) would tend to
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 287

remain at a d-c potential equal to the crest value of the a-c voltage wave.
All this merely says that there will be little tendency for any voltage to
reappear across the gap in the short circuit immediately following the
current zero which occurs at B .
During the next half cycle, however, the a-c generat,ed voltages will
reverse their polarities (vectors rotate 180°),which would cause the three-
phase vector voltage pattern to assume the position shown in the upper
part of C . Kote that during this one-half cycle time interval, the poten-
tial of the A phase has progressively inrreased from zero value to about
twice the normal line-to-neutral crest voltage relative to ground potential.
This value of line-to-ground potential of the A phase may he sufficient to
break down the gap in the ground-fault circuit arid reestablish the corinec-
tion between the A phase and ground. If so, the A-phase potential will
tend to be suddenly yanked to ground potential. Iuevitably there will
be some system reactance in the A-phase conductor to the ground short-
circuit point which would result in an oscillation of the A-phase-conductor
potential between plus 2 and minus 2 at a frequency probably 20 to 100
times normal. If the short circuit consisted of a solid metallic connection,
this oscillation would decay to zero, leaving the A-phase conductor at
ground potential. Xote that associated with this high-frequency transi-
Ei"' E;

Y--
+ $ CYCLE --tC $ CYCLE 4

€0
NORMAL

A B C D
FIG. 5.7 Overvoltages on ungrounded systems due to repetitive momentary contact be-
tween one line and ground.
288 SYSTEM 0VERVOLTAGES.-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

tory oscillation will he a corresponding trarisitory charging current t o


ground. This transitory charging current t o ground, or restrike current,
will again reach zero value when the system voltage swing is at the maxi-
mum excursion i n the negative direction, as showri in the lower part of C .
Thus, an opportunity is afforded for the gap in the ground short circuit t o
rerlear. If reclearing does occur, a charge is again trapped on the system
rapacitance t o ground which would tend t o maintain a constant d-c
potential t o ground on the system neutral.
In the course of the next following half cycle, the voltage vector system
will again rotate 180°, causing the potential of the A-phase conductor to
ground t o he elevated from minus 2 to minus 4 as indicated by the transi-
tion from the lower part of C to the lower part of D. This increased volt-
age across the short-circuit gap may again result in restrike, in which case
the voltage triangle would tend t o be thrown in the positive direction in
the form of a high-frequency oscillation between poteutial limits of
minus 4 and plus 4, which in the presence of a solid metallic connection
would gradually decay t o zero.
I n this explanation of the mechanism, it will be noted that all conditions
have been most favorable to the creation of the highest possible restrike
voltages in the shortest possible time. The restrike has been assumed t o
occur at the time the maximum recovery voltage was reached but not
before. Likewise it has been assumed that a reclear occurs at the first
current zero after restrike. Under these conditions a line-to-ground
potential of five times normal has been developed in less than two cycles.
I n practical cases, t,he restrike may occur before the maximum recovery
voltage has been reached, and several cycles of the transitory oscillation
may take place before the short cirruit reclears. While in theory it might
he possible progressively t o increase the line-to-ground voltage by succes-
sive restrike without limit if the dielectric strength progressively increases,
voltage measurements on actual systems indicate that voltage levels of
five t o six times normal are rarely exceeded.
There is reason t o believe that damaging overvoltages of repetitive
restrike origin are far more common on ungrounded-neutral systems than
mould a t first he suspected. The case which was mentioned in an earlier
paragraph is unusual in t,hat the obnoxious restriking conditions persisted
for a long interval of time while t.he source was being located. A farmore
common occurrenre is one in which several pieces of electric equipment
on the system suffer electrical breakdown apparently simultaneously
and one or more of the fault conditions were known or believed to
involve ground. These multiple failures are commonly associated with
ungrounded-neutral system operation. It is also known that a solid
metallic ground connectioo on one phase may exist for subshntial inter-
vals of time without producing multiple breakdowns in equipment,
SYSTEM GV'ERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 289

although it does produce 73 per cent overvoltage on two of the phase con-
ductors. It therefore seems reasonable to assume that the multiple
failures result from the appearance of overvoltages considerably in
excess of 173 per cent normal.
Distribution-system ox,ervoltages of repetitive-restrike or intermittent-
ground origin can be entirely eliminated by effective system neutral
grounding (see Chap. 6). Resistance grounding with a resistance ground
fault of any value upward of the line-to-ground charging current mill be
effective. For various other reasons it mill he evident that higher values
of available ground-fault current will he desirable. If reactance ground-
ing is contemplated (it rarely finds application in industrial systems), it
is important to keep the reactance of the grounding circuit sufficiently
low so that the ratio of X o is no more than ten times X , . If this ground-
ing reactanre value is exceeded, opportunity is given for another type of
repetitive restrike action which can result in overvoltages t o ground.
The ground-fault neutralizer (Petersen coil) represents one special case
of high-reactance grounding which is free of overvoltages by repetitive
restrike action. This is due t o the fact that the reactance value is care-
fully selected so that the oscillating circuit formed hetmeen it and the
system-to-ground capacitance will oscillate a t normal line frequency.
Following a ground-fault cnrrent shutoff point as at B in Fig. 5.7, the
potential of the electric system neutral with respect t o ground would
oscillate between plus and minus 1 at fundamental frequency as controlled
by the tuned grounding reactor and system capacitance t o ground. Thus
as the potential of the n-phase conductor with respect t o the neutral due
to the generat,ed voltage in the supply system alternates from minus 1 t o
plus 1, the free oscillation of the zero-sequence circuit remains in step
with it, with the net result that the potential of the A-phase conductor
tends t o remain at ground potential. Voltage of normal frequency
gradually reappears as the free oscillation in the zero-sequence circuit
decays. I n general, some 15 or 20 cycles will elapse before the potential
of the previously shorted phase increases t o three-quarters of normal
value. Thus, the freedom from restrike is due t o the long-delayed
reappearance of voltage across the line-to-ground circuit.

SWITCHING SURGES

Circuit switching operations constitute abrupt changes in circuit


parameters and can be responsible for the creation of overvoltages although
generally of short duration and not in excess of two to three times normal.
It will be important t o recognize that normal a-c switching interrupters
offer very little opposition t o the flow of circuit current during the course
of current flow but do act t o build up dielectric strength rapidly during a
290 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES- CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

normal current zero and prevent reestablishing current flow during the
following half cycle. As a result of this action it is unnecessary that the
stored magnetic energy in the inductance of the circuit be disposed of
during interruption. Interruption takes place at a normal current zero,
at which time the stored magnetic energy is zero.
A quaiitative understanding of the mechanism whereby such over-
voltages are generated will be useful. Of first consideration is the amount
of voltage change which would tend to appear across the switching con-
tacts if they were switched open. For example, in Fig. 5.8, a line-to-line
short-circuit condition between phases A and B is illustrated. With the
circuit breaker still closed, the potential of a' and b' must be common and
will lie midway between potentials e, and ea, as indicated in the vector
diagram. With the vector relationships shown in the figure, the current
in the faulted circuit will be going through zero, which affords an oppor-
tunity for the circuit breaker to make an interruption if the contacts have
parted. If current flow is interrupted at this current zero, the potential
of a' tends to return to e. while that of point b' tends to return to eb.

OVERVOLTAGE IN CLEARING A LINE- TO- LINE


CIRCUIT FAULT

SHORT CIRCUIT

;-, -\, ,
,, " ' "
VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP WITH
SHORTCIRCUITON AT THE T I M E OF A
CURRENT ZERO IN THE SHORT CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT e.' = eb'
(VOLTAGE mob AT MAX VALUE1

- ___- - IF CURRENT INTERRUPTION


OCCURS AT THIS CURRENT ZER?
THE POTENTIAL OF POINTS 0
AND b WILL TEND m SNAP
BACK TO ea AND Ob
RESPECTIVELY BUT DUE TO
PRESENCE OF L AND C I T
WlLL TAYE THE FORM OF h
TRINSITORI OSCILLATION
W l C H WlLL OVERSHOOT END
POINT
MAX e.'DR eb'' 113 PERCENT OR
73 PERCENT OVERMLTAGE

FIG. 5.8 Overvoltages due to interruption of (I line-to-line short circuit at current zero.
SYSTEM O V E R V O L T A G E S - C A U S E S A N D PROTECTIVE MEASURES 291

There will inevitably be inductive capacitive constants which cause this


return to take the form of an oscillation of relatively high frequency; this
causes the potential of points a' and b' to overshoot their final value by
about a n equal amount. In this illustrative example, the potential of
point b' would transitorily swing t o a value of 1.73 times normal crest
voltage in the positive direction while that of the point a' would make a
corresponding swing to 1.73 times normal crest value in the negative
direction.
Circuit breakers which introduce substantial resistance drop during
current flow tend to reduce the magnitude of switching transient voltages.
As a result of the higher power factor of the short circuit, the point at
which a current zero is reached will approach more rlosely to the point
at which a voltage zero would also he reached, which thus lessens the
magnitude of voltage that tends to appear across the contacts immedi-
ately following current zero. Another form of switching transient which
develops overvoltage primarily on the utilization machine on contact
closing is illustrated in Fig. 5.9. Here illustrated is a n open-cycle auto-
POSSIBLE SWITCHING OVERVOLTAGES ON
CLOSING L I N E BREAKER WITH OPEN CYCLE
AUTOTRANSFORMER START

ASSUME0 VOLTAGE RELATlONSHlP JUST PRIOR


TO CLOSING L I N E BREAKER IAUTOTRANSFORMER STARTI

CBPOLENOI ISTHE
4e, FIRST TO CLOSE
c, MOTOR TERMINAL B
W I L L TEND TO ABRUPTLY
JUMP TO e. BUT OUE TO

MAX TRANSLTORI VOLTAGES-MOTOR TERMINALS TO GROUND


TERMINAL B - 2 5 0 PERCENT 1150 PERCENT OVERYOLTAGEI
TERMINALS A 8 C - 325 PERCENT'1225 PERCENT OVERVOLTAGE1

FIG. 5.9 Possible switching overvoltage when motor running breaker closes lopen-cycle
autotransformer start).
292 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

transformer starting arrangement. It has been assumed that 65 per cent


voltage has been applied on the starting connection and the machine rotor
brought up to near synchronous speed. The motor was then discon-
nected from the starting tap preparatory to reconnection across full-line
voltage. During this interval it is possible that the internal generated
voltage within the motor has dropped to 50 per cent of rating and has
slipped back in angle so as to he 180' out of phase with respect to the
supply system. At this point, the potential difference appearing across
each of the three line-switching contacts is one and a half times normal
line-to-neutral voltage as indicated by the vector relationships. Suppose
that the line-switching unit is now closed and that pole 1 is the first to
make contact. The potential of motor terminal R would tend to abruptly
assume the potential e,, but the inevitable transitory overshoot would
carry it on up to 250 per cent normal with respect to ground. The
potential of the motor terminals A and C would tend to be carried along
and suffer a transitory excursion to 325 per cent voltage with respect to
ground unless contacts 2 and 3 close at almost the same instant as contact
1. Closed-cycle starting arrangements such as reactor starting or Korn-
doerfer autotransformer starting minimize the overvoltages which may be
developed in this manner.
One of the most severe sources of switching overvoltages is associated
with the separation of two system sections which have become unsyn-
chronized and are switched apart when the generated voltages in the
two sections are nearly 180' out of phase. The elements of this case are
illustrated in Fig. 5.10, which shows a synchronous motor t h a t has pulled
out of step and the internal generated voltage of which is 180' out of
phase with respect to the system. The main supply system on the left is
considered to be operating with grounded neutral and contains a much
smaller reactance than the motor circuit shown on the right. All three
poles of the switching interrupter have been maintained in a closed posi-
tion up to the time indicated by the vector diagram. It has been
assumed that, in the course of pull-out operation, the demagnetizing
reactive current which has been flaming in the motor stator windings has
caused the internal generated voltage ahead of transient reactance in the
motor to he depressed to 50 per cent of normal value. With the vector
system in the position shown, the current in the A phase is going through
zero, which affords an opportunity for interruption if the contacts have
parted. If the current in the A-phase conductor is interrupted at this
point, the potential of the motor A-phase terminal (point a2) will tend to
jump to the right to its new steady-state position E,. The inevitable
transitory overshoot will cause its potential to swing about an equal dis-
tance the other side of point E,, as shown hy the dotted line. At the
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES A N D PROTECTIVE MEASURES 293

maximum of this transitory excursion, the potential of point a2 mould


reach about 3% times normal crest t o ground in the positive direction.
I n coutrast t o the examples just cited, the more usual switching opera-
tion which is involved in separating a normally operating rotating machine
or composite system of rotating machines involves very little switching
surge voltage. The systems on both sides of the switching interrupters
contain internal sourres of generated voltage which are of almost the
same magrrihde and very close t o the same phase position. Very little
change in potential tends to occur on either side of the switching device
at the time interruption takes place.
Arc-furnare circuits can be sources of rather severe overvoltage if
switched off while an arc is in progress within the furnace. As the pri-

.. . .... ..

\i,
A L L C B POLES S T I L L CLOSE0

ASSUME C B TRIPPED AND POLE I


(PHASE A 1 IS THE FIRST TO INTERRUPT
d . 5 c2 AT T H I S CURRENT ZERO

e,....
i
0 1W I L L T E N 0 TO JUMP TO e0,AND
Q p T O T H E NEW EA WITH .TRANSITORY
EXCURSIONS SHOWN BY DOTTED LINES

FIG, 5.10 Possible overvoltager when interrupting o synchronous motor during out-of-
step conditions.
294 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

mary circuit-breaker contacts part, current at the breaker contacts can


be forced to zero while current still continues to flow in the furnace arc.
Thus the circuit breaker accomplishes a n interruption of line current
with current flow still Continuing in the secoudary circuit. As the furnace
internal current diminishes, the potential across the furnace arc increases
in accordance with the normal inverse volt-ampere characteristic of an
arc. The arc voltage progressively increases as the current dimiuishes
and can result in a substantial voltage drop as the arc snaps out. While
this voltage may not be high as referred to the arc-furnace anode, it still
may be many times normal operating voltage and will be reflected to the
primary side of the transformer by the turn ratio. The voltage developed
at the transformer high-tension terminals may be dangerously high and
sufficient to produce flashover. Special consideration is given to arc-
furnace transformers, and preventative measures take the form of shunt-
capacitor applications at the transformer terminals on older uuits or
internal Thyrite* shunting resistors across sections of the winding 011 iiew
units.

FORCED-CURRENT-ZERO INTERRUPTION

The discussion of switching overvoltages so far has considered inter-


ruption only a t a normal current zero. The term forced current zero or
interruption of of current zero is used to describe an interrupting mecha-
nism (be it a fuse, switch, section of small wire conductor, etc.) that has
the property of developing a large countervoltage in opposition to rurrent
flow which can force current to zero value at a time quite different from
the normal inherent current zero of the rircuit. Should any element in an
electric circuit have the ability to develop a high potential drop during
current flow, the potent,ial so developed would appear on connected cir-
cuit conductors. The overvoltages so developed would persist until the
stored energy in the inductive elements of the circuits has been dissipated
(a current zero has been forced). A high rurrent short circuit created
through a length of small wire conductors can be responsible for develop-
ing dangerous overvoltages in this manner. As current builds up in such
a circuit, stored magnetic energy is heing accumulated in all inductive
elements of the circuit. When the fusing point of the conductor is
reached, the conductor copper tends t o separate into a loiig string of tiny
globules of molten copper with a small arc between adjacent globules.
The total voltage drop across the entire section of conductor may be
several times the normal operating voltage of the circuit. During this
interval of overvoltage, the magnitude of current is being diminished;
* Registwed tradr-mark of Grncral Elrrtrir Cornpang-.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 295

however the overvoltage will persist until the magnitude of current has
been returned t o zero value.
Because of the overvoltage problems, the vacuum contact switch finds
little applicatioii. The vacuum switch tends t o shut off current com-
pletely the instaiit that the contacts part. Unless suitable overvoltage
suppressors are associated with such an interrupter, high voltages will be
developed if applied in inductive circuits. The overvoltages so produced
may he sufficient t o sparkover the outside of the vacuum switch unless
some other portion of the circuit breaks dowu a t a lower voltage.
Current-limiting fuses constitute an example of a forced current
interrupter. They possess the property of being able t o reduce the rur-
rent t o zero value ahead of a normal current zero. Overvoltages are
developed during the operation of such an interrupter. As supplied by
reputable manufacturers, the design of the internal elements contains
special features mhirh rontrol the magnitude of such overvoltages, and
full-srale tests are applied to prove the resulting performance t o ensure
that overvoltages so developed d l be within the safe withstand value of
the electric insulation of the voltage class t o which it is t o be applied.
Because of the overvoltage problem, current-limiting fuse interrupters
of a particular voltage rating should not be applied t.o electric systems
of lower operating voltage. I n other words, a 7500-volt rated current-
limiting fuse should not he applied on a 2400-volt operating system
because overvoltages developed iu its operation will be dangerous t o a
2400-volt insulation level.

AUTOTRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

Autotransformers for interconnecting two electric systems of different


insulation level should be avoided in industrial systems unless both are
solidly neutral grounded. The common metallic interconnection between
t,he two systems which is formed by the autotransformer windings tends
t o subject the lower voltage system t,o nearly the same transitory voltages
as would be expected on the higher voltage system. There are some
exceptions, and a specific example mill serve t o illustrate the nature.
Should a system be planned which is to operate initially a t 2400 volts and
later be converted t o 4160 volts with all equipment therein contaiuing
insulation levels commensurate with 4100-volt operating potential, i t
would be sitisfactory t o employ a suitable autotransformer for intercon-
necting this 2400-volt system with another 4160-volt syst,em.
An unusual var'ation of autotransformer action which has been respon-
sible for system overvoltages in a number of instances is represenled by a
transformer with extended windings operating on an ungrounded-neutral
system such as illustrated in Fig. 5.11. Applications of this sort are most
296 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES A N 0 PROTECTIVE MEASURES

often found in test areas or developmental areas which contain multi-


purpose transformers with a multiplicity of taps to permit a wide variety
of output voltages to be obtained. If operated with system line voltage
impressed across a fraction of the total winding, the vector voltage at the
end of the winding extension will be as illustrated in Fig. 5.11 because the
volts per turn developed in the winding extension will be exactly the same
as the volts per turn in the excited winding. Should the end of the wind-
ing extension be inadvertently connected t o ground or develop a short
circuit to ground, the point of ground potential would tend to move away
from the center of the voltage triangle to the potential of the extreme end
of the winding extension resisted only by the high system-to-ground
capacitance coupling. It will be evident that, as a result of this action,
the presence of any extended winding would cause the potential of one
phase conductor to be elevated to more than 173 per cent of normal
operating potential. The degree of overvoltage may be much more
severe if greater amounts of winding extension are present. It is impor-
tant to realize that these overvoltages would be carried to all apparatus
connected to the same metallic system. Thus, a ground short circuit on
a winding extension of a transformer in a small test area at one corner of a
building might impose overvoltages on all equipment fed from the same
load-center substation which might include half the productive machinery
in that building. As has been true so many times before, grounding of
the electric supply system neutral will cure this type of potential over-
voltage also. A system grounding equipment which makes available a
ground-fault current which is equal t o or greater than the short-circuit
current resulting from short circuit of the extended winding portion of the
offending transformer will keep the system line-to-ground potentials
within safe bounds. It is quite generally true that transformers of this
480V WQ
H 60 CY
a
I
" I

PHYSICAL CONNECTIONS

\
\ I
i FIG. 1 1 1 Overvoltage on un-
\ I
'"'
b
grounded systems due to a
ground connection on the wind-
ing of an autotrans-
RESULTING (IOLTAGE vEcmR DIAGRAM former.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 1P7
character to be found in test areas are of relatively small physical size
and do not impose restrictive requirements on the necessary system
grounding equipment. As a matter of fact, on all low-voltage-system
equipment (GOO volts and less) it is the standard practice to ground the
neutral solidly.
The application of three-phase transformers or three-phase banks of
single-phase transformers, mhich do not incorporate a closed-delta wind-
ing in their make-up, should in general be avoided or quite rarefully
examined to ensure that the resulting operation will be free of damaging
overvoltages. This would be equally true of Y-connected autotrans-
formers (see reference 4). Berause of the nonlinear shape of transformer
magnetizing curves, the required transformer magnetizing current to
produce a fundamental frequency sine wave of voltage will contain rather
prominent amounts of harmonic currents. In a Y-connerted transformer
system energized from a three-phase supply in the absence of a delta-
connected winding, the transformers are unable to obtain a sourre of
third-harmonic current or multiples thereof because these are of zero
sequence. As the result of the inability to obtain a third-harmonic
exciting current, there will appear a third-harmonic voltage whirh may
be as much as 50 per cent of the normal operating potential. Should the
neutral of such a transformer system become grounded intentionally or
accidentally and the supply system be ungrounded or high-resistance
grounded, this third-harmonic voltage will be imparted to and appear on
the system phase conductors and represent a sustained source of over-
voltage. Even though the transformer system neutral is ungrounded,
some fraction of the third-harmonic voltage will appear on the phase con-
ductors, depending on the ratio of capacitance to ground within the trans-
former structure to the distributed capacitance to ground of the rest of the
system.
Core-type three-phase transformers present a fairly low zero-sequence
magnetizing reactance which would hold the zero-sequence voltage to
much lower levels than shell-type three-phase transformers or banks of
three single-phase transformers and are thus much less susceptible to
overvoltage difficulties. If operated with grounded neutral on an
ungrounded-neutral system, a careful check should be made to ensure
freedom from neutral instability, as treated in reference 3.
While grounding the electric system neutral may not solve all the
troubles of the Y-Y transformer connections, it will eliminate appearance
of overvoltage on the phase conductors of a system to which such a bank
of transformers might be connected.
Overvoltage Example. A great many specific cases of system over-
voltages have been analyzed, identified, and catalogued. All types are
well represented. Space will not allow a lengthy treatment of these
298 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES A N D PROTECTIVE MEASURES

A DISTRIBUTION BUS (UNGROUNDED SYSTEM) -


B
1
C
I
FUSE
CUTOUTS Q Q PT2

PHYSICAL CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS

(A1

POWER SYSTEM PROTECT1V E


EOUIVALENT CIRCUIT EOUIPMENT CIRCUIT

A-PHASE
FUSE OPEN

EOUIVALENT CIRCUIT FORMED BY OPENING-


OF T H E A- PHASE FUSE

( FJI
FIG. 5.1 2 Circuit conditions responsible for an orenoltoge experience on an ungrounded
power system.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 299

specific overvoltage cases. However, it will be interesting to review one


case. The one here described has been selected because it discloses how
obscure may be the basic overvoltage cause. Note that the series
resonant circuit created by the opening of one fuse might very easily fail
to be identified, leaving the overvoltage source to remain a mystery.
A metal-products plant in the North Central section of the country had
made application of a set of rotating-machine protective capacitors and
arresters a t the main bus of a medium-voltage distribution system through
a set of fuse cutouts. To monitor the fuses, two potential transformers
and voltmeters had been applied on the load side of the fuses, as illus-
trat,ed in Fig. 5.12A.
As a result of opening of the fuse unit in the A phase it was observed
that voltmeter V , went off scale, potential transformer 1 overheated and
melted out the compound, the gap shunting resistor 011 the A-phase
arrester was destroyed, and phase-to-ground overvoltages appeared on
the phase conductors of the service system.
Not until the resulting circuit is redrawn as in Fig. 5.12B is it apparent
that the overvoltages result from series resonance (probably of ferro-
resonance character).
System-neutral grounding is to be adopted to ensure freedom from
overvoltages on the distribution system conductors. (Additional cor-
rective measures are needed to ensure freedom from overvoltage trouble
in the local protective equipment circuit-potential transformer and
capacitor shunting arrester.)

PROTECTION OF POWER SYSTEMS AGAINST THE


OVERVOLTAGES CAUSED BY LIGHTNING
The highest overvoltages to which industrial power systems are sub-
jected are those caused by lightning. Limiting these overvoltages by
suitable protective measures is essential if costly equipment failures and
service interruptions are to be avoided.

NATURE OF THE OVERVOLTAGES


A lightning stroke to earth represents the sparkover of a highly charged
condenser, a cloud forming one plate, the earth the other, and the air
between the dielectric. The initial charge has been estimated to be as
high as 1 billion volts, and stroke currents as high as 200,000 amp have
been measured.
Although lightning may strike directly a t the terminals of outdoor
electrical equipment, this can generally be avoided by proper shielding.
Thus, the overvoltages usually reach the equipment (both indoor and
300 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

outdoor) through exposed overhead lines which often bring power t o the
plant or, in some cases, distribute power withiu the plant.
Direct Strokes and Induced Surges. Lightning may produce an over-
voltage on a transmission line either by a direct stroke to the line or by
electrostatic induction from a stroke t o earth iri the vicinity of the line.
The probable maximum voltage appearing ori a liiie by a direct stroke is
15 million volts and for an induced surge, 500,000 volts. These voltages
appear between conductor and ground.
Wave Shopes. Although the voltage surges produced hy lightning
have high magnitudes, their duration is very short. I t is measured in
microseconds (millionths of a second). Typically, the voltage rises very
rapidly (in 1 t o 10 psec) t o the maximum or “crest,” value and theu decays
more slowly, reaching 50 per cent of the crest value in 20 t o 150 psec.
As illustrated in Fig. 5.13, the shape of a voltage or current, surge pro-
duced hy lightning (and those produced artificially for test purposes) is
customarily expressed by two numherç. The first, is the time from the
“virtual zero” of t,he wave front t o the time the wave reaches crest value,
while the second numher is the time from the virtual zero t o the time the
voltage or current has decreased t o 50 per cent of the crest value. The

-WAVE-FRONT - WAVE - TA1 L

-CREST VALUE

t
f

-
I
I
I
ZERO TIME O F CURRENT WAVE
I

.
ZERO TIME O F VOLTAGE WAVE

I
b
&tu-

t 3 -
4 I
T i a N
MICROSEMXIDS

1. _I
WAVE- SHAPE OF
VOLTAGE WAVE ti X 12
CURRENT WAVE t 3 X t e

FIG. 5.13 Termr ured to dercribe voltage cind current waves.


SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 301

virtual zero of a wave front is the intersection with the zero axis of a
straight line drawn through the points on the front of the wave which
are 30 per cent and 90 per cent of the crest value for a voltage wave and
10 per cent and 90 per cent of crest value for a current wave. Both times
are usually expressed in microseconds. To illustrate, a 95-kv lf.5 X
40-psec wave is one that has a crest value of 95 kv, rises to crest value in
134 pser from the time of virtual zero, and decays to 50 per cent of crest
value (47.5 kv) in 40 psec from the time of virtual zero.
Traveling Waves. The voltage surge produced on a transmission line
by lightning does not appear simultaneously at all points on the line;
instead, it appears at successively later intervals of time as the distance
from the point of the st,roke increases. Furthermore, the magnitude and
shape (voltage vs. time) of the surge remain approximately the same at
all points of a uniform line, but are simply displaced in time phase. In
effect then t,he surge which appeared as a voltage-time wave on the line
where the stroke occurred becomes two identical voltage-distance waves
on the line which travel at uniform velocity in oppvsite directions from
the point of origin.
Keglecting all resistances, it can be shown that
1. The voltage waves travel along the conductor without change in
magnitude or shape with a velocity equal to l / d T C fps, where L is the
inductance in henrys per foot of line and C i s the capacitance in farads per
foot of line.
2. A current wave accompanies the voltage wave and is of exactly the
same shape, that is, a t any instant at any point on the line, the current
flowing in the conductor is directly proportional to the voltage from con-
ductor to ground.
3. The ronstant of proportionality between the current and voltage is
called t,he surge impedance Z and is equal to 4 r C ohms, where I, i s the
inductance in henrys for any unit length of the line and C is the capaci-
tance in farads for the same unit length. The current in amperes is equal
to the voltage in volts divided by the surge impedance in ohms.
The inductanre and caparitance of an overhead line are such that the
velocity of a current or volt,age wave (called velocity of propagation) is
equal to the velocity of light in free space, which is 984 ft per psec. In
most ralrulations the round number 1000 is used. The propagation
velority in a cable varies with its construction, but a typical value is
600 f t per psec.
The surge impedanre of an overhead line varies with the size of the
ronductor and its height aboveground, but is usually between 400 and
500 ohms. A typical value for a cable is 30 ohms.
Reflection of Traveling Waves. A change occurs in a traveling wave
when it reaches the junction between two conductors of different surge
302 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

impedance, for example, an overhead line and rahle. The original wave,
called the inrident wave, gives rise to two waves at the t,ransition point,
namely, a “refracted” wave whirh rontinues on through the second con-
ductor and a “reflected” wave which starts traveling hack over the first
conductor.
If, at any instant, E is the voltage of the incident wave at the junc-
tion, then E X (Z, - Z,)/(Z, + ZJ is the voltage of the reflected
wave, where Z, is the surge impedance of the first rouductor (over whirh
the surge arrived) arid Z , is the surge impedaure of the second ronduc-
tor. The voltage of the refracted wave at the junrtiorr is the sum of
the voltages of the incident and reflected waves, that is, it equals
E X (222)/(Z2 + Zi).
Reflected and refracted current waves accompany the corresponding
voltage waves, the constant, of proportionality being t,he surge impedanre
ZIor Z2 of the conductor the wave is traveling oil. A reversal of dirert,ion
of a voltage wave, without change i n polarity, reverses t,he direction of
flow of current.
As indirated by t,he equations, if Z 2 is greater than Z,, a voltage wave
reflects positively at, the junctioo and the voltage a t the junrtion (equal
to the voltage of the refracted wave) is greater than the vokage of the
incident wave. In the limiting rase if 2%is infinite (the line is open), the
voltage at t,he junction is double the voltage of the inrident wave. On
the other hand, if Z,is less than Z , , the wave reflerts negatively and the
refracted wave is less than the incident wave. For the limiting rase of
Z2 equal t o zero (the line is shorted t o ground), the volt,age a t the junr-
tion is, of course, equal t o zero. The current t o ground will equal twire
the current of the incident wave.
Although neglecting all resistances represents an idealized condition,
the simplified relations this makes possihle are useful in many practical
situations.

INSULATION CHARACTERISTICS

It is characteristic of most insulations that t,he maximum voltage which


they can successfully ivithstatid varies inversely with the duration of the
voltage. Since power systems are subject t o various types of overvoltage,
some of long and some of short duration, power distribut,ion equivment is
usually required t o withstand at least tivo different types of dielect,ric
tests. The first are the so called “lorn-frequency” (00-cyrle) tests,
usually of 1-min duration, that cstahlish the ahility of the insulation t o
withstand moderate overvoltage of relatively long durat,ion. The others
are the “impulse” tests which prove that, the insulation will not break
down on vokage surges of high magnitude but short duration. Since the
overvoltages produced by lightning are surges of high magnit,ude and
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 303

short duration, it is the impulse tests that are important as far as protec-
tion against these overvoltages is concerned.
Basic Impulse Insulation levels. The impulse test which is most com-
monly used consists of the application of a 155 X 4O-psec full-wave volt-
age surge of a specified crest value to the insulation of the equipment
involved. The crest value of the wave is called the basic impulse insula-
tion leuel (abbreviated BIL) of the equipment. T o simplify the design
and appliration of elertrical equipment, the Joint Committee on Coordi-
nation of Insulation of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers
(AIEE), the Edison Electric Institute (EEI), and the Xational Electrical
Manufacturers Association (KEMA) have established a series of Stand-
ard Basic Impulse Insulation Levels. These are listed in Table 5.1. It
was the intent that the impulse level assigned t o any equipment should he
taken from the standard series. This has generally been done, but in
some cases the value adopted for a given insulation class is that shown in
Table 5.1 for a different reference class.

TABLE 5.1 Standard Basic ImDulse Insulation Levels

Boric
Reference impulse Reference
<I.., in."lation <I..,
kv led. kv
kv
~

1.2 30 23 150 138 650


2.5 45 34.5 200 161 750
5 60 46 250 196 900
8.7 75 69 350 230 1050
95* 92 1300
15 110 115 1550

*The 95-kv BIL was estahlished for rertain types of equiprnrnt in t h e 15-kv class.

The standard BII, of most pover distribution equipment whose insula-


tion class is 23 kv or higher is the value assigned to the corresponding
reference class, as shown in Table 5.1. This is true for oil-immersed
transformers, oil-immersed induction- and step-voltage regulators, oil-
immersed reactors, instrument transformers, apparatus bushings, air
switches, and bus supports. However under special conditions, equip-
ment having lower impulse ratings may be furnished. For example, on
high-voltage systems (115 kv and above) that are very well grounded,
transformers having a RIL one step below the standard value have been
successfully applied. These are referred t o as reduced-insulation trans-
formers, while those having a BIL in accordance with Table 5.1 are called
fully insulated.
304 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

The standard RII, of distribution a n d power transformers, reactors and


voltage regulators (all oil-immersed), and instrument transformers whose
insulation class is 15 kv and below are given in Table 5.2.
TABLE 5.2 Standard Impulse Tests

Oil-immersed
Oil-immersed
distribution transformers and
power transformers and
"Oltage regulotorl;
current-limiting reactors
in.trument trondormers'

lnlUlotior
.I.%,
kv
Chapped-wore test 56
"II-r.Yc
X 40 ! Chopped-rare test

tell
Min time to ,mat, Min time to
Crest, 3-11,, crest,
Rashover, Ro-rhovar.
kv kv kv
p*oc

I .2
2.5
5.0
8.66
30
45
60
75
ii
69
88
1 1 .o
1.25
1.5
1.6
45
60
75
1 %i I I .5
1.5
1.6

15 95 110 I 1.8
- I

* Thr YSIUP ivm for the 15-kv insulation rlass apply to instrument transiormers
oi the 151.-kv ulatiou PLSS. For the 1511-kv class thc full-wavr test is 110 kv and
the rlropp~rl-wnrrt p s t is 130 kv with 2.0 ~ S C Cto flashover.

S o industry standard impulse levels have been established for dry-


type transformers, hut present practire is to use the following combina-
tions of insulation class arid UIL, both in kv:
I".Yl.ti." Class 811
I .2 10
2.5 20
5 25
~~

8.66 35
I5 50

The impulse levels of power circuit breakers, switchgear assemblies,


and metal-enrlosed huses for the various voltage ratings, in kv, are as
fOllO\VS :
Voltage Roting 811 Voltage Roting 811
2.4 45 46 250
4.16 60 69 350
7.2 75' 92 450
13.8 $3 115 550
14.4 110 138 650
23 150 161 750
34.5 200 230 900
* 95 ior rnctal-rlnd gear with oillcss hreakcrs.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 305

Impulse testing of rotating machines has not been adopted. I t is


generally considered that their impulse level is the crest value of the
60-cycle dielectric test. The rms value of the latter is twice rated line-to-
line voltage plus 1000 volts.
Chopped-wave Tests. In addition to the 145 X 40 full-wave test, oil-
immersed transformers (reactors and voltage regulators) and instrument
transformers are given a “chopped-wave” test. In this the applied
voltage is built up at a predetermined rate and then reduced substantially
to zero by sparkover of an air gap. The crest voltage reached and the
minimum time to sparkover of the air gap for the chopped-wave tests are
given in Table 5.2 for equipment having an insulation class of 15 kv or
below.
For the higher voltage insulation classes the crest value of the chopped
wave is approximately 1.5 per cent higher than the BIL and the minimum
time to sparkover of the air gap is 3 psec.

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

The protection of electrical equipment against the overvoltages caused


by lightning depends primarily upon the proper application of lightning
arresters.
How lightning Arresters Operate. Lightning produces overvoltages
between the line conductors of a power system and ground. A lightning
arrester limits the overvoltage by providing a conducting path of rela-
tively low impedance betmeen the line and ground. The resulting cur-
rent flow to ground, through the surge impedance of the line, limits the
line-to-ground voltage. But this low-impedance path must not exist
before the overvoltage appears, and it must be broken immediately after
the voltage has returned t o normal. This is accomplished in a lightning
arrester by (1) an enclosed gap, or several gaps in series, which will with-
stand the normal operating voltage but sparkover and become conducting
a t some higher voltage; and (2) a device which in conjunction with the
gaps interrupts the flow of currentfrom the power system, called “follow
current,’’ after the lightning surge has passed.
Two different principles are used to interrupt follow current, and
arresters may he classified according to which of these they use.
Expulsion-type and Valve-type Arresters. As the term implies,
expulsion-type arresters interrupt the Row of follow current by expulsion
action. The gap is arranged so that upon sparkover the arc must pass
over the surface of gas-evolving material; for example, the gap enclosure
may he a gas-evolving fiber tube or the gap may he filled with celofiber
spheres. As the gas is emitted it rushes out through a suitably placed
opming in the arrester case, blowing out the arc. Interruption takes
306 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES A N D PROTECTIVE MEASURES

place as the a-c current goes through zero. The action is similar t o the
operation of an expulsion fuse.
I n the valve-type arrester, on the other hand, interruption of follow
current depends upon having in series with the gaps a column of material
whose resistance varies inversely a s some power of the voltage applied.
Hence, this “valve ” material exhibits a relatively low resistance when the
overvoltage due t o lightning exists, but as soon as the voltage returns to
normal its resistance increases t o a high value. This reduces the magni-
tude of the follow current to a value which can be interrupted by the
series gaps. Xormally interruption takes place the first time the a-c
current goes through zero. The construction features of one design of
valve-type arrester are shown in Fig. 5.14.
Expulsion-type arresters have assigned current interrupting ratings

FIG. 5.14 A valve-type lightning arrester with section removed to show features of
construction.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES A N D PROTECTIVE MEASURES 307

slid should not he applied to systems whose fault current exceeds such
ratings. Furthermore since some of the gas-producing material is
destroyed each time the arrester operates, there is a limit t,o the number
of operations t o which they can he safely subjected. Valve-typc arresters
have ueither of these limitations. The expulsion arrester also has a
higher sparkover voltage, although following sparkover it exhibits a
lower resistanre t,o the flow of lightniug discharge current than does the
valve-type arrester. Finally the gaseous disrharge from an expulsiorr-
type arrester makes it uusuitable for moiiriting wit,hin equipment enclo-
sures or in close proximity to other elertrical apparatus. For these
reasons the valve-type arrester is used almost exclusively for the prot,ec-
tion of equipment on industrial power systems.
Voltage Rating of Arresters. The voltage rating of an arrester is
defined as the highest a-c voltage (rms value) hetween its line and ground
terminals a t which it is desigued t o perform its operating duty cycle.
I n effect it represents the highest voltage at, which it is guaranteed to
interrupt the follow current after sparkover on a voltage surge. It does
not represent the voltage at which the arrester sparks over; in fact,
industry standards specify that an arrester shall not sparkover at any
60-cycle voltage less than 150 per cent of its rating.
As n.ill be shown (see Application Proredure) the proper voltage rating
of a n arrester for any system depends not only on the syst,em voltage but
also on how the system is grounded.
Protective Characteristics of Arresters. The two characteristics of a
lightning arrester which determine the degree of protection it can provide
are (1) its impulse sparkover voltage and (2) its discharge voltage, i.e.,
the voltage which appears across its terminals during the passage of dis-
charge current. The latter is sometimes referred t o as the I R voltage
drop or simply I R drop.
Two different sparkover voltages are usually published by the arrester
manufacturers. One is the “critical sparkover voltage” with a l!i X 40-
psec wave, i.e., it is the crest value of the 1>6 X 40 wave which will cause
sparkover on 50 per cent of the applications of this wave. Sparkover
occurs on the tail of the wave. The other is the average voltage at which
front of wave sparkover occurs with the voltage wave rising at the rate
specified in the AIEE standards for arrester tests, namely, 100 kv per
psec for each 12 kv of arrester rating. This sparkover voltage is generally
higher-as much as 50 per cent higher for some arresters-than the crit,i-
cal sparkover voltage for a I f 5 X 40-psec wave.
Arrester discharge voltages usually published are the average crest
values of the voltage appearing across the arrester terminals when dis-
charging a 10 X 20-psec current wave having various crest values such as
1500, 3000, 5000, 10,000 and 20,000 amp.
300 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

From the average protective rharacteristirs of lightning arresters


xyhivh are puhlished, the masimum values can be determined h y means of
iirdustry rerogniaed toleraiires. As shown in Table 5.3, these give the
amount hy whirh the masimum sparkover and disrharge voltages of a n
arrester may be eupeited to exceed the average values. The various
types of arresters listed in Table 5.3 are defined under the heading
(:lassification of High-voltage Arresters which follovs.
TABLE 5.3 Tolerances in Performance of Valve-type Lightning Arresters

Type of Arrester
1 ayeroge "(IiYe, per cent

I Sparkover voltage Discharge voltage

..........
Distribution. 25 20
Line................. 20 15
.............
Stotion. I5 10

Effect of Altitude. Since the sparkover voltage of a gap varies with the
atmospheric pressure, the protective characteristics of arresters are
afferted by the altitude a t which they are installed. This is true even if
the arrester has a sealed gap since the seals employed are not expected t o
maintain a pressure different from the surrounding atmosphere for any
extended period. Standard arresters are considered suitable for altitudes
up to GOO0 ft. Special arresters are available for altitudes of 6001 t o
12,000 ft and for altitudes of 12,001 t o 18,000 f t .
Classification of High-voltage Arresters. Arresters in ratings of 1000
voks and higher are classified in accordance with their principal charac-
t,eristirs and field of application as follows:
1. Distribution-type arresters
2. Line-type arresters
3. Station-type arresters
Distribution-type arresters are available in voltage ratings of 1, 3, 6,
9, 12, 15, arid 18 kv. Though designed primarily for the protection of
dist,ribut,ion transformers, they are also used to protect other equipment
such as metering and switching devices, voltage regulators, distribution
rapacitors, and cable. The arresters are small, lightweight units t h a t are
readily mounted on poles or crossarms, have reasonably good protective
rharacteristics, and are very low in cost.
Line-type arresters are available in voltage ratings of 20, 25, 30,37, 40,
50, GO, and 73 kv. They are relatively small and lightweight, are moder-
ate in cost, and have good protective characteristics. They are used for
the protection of the smaller transformers and substations in the medium-
voltage range.
309 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

From the average protective rharacteristirs of lightning arresters


xyhivh are puhlished, the masimum values can be determined h y means of
iirdustry rerogniaed toleraiires. As shown in Table 5.3, these give the
amount hy whirh the masimum sparkover and disrharge voltages of an
arrester may be eupeited to exceed the average values. The various
types of arresters listed in Table 5.3 are defined under the heading
(:lassification of High-voltage Arresters which follovs.
TABLE 5.3 Tolerances in Performance of Valve-type Lightning Arresters

Type of Arrester
1 ayeroge "(IiYe, per cent

I Sparkover voltage Discharge voltage

..........
Distribution. 25 20
Line................. 20 15
.............
Stotion. I5 10

Effect of Altitude. Since the sparkover voltage of a gap varies with the
atmospheric pressure, the protective characteristics of arresters are
afferted by the altitude a t which they are installed. This is true even if
the arrester has a sealed gap since the seals employed are not expected to
maintain a pressure different from the surrounding atmosphere for any
extended period. Standard arresters are considered suitable for altitudes
up to GOO0 ft. Special arresters are available for altitudes of 6001 to
12,000 ft and for altitudes of 12,001 t o 18,000 f t .
Classification of High-voltage Arresters. Arresters in ratings of 1000
voks and higher are classified in accordance with their principal charac-
t,eristirs and field of application as follows:
1. Distribution-type arresters
2. Line-type arresters
3. Station-type arresters
Distribution-type arresters are available in voltage ratings of 1, 3, 6,
9, 12, 15, arid 18 kv. Though designed primarily for the protection of
dist,ribut,iontransformers, they are also used to protect other equipment
such as metering and switching devices, voltage regulators, distribution
rapacitors, and cable. The arresters are small, lightweight units that are
readily mounted on poles or crossarms, have reasonably good protective
rharacteristics, and are very low in cost.
Line-type arresters are available in voltage ratings of 20, 25, 30,37, 40,
50, GO, and 73 kv. They are relatively small and lightweight, are moder-
ate in cost, and have good protective characteristics. They are used for
the protection of the smaller transformers and substations in the medium-
voltage range.
310 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

t,he arresters must withstand is 100,000amp for thestation typeand 65,000


amp for the distribution and line types.
TABLE 5.4 Industry Average Protective Characteristics of Valve-type
Lightning Arresters

Average discharge
A v e r a g e impulse
oltage with 10,00O-~mp
rporkover voltage
10 x zo-psec CUrlent
V0ltog on AlEE test wove, kv
wave, kv
rating,
kr __
Distribution
OrreSler.
~ ~

3 I8 13 I5 11
6 34 23 30 22
9 48 35 44 33
I2 61 43 55 44
I5 71 53 69 54
18 84 ... 78

Line Line
Or,e.te,S O,,&e,*

20 75 72 92 72
25 93 89 Ill 90
30 110 I06 I35 108
37 136 131 I64 132
40 147 136 I77 144
50 183 178 222 179
60 220 214 271 217
73 267 261 328 262
97 ... 345 ... 349
I09 ... 388 ... 394
121 ... 430 ... 438
145 ... 51s ... 523
169 ... 602 ... 610
195 ... 691 ... 698
242 ... 860 ... 872

Arresters and Capacitors for Rotating-machine Protection. A vari-


ant of the station-type arrester designed particularly for rotating-
machine protection is offered by some manufacturers. One version (see
Fig. 5.16) has characteristics similar t o that of standard station-type
arresters but differs mechanically in that it has a porcelain top with the
line-terminal connection brought out through the center. This allows
placing the three arresters of a three-phase installation close t o each
other, thus reducing space requirements to a minimum. The arresters
are available in voltage ratings of 3 t o 27 kv with the 3-, 4 . 5 , 6-, 7.5-, 9-,
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 31 I

12-, aiid 15-kv rat,ings of particular interest for industrial npplicat,ions.


The 4.5- and 7.5-kv voltage ratiirgs are not, available in t h e standard
station-type arresters. They are iiicliidrd in this line to give bet,ter pro-
tection to 1.16- and 6.0-kv machines tliaii rim be provided by t h c standard
6- aiid 9-kv arrest,ers. Tlic latter ~vouldotherwise be required where the
paver syst,cnis are riot, sufficiently well grounded to permit t,lie USC of
3- and ti-kv arresters on 4.16- and G.!bkv rnachiiics (
Arrester T’oit,age Ratings). The coristructioii fcatorcs niid additioiial
voltage ratiiigs available make these arresters dcsirahle for iit,her app1ii.a-
tioiis such as t.he protection of switchgear.
Surge protective capacitors are also available for rotatiiig-mii~hiiie
protection. They are used to reduce tlic stcepriess of the wdve front of
lightning surges aiid arc available in ratirigs of OM50 volts with 1 .O pi
per pole, 2.1, 1.16, 1.8, arid 6.9 kv with 0.5 pi pf’r pole, and 11.5 and 13.8
k v with 0.2.5 pf p t pole.
~ l’liese capacit,ors differ from thc staridad
porver-fact,or impr(iviiig capacitors i i i that they are designed t o withstaiid
higher test, voltages and have low interrid inductance. A typiciil unit is
shovii in Fig. 5.17.
Low-voltage Arresters. For thc prntectiou of etluilimixit on circuits
whose line-to-ground voltage is iri the 110- to 125-volt range, a 175-volt

FIG. 5.16 Rotating-machine form of station-type FIG. 5.17 Surge protective capaci-
lightning arrester rated 6 kv. tor rated 6900 volts, 25 to 60
cycler, 0.5 ilf.
312 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES--CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

liglituing arrester is avsilal-lie. This is built in a two-pole lorm; so a


single unit will provide protect,ioii to the common 1 15i230-volt sirigle-
phase tliree-wire grounded-iieutral circuit,. A t y p i d iiistallation is
showii in Fig. 5.18. For a two-wire circuit, grounded o r 1 oiie side, the two
poles of the wrcster arc generally roniiecied in parallel between the
uiigrouiided h i e arid gruund. For three-phase circuits such as those
supplied from a208Yjl20-volt
grounded-imitral system, t x o
arresters arc required.
For the protection of equip-
merit on higher voltage cir-
cuits-up t o 600 volts-~-~twu
forms of arresters areavailahle,
both rat,cd 650 volts. One has
a port:elaiii housing (see Fig.
5.19), is for oiitdoor service
oiily, arid is availablein a single-
poleaiidatno-poleform. T h e
other has t i niet,al enclosure
(see Fig. 5.20), is suitable for
either indoor or outdoor serv-
ice, axid is availsblc in one.,
two-, arid t,lirce-polc forms.
This unit also has better pro-
k c l i v e characteristi(,s and so
FIG, 5.18 lnrtallotion of (I two-pole 175-volt
is t,hc oIic usually selected for
lightning orrester on o 115,'230-volt single-phore
three-wiro circuit.
protection of indust,rial plaiit
equipmeti t.
Arresters for D-C Systems. .krrcst,ers designed for use on a-c power
systoms are iiot getierally suitable for service on d-c
employed t o interrupt follow r'urrrirt is not cffectiv
diics not periodir:ttlly go through zero. Arresters, hinrevcr, arc avail-
rtiilo for d-? scrvicc. The moderir forms arc simply capacitors having iiot
less tiinti 4 pf of capnt,itaricc. Tiicy are coiiriected from line to ground
arid limit, tlit. tw:st, - i d t i e of a volt,age surge by absorbing the current as a
charge o i i ttic capwitor. fleiice llie effectiveiiess of the arrester in limit,-
irig the \-oltnge of ail iticwmitig surge depends upon the duration as i\-ell
as the magriitude of the surge. lrmvever, it, also ser t o slope t,he froiit
of tiit? ivavc a r i d tliiis reduce the turii-to-turn voltage sircss on the d-c
rotating mnr.liities. 'I'hc arresters are available i i i three voltage classes,
iiamely, Obi30 volts (illustrated iii Fig. 5 . 2 ! ) , 751-2000 v o h , and 2001-
:?&00\-o1ts.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 313

FIG. 5.19 Single-pole lightning arrester FIG. 5.20 Three-pole lightning or-
with porcelain housing roted 650 volts, rester in metol core roted 650 volt>.
for outdoor service. for indoor or outdoor service,

FIG. 5.21 Capacitor-type lightning orrerter rated 0 to 750 volts, 4 rrf for w e on d-c
cirwiti. lnruloting cop and sleeve removed ot one end to show terminol.
314 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

APPLICATION PROCEDURE

Every exposed overhead line distributing power within or supplying


power t o an industrial plant represents a possihle sourre of destruitire
overvoltages. Lightning arresters should be so applied that a voltage
surge from any of these sources will be reduced to a ralue ~ v e l lheIoi\- the
impulse strength of all apparatus involved.
The application procedure consists of (1) selecting t,he voltage rating
of the arresters t o he used, (2) choosing t,he types of arrest,ers needed, and
(3) determining where the arresters should be located to ensure adequate
yet economical protection.
Selection of Arrester Voltage Ratings. The protective characteris-
tics of an arrester are hetter and, in general, its cost, is lower, the lower its
voltage rating. On the other hand, if the line-to-ground system voltage
after sparkover of a n arrester should exceed its voltage rating, the
arrester may not interrupt follow current and then iI-ill fail very quickly.
This makes it important t o determine the maximum lilie-to-groutid sys-
tem voltage at the point at which the arrester is applied. 111 so doing
it is necessary t o consider all abnormal conditions which ran exist, par-
ticularly those conditions which are likely t o exist when the arrest,er
sparks over.
Under normal balanced operatirig conditions, the voltage from each
line t o ground on a three-phase system is the syst,em line-to-line voltage
divided by the square root of 3. This applies vhethcr the system neutral
is grounded or ungrounded. There are, however, many abnormal roti-
ditions which can occur that result in higher t,hari normal line-to-ground
voltages. Hut the one that is most likely t o exist a t the time of arrester
sparkover is a line-to-ground fault. For example, if a lightning stroke
causes flashover and hence a fault on one phase of a transmission line, the
voltage indured on the sound phases is apt, t o cause sparkover of the
arresters connerted t o these phases. These arresters must then interrupt,
follow curreut, with a line-to-ground fault on the system. The voltage
ratings of arresters are, therefore, generally selected 011 the hasis of the
system voltage t o which they arc subjected under line-to-ground fault
condi t,ions.
The voltage from sound conductors t o grouud with a line-to-ground
fault 011 a system depends upon how the system neutral is grounded.
For the usual ungrounded or resistailre-grounded system, t,his vokage
will be essentially equal to the system line-to-line voltage, and the light-
ning arresters used must be selected 011 this basis. Thcse are siimetimes
referred to as ‘‘ 100 per cent arresters.” However, for solidly grounded
or reactance-grounded systems the sooiid-rotidurtor-to-ground voltage
with one line grounded may be as low as the system line-to-neutral volt-
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 315

age. It depends upon the relation between the zero- and positive-
sequence impedances of t,he syst,em. For example, if the ratio of zero-
sequence reactance X Ot o the positive-sequence reactance X I is positive
and less than 3 and the rat,io of the zero-sequence resistance R , t o the
positive-sequence reactance X I is less thau 1, the voltage from sound
conductors to ground will not exceed 140 per cent of the system liue-to-
neutral voltage or about 80 per cent of t,he system line-to-line volt,age.
Such a system is said to he “effei.t,ivelygrounded,” and t,he arresters used
are referred to as “80 per rent arrest,ers.” Some syst,ems are grouudcd so
that arresters of even lower voltage rating can he used as far as the orer-
voltage caused by line-to-ground f a u h is concerued. This, however,
should he done only after a careful check of the possible overvoltages
from all sources t,o make sure that v o h g e s in excess of t,he arrester rating
are not likely to occur at the time of sparkover.
Table 5.5 lists the voltage ratings of arresters usually selected for
(1) ungrounded or resistauce-grouuded systems and (2) “effectively
grounded” systems. Selections are show1 for all system voltages likely
to he encountered in industrial plants.
As shown in Table 5.5, 3-kv arresters are often used on 2.4/4.1C,Y-kv
grounded-oeutral systems and 9-kv arresters on 7.2/12.47-kv grourided-
neut,ral syst,ems, akhough in t,hcse cases the arrester rating is only 125 per
cent of t,he nominal system line-to-neutral voltage. Before using these
lmi-er rat,ed arresters, the maximum operating voltage and the rise iu
soulid-conduct,or-to-ground rokages with a linn-t,o-grouud fault, should be
determitied t o make sure that under these conditions the voltage applied
to the arresters will not exceed their rating. I n geueral they should not
be used on industrial pmver systems unless (1) the ratio of zero-sequenre
reart,ance X o to the positive-sequence reactance X I is less thau 1.5 and
(2) the ratio of the zero-sequence resistance Ro t,o t,he positive-sequence
reactance X I is less thau 0.5.
Even though a system meets the qualifications of an eflectively
grounded system at the power source, it may not a t other points in the
system because of the impedance of intervening lines. Furthermore,
the system may be “effectively grounded” under uormal operating
conditions, but certain faults or other emergencies may result in the
opening of switches which leaves a portion of the system ungrounded
but still energized either from generators or from mot,ors whirh can
temporarily act as generators. Such possibilities should he considered
before selecting the voltage rating of arresters to he applied on what
appears t o be an effectively grounded system.
Choice of Arrester Type. Where the arrester voltage ratiug required
is 3 t o 15 kv, a choice must be made between the distribution-type and
the station-type arrester. Similarly, if the rating required is hetween 20
316 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

TABLE 5.5 Voltage Ratings of Arresters Usually Selected for


Three-phase Systems

Voltage roting of arrester, kv

Nominal system
voltage, kv Sy*tom "e"Ir.1 System neutral
ungrounded or effectively
'eiirtonce groundeq grounded

0.120/0.208Y 0.65 0.175


0.240 0.65 0.65
0.480 0.65 0.65
0.600 0.65 0.65

2.4 3 3
2.4/4. I6Y 4.5. or 6 t 4.5,;or 6
4.16 4 . 9 or 6 4.5. or 6
4.8 6 4.5* or 6

6.9 7.5*or9 6
12 I5 12
7.2112.47Y 15 9 t o r I2
13.2 (or 13.81 15 12

23 25 20
34.5 37 30
46 50 40

69 73 60
115 121 97
I38 145 121

* The 4.5- and 7.5-kv arresters are available only


;he station type.
t The use of these arresters requires an X o / X ,
1 less than that necessary to
I
make the system "effectively grounded" (see accompanying text)

and 73 kv, either the line-type or the station-type arrester must he


selected.
The value of the equipment protected and the importance of uninter-
rupted service in an industrial plant generally warrants the use of station-
type arresters throughout their voltage range. However, for the smaller
(liquid-filled) transformers and substations, say 1000 kva and less, dis-
tribution- or line-type arresters are frequently used. Similarly, for the
protection of short lengths of cable joining overhead lines and apparatus,
these lower cost arresters are generally chosen. They are also used to
protect small breakers, disconnecting switches, and similar outdoor
switching equipment. Finally, distribution-type arresters are often used
in the protection of rotating machines, thereby supplementing the protec-
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 317

tioii provided h y statioii-type arresters (sec l'rotcrtioii of h-C Iliitatiiig


hlarhiiirsj.
Location of Arresters. The ideal location of lightiiiiig arrestcrs, from
the staiidpoi~rt,:if the prutrrtioii whirh they provide, is directly at the
terminals of t h e apparatus heiiig protwted. .kt this location, aiid with
the arrester groutid leads i.oiinerted direi.tly to the tank, framc, or other
metallii, strnctiire h i r h supports the iiisrilated parts, thc surge voltage
applied to the itisrtlatioti will he limited to the sparkover vultage aiid the
discharge voltage of the arresters. Iii some cases, howe\-er, it might I)P
quite costly or aivk\\-ard t o muiiiit the arresters at tlie apparatus tcrmi-
iials. Furthermore, i i i somc iiistatlations, if the arresters are mo\-cd
away from the trrmitials 11f the protected equipme~it.a single set of
arresters caii he lorated \\-here they will intercept all lightiiiiig surges
to two or more pieres of apparatus. H o ~ e v e rsuch separation hetwecti
lightning arresters alid thc eqriipme~it,does mean some itiiwase i n the
magiiitude of the voltage surge 11-hivh is applied t o t h r eiluipmmt.
First, the equipmelit protevted will ofteir have a highrr surge impedtilice
than that iif the h i e or mhle over \\-hich the lightiiiiig srirge arrives.
This means that thc voltage wave will refle1.t positix-ely nt the equipmetit
termiiials aiid the 1-oltage rearhed at this poiiit n-ill al\\-ays he lriglrcr
than the sparkover v d t a g e of the arrester. T h e amoriiit of the itirvmse
will depend upoii ( I ) the steepiirss of the froiit of the srirgc viiltagr, (2)
the relative surge impedance of the eqnipmeiit aiid the circuit hetiweti
the arrester and the protected equipmeiit. (3) the sparkowr \-iiltnge of
the arrester, and (4) the length of the rirt,nit hrtivreli the arrester and the
protwtrd eiluipmeiit. The greatest i i i i ~ r a s riii voltage wciiss if the
cirruit is iipeir at the protected eiluipmetit (iiititiite surge i m p d a t i w j .
111 this rase tlie voltagr will IK dinible the arrester sparko\-er voltagr if
the sepitration distairre is such that parko over ownrs before tlic voltage
wave reflected from the eiliiipmriit arrives hack at the arrestrr, U'ith
less separatiiiii the voltage will iiot iiirreasr a s miidi. This is showi h y
the iwrves of Fig. 3.22. Citrve ;I applies if the overhead liiie. over \\-hirIi
the surge arrives. estends past the arrester to the priitri,tid eqiiipmetrt,
i\-hile curre B applies i f a i,ahle of typical chnravteristiis forms the cirruit
het\\-eeti the arrester aiid t h r proterted equipment.
The voltage whirh appears arross an arrester after spnrkovrr, i.e., its
disrharge voltage. is also magnified by separation atid priidrwrs ii Iiighrr
voltage at the protevtcd equipmeiit. Fnrthermiirr. if thew is ail? appre-
riable lciigth of lead hetween t h e h i e rolidrii~tiir atid the arrester or
het\\-een the arrester atid griiulid, the voltage drop wross surh a lead adds
to the discharge voltage of the arrester aiid is also itiiwased by separation
betxi-eeii the arrester and the protected eqiiipmrtit. Finally, if a11 arrester
located away from the protected equipment has a11isolated co~iiicctioiito
318 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

ground, the additional voltage drop resulting from discharge current


flowing through the ground resistance also adds to the line-to-ground
voltage a t the arrester and a magnified addition appears a t the protected
equiqment.
Certain installation practices help to reduce the difference between
arrester discharge voltage and the corresponding voltage a t the pro-

FIG. 5.22 Effect of reparotion between a lightning arrester and the protected equip-
ment on the rotio of the maximum voltage a t the equipment to the sparkover voltage of the
arrester (doer not include any effect of the voltage at the arrester following its sparkover).
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 319

tected equipment. For example, where an arrester is connected between


an overhead line and ground, the leirgth of the line and ground leads can
both he reduced to a minimum by use of the V connection. The arrest,er
is placed a t ground level, and the line coriductor is brought down to the
arrester and then back up, forming a V. The angle hetween the two
sides of the V should not be less than 30" to minimize their mutual
inductance. The effect of high ground resistance a t the arrester ran be
minimized by interconnection of the arrester ground terminal with the
tank or enclosure of the protected equipment, the station steelwork, and
the ground mat. Finally, where the circuit hetween an arrester and the
protected equipment consists of cable having a contirruous metallic
sheath, the arrester ground terminal should he connected directly to the
cable sheath and the sheath connected to the equipment tank or enrlo-
sure. In this may arrester lead lengths can he kept to a minimum and the
effect of ground resistance eliminated.
More specific recommendations covering the application of arrest,ers
for the protection of various types of equipment,, including suggested
maximum separation distances, are given in the remainder of this chapter.

PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS

Transformers generally constitute one of the must important elements


of any industrial power system. Furthermore they are frequently con-
nected directly to exposed overheadlines and so are suhject to destructive
overvoltages unless properly protected by lightning arresters.
A liquid-filled (oil or askarel) transformer having arresters mounted a t
its terminals is well protected against the overvoltages produred hy
lightning, with the possible exception of those result,ing from severe direct
strokes to the transformer terminals or to the conneitcd lines close t,o the
transformer. Furthermore, the possibility of such direct strokes can he
essentially eliminated by proper shielding. Often, howerer, in order t o
protect (with the same set of arresters) switching and other equipment
located between the transformer and the exposed lines, or to protect two
or more t,ransformers connected to the same line, it may appear desirable
to mount the arresters some distance away from the transformer termi-
nals. The maximum permissible separation distanres depend, among
other things, upon the magnitudes and rates of rise of the voltage surges
which can he expected to reach the arresters. Until more statistical
data on these surges are available, no determination of permissible separa-
tion distances can be considered final. Hou,ever, making That appears
to he reasonable assumptions, a Working Group of the AIEE Suhcom-
mittee on Lightning Protective Devices (of the AIEE Committee on
Protective Devices) proposed the maximum separation distances shown
in Table 5.6.* The installation conditions on which these distances are
* Ser AIEE Misccllaneous Paper 51-285.
320 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGESS-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

based arc that ( 1 ) the transformer is fully insulated (liquid-filled), (2)


statioii-type arresters are used, (3) arrester lead lengths are zero (V
r~~nncctioiror eqnivalent), (4) ground resistance is negligible, and (5) the
transformer is a t the elid of a single overhead line (the worst condition)
with the arresters located on the line directly in the path of incoming
sr1rgcs.

TABLE 5.6 Separation Distance Permissible between Station-type


Arresters and Transformer Bushings

Separation diitonce, ft

Tiomformer Botic impvke


i"lYl.ti0" inrvlotion
System neutral System neutrd
CI.I., IWel,
ungrounded or effectively
kv kv
esistance grounded grounded
1100% arrosten) 180% arresters)
-___
25 I50 25 70
34.5 200 25 70
46 250 ~.
25 70
69 350 25 70
92 450 30 75
115 550 30
35 85
138 650 95

For transformcrs of lower volt,age ratings (15-kv class and below)


which are not covered i t t Table 5 . 6 , permissible separation distances have
not becti estahlished. Severtheless it appears that for these ratings any
apprecialile scparatiott should be avoided, that is, the arresters should he
mounted 011 t,he transformer itself or closely adjacent to it.
In ratings of 15 kv and helow, transformers are often connected t o
exposed overhead lines through a length of cable. I n this case fully
insulated liquid-filled power transformers ronnerted t o the overhead line
through a cable having a continuous metallic sheath will be adequately
protcvtrd by statioii-t,vpe arrestcrs located at the junction of the cable and
the overhead l i t e. Thc arrester ground terminals must he connected
directly t o thc catilc sheath, and at the transformer the cable sheath must
lie rotinerted t o the transformer tank. If the transformers are of the
distribution rathcr thaii the po\ver rlass or if distrihution-type rather
than station-type arresters are provided at the junction of the cable and
overhead line, it may he necessary to add a set of arresters at the t,rans-
forme,r terminals to eiisurc adequate protection.
Dry-type transformers, \\-hose impulse level is ahout half that of the
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 321

liquid-filled type, are not generally recommended where connection t o


exposed overhead lines is required. If used they should definitely be
protected by station-type arresters located at the transformer terminals
regardless of whether the connection t o the exposed overhead h i e is
direct or through a cable.
If a liquid-filled transformer is connected t o an exposed overhead line
only through another transformer which is adequately protected by
lightning arresters, no additional protection is required. In the same
situation a dry-type transformer should, preferably, have station-type
arresters mounted a t its terminals since analysis iiidicates that the surges
that come through the other transformer can have magnitudes greater
than the recognized impulse level of the dry-type units.

PROTECTION OF METAL-CLAD SWITCHGEAR*

Metal-clad switchgear (used on 2.4 t o 13.8-kv circiits) is often con-


nected t o an exposed overhead line either directly from roof bushings or
through a moderate length of cable. In either case it is esseiitial that
adequate lightning protection be provided.
If the switchgear is connected directly t o the overhead line from roof
bushings, lightning arresters should always be provided a t the gear.
Although the arresters are sometimes mounted on the first structure away
from the gear which supports the overhead h e , the resulting separation
between the arresters and the protected equipment substantially reduces
the effectiveness of the protection. Heiice locating the arresters at the
gear is definitely recommended. They may be mounted on the roof of
the switchgear enclosure adjacent t o the bushings or inside the enrlosure
but on the line side of the breaker. Since the former arrangement gener-
ally requires an extra ground bus, the inside mounting is usually selected.
The arresters should preferably be of the station type (rotating-machine
form), but space limitations may sometimes make i t necessary t o use the
distribution type. The voltage rating selected should he the lowest that
is consistent with the system voltage and method of grounding.
If the metal-clad switchgear is connected by cable t o the exposed over-
head line, the first requirement is that arresters be provided a t the junc-
tion of the cable and the overhead line in order t o protect the cable.
Then if the cable does not have a continnous metallic sheath, a second
set of arresters should be provided at the switchgear. I n this case dis-
* Adapted from Dillow, Gittings. Halherg. Hoffman. Howard. and Hontrr, Light-
ning Protection of Mptalclad Saitchgear and Unit Substations Connected to Over-
head Lines, Gen. Eke. lieu., March, 1949.
322 SYSTEM OVERVOtTAGE5,-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

tribution-type arrcsters are usually used a t the junction, but those at the
switchgear should preferably be of the station type (see Fig. 5.23).
If the cable eoiiiiectiiig niet,al-clad gear t o an exposed overhead line
does have ii coritiiiiious metallie sheath, the set:orrd set, of arresters at the
gear may or may not be rec.]uired. It depends upon (1) tho iiisulation
level of the gear, ( Z j the type and
... . . . .. voltage rating of the arresters
provided at the junction, aiid (3)
the length of the cable. An
analysis of this ease was made
on t,he basis of the followiiig
assumptions :
1. The arrestors at the jiinc-
tioii maintain a voltage at, this
point which does not exceed the
sparlrover voltage of the arrester
as given in Table 5.8.
2. The maximum voltage at
the switchgear must be limited
to 80 per cent, of its BIL.
3. The volt,age waves which
appear on the overhead liue arid
reach the cable junction have a
const,ant rate of rise which does
not exceed 1000 kv per psec.
4. The surge impedance of the
overhead line is 500 ohms, and
t h a t of the cable is 30 ohms.
FIG. 5.23 Stofion-type lightning orresterr
5 . The velocity of propagat,ion
(rotating-mochine form) mounted in metal-
clad switchgear. of the surge iii the cable is GOO f t
per $see.
The r e s u k of the analysis are shown in Table 5.7.
I n all cases the grouiid terminal of the junction arrester should be cori-
iiected to t,lre cable sheath as me11 as t o ground, aiid at the switchgear the
cable sheat,h should he eonri d to the ground bus (see Fig. 5.24A).
This is essential if no arresters are provided in the gear aiid is desirable
in any case. Where large single-coiiductor cables are used, it may not be
desirable t o ground bot,b ends of the sheath because of excessive sheath
curreiit. I n this case the lightning-arrester ground terminal should still
be coririected directly t o the cable sheath arid the sheath grounded at the
switchgear, hut the connection t o ground at the arrester should be made
through aii isolatiiig gap, as shown in Fig. 5.24R.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 323

TABLE 5.7 Protection of Metal-clad Switchgear Connected to Overhead


lines through Continuous Metallic Sheath Cable

System voltage Arresters in witchgeor


(required or not requiredl
Voltage Voltoge
roting m d rating of
Neutral
811 of .2,T&*,S
ungrounded With dirtri- With
switchgear. effectively
or bution-typo station-Wpe
kv grounded, iundion, k?
resistance arresters 01 arresterr rrt
kv the junction
grounded, kv the iunction

4.16 2.4or4.16 2.4 3. Not required Not required


160 811) 4.16 4.5 t Not required
4.16 6 Required (55 h)f

13.8 4.8 .... 4.5 t Not required


I95 8111 4.8 or 6.P 4.8 6 (75 tilt Not required
6.9 7.5 t Not required
11.5 6.P P Required Not required
13.8 11.5 12 Required (30 ftlt
13.8 15 Required Required*

’The use of
-
arresters on a 4.16-kv system requires an X d X , ratio IPSS than
Y
that necessary t o make the system “effectively grounded” (see Selection of Arrester
Voltage Rating).
t The 4.5- and 7.5-kv arresters are available only in the station type.
t Arresters required in snitchgesr if length of cable exceeds this value.

TABLE 5.8 Sparkover Voltage of Arresters Used in Analysis of Protection


Rewired for Metal-clad Switchgear

Sparkover voltogs. k r

V0lt.go rating
of arraters,
Distribution-type Stofion-type
kv
.r,der* .lr,e*t*r*

-I 3 22
I 15
6 42.5 25
P 60 37
12 74 52
15 81.5 64
324 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGLS-CAUSES
AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

type arresters and a set of protective capacitors (as used for rotating-
macliitie protection) at the junction of the rable and overhead line. The
ground terrniual of both the arresters aiid the caparitors should be con-
nected to the rable sheath as \yell as t o ground (directly or through a n
isolating gap), aud the (.able sheath should he eoiniected t o the ground
bus a t the switchgear.

EXPOSED OVERHEAD LINE

11, a l l - P ~ ~
I?

CABLESHEATH

THIS ARRESTER MAY NOT BE REQUIRED

- . -T-
q&2 ’

4
1

-<4p

~
4 -

PROTECTION OF SUBSTATIONS

Outdoor substation equipment should be protected against direct


strokes of lightning by proper shielding. This may take the form of steel
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 325

masts (see Fig. 5.25) or extensions of tlie steel structure arrarrged so as t o


divert, t o themselves all lightning strokes which might otherivise strike a
bus, disconnecting switch, bushing terminal, or other exposed current-
carrying part,. The mast,s, or eqiiivaleiit, are designed so as t o form a
“protective zone” ivithin which all vulnerable parts will lie. JVith a
single mast the protective zone is usually corrsidered to be a cone hax-ing
its apex at the top of the mast and whose sides make an angle with the
vert,ical of 30 t o 15”. With two or more masts the protective zotie of each
is iricreased somewhat in the area betweeir t,hem. 1‘his may be con-
sidered as an iiicrease in the angle (made with tlie vertical) of the side of
each protective cone which lies bet,rveeii two masts. With the usual
spacings between masts, this angle may iiicrease to 60’.
It is also desirable t,o shield the inc,omiiig lines, by ovcrhead ground
wires, for a distarice of a t least 2000 ft out from the statiou. This r e d i m s
the possibility of direct strokes t,o tlie lines i l l t,he riciiiit,y of the statioir
and thus limits both the Inagnitude arid rate of rise of the voltage surges
which reach tlie station. The overhead ground wire should lit: grounded.
with as low a ground resistarrce as it is practicable t o obtain, at each p o k ,
and i t should he connected to the ground bus a t the substat,ion. Loir
ground resistance is particularly important for the ground rotinertion at
the first few Doles adjacent to t,he substation.

FIG. 5.25 Substation with lightning masti for direct stroke protection and station-type
lightning arresters far protection agoinrt surges entering the station over the incoming
liner.
326 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES A N D PROTECTIVE MEASURES

In addition to proper shielding against direct strokes, substation equip-


ment should be protected against voltage surges entering over the incom-
ing lines by the proper application of lightning arresters. The type,
voltage rating, and location of the arresters should he selected (by the
methods that have been described) so as to protect all the equipment in
the substation.
Typically, a set of arresters is required on each exposed overhead line
as it enters the station to provide protection to disconnerting switches,
buses, etc. Whether or not these arresters will also protect the trans-
former depends upon the system voltage, method of grounding, and cir-
cuit distance between the arresters and the transformer (see Protection of
Transformers). It may prove necessary to install an additional set of
arresters at the transformer.
Although the feeders from an industrial-plant substation are usually
underground cahle circuits with no lightning exposure, occasionally over-
head feeders are used. These represent additional sourres of voltage
surges from whirh the suhstation equipment should he protected by the
proper application of lightning arresters.

PROTECTION OF AERIAL CABLE

The best protection that can he provided for aerial cahle against direct
lightning strokes consists of grounding the messenger and sheath a t every
pole and securing as low a ground resistance as possible. This is to
allow a lightning stroke to the messenger to drain off by current flow to
earth without causing the voltage of the messenger and sheath to rise
excessively above the voltage of the cable conductors. If an aerial cable
joins a n open-wire line, lightning arresters should be installed at the
junction to protect the cable insulation against lightning surges which
arrive over the open line. The ground terminal of these arresters should
be connected directly to the cable messenger and sheath as well as to
ground.
Since the voltage and current surges produced in the messenger of
aerial cable by a lightniug stroke to the messenger result in voltage and
current surges in the cable conductors, it is generally recommended that
aerial cahle be considered the same as open-wire lines as far as the pro-
tection of terminal equipment is concerned.

PROTECTION OF A-C ROTATING MACHINES

Rotating machines present a special problem in lightning protertion.


First the insulation of the stator windings of a-c rotating machines has a
relatively low impulse strength. The highest test voltage it must with-
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 327

stand is simply the crest of the fi0-cycle high-potential test whose rms
value is twice rated (line-to-line) voltage plus 1009 volts. This means
that special effort must be made to limit the magnitude of the surge
voltage which reaches the terminals of the machines. Secondly, the
steep front of the voltage surge produced by lightning may damage the
turn insulation even though the magnitude of the surge is limited t,o a
value which can be safely withstood by the major (ronductor-to-ground)
insulation. Such damage is avoided by reducing the steepness of the
voltage wave which reaches the machine. Finally, as a result of the
above limitations, lightning protertive equipment must be considered
even though the machine is connected to the exposed overhead line
through a transformer whose line side is adequately protected by a
lightning arrester. A voltage surge of a magnitude and a steepness of
front u,hich will damage machine insulation can be t,ransmitted through
a transformer by electrostatic and electromagnetic coupling.
The scheme of protection recommended differs somevhat for (1)
machines connected direct,ly to exposed overhead lines and ( 2 ) machines
connected to exposed overhead lines through transformers.
Protection of Machines Connected Directly to Exposed Overhead
lines. First to protect the turn insulation, the maximum rate of change
of voltage (steepness of wave front) applied to the machine must be
reduced to a value which will limit the resultant turn-to-turn voltage to a
safe value. This is accomplished by (1)connecting a protective capacitor
between each line and ground in the path of the incoming surge (pref-
erably a t the terminals of the machine) and ( 2 ) connecting a distribution-
type arrester from line to ground a t a distance of 1500 to 2000 f t out on
each directly connected exposed line. Then to ensure reliable protection
of the major insulation, a station-type arrester should be connected in
parallel with the protective capacitor.
When located at the terminals of the rotating marhine, the ground
terminals of both the arresters and capacitors should be connected
directly to the machine frame, which of course should be connected to the
plant ground bus. When the protective devices cannot be located
directly at the terminals of the machine, it is preferable to bring the
incoming lines to the terminals of these devices and then on to the
machine, as shown in Fig. 5.26A4,rather than use separate leads from the
machine terminals to the protective devices, as shown in Fig. 5.2CR.
For additional improvement in the protection provided, the exposed
lines should be shielded by overhead ground wires for a distance of approxi-
mately 2000 ft out from the plant, This reduces the possibility of direct
strokes terminating on the circuits close to t,he station. It also ensures
that a voltage surge originating on the line, beyond the arrester which is
installed 1500 to 2000 f t from the station, will have its amplitude limited
328 SYSTEM 0VERVOLTAGES.-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

to the sparkover voltage and I R drop of this arrester regardless of the


arrrst,er grouiid resistarice. The overhead ground mires should be directly
ronnerted to the arrester grounds; they should he mel1 grounded a t each
pole strurture; and they should be eoniiected to the plarit ground bus.
l'he complete protective scheme is shown in Fig. 5.27.
Where overhead groiind-wire shielding of lines does riot give effective
protertion against direct strokes (hecause of inadequate line insulation

n
r3 L
J 'I
3-

PREFERRED METHOD INFERIOR METHOD


(AI (01

FIG. 5. 5 Allernaiive methodr of making connertions to rototing-machine protective


equipment where thir equipment cannot be located directly a t the machine terminal%

MACHINE t----
I -
DISTRIWTION-TYPE
ARRESTER
' 6
f+t ARRESTER

Ls c GROUND
CDNNECTION

I
t 1500-2000 FT -I
FIG. 5.27 Arrmgement of lightning protective equipment for <I rototing mochine com
nected directly 10 on exposed overheod lhe.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 329

in relation t o the resistance of the pole structure grounds), an alternative


method is availahle. This roiisists of installing a sperial ronrentrated
inductanre of about 200 mirroheiirys, and of suitable ampere rating for
the line rurrent, i l l earh phase b e t ~ e e i the
i exposed lines and t,he parallel-
connected statioir-type arresters and protective capacitors. 111 addition
a distribution-type arrester should he installed on the line side of each
ronreiitrated itidnctanre.
Protection of Machines Connected to Exposed Overhead Lines
through Transformers. In this case no arresters are reqnired out on the
line, hut instead a station-type arrester should be installed on the line
side of the t,ransformer (see Fig. 5.28). In addition, to give the most
reliable protection to both the major and the turn insulation of the rotating
machine, a set of station-type arresters and protective caparitors should
be installed between the transformer and the machine, preferably a t the
machine terminals. The roniiertions t o this protective equipment
should he as outlined for machines connected directly to exposed overhead
lines.
Protection of Machines Connected to Exposed Overhead lines
through Reactors or Regulators. The protection provided in this case
should he the same as for marhines roiinected dirertly to exposed lines.
I n addition a11 arrester should be applied dose t o the line terminals of the
reactor or regulator, as sho\vn in Fig. 5.29, t o protert this equipment.
Protection of Machines Connected Both Directly and through Trans-
formers to Exposed Overhead lines. As shown in Fig. 5.30, the protec-
tion in this rase is provided by a combination of the arrangements
described above; that. is, a station-type arrester should he provided on the
line side of the t,ransformer, a distribution arrester 1500 t o ZOO0 ft out
on the line t o which the machine is ronnerted dirertly, and a station
arrester and protective capacitor at the machine terminals.

FIG. 5.28 Arrmgemenl of lightning protective equipment for D rotating machine con-
nected to on e.,,ored overhead line through a transformer.
330 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

MACHINE REGULATOR O R OVERHEAD GROUND WIRE


r-------7-----

ARRESTER
*GROUND
'CONNECTION
f7
CONNECT ARRESTER
-.ARRESTER

AND CAPACITOR CONNECTION


GROUND T E R M I N A L S
T O MACHINE FRAME 1500-2000F T
AND TO RELIABLE
STATION GROUND
FIG. 5.29 Arrangement of lightning protective equipment for o rotating machine con-
nected to an exposed overhead line through a voltage regulator or through a current-
limiting reactor.

ARRESTER GROUNDCONNECTEDTO
TRANSFORMER TANK
OVERHEAD GROUND WIRE

MACHINE
DISTRIBUTION-TY PE
ARRESTER

OONNECTYM

TO MACHINE FRAME 1500 -2000 FT


AND TO RELIABLE
STATION GROUND

FIG. 5.30 Arrangement of lightning protective equipment for a rotating machine con-
nected to exposed overhead lines both directly and through a transformer.

Effect of Cables and Switching Equipment between Rotating Machine


and Exposed Overhead Lines. There will normally be one or more
lengths of cable as well as switching equipment between the rotating
machine and the exposed overhead lines. For the lengths of cable nor-
mally encountered in industrial plants, this does not affect the application
of rotating-machine protective equipment. However, the cable and
switchgear should also be provided with adequate lightning protection
(as previously described), and it may be found that some of the devices
used can also serve in the rotating-marhine protective scheme.
Protection of low-voltage Machines. As indicated by their GO-cycle
high-potential tests, low-voltage machines (600 volts and helow) have
relatively higher dielectric strength than the higher voltage machines.
Where such machines are connected only to exposed overhead lines
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 331

t,hrough transformers which have adequat,e lightning protection on their


primary, w additional lightning protective equipment is generally
warranted. However, where Ion-voltage machines are supplied direct,ly
from exposed overhead lines, lightning prot,ection shonld he provided.
l y p i r a l installations of t,his t,ype include motors installed in oil fields and
in quarries.
Protection of Machines Having Single-turn Coils. Rotating machines
above a certain size (lower limit varies wit,h speed and voltage rating) are
generally built with single-turn coils in which the coil insulation also
serves as the turn insulation. For 3GOO-rpm turbine generators, typical
lower limit,s are 2500 kw a t 2400 v o k , 5000 k w at 4160 volts, and -10,000
k w a t 13,800 volts. For such machines, protective raparitors are essen-
tial only if they are required t o limit the rise of volhage at the neutral of
the machine due t o positive reflection of the surge voltage wave a t t,his
point, Hence t,hey are not required if the machines (having single-turn
coils) are connected t o the exposed overhead lines through delta-Y or
Y-delta transformers. Xeither are they essential if the machine neutral
is grounded t,hrough a neutral resistor of 25 ohms or less or through a
neutral reactor of 0.1 ohm or less (on a 60-cycle basis).
Protection of Two or M o r e Machines on the Same Bus. The installa-
tion of station-type lightning arrest,ers and p r o t e h v e raparitors at t,he
terminals of each rotating machinc is always an ideal arrangement as far
as the protection provided is concerned. However, where two or more
machines in a plant are connected t,o the same exposed overhead lines,
there are obvious economies in plaring t,he protective equipment, on a
rommon bus or a t some other point where it will be in the path of the
lightning surges t o all machines. Where there are a number of machines
involved, a set of protective equipment on each incoming line may he the
most economical arrangement,. In such inst,allations, if the protective
equipment is not over 500 ft from the rotating machines and is placed
directly in the path of t,he incoming surges, there is relatively little loss in
protection.
A compromise arrangement places the protective capacitors a t the
terminals of each machine with a single set of arresters at the common
point.
If the protective equipment is not located at the machine terminals,
careful grounding of the arrester and capacitor sod a n interconnection
between this ground and the marhine frame is quite important. If the
circuit between the protective equipment and the machine frame consists
of continuous metallic-sheath cable or the cable is run in metallic conduit,
the arrester and capacitor ground terminals should also be connected t o
the cable sheath (or conduit) and the latter should be joined t o the
machine frame.
332 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

Ratings of Protective Equipment Recommended. Table 5.9 shows


the ratings of the lightning arresters and protective capacitors recom-
mended for protection of three-phase rotating machines of the popular
voltage ratings. The ratings of the arresters required on the line side of
any transformer between the rotating machine and an exposed overhead
line are not shown. Such arresters must he selected to match the voltage
and method of grounding of the line-side system.
For single-phase machines the same recommendations apply except
that only two single-pole units are required if neither line is grounded and
only one (on the ungrounded line) if one line is grounded. However, for

TABLE 5.9 Protective Equipment for Three-phase A-C Rotating Machines

For instoilofion IS00 to 2000


For indallation mt machine tsrminoli or on mochine bus ft out on directly connected
exposed overhead lines

Mochine
Protective capacitors
- - ~
st.tion-type orrester, 1 Distribution-type orrc~tcrs
~

*olt.ge
rating Voltage rating Voltage rating
Iphose-to
~ ~

phase1 Single i"gle- Single-


MiUO
Volt- p01e pole Un- pole
forad
w e ""it. units grovnde< ""it.
per Effective1 iff&i"*l:
di"( re. re- or re-
pole groundec groundoc
quire. "ired rnidonca quired
system system
ground=<
system
- - ~

-I- ~

0-650 0-65 I .o 3' 650 650 650 3


2,400 2.40 0.5 3* 3,000 3,000 3,000 3
4.160 4.16 0.5 3* 4,500 3,000$ 3 6,000 3,0001 3
4.800 4.80 0.5 3 6,000 4,500 3 6,000 6,000 3
6,900 6.90 0.5 3 7,500 6,000 3 9,000 6,000 3
11.500 11.50 0.25 3 or 6 12.000 9,000 3 12,000 9,000 3
13.800 13.80 0.25 3 or 6 15.000 I2.000 3 15,000 12,000 3
-- - - - - --
* A single three-pole unit is commonly used.
t Use six capacitor units (0.5 pf per phase) where both of the following conditions
apply: (1) Maehinc IS directly connected to t h e exposrd overhead lines. is connected
through a n autotransformer. or is eonnectcd throneh a Y-Y transformer with both Y's
~~ ~~0~~~~
~ ~~~

grounded. (2) Machine is ungrounded, is neutral grounded through a resistance


greater than 50 ohms, or is neutral grounded through a reactance greater than 5 ohms
(60-cycle basis). In all other cases three capacitor units (0.25 pf per phase) will
suffice.
$The use of 3000-volt arresters on a 4160-volt system requires s n X o / X Iratio less
than that newssary to make the system "effectively grounded." (See Selection of
Arrester Voltage Rating.)
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 333

CkG5O-volt marhines a t,hree-pole protertive caparit.or is commonly used


in any rase. T\\-o-pole 2400-volt capacitors and two-pole GO-volt
arresters are available for use on single-phase systems i n which neither
line is grounded.
As shown, the voltage rating of the protective capacitors rerommended
matches the system phase-to-phase vokage for both effectively grounded
and ungrounded systems. They arc generally designed so that t,hey rail
be used on any marhine whose voltage rating does not exreed 110 per rent
of the capacitor voltage rating. Where the voltage rat,ing of a marhine
falls between the voltage ratings of the prot,ertive raparitors available,
one of the next higher voltage rating r a i l alivays be used.

PROTECTION OF D-C ROTATING MACHINES AND RECTIFIERS

D-C motors and generators connected to exposed overhead lines should


be proterted hy suit,ahle d-r arresters, snrh as the capacitor type. They
may he installed at the machine terminals, on the bus, or at the station
on each outgoing feeder.
Mercury-arr rectifiers and t,heir transformers (Fig. 5.31) may be pro-
tected hy a set of station-type or distribution-type arresters on t,he supply
side of the transformer and, if the d-r feeders are exposed, suitable d-r
arresters a t the d-c terminals of t,he rertifier, on the d-r hus, or on the
exposed d-c feeders. In addition t o this protection, rectifier transformers
are often supplied with built-in nonlinear resistors or “surge eliminators”
installed on one of the secondary Y’a or zigzags, and also installed across
AC SUI

1
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMER ANODES

MERCURY
CATHODE
I ~

+ DC
T I

I/

4 THYRITE SURGE ELIMINATORS


(BUILT IN AS INHERENT PART ff
GENERAL ELECTRIC RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS I
I L L

4
FIG. 5.31 Typical scheme of lightning prokction for a mercury-arc rectifier.
334 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

the interphase transformer winding, to absorb the high peaked surges of


small energy associated with mercury-arc phenomena.

PROTECTION OF COMPLETE POWER SYSTEM

The protection of a complete power system is accomplished simply by


providing adequate protection to each component of the system by the
methods which have been described. In some cases it will be found that
the protective equipment required for one piece of apparatus will also
serve to protect other pieces. The effect of separation between arresters
and protected equipment must, however, be considered.
Typical arrangements of protective equipment for an industrial power
system are illustrated in the one-line d i a g a m of Fig. 5.32. As shown,

FIG. 5.32 Typical arrangement of lightning protective equipment on on industrial power


ryrtern.
SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEMURES 335

lightning arresters are provided on the high-voltage incoming line. It is


assumed that the distance between these arresters and the transformer
terminals is short enough so that no additional protection is required for
the transformer. The generator and large motor are provided with both
lightning arresters and capacitors a t their terminals, while the smaller
motor has the capacitors only. Lightning arresters are also provided on
the line side of the breakers to which the overhead feeders are connected.
Arresters are also required a t the junction of the overhead line and cable,
but it is assumed that the length of this cable is such that these arresters
do not give adequate protection to the switchgear. Finally, arresters are
installed a t a distance of 1500 to 2000 f t nut on each overhead feeder to
complete the protection required for the rotating machines. In all cases
the type and voltage rating of the arresters would be selected as outlined
under Application Procedure.
No attempt has been made to show the details of the connections to the
arresters. These should be made in accordance vith the recommended
practices that have been outlined.

REFERENCES
1. Modern Conwpts of Lightning ProtPetion for Transmission and Distribution
Circuits, Ocneral Electric Company Publication GET-I720A, 1948.
2. Lightning Protective Equipment for Rotating Machines, Gerieral Electric Com-
pany Puhlication GEA-l743H, 1953.
3. Shott. €1. S.. and H. H. Peterson, Critoris. for Xeutral Stability of Wye-Grounded
Primary Ijroken Delta Secondary Transformw Circuits, Tmns. A I E E , vol. 60,
November, 1941.
4. Blrmie, L. F., and A. Bwajian, "Transformer Engineering," 2d ed., John Wiley
& Sons, Ine.. New York, 1951.
5. Schroeder. T. W.,The Cause and Control of Somr Typcs of Switching Surges,
Tions. A I E E , vol. 6 2 , November, 1943.
6. AIEH Committee Rcport, Poner Systmn Overvoltages Produccd by Faults and
Switching Operations, 1948.
7. AIEE Committee Rcport, Corrdation of System Overvoltagcs and Pystem
Grounding Impedance, 1943.
8. Lewis, W. W.."The Protection of Transmission Systems Against Lightning,"
John UIIPy & Sons, Inc., New l-ork, 1950.
9. Brwley. L. V., "Traveling Waves on Transmission Systems," 2d ed., John WilQy
& Sons, Inc., New York. 1951.
10. Joint Cornmittcc on Coordination ai Insulation of AIEE, E E I , and KEMA,
Standard Basic lmpulsc Insulation l,evels, EEI Publication No. H-8, NEMA
Publication No. 109, 1941.
11. National Clcetrieal Manufacturers Association, Standards of Lightning Arresters,
Publiention Kos. LAl-1852 to I,A5-1952, 1952.
12. "American Standard for Lightning Arrestprs for Alternating Current Power
Circuits," ASA Standard C62.1, 1944.
13. Hunter, E. M.,E. Pragst, and P. H. Light, Dctermination of Ground-fault Cur-
rent and Voltages on Transmission Systrrns, Cen. Elec. Rev., August and Novem-
ber. 1939.
336 SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES-CAUSES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

14. Wagner, C. F., G. D. McCann, and C. M. Lear, Shielding of Substations, T ~ a n s .


A I E E , vol. 61. February, 1942.
15. Boehne, E. W., Voltage Oscillations in Armature Windings under Lightning
Impulses, Trans. A I E E , vol. 49, 1930.
16. Rudge, W. J., R. W. Wiesernan. and W. M. Lewis, Protection of Rotating A-C
Maehinps Against Traveling Wave Voltage Due to Lightning, Tians. AZEE,
vol. 52, 1933.
17. Hunter, E. M., and N. E. Dillow, Surge Protection of Rotating Machines, Gen.
Eke. Rev., May, 1950.
18. General Electric Application Committee, Lightning Protection of Metalclad
Switchgear and Unit Substations Connected to Overhead Lines, Gen. Elec. Re".,
March, 1949.
19. Towne, H. M., Lightning Protection of Substations. supplement to Dist7ibulion
Magdzine, July, 1951.
20. Allen, E. J., Protecting Meter Equipment from Lightning, supplemmt to Distri-
bulion Magazine, July. 1952.
21. Rudge, W. J., W. A. MeMorris, S. B. Howard, and T. J. Carpenter, The New
Thyrite Mrtgne-Valve Ststion Arrester, AIEE Conference Paper, 1954.
Chapter 6 by L. J. Carpenter and L. G. Levoy, Jr.

System Grounding'

About midafternooil one day i l l a West Coast manufarturi~igplant,


normal operations herame suddenly disrupted. The first evidenre of
trouble came in the form of a motor failure 011 the 480-volt system, then
another, and still anot,her in close succession. h i i inspertion of switch-
board voltmeters (measuring line-to-line volts) and ammeters indicated
no unusual conditions. System equipment continued to fail. A test
voltmeter W:LS rigged up having a full-srale ralihratioti of 1200 volts.
Upon coiiiiecting it phase-to-ground, the pointer went o f srale. A phase-
to-ground potential on a 480-volt system of more t,haii 1200 v o l h existed!
At once the inroming service t,raiisformers were snsperted of iiiternal
breakdown hetween high- and Ion-voltage windings, As the last of these
transformers was isolated and individually tested, it hemme evident that
they mere not at fault. System equipment rontiiiued t o fail, and the
situation was desperate.
A frantic group went into a huddle aiid derided that, t,he only way out,
was t o trip the main inroming service breaker n-hich would deenergize the
entire system. A t this point one of the workmeii noticed a small wisp of
smoke coming from a motor-starting autotransformer and, upon approach-
ing, could hear a buzzing noise inside. This circuit was switched rlear of
the system, and the overvoltages disappeared. During the two-hour
period that this arcing fault existed, hetween 40 and 50 motor windiiigs
had failed.
Finally it was found that the autotransformer enclosing case had been
bashed in and was practically in contact with the coil. The spot where
arcing had taken place was evident although not badly burned.
An attempt mas made t o show the plant engineer what had been the
trouble. A solid connection was made between the frame aiid the burned
* Crrdit for much of the original analytical work on this srhjcat is duc to IV. I i .
Roire, who was formerly a mcmher of the Industrial EnginPcring Srction. Orrwral
Electric Company.
337
338 SYSTEM GROUNDING

spot on the coil. Much to the bewilderment, of the operating men and
according to the expectations of the plant engineer, no mnre than the 73
per cent increase in the voltage to ground on the other two phases
occurred. The main ingredient of the overvoltage (discontinuous con-
duction) had been omitted.
This is an actual case of severe prolonged experience of overvoltage of
repetitive restrike origin on a 280-volt ungrounded system.
This story is spectacular because of the magnitude of the disturbance
and consequential damage. Similar occurrences of lesser extent are not
uncommon, however, and there is evidence that they are more frequent
than realized. It is a characteristic of ungrounded systems that they are
subject to relatively severe transient overvoltages. This trouble can be
avoided by proper grounding of the system, and other importaut benefits
are also obtained. For a detailed explanation of the nature and causes of
these overvoltages, refer to Chap. 5 .
System grounding has been practiced since the beginning of electric
power systems. This method of operation has not been universally uni-
form even within a given voltage class of systems or between various
operating companies. On the other hand, rertain systems are nearly
always grounded, for example, 120-volt lighting circuits.
The problem of whether or not a system neutral should be grounded,
and how it should be grounded, has sometimes not had the complete
understanding and engineering analysis which it deserves. As a conse-
quence, the grounding of many systems has heen hased on past experience
or opinion, and therefore system grounding practice is found to vary
widely on existing systems. On the other hand, most new systems con-
form to modern grounding practices.
A comprehensive review of the problems involved in grounding the
neutrals of industrial power systems clearly shows that it is generally
advantageous to ground all power-system neutrals regardless of voltage
or of process in the plant. The application in practical systems, however,
must be tempered by the availability of standard a p p a r a h s for new sys-
tems and the equipment and practices in an existing plant.

DEFINITIONS
The word “grounding” is commonly used in electric power system
work to cover both “system grounding” and “equipment grounding.”
To avoid confusion or possible misunderstanding, this chapter is devoted
exclusively to the subject of system grounding. The following chapter
(7)is devoted to equipment grounding.
These terms are defined by the National Electrical Code as follows:
SYSTEM GROUNDING 339

System Ground: A system ground is a connection to ground from one of


the current-carrying conductors of a distribut,ion system or of an interior
wiring system.
Equipment Ground: An equipment ground is a ronnertion to ground
from one or more of the non-current-carrying metal parts of the wiring
system or of apparatus connected to the syst,em. As used in this sense,
the term equipment includes all such metal parts as met,al conduit,s, metal
raceway, metal armor of cables, outlet boxes, cabinets, switch boxes,
motor frames, and metal enclosures of motor controllers.
The following definitions are taken from AIEE Standard S o . 32.
Seutral Grounding Devices.
System Neutral Ground: A system neutral ground is a connection to
ground from the neutral point or points of a rircuit, transformer, rotat,ing
machine, or system. The neutral point of a syst,em is that point whirh
has the same potential as the point, of junction of a, group of equal non-
reactive resistances if connected at their free ends t o the appropriate
main terminals or lines of the system.
(Except where specifically stated to be otherwise, the srope of this
chapter includes and relates t o neutral grounding of three-phase a-r sys-
tems in industrial plants.)
Grounded Sydern: A grouuded system is a system of conductors i n which
at least one conductor or point (usually the middle wire or neutral point
of transformer or generator windings) is intentionally grounded, either
solidly or through a current-limiting device.
KOTE:Grounded systems may be subject to various steady-stat,e and
transient overvoltages depending upon the ratios of X o / X , and R o / X , as
viewed from the fault location. Elo, X o , and X,are, respectively, the
zero-sequence resistance, the zero-sequence reactanre, taken as positive
if inductive and negative if capacitive, and positive-sequence subtransient
reactance.
Ungrounded: Ungrounded means without an intentioual connection to
ground except through potential-indicating or measuring devices.
Solidly Grounded (Directly Grounded) : Solidly grounded means
grounded through an adequate ground connection in whirh no imcedance
has been inserted intentionally.
Resistance Grounded: Resistance grounded means grounded through
impedance, the principal element of which is resistance.
Reactance Grounded: Reactance grounded means grounded through
impedance, the principal element of which is reactance.
Resonant Grounded (Tuned Grounded) : Resonant grounded means
reactance grounded through such values of reactance that, during a fault
between one of the conductors and earth, the rated-frequency current
340 SYSTEM GROUNDING

flowing in the grounding reactanres and the rated-frequency capacitance


iwrrent flowing between the unfaulted condurtors and earth shall he sub-
stantially equal. In the fault, these two components of the fault current
will be substantially 180’ out of phase.
Ground-fault Neutralizer: A ground-fault ueutraliaer is a grounding
device which provides an inductive component of current in a ground
fault that is substantially equal t o and therefore neutralizes the rated-
frequency capacitive component of the ground-fault current, thus render-
ing the system resonant grounded.
Grounding Transformer: A grounding transformer is a transformer
intended primarily t o provide a neutral point for grounding purposes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF UNGROUNDED SYSTEMS


The term ungrounded system is used t o identify a system in which there
is no intentional connection betneen the system condurtors aud ground.
However, in any practicalsystem, therealmaysesists a rapacitive coupling
between the system conductors aud ground. Consequently, the so-called
“ungrounded system” is in reality a “capacitively grounded” system by
virtue of the distributed rapacitanre from the system rondurtors t o
ground.
When the neutral of a system is not grounded, it is possible for destruc-
tive transient overvoltages, of several times normal, t o appear from h i e to
ground during normal switrhing of a circuit having a line-to-ground fault.
Tests have shown that overvoltages may be developed Sy repeated
restriking of the arr during interruption of a line-to-ground fault, par-
ticularly in lom-voltage systems. Experieiice has proved that these orer-

UNFAULTED
CIRCUIT

UNGROUNDED
- 4 )TRANSIENT
OVERVOLTAG ES
fI

+-
POWER SOURE
t I MAY CAUSE
1
I SECOND FAULT
I HERE
-
4,

c-
lb- POTENTIAL
, -SINGLE- LINE- TO
~ GROUND FAULT

BREAKER INTERRUPTING FAULT

FIG. 6.1 Transient overvoltages due to ground-fault interruption on ungrounded system


may cause other faults to occur on system.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 341

voltages may cause failure of itisulat,ioii at other lo(.atiotis on the system


than t,hc point of fault,. Thus, a litie-t,o-ground fault 011 one circuit may
result ill damage t o eiluipmeiit aud interruption of service on other rir-
ruit,s. The same condition will result from the repeated restrike of the
arc: in at1 arcing fault from line t,o ground. The condit,ion described is
illustrated ill Fig. (i.1.
In aii uiigrouiided-neutral system, a serond ground fault 011 another
phase may occur heforc the first fault, is removed. The second fault may
he on the same cirruit as t,he original fault or OII another. In any event,,
the resulting line-to-line fault will avtuate relays or circuit breakers and

' I
i SECChD
GROUNC
FAULT

FIG. 6.2 Double line-to-ground faults on ungrounded system result in outages of two
circuits and high-level fault currents which can cause severe damage to equipment.
FIG. 6.3 One ground foult on an ungrounded ryrtem may cause ground foultr in other
connected apparatus.

-:;i:::VOLTAGE
FU LL LIN E -T O -
LINE VOLTAGE

NEUTRAL

NORMAL
GROUND
GROUND * P O T E NT I A L
VOLTAGE
Y

(A) NO FAULT ON SYSTEM (01 SINGLE-LINE-TO-


(N E U TR A L FL O A T S AT GROUND FAULT ON
GROUND POTENTIAL) SYSTEM (ONE LiNE AT
GROUND POTENTIAL1

FIG. 6.4 Effect on line-to-ground voltages of (I single line-to-ground fault on an un-


grounded neutral system.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 343

cent higher than normal. Figure G.4 illustrates the increase i n line-to-
ground voltage due t o a ground fault. Usually the insulation het,ween
each line and ground is adequate t,o withstand full line-to-line voltage.
However, if this voltage is applied for loug periods, it may result in failure
of insulation which may have deteriorated hecausc of age or severe
service conditions.
Line-to-ground faults on ungrounded-iieutral systems muse a very
small ground-fault current t o flow through the raparkanre of cahles,
transformers, and other electrical equipment ou t h e system. This current
may have a magnitude from a few amperes t o 25 amp or more 011 larger

rLA
J
- ~.
1 I I
T T h
1Y 1Y s
Y
2Y

T
s5 3
"
5

FIG. 6.5 Location of ground faults m a y be troublesome on ungrounded neutral systems.


344 SYSTEM GROUNDING

systems. This is not, in general, enough to actuate protective devices,


bnt it may do considerable damage if allowed to flow for a long period.
Ground detectors on an ungrounded-neutral system will indicate the
existence of a ground fault but will not give its location (see Fig. 6.5).
Several dt vices are available for determining the approximate location
of ground faults. Such devices are admittedly helpful, hut they do not
provide the complete answer. Some time is still required to locate and
remove the faulty feeder from service for repair. These devices do
nothing to prevent the occurrence of the fault.

SWITCHES

hll. G K g

FIG. 6.6 Ungrounded low-voltage system with single line-to-ground fault in one circuit.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 345

The problem of locating a fault on an ungroiuided-iieutral system is


illustrated in Fig. R.G. While it is easy to see where the fault is iii the
diagram, it is not easy to locate it i n the artual ungrounded system.
The first step is to opeti the secondary feeders one at a time. This will
tell on whirh feeder the fault is. After finding vhirh feeder the fault is
on, then the branch cirruit,s are opeired one at, a time and finally the
motors and loads taken off one at a time. If this is done during produr-
tion hours, it rail readily he seen how much production loss there may he
just t o find a ground fault iir an ungrounded system. This is contrasted
with a grounded-neutral system where only t,he motor A , Fig. 6.6, would
have been tripped out and no other produrtion marhines iuterfered with.
A second ground may occur on the same phase, but at a different location
than the first. This is more diffirult t o find bemuse the operator must
then open all circuits a t once and dose them one a t a time t o find the
ground fault.
Often it is argued that with an ungrounded system one ground fault
cau be left on the system uutil it is convenient to locate it without inter-
fering with production.
Experienre has shoivn that double ground faults are rery common in
ungrounded systems simply because the first ground is left on, hoping
that the operator will find it before the serond ground fault occurs.

ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEM NEUTRAL GROUNDING


The advantages of operating an industrial power system grounded
compared with operatiug it ungrounded may be one or more of the
following :
1. Reduced operating and maintenance expense
a. Reduction in magnitude of transient overvoltages
b. Improved lightning protection
c. Simplification of ground-fault location
d. Improved system and equipment fault protection
2. Improved servire reliability
3. Greater safety for personnel and equipment
The relative weight of these advantages varies with system voltage
classes and t o a lesser degree with installation conditions.
Wheii the system is grounded at the neutral by a low value of imped-
ance, grounded-neutral lightning arresters may be used which give hetter
lightning protection, other things being equal, than do ungrounded-
neutral arresters required for ungrounded-neutral systems or for grounded-
neutral systems which are grounded through a relatively high neutral
impedance. I n general, circuits below 15 kv are not exposed to lightning
within the industrial plant, so that the advantage gained from better
346 SYSTEM GROUNDING

light,ning protection through the use of <rounded-neutral arrest,ers is not


too often an important factor. When industrial plants use voltages
above 15 kv, these circuits are often exposed to lightning so that low
impedance syst,emneutral grounding to allow the use of grounded-neutral
arresters is definitely advantageous.
Voltages below 15 kv are most commonly used in industrial plants and
are the highest voltages to which rotating machines are ordinarily con-
nected. It is in these systems that the advantages of system neutral
grounding are ohtained in the greatest degree. Minimizing damzge at,
the point of fault is usually more important than improved lightning
protection.
The reasons that the advantages are obtained stem from the operating
characteristics of grounded-neutral vs. ungrounded-neutral systems.
Better protection can he ohtained in a grounded-neutral circuit because
differential-relay protection of motors, generators, and transformers is
improved in grounded-neutral systems. If the neutral of the system is
not grounded, protection against grounds in the machine minding by
percentage differential relays is provided only upon t,he occurrence of a
second ground in another phase of t,he system, whereas in a grounded-
neutral system, percentage differential relays will operate for single
ground faults in the protected zone.
Phase-overcurrent relays in power systems are set at a value of current
above the full-load circuit rating, since load current flows through the
samc current transformers and relays as does the fault current. Hom-
ever, ground-fault relays may he set to operate at considerably less than
full-load currelit, since load current does not pass through them in the
normal three-phase industrial power systems with t,hree-phase loads. It
is this characteristic of ground relays that permits the use of low ground-
fault current associated with resistor grounding. Phase overcurrent
relays usually have tap settings from 4 to 16 amp, whereas ground relays
have tap settings as low as 0.5 to 2.0 or 1.5 to 6 amp for this reason.
Slightly lower system costs can sometimes he obtained hecause cables
designed for grounded-neutral service are appreciably less expensive than
those designed for ungrounded-neutral service for (1) systems at 13.8 kv
and above and (2) where automatic ground-fault relaying is used.
I n other rases the cost of the grounded-neutral system may be increased
by the cost of the grounding equipment which, in most cases, in the
2.4- to 13.8-kv range, is a grounding resistor. This cost is not generally
significant.
It is often advantageous to operate low-roltage industrial power sys-
tems, four-wire, three-phase. Thus, 208Y/120-volt systems may be used
directly for three-phase motors and single-phase lighting. Likewise
480Y/277-volt four-wire systems may be used for 480-volt motors and
SYSTEM GROUNDING 347

277-volt fluorescent lighting without lighting transformers. I n each


case, the neutral is solidly grounded.
It has been the experience of operators who have used both grounded-
and ungrounded-neutral systems that the failure rate is substantially
lower and the time the system is out of service is less on the grounded
system. This results from the fact that transient overvoltages are
greatly reduced on a grounded-neutral system. Because grounding
reduces these overvoltages, the life of electric insulation will he increased
and service interruptions will be minimized. Even though the over-
voltages of a n ungrounded-neutral system may not he high enough to
cause multiple failures, every time a ground fault occurs, the repeated
application of these overvoltages will weaken the insulation and cause a
higher failure rate than in a grounded-neutral system.
TABLE 6.1 Summq f of Advantages of the Grounded-neutral 480-volt System

Grounded-neutral system
I Ungrounded system

Safety. ... . .. . . ... SAFEST-Only 277 voits to ground Normolly 277 volts to ground when
at m y time (assume good ground no around on sydem. 480 vdti 10
and 480 volts maximum line to line1 ground on two conductors when one
phore i s grounded
SAFEST-Voltage on system limited Voltage on recondory system may be
to obout 277 volts when primary to as high as primary voltage for
secondary failure OCCUR in Irons- breakdown between primary and
former supplying system rocondory Ironsfarmer windings
SAFEST-Ground fault in ~ontroi Control circuit ground fault likely to
wiring cmn put only 58 per ~ e n line
f put full v ~ l t o g eon cantactor closing
volloge on line-to-line connected coils
LO"t.dO, closing coil.
Service rdiobility. HIGHEST-Ground faults ore mod- Port or 011 of system must be taken
ily located and repaired; syitem out of service to Rnd ground faults
need not be taken out to Rnd Subject to severe transient overvolt-
ground faults age*
HIGHEST-Ground foults arc locd- Ground faulh if not removed may
ired and trip off immediately upon occurrence of a second
HIGHEST-h%nimizes Irondent over- ground foult cause N o circuits to
voltages on the system goout atonce, thus causing 0 lossof
twice (IS much production equipment
HIGHTEST-Flooting grounds are Floating or arcing grounds likely
very unlikely
Maintenonce cost.. .. LOWEST-Ground faults arc easily Time must be spent hunting ground
located fault,
Fin1 coil. . . .. ...... About same (IS delta-connected
substation and ground detector
High-vollage Rvoresce Provides 277 volts for direct opera- Mud use step-down handormen
lighting lion of fluorescent lights. resulting from 480 to 277 volts or lower
in a cod roving by lhe elimination
of lighting Ironsformers and a
reduction in copper
348 SYSTEM GROUNDING

A summary of the advantages of grounded-neutral operation on a 480-


volt system is given in Table 6.1. In general, the same advantages are
applicable to other system voltages of 600 or lower. A summary of the
advantages of grounded-neutral operation on systems of 2.4 to 15 kv is
given in Table 6.2.
TABLE 6.2 Summary of Advantages of the Grounded-neutral
System (2.4 to 15 Kv)

Grounded-neutral system
I Ungrounded system

Safely. ..... ....... SAFEST: Single line-to-ground faulh Subject lo severe troniient over-
are tripped off immediocly voltages
Somice roiiobllity . .... HIGHEST: Ground faults are readily Part or 011 of system must be taken
located and repaired out of service to find fovltr
HIGHEST:Limited fault current C(IUSFI Ground foulh, i f not removed, may
a minimum of damage to equip- upon occurren~eof (I second ground
ment [with conventional resistonce fault C W S ~ two circuiti to go out at
grounding) once, lhur couiing the 1 0 s of Wice
as much production equipment
HIGHEST: Minimizer transient over- High fault current assdated with two
voltages on lhe system line-to-ground, faulh moy result in
more damage to equipment
Maintenance cost.. ... LOWEST: Ground fauih ore easily Ground faulh ore more diticult lo
locoled locote
First C o l t . . . .... ..... ABOUT SAME: Adds cost of resistor Requires ground-detector and fault-
and nwtral relaying locator equipmentto be comparable

HOW TO OBTAIN THE SYSTEM NEUTRAL


The best way to obtain the system neutral is to use source transformers
or generators with Y-connected windings. The neutral is then readily
available. Such transformers are readily available for practically all
voltages. On new systems, 208Y/120 or 480Y/277 volts may be used to
good advantage instead of 240 volts. For 2400- or 4800-volt systems,
special 2400Y- or 4800Y-connected source transformers may be purchased
or grounding transformers used.

GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS
System neutrals may not be available, particularly in many old systems
600 volts or less and many existing 2400-, 48On-, and 6900-volt systems.
When it is desired to ground existing delta-connected low-voltage sys-
tems (0-600 volts), grounding transformers are used to form a neutral
which is then connected solidly to ground. I n like manner, 2.4- t o 15-kv
SYSTEM GROUNDING 34P

systems having only delta-connected equipment may he grounded by


adding grounding transformers and neutral resistors.
Grounding transformers may be either of the zigzag or Y-delta type.

ZIGZAG GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS

The t,ype of gromrding transformer most rommonly used is a three-


phase zigzag transformer with no secoudary winding. The internal coti-
nection of t,his trausformer is illustrated in Fig. G.7. The impedance of
the transformer to three-phase currents is high so that, when t,here is no
fault on the system, only a small magnetizing current flo~vsin the trans-
former windings. The transformer impedance t o ground current,, h o w
ever, is low so that it, allows high ground currents to floxv. The trans-
former divides the ground current iuto t,hree equal componeuts; these
currents are in phase with each other and flow i n the three windings of
the grounding t,ransformer.
The met,hod of wiuding is seen, from Fig. 6.7, t o he such that when
these t,hree equal currents flow the current i n one section of the winding
of each leg of the core is i n a direction opposite to that in the other sertion
of the n$iding on that lea. The only magnetic
~ I - flus \\-hich results from
the zero-sequence ground rurrents is the leal e field about earh XI-inding

>
L I N E LEADS

1171
1 t- _.)

I -
(0) WINDING SHOWN ON CORE
NEUTRAL LEAD
-
(b) SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
OF CONNECTIONS
FIG. 6.7 Zigmg three-phore grounding transformer.
350 SYSTEM GROUNDING

section. This accounts for the low impedanre of the transformer to


ground current.
The short-time kva rating of a grounding transformer is equal t o rated
line-to-neut,ral vokage times rated neutral current. h grounding trans-
former is designed to carry its rated current for a limited time only, such
as 10 sec or 1 min. Hence, it is normally about one4enth as large, physi-
cally, as an ordinary three-phase transformer for the same rat,ed kva.

Y-DELTA GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS

A Y-delta transformer ran also be utilined as a grounding transformer.


I n this case the delta must he closed t o provide a path for the aero-
sequenre current, but the delta can be made up at any ronvenient voltage
level. It may or may not be used to serve other loads. The Y nindiug
must be of the same voltage rating as the circuit mhirh is to he grounded.
The connections of the transformer are shown in Fig. G.8.

APPLICATION

A grounding transformer should he connected t o the system in such


manner that the system mill always he grounded. Figure G.9a shows a
grounding transformer with an individual line breaker for connection
directly to a main bus of the system. Figure G.9b shows a means of COII-
necting a grounding transformer t,o a system without an individual line
breaker. In this case, the grounding transformer is connected between
the main t,ransformer bank and its hreaker. If grounding t,ransformers
are connected as shown i n Fig. G.Yb, there should be one grounding trans-
former for each delta-ronnerted bank supplying power t o the system, or
enough t o assure a t least one grounding transformer on the system at all
times.

FIG. 6.8 Connections and current dir-


tribution in CI Y-delta grounding tranr-
former when line-to-ground foult occurs
on a three-phare system.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 351

A
A A

-
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER

GROUNDING
R E S l STOR
-

T R A N SFORMER
{Jq3GROUNDlNG i
L
~

GROUNDING
RESISTOR

$ (b)

FIG. 6.9 Methods of connecting grounding transformer to system.


352 SYSTEM GROUNDING

In applying grounding transformers, the first step is to review the sys-


tem voltage and fault current level to determine whether the system
should be grounded solidly or through a resistor.

METHODS OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING


In grounding the neutral of a power system, the advantages outlined
will be achieved provided that proper attention is given to the impedance
of the circuit from system neutral t o ground. This circuit is illustrated
in Fig. 6.10 for the commonly used grounding methods. These methods
are referred to as solid grounding, rpsistance grounding, reactance ground-
ing, and ground-fault-neutralizer grounding. Kote that each method is
named in accordance with the nature of the external circuit from system
neutral to ground. In each case the impedance of the generator, or
transformer, whose neutral is grounded is in series with the external
circuit.
Characteristics of the various methods of system neutral groundiug are
given in the following text and summarized in Table 6.3. Application
limits and guides for the various methods are outlined with reference to
the following:
1. Effect on development of transient overvoltages
2. Damage a t the point of fault due to magnitude of ground-fault
current
3. Application of standard relays and circuit-interrupting devices for
selective ground-fault tripping
4. Lightning protection

SOLID GROUNDING

A power system is solidly grounded when a generator, power trans-


former, or grounding transformer neutral is connected directly to the
station ground or to the earth, as shown in Fig. 6.11. Because of the
reactance of the grounded generator or transformer in series with the
neutral circuit, solid grounding cannot be considered a zero-impedance
circuit.
If the reactance of the generator or transformer is too great, the objec-
tives sought in grounding, principally freedom from transient overvolt-
ages, will not be achieved. Thus, it is necessary to determine how solidly
the system is grounded A good guide in answering this question is the
magnitude of ground-fault current as compared with the system three-
phase fault current. The higher the ground-fault current in relation to
the three-phase current, the more solidly is the system grounded.
For nearly all solidly grounded systems (also reactance-grounded sys-
SYSTEM GROUNDING 353

tems) it ia neecusary for the ground-fault current to he in the range of 25


t o 100 per cent of the three-phase fault rurrent to prevent the develop-
ment of high transient overvoltages. This may mean symmetrical rms
ground-fault currents in the order of 10,000 t o 40,000 amp.
CIRCUIT EOUIVALANT
DIAGRAM

0
I UNGROUNDED
Y
I
5?

3. RESISTANCE GROUNDED cp
5 GROUND F A U L T
NEUTRALIZER

XG-REACTANCE OF GENERATOR OR TRANSFORMER USED FOR GROUNDING


XN-REACTANCE O F GROUNDING REACTOR
RN-RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING RESISTOR

FIG. 6.10 System neutiol circuits and methods of grounding.


SYSTEM GROUNDING
SYSTEM GROUNDING 355

Direct grounding of a generator without external impedanre may cause


the grouiu-fault current from the generator t o exceed the masimum
three-phase fault rurrmt which the generator can deliver aud t,o e x r e d
the short-rirruit rurreiit for which its vindings usually are hraced. Con-
sequently, i n rases where solid grounding of a system is indirated, genera-
tors should be grounded through a react,or having a l o w ohmic value
whirh d l limit fault current t o a value no greater than three-phase fault
rurrent. 111 the case of three-phase four-wire systems, limitation of
ground-fault current t o 100 per cent of the three-phase fault current, is
usually practical n-it,hnut interfering with normal four-wire operation.
Lightning arresters for grounded-neutral systems may be applied when
the system is grounded through a low impedance to prevent displacement,
of t,he system neut,ral d h respert t o ground beyond specified limits. In
this rase, the maximum impedanre may he espresscd in terms of minimum
ground-fault current. This cnrrent should be at least 60 per cent of the
three-phase short-circuit current for appliration of grounded-neut,ral-type
lightning arresters.
I

GENERATOR
SOLIDLY
GROUNDED
POWER
TRANSFORMER
SOLIDLY
GROUNDED
GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER
SOLIDLY 7
T
FIG. 6.1 1 Methods of solidly grounding the neutral of three-phase systems.

RESISTANCE GROUNDING

In resistance grounding, the neutral is connected t o ground through one


or more resistors, as shown in Fig. 6.12.
In this method, with resistor ohmic values normally used, the line-to-
356 SYSTEM GROUNDING

ground voltages which exist during a line-to-ground fault are nearly the
same as for an ungrounded system (except transient overvoltages). This
is illustrated in Fig. 6.13.
A system properly grounded by resistance is not subject to destructive
transient overvoltages. For resistance-grounded systems at 15 kv and

$9 Y

GENERATOR POWER GROUNDING


NEUTRAL TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
NEUTRAL NEUTRAL
-
FIG. 6.12 Methods of resistance grounding the neutral of three-phase systems.

NORMAL
LINE-TO-,
NEUTRAL

+' POTENTIAL
- VOLTAGE DROP
+! IN GROUNDED
PHASE,DUE TO
GROUND CURRENT

A) SYSTEM NEUTRAL 8) SYSTEM GROUNDED


UNGROUNDED BY RESISTOR

FIG. 6.1 3 System voltage diagrams during single line-to-ground faults. (All voltage5
a t operating frequency-transient voltages not shown.)
SYSTEM GROUNDING 357

below, such overvoltages will not ordinarily be of a serious nature unless


the resistance is so high as to limit the ground-fault current t o a small
fraction of 1 per cent of the system three-phase fault current (i.e., to less
than the system charging current). This much ground current (usually
well below 50 amp) is far less than is uormally used with resistor grounding.
Systems grounded Ghrough resistors as described in this chapter should
use lightning arresters for ungrounded-neutral circuits, where lightning
arresters are required.
The reasons for limiting the current by resistance neutral grounding
are as follows:
1. T o reduce burning aud melting effects in faulted electric equipment
such as switchgear, cables, and rotating machines
2. To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and apparatus carrying
fault current
3. T o reduce electric shock hazards t o personnel, caused by stray
ground-fault currents in the ground return path
4. To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip occasioned by occurrence
and cleariug of a ground fault

REACTANCE GROUNDING

The term reactance grounding describes the case in which a reactor is


connected between the machine neutral and ground, as shown in Fig. 6.10.
The magnitude of reactance in the neutral circuit determines how
“solidly” the system is grounded and therefore what its characteristics
will be. Since the ground-fault current which may flow in a reactance-
grounded system is a function of the neutral reactance, the magnitude of
ground-fault current is often used as the criterion for the various system
Characteristics rather than referring to neutral reactance directly.
In practice, reactance grounding is generally used only in the case cited
under Solid Grounding, in which a generator neutral is to be connected
directly to ground. In this event, it may be necessary t o add a low-value
reactor to limit the available ground-fault current through the generator
to a value no greater than the three-phase fault current contributed by the
generator.
The characteristics of a reactance-grounded system, which are depend-
ent 011 the magnihde of ground-fault current, at any point in the system
are summarized it1 Table 6.3.
It will be seeu that, if a system is to be grounded through a reactor, the
available ground-fault current should be a t least 25 per cent of three-phase
fault current. This is considerably higher than the minimum fault cur-
rent desirable in a resistance-grounded system; therefore, reactor ground-
ing is usually not considered an alternative of resistance grounding.
358 SYSTEM GROUNDING

GROUND-FAULT NEUTRALIZERS

A ground-fault neutralizer is a reactor connected between the neutral


of a system and ground and having a specially selected, relatively high
value of reactance.
A line-to-ground fault causes line-to-neutral voltage t o be impressed
across the neutralizer, which passes a n inductive current, I , (Fig. 6.14).
This current is 180' out of phase and is approximately equal in magnitude
(when the neutralizer is tuned to the system) t o the resultant of t,he sys-
tem charging currents from the two unfaulted phases l a and I , . The
inductive and capacitive components of current neutralize each other, and
the only remaining current i n the fault is due to resistance, insulator leak-
age, and corona. This current is relatively small, and as it is in phase
with the line-to-neutral voltage, the current and voltage pass through a
zero value at the same instant. Hence, the arc is extinguished without
restriking and flashovers are quenched without removing the faulted
line section from service. For systems on which faults in air are rela-
tively frequent, ground-fault neutralizers may be very useful because they
reduce the number of circuit-breaker operations required t o remove faults,
thus improving service continuity. They have been used primarily on
syst,emsabove 15 kv consisting essentially of overhead transmission lines.
A f e n ground-fault neutralizers have been used t o limit ground-fault cur-
rent t o substantially zero when a ground fault occurs in a large 6900-volt
ungrounded-neutral system such as in steel mills. Overvoltages are
reduced also in comparison with an ungrounded system. This, however,
is secoiid choice to resistor grounding, which provides ground-fault relay-
ing to disconnect the faulted circuit. It should be noted, however, that
failures in solid insulation, such as paper, varnished cambric, and rubber,
are not self-healing as insulator flashovers are and are not extinguished by
use of t,he ground-fault neutralizer as flashovers on an open line would be.
I n some cases where it has not been deemed desirable by the plant
Transformer -Ib

FIG. 6.14 Giound-fault-current pattern in ryrtem grounded b y means of (I ground-fault


neutralizer.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 359

operators t o trip a circuit 011 the occurrence of a ground fault, special


arrangements have been used t o limit the damage due t o the flow of
charging current and yet he able to locate the faulted feeder easily. One
scheme is to use a ground-fault neutralizer in the neutral t o limit the
ground-fault current and t o reduce switching surges t o safe values. A
resistor is arranged t o be connected in parallel with the neutralizer when
it is desired t o pass enough ground-fault current t o rause relays t o give a
signal or trip the breaker of the faulted feeder, as illustrated in Fig. 6.15.
Because of the current t o be switched, a power circuit breaker should be
used for switching the resistor. The resistor and relaying are selected
as if the resistor only were used. Such a scheme is expensive arid is used
only in very special rases.

POWER CIRCUIT
BREAKER REOUIRED

GROUNDING

REACTOR)

FEEDERS

3 CT’S

FIG. 6.15 Three-current transformers and ground relay required for each circuit in
special ground-fault-neutralirer application.

Ground-fault neutralizers alone have heen used t o a limited extent in


systems having the following characteristics:
1 . Large existing systems having only two current transformers per
circuit
2. Where the switchgear is such that the addition of a third current
transformer and residual overcurrent relay involves considerable expense
3. Systems having heavy charging current, in which case damage t o
machines may result in the event of a ground fault if the system is left
ungrounded
4. Systems which are susceptible to arcing grounds, for example, over-
head lines
3 bQ SYSTEM GROUNDING

A ground-fault neutralizer plus grounding resistor is also applicable for


systems having the above conditions except that three current trans-
formers and a residual relay are mandatory.
One of the characteristics of resonant-grounded systems is that care
should he taken t o keep the ground-fault neutralizer tuned to the system
capacitance to minimize the development of transient overvoltages.
Thus, when sections of the systems are switched on or off, it may be
necessary to adjust the neutral reactance by changing the neutralizer
taps. This operation may be readily performed by providing in the
powerhouse an ammeter and control switch for remote control of a motor-
driven tap changer on the neutralizer. Thus, when parts of the system
are switched, the neutralizer may be readjusted a t the time.

SUGGESTED GROUNDING METHODS FOR INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS


Various types of impedances for system neutral grounding have been
used for many years. A review of the various methods and their features
has indicated that the desirable practice for industrial plants is as follows:
1. Systems rated 600 volts and below: solid grounding
2. Systems rated 2.4 to 13.8 kv: resistance grounding in most cases;
solid grounding in a few cases
3. Systems rated 22 kv and higher : solid grounding
A summary of grounding methods a t various voltage levels is covered
in the following text and tabulated in Table 6.5.

SYSTEMS Mx) VOLTS AND LESS

The grounding of 208Y/120-volt systems has been almost universally


adopted. Grounding the neutrals of 480- and 600-volt systems has pre-
viously been impractical because of the fact that most three-phase trans-
formers supplying these voltages have heen historically delta-connected.
Now standard load-center unit substations are available with Y-con-
nected secondary windings rated 208Y/120,480Y/277, or 600Y/346 volts,
which enables lowvoltage system neutral grounding to be used. This
provides a safer, more reliable system with lower operating cost. These
substations are available with delta-connected primary windings.
The new standard Y-connected secondary windings for the 480- and
6OC-volt substations enable these units to he used for either grounded-
neutral or ungrounded 480- or 6OO-volt systems, respectively. The low-
voltage neutral is brought out through a hushing. When grounding is
desired, the terminal of the neutral bushing is connected to the low-volt-
age ground bus. When grounding is not desired, this connection is left
off. Therefore, one line of unit substation transformers now provides al!
SYSTEM GROUNDING 361

the voltage ratings commonly required, plus the advantage of being able
to operate the low voltage either grounded or ungrounded. Substations
rated 240 volts are normally delta-connected. To obtain grounded-
neutral operation in this voltage class, either the 208Y/120-volt substa-
tions or 240-volt delta substations with grounding transformers may be
used.
Relatively high ground-fault currents are usually required to operate
the standard overcurrent protective devices in circuits 600 volts or less.
Thus low-voltage systems are solidly grounded to assure sufficient fault
current for operation of protective devices.
Three levels of fault current are of interest in considering grounding
methods for low-voltage systems. These are (1) ground-fault currents
greater than three-phase fault current, (2) ground-fault currents equal to
three-phase fault currents, and (3) ground-fault currents less than three-
phase fault current. I t is desirable to design toward condition 2. There-
fore, systems supplied only by transformers are grounded solidly, in which
case condition 2 will obtain. However, if generator neutrals are grounded
solidly, condition 1 will obtain. Since the generator may not be braced
for the values of ground-fault current which can flow, it is necessary to
use a low-value neutral reactor t o bring the ground-fault current down to
three-phase fault-current value. For all practical purposes. this is
thought of as “solid” grounding rather than “reactance” grounding
because the resulting ground-fault current remains high.
Where grounding transformers are required to establish a neutral, it is
usually desirable to limit the ground-fault current to less than three-phase
fault current to keep the transformer size within practical limits. In this
case it is necessary t o investigate the tripping characteristics of interrupt-
ing devices and establish a transformer reactance which will assure ade-
quate current for tripping.
Condition 3 romes about in actual practice, either with transformer
solidly grounded or generator grounded through a neutral reactor, because
of the resistance of the ground return path. In medium-voltage systems,
this resistance has little effect. Referring to Table 6.4, 0.1 ohm in a
13.8-kv system neutral has practically no current-reducing effect. How-
ever, in low-voltage systems this resistance has a considerable effect.
Thus, 0.1 ohm in the neutral of a 240-volt system reduces the current by
as much as 95 per rent. Also, the system voltage is low enough that the
hazard from shock due to the flow of ground current through thestructure
of a building is minimized compared with higher voltage systems. All air
circuit breakers and fused knife switches must have three overcurrent
elements for application on three-phase grounded-neutral circuits. These
devices will trip for the same value of current whether the fault is three
phase or single phase t o ground. Hence, special ground relays are not
362 SYSTEM GROUNDING

TABLE 6.4 Approximate Symmetrical Rms Ground Currents with Solidly


Grounded Transformer Banks
-
Approximate ground currenl

ramformer Ground Ground


bonk ,e.i.lo"Ce, ,&.lo"Ce.
kva 1.0 ohm 0.1 ohm
~ ~ ~ ~

Amperes Per cent' Amperes Per cent' Amperes?


-- ~ ~ ~

13,800 7,500 3,900 87 4,500 100 4,500


I5.000 6,000 67 9,000 100 9,000
30,000 7,300 41 17,500 97 18.000

6.900 3,750 3,000 67 4,500 100 4,500


7,500 3.650 41 8.800 98 9,000
15,000 3,900 22 16,400 91 I8.000

4,160 2,500 2,160 43 4,900 98 5,000


5.000 2,320 23 9,200 92 10.000
7,500 2,360 16 12,700 85 I5.000

2,400 1,500 1.330 26 4,900 94 5,200


3,000 1,370 13 8.300 81 10,300
6,000 1,380 7 11,500 56 20,600

600 300 350 8 2,660 63 4,200


500 350 5 3.100 44 7,000
l.000 350 3 3,400 24 14,000
2.000 350 I 3,500 I? 28.000

480 300 280 5 2,450 47 5,200


500 280 3 2.680 31 8.700
1,000 280 2 2,750 16 17.300
2,000 280 I 2,770 8 34,600

240 150 I40 3 1,330 26 5,200


300 140 1 1,370 13 10.300
500 140 1 1.380 8 17.300
l.000 140 0.5 1.380 4 34,600
-- ---
* Per cent means per cent three-r, ;e fault eurrcnt
t For eero ground resistance, grounc urrent is 100 per cent of three-phase fault
current in all cases.
Norm: 1. Voltage assumed sustained on high-voltage side of bank.
2. 7 per cent reactance assumed for bank.
3. Bank assumed to he only source of fault current.
4. Ground resistance of 1 ohm is maximum recommended for main substation
grounds. Well-bonded grounded return connections in buildings usually have resist-
ance of 0.1 ohm or less.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 363

used in low-voltage circuits when the neutral is grounded. However, it


should be noted that all three poles of a circuit breaker open simultane-
ously for a single line-to-ground fault but that in the case of the fused
knife switch the faulted phase opens first and the remaining fuses may or
may not open, depending upon the degree of overload imposed on them
by the remaining single-phase circuits.

MEDIUM-VOLTAGE SYSTEMS 12.4 TO 15 KVI

As noted in Table 6.5 medium-voltage systems are usually resistance-


grounded. In this range of system voltages, limited ground-fault current
is highly desirable, in the usual industrial power system. Connection of
rotating machines directly a t these voltages is common; hence resistance
grounding is used to reduce the damage which may result because of a
grouud fault in the machine windings.
In the case of small systems supplied by generators, reactor grounding
(to produce not less than 25 per cent of three-phase fault current) may
be used in the interest of economy and berause ground-fault currents are
not too large. If the system is small and supplied by transformers, they
may be grounded solidly for the same reasons.
Arresters for grounded-neutral circuits discharge a t lower levels of
surge voltage and, hence, limit overvoltages to values about 20 per cent
lower than arresters for ungrounded-neutral circuits. The use of
grounded-neutral lightning arresters, to obtain better lightriing protection
for equipment connected directly to overhead lines, is the principal
reason for ever selecting reactance or solid grounding in place of resistor
grounding for an industrial power system of 2.4- to 15-kv class.
Reactance grounding at this voltage level is preferred only when all
the following conditions exist:
1. Overhead circuits directly connected to rotating equipment are snh-
ject to lightning exposure.
2. This type of grounding does not result in excessive ground-fault
current.
In such cases the neutral reactor of a generator must be selected so that
X , / X , is equal to or greater than 1 for the generator alone, and X , / X , for
the system must be equal to or less than 3 to permit the use of grounded-
neutral lightning arresters.
If high ground-fault current is acceptable and the systems include
suitable power-transformer banks, solid grounding may be preferred in
some cases because neutral reactors or resistors are not required and line-
to-ground lightning arresters may be used.
SYSTEM GROUNDING
Condition Grounding practice Remorks

D. If Y-connected generators on system Use resistonce grounding 1. Ganaroton used for grounding should be of ode-
quate sire bee Toble 6.61
2. When severe lightning exposure is present, gen.
erator may be grounded through 1ow-vobe reactomc
Grounding reiistor- to permit use of g'~vnded-nevtml-t~pOlightning
orrede.,
3. Small systems. where the resulting ground-fault cur-
rant would not be excessive, may be reactance
grounded, if desired, in the interest of economy v)
<
Do not ground solidly
-
E. If Y-connected transformers on system Use redstance grounding
[we tronsformen which supply power to
the system, ovoid transformen which are
___-
G! Y ~ --
1. Capacity of transformen used for grounding should
be of odequote size (see Toble 6.61
2' . Smell systemr, where the resulting growd-fault cur- 0
a
P
c
loads on the system) rent would not be excessive, may be solidly grounded. z
if desired, in the interest of economy 0
Resistor- -
2
0

-~ -_---__ _ _ __- __
F. If no Y-connected generators or tronr- Use one or more grounding transformers with resistors I. In m o l l systems. where the r e d l i n g ground-fault cur-
formers on system rent would not be exesrive, lhe growding trans-
former may be solidly grounded in the intorest of
economy

-to bur
-
366 SYSTEM GROUNDING

HIGH-VOLTAGE SYSTEMS (ABOVE I5 KV)

Systems above 15 kv are nearly always solidly grounded, because these


are usually transmission circuits with open lines in which, in most cases,
grounded-neutral-type lightning arresters are desirable for better over-
voltage protection and lower cost. In addition, rotating equipment is
seldom connected directly to these systems; hence, limited ground-fault
current, to prevent burning of laminations, is a less important factor
than in the medium-voltage systems. In addition, voltages above 15 kv
are not usually carried inside buildings; hence shock hazards due to high
fault currents are not a factor. Finally, the cost of grounding resistors at
these voltages is high.
TABLE 6.6 Minimum Ratings of Generators and Power Transformer
Banks for Grounding
Maaimurn System Mi"im"m
Short-circuit K"0
K"0 Rating
1,000,000 7500
500,000 3750
250,000 1750
l50,OOO 1000
ioo,000 750
50,000 375
25,000 187
NOTES: 1. If a smaller rating is used, system may he subject to transient overvolt-
ages during clearing of ground faults.
2. Tahle assume8 7 per cent for power transformer hank reactance or generator
zero-sequence reactance.
3. System short-circuit kva is maximum value possible when generator or hank to
he grounded is only source of ground current, all other grounded power sources being
out of servioe.
4. Tahle iS based on the criterion that the reactance of the grounded apparatus
dhould he no more than ten times the equivalent three-phase short-circuit reactance.
For example. B system having 250,OWkva three-phaso short-circuit duty has B
reactance of 100 per cent on a250.000-kva. base. The grounded apparatus may then
have a reactance of ten times this or 1000 per cent on a 250,000-kva hxse. If the
apparatus has 7 per cent reactance on its own base, then its kva rating may he

-7 X 250,000
100o = 1750 kva

INDUSTRIAL VS. UTILITY PRACTICE


The characteristics and operation of industrial power systems differ in
some respects from those encountered in utility systems; therefore, it may
be expected that grounding practices would also be different. Such is
the case, although the basic principles of neutral grounding are followed
in both types of systems.
A comparison of the pertinent characteristics of the two types of sys-
tems is given helow and summarized in Tahle 6.7.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 367

Utility practice in recent years has favored solid grounding. This


method permits the use of grounded-neutral-type lightning arresters with
the resulting reduced lightning-arrester investment and improved level of
protection. In addition, solid grounding offers savings in the use of
graded insulation in transformers at 115 kv and above. A large per-
centage of ground faults on utility systems occurs by means of insulator
flashovers; and the high ground-fault current due to solid grounding does
not cause expensive damage to equipment at the point of fault.
In the case of industrial power systems, resistance grounding is pre-
ferred for voltage levels from 2.4 to 13.8 kv. The principal reason for this
practice is to ensure reduced magnitudes of ground-fault current and con-
sequent reduction in possible damage at the point of fault. This is a
particularly important factor in the case of ground faults in the windings
of motors and generators. Although a ground-fault of limited magnitude
and duration may cause sufficient damage to require the replacement of
several coils, the desired result is obtained when the damage is confined to
the coils and the machine laminations are left intact.
TABLE 6.7 Industrial vs. Utility Grounding Practice

lnduitriol Utility

Derimbiiity of high ~ o n t i n ~ i tof ..............


y power. Yes Yes
Predominant method of conducting power.. ........... Cable Overhead lines
Per cent of system subject to lightning hazard.. ........ Smoil
Investment in lightning orresten..................... Small
Predominmce of voltage levels above 15 k v . . ........ Few ~ y i t e m r
Rotding equipment at diitribvlion and tranrmisdon leveis. Yes in most core!

SELECTION OF SYSTEM GROUNDING POINT

GROUND AT EACH VOLTAGE LEVEI

As illustrated in Fig. 6.16, it is necessary to ground each voltage level


to achieve the protection and advantages of neutral grounding. For
example, if the 4.16-kv system in this diagram were not grounded, this
level would have all the characteristics of an ungrounded system; at the
same time, the 33-kv and 480-volt levels would have the characteristics of
grounded-neutral systems.
Each voltage level may be grounded a t the neutral lead of a generator,
power transformer bank, or grounding transformer. Any generator or
transformer used for grounding should, as far as possible, be one which is
always connected to the system. Alternatively, a sufficient number of
368 SYSTEM GROUNDING

I10 K V SYSTEM

Y GROUND R E Q U I R E 0 HERE TO GROUND


0 NEUTRA L OF 33 K V S Y S T E M
-

83 K V S Y S T E M

hl n GROUND REOUIRED H E R E TO GROUND


fi N E U T R A L OF 4.16 K V SYSTEM

4 16 K V S Y S T E M

Nn
"f GROUND REQUIRED HERE TO %ROUND
N E U T R A L OF 4 8 0 V O L T S Y S T E M

480 VOLT S Y S T E M

FIG. 6.16 Each voltage level is grounded independently.


SYSTEM GROUNDING 369
generators or transformers should be grounded to ensure at least one
ground on the system at all times.

GROUND AT THE POWER SOURCE AND NOT AT THE LOAD

When a power system is grounded at the neutral of Y-connected motors,


or at primaries of Y-delta stepdown transformers, it is necessary to
ground a number of these points simultaneously to ensure that the system
will remain grounded when one or more of these loads are out of service.
Consequently, ground-fault current may he excessively high when all
grounded points are in service. Since power sources are fewer in number
than loads and are less likely to be disconnected, they are preferred as
grounding points, as shown in Fig. 6.17. Other disadvantages of ground-
ing a t the load are:

GROUND AT L O A D

FIG. 6.17 Grmnd at the source and not at the load.


370 SYSTEM GROUNDING

1. Standard load-center unit substations have delta-connected pri-


maries; therefore special transformers are required if the primaries are
to he used as grounding points.
2. Since the ground-fault current is dependent on the number of
feeders or grounding points in operation, it may vary widely depending
on system operating conditions. This makes selective relaying more
difficult and may require additional directional ground relaying to avoid
false tripping of healthy feeder circuits.

GROUND EACH MAJOR SOURCE BUS SECTION

When there are two or more major source bus sections, each section
should have a t least one grounded neutral point, since the bus tie circuit
may be open, as shown in Fig. 6.18. If there are two or more power
sources per bus section, there should be provisions for grounding at least
two sources at each section.

NEUTRAL CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENT


When the method of grounding and the grounding points have been
selected for a particular power system, the second question to consider is
how many generator or transformer neutrals will be used for grounding
arid whether (1) each neutral will be connected independently t o ground
or (2) a neutral bus with single ground connection will be established.
The factors involved in this determination and recommended practices
are given below.

GROUNDING
RESISTOR GROUNDING
RESISTOR

(MAY BE OPEN)
FIG. 6.18 Grounding CI system consisting of two or more sections which may operate
independently.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 371

SINGLE POWER SOURCE

When a power system has only one sourre of power (geuerat,or or trans-
former), grounding of the neutral of this sourre may he arcomplished as
shown in Fig. 6.19.
Provision of a switrh or rirruit breaker to opeu the neutral rirruit is
not necessary berause (1) neutral rirvuits have prartirally zero poteutial
with respect t o ground exrept duriug the short interval of a fault; heuw
breakdowns are unlikely; (2) it is not desirable to operate the system
ungrounded by haviug t,he ground ronnertiou open while the generator
or transformer is in service; (3) uenbral si7-itrhing equipment greatly
increases the cost of grounding.
I n the event that some means of disrounertiug t,he grouud (.ounertion
is required in a particular rase, a metal-rlad rircuit hreaker should he
used rather than a n open disconnert s\vit,rh for indoor iustallatioirs. The
latter is hazardous t o personnel if a ground fault should orcur at the time
the switch is opened or closed. The merit of metal-rlad equipment over
open wiring and open devices is generally rerognised for all types of
electric equipment notwithstanding the iurreased rost for metal-clad
switehgear.

MULTIPLE POWER SOURCES

Individual Neutral Impedances. When there are only a few genera-


tors or power transformer banks at a station, individual neutral irnped-

4%
S I N G L E GENERATOR
$ Y8
Y
SINGLE TRANSFORMER

( 0 ) (b)
FIG. 6.19 Grounding CI single power source.
372 SYSTEM GROUNDING

ances are frequently used. With this arrangement, the neutral of each
generator or main transformer bank is connected directly toits neutral im-
pedance without intervening switching equipment, as illustrated by Fig.
6.20 ( a ) t o ( c ) . No special operating instructions are required since each
impedance is automatically connected whenever the corresponding power

EiTHER OF THESE TWO GENERATORS WILL


ALWAYS,BE ON BUS WJiEN BUS IS ENERGIZED

9
Y
$

EITHER OF THESE TWO SOURCES WILL


ALWAYS BE

Q$ v

FIG. 6.20 Grounding of multiple-source system with individual neutral impedances.


SYSTEM GROUNDING 373

source is in use and is deenergized mhenever this source is disconnected.


Whrn oiily two sourres are invoived, this arrangement is preferahle to
the use of a iieutral biis. When several sources are invoived, howrver,
the ground rurrent is increased each time a source is added and may be
raised t o levels whirh are undesirably high.
In the case of resistance grounding, earh resistor must he rated for
suffirient current to assure satisfactory relaying mhen operating inde-
pendentiy. Consequentiy, the ground current mith several resistors will
be several times the minimum required for effective relaying.
Wheii individual resistors are used, cirruiation of harmonic current
betweeii paralleled gerierators is iiot a problem, since the resistance limits
the circulating current t o negligible values.
Neutra1 Bus and Switchgear. When there are more than two or three
generators or power-suppiy traiisformer banks at one station, it is com-
monly drsirable to use only oiie resistor. Each power source is then
connected t o the resistor through a neutral bus and neutral switching
equipment as showii by Fig. 6.21. This arraiigemerit keeps the grouiid-
fault current t o a practical minimum, since the ground current from the
station is never greater than can be supplied through a single resistor. It
also assures the same vaiue of ground current regardless of the numher of
generators or transformers iii use and simplihes ground relaying.
The primary purpose of the neutral breakers is to isolate the generator
ar transformer neutral from the neutral bus mhen the source is taken out
of servire, because the neutral bus is energized during ground faults.
Breakers are preferred t o discorinecting switches for indoor installations

GROUND BUS
A A A
v v v
GROUNDING
RESISTOR

$
Y Y
(d) $
Y
FIG. 6.21 Neutra1 grounding b>i rneonr of neutrd bur and switchgear.
374 SYSTEM GROUNDING

to assure safety to personnel. If disconnecting switches are used (as with


some outdoor installations), they should be elevated or metal-enclosed
and interlocked in such a manner as to prevent their operation except
when the transformer primary and secondary switches or generator line
and field breakers are open.
As shown in Fig. 6.21, it is necessary to provide only two neutral
breakers, and only one of these is closed, although all generators may he
in operation. This will eliminate any circulating harmonic zero-sequence
currents. When the generator whose neutral is grounded is to be shut
down, the second generator is grounded by means of its neutral breaker
before the line and neutral breakers of the first one are opened. This
procedure will assure that the system is grounded a t all times.
I n the case of multiple transformers, all neutral breakers may he nor-
mally closed because the presence of delta-connected windings (which
are nearly always present on at least one side of each transformer) mini-
mizes circulation of harmonic currents between transformers.
Selection of Arrangement. When total ground-fault currents with
several individual resistors would exceed about 4000 amp, it is suggested
that neutral switchgear and a single resistor be considered for reuistance-
grounded systems.
When only one source is involved hut others may be added to the sta-
tion, it is suggested that space be allowed for neutral switchgear to be
added if this will be necessary later.
For similar generators with reasonably equal load division, circulating
currents are negligible, and it is often found practical to operate with
neutral breakers of two or more generators closed. This simplifies operat-
ing procedure and increases assurance that the system will be grounded at
all times.

CALCULATION OF GROUND-FAULT CURRENT


The magnitude of current which will flow in the event of a ground fault
on a solidly grounded system is usually determined hy the impedance of
the grounded apparatus, plus the impedance of the lines or cables leading
to the fault and the impedance of the ground return path. For intercon-
nected systems, calculation of the rurrent may he rather complicated.
For simpler cases, an approximation of the available fault current may be
obtained from Table 6.4. This table applies only for faults near the
transformer terminals when power is supplied by a single transformer
hank wit,h its neutral directly connected to earth and with the primary
connected to a system of relatively large short-circuit capacity.
S Y S T W GROUNDING 375

RESISTANCE GROUNDING

When a single line-to-ground fault occurs on a resistance-grounded


system, a voltage appears across the resistor (or resistors), nearly equal
to the normal line-to-neutral voltage of the system.
The resistor current is equal t o the current in the fault. Thus the
current is practically equal to line-to-neutral voltage divided by the num-
ber of ohms of resistance used. For example, consider a 13,800-volt
three-phase system grounded by a 4-ohm resistor. Normal line-to-
neutral voltage for this system is 13,800/-\/3, or 8000 volts. The ground
current is, therefore, very nearly equal to 8000/4, or 2000 amp. If two
such resistors were used on the system, the ground current would be
approximately 4000 amp.
Resistors have a voltage rating equal to line-to-neutral voltage and an
ampere rating equal to the current which flows when this voltage is
applied t o the resistor. Thus, for example, a maximum ground-fault
current of approximately 2000 amp will he obtained on a system when
using a 2000-amp resistor.
This very simple method of calculating the ground-fault current is not
suitable except when the ground-fault current is small compared with
the three-phase fault current for a fault a t the same location. Horucver,
it is usually suitable for systems grounded by resistance of ohmir values
normally used.
The method just outlined applies to faults on lines or buses, or at the
terminals of machines or transformers. If the fault is internal to a
rotating machine or transformer, the ground-fault current will be less.
The reduction in current is primarily due to the internal voltage of the
apparatus. I n the case of Y-connected equipment, this internal voltage
is a t full value a t the terminals and is zero a t the neutral. If the fault
occurs a t the neutral of any apparatus, no voltage will appear across the
system grounding resistor; so the fault current will be zero. At inter-
mediate points in the winding between the neutral and a terminal, the
fault current will he intermediate between zero and the current to a
terminal fault, as shown in Fig. 6.22. For example, at a point 10 per cent
of the winding length from neutral, the ground-fault current will bc
approximately 10 per cent of the value for a terminal fault. For a fault
anywhere between this point and a terminal, the current will be more than
10 per cent of the amount for a terminal fault.
In the case of delta-connected machines the internal voltage to neutral
may he considered to he 100 per cent a t the terminals and 50 per cent a t
the mid-point of the windings, as shown in Fig. 6.22(c). The mid-points
have the lowest potential with respect to the electric neutral of any d h e r
376 SYSTEM GROUNDING

UNGROUNDED GROUNDED - N E U T R A L
GENERATOR NO.1 GENERATOR NO.2

FAULT OCCURS
ÇOMEWHERE IN GROUNDING
WINDING E E - RESISTOR
TWEEN NEUTR
AND L I N E _íGROUND)
TERMINAL

( o ) FLOW OF GROUND-FAULT CURRENT FOR I N T E R N A L


FAULT IN WYE-CONNECTED GENERATOR
N0.I N0.2
b b

- t
""'~
" " ' ~ " ~ ' ~ -
(GROUND P O T E N T I A L )
-' ~ ' ~
t

IF PHASE (0) O F EUS


VI I N T E R N A L VOLTAGE
VT -(V, -VI]
Vr T E R M I N A L VOLTAGE IF = = -V I
I F FAULT C U R R E N T R R
R GROUNDI NG RESIÇTANCE
( b ) MAGNITUDE OF CURRENT FOR INTERNAL GROUND
FAULT I S PROPORTIONAL TO I N T E R N A L VOLTAGE

INTERNAL VOLTAGE 100%

@
VOLTAGE FROM ELECTRICAL
NEUTRAL TO ANY POINT ON
WINDING I S EETWEEN 50%
AND 100%

INTERNAL VOLTAGE 50%


(c)MINIMUM GROUND-FAULTCURRENT FOR DELTA -
CONNECTED APPARATUÇ IS 50% OF MAXIMUM
GROUND-FAULT C U R R E N T
FIG. 6.22 Magnitude of currenl for interna1 g m m d faulb in maichinei connected to (I

ryrtem having a rerirtance-grounded neutial.

part of the windings. Therefore, a ground fault at any point in the wind-
ing w i l l produce a ground-fault current of 50 per cent or more of the
resistor current rating.

REACTANCE GROUNDING

In a rractance-grounded system with a single line-to-ground fault, the


ground-fault current may he compiited from the formula
SYSTEM GROUNDING 377

(6.1)

(resistance may usually be neglected)


where X I = system positive-sequence reactance, ohms per phase
X , = system negative-sequence reactance, ohms per phase
X o = system zero-sequence reactance, ohms per phase
X , = reactance of neutral grounding reactor, ohms
E = line-to-neutral voltage, volts
I , = ground-fault current, amp
An illustration of the method of calculating the ground-fault current in
a reactor-grounded system is given under Selection of Reactor Rating
(see page 381 of this chapter).

SOLID GROUNDING

In a solidly g r o u n d 4 system with a single line-to-ground fault, the


ground-fault current may be computed from the formula

RATING OF GROUNDING EQUIPMENT


Grounding resistors, reactors, and transformers are normally rated to
carry current for a limited time only. The standard time-interval rating
usually most applicable for industrial systems, with relays arranged to
protect the grounding equipment, is 10 sec.
The voltage rating of a grounding resistor should be the line-to-neutral
voltage rating of the system.
The insulation class of a reactor is determined by the circuit line-to-
neutral voltage. The voltage rating may be less than line-to-neutral
voltage, it being cakulated by multiplying the rated current by the
impedance of the reactor.
The voltage rating of a grounding transformer should be system line-to-
line voltage.
Grounding resistors are rated in terms of the initial current which will
flow through the resistor with rated resistor voltage applied. Conven-
tional cast-grid or corrosion-resistant steel resistors will average approxi-
mately 7 per cent increase in resistance for each 100 C rise in temperature.
The rated current of a grounding reactor is the thermal current rating.
I t is the rms neutral current in amperes which the reactor will carry for
its rated time without exceeding standard temperature limitations. The
rating establishes an rms current which is assumed to be constant during
378 SYSTEM GROUNDING

rated time for purposes of design, ralrulation, and test. In service it is


expected that the current may be greater than rated value during the
initial cycles of the fault.
If a grounding transformer neutral is solidly connected t o ground, the
current which will flow during a ground fault is primarily determined
by the reartance of the grounding transformer. When a resistor is used
between neutral and ground, the current rating of the grounding trans-
former is based on the resistor rated current. I n either case the trans-
former israted t o carry the required current for rated time nithout exceed-
ing its rated temperature limits.
Ratings of neutral grounding equipment are summarized in Table 6.8.

TABLE 6.0 Ratings of Neutral Grounding Equipment

Equipment Reactonce Time, sect

I I
Reridor........................... ............. 10
Reador.. .........................
Grounding transformer.. ............
* Insulation rlass is drtrrrnintd hy circuit line-to-neutral v a l t a g ~ .
t Tcn sxonds is ntlrquate ior the conventional system. Standard ratings oi 1 mi",
10 mi", and continnous are svailablc.

SELECTION OF RATING OF GROUNDING EQUIPMENT

RESISTOR RATING

The determination of the resistor ohmic value, thus the magnitude of


ground-fault cnrrent, is based on (1) providing suflicient current for
satisfactory performanre of the system relaying scheme and ( 2 ) limiting
ground-fault current t o a value which will produce minimum damage at
the point of fault. 111most cases, the ground-fault current may be limited
hy the iieut,ral resistor t o a value from 5 t o 20 per cent of that which would
flow for a three-phase fault. T o determine the minimum ground-fault
rurrcnt required, a diagram of the system must be available giving ratings
of current transformers and types of relays for each circuit. This diagram
should include Consideration of future changes.
The magnitude of ground-fault current innst, he sufficient for operation
of all relays. In general, if the current is high enough t o operate the
relays on the larger circuits, it will he adequate for the smaller circuits.
The ground currents required for satisfactory operation of various types
SYSTEM GROUNDING 379

TABLE 6.9 Selection of Grounding Resistor


(Values given ore minimum recommended sround-fault current in per cent OF rrrred current of current
tronrformcr.)'

Type of relay

Equipmsnt protected

per Cent

Y-connected generators. motors, ond trans-


former.. ...........................
Delta-connected gcncraton, motors. ond t r m s ,
former,... ......................... 40 40
Foeden and tie liner.. .................. 100 ... Pilot wire-100%
Current b d m c e - l 0 0 %
B",e* ................................ ... 501

* For further discussion and analysis of ground-fault rdsying. ser Chap. 0.


t If ground differential is a d d d to the generator, the ground-fault current may be
lirnitzd to lower values (if othw systzrn requircmmts permit).
$ Based on current differential. If voltage differential is providcd, the ground-
fault current may be limited to lower values.

of relays, expressed in terms of current-transformer rating, are given in


Table 6.9. Note that the ground-fault current under all system operating
conditions must equal or exceed the minimum required for relaying each
circuit connected to the system. This value is established by selecting
the highest of those currents which meet the requirements of the several
conditions set forth in Table 6.9.
An example of the proper use of Table 6.9 for the system shown in
Fig. 6.23 follows:
Determine from Table 6.9 the ground-fault current each generator
must produce when it is the only pover source. The larger machine must
produce a ground current of at least 1200 amp (100 per cent of the rating
of the current transformers for differential overcurrent protection in the
larger generator circuit). This ground current of 1200 amp is higher than
is required by Table 6.9 for any other circuit, in the system. With the
larger generator disconnected, the smaller machine must provide a ground
current of only 800 amp for its own relaying requirements (again 100 per
cent of the rating of the current transformers for its 01~11differential over-
current relays). The 1200-amp circuit need not be considered under this
operating condition, and the 800 amp needed in the smaller generator
circuit is found from Table 6.9 to be adequate for relaying requirements
in all the other circuits. If all sources are grounded, it can be show1 that
380 SYSTEM GROUNDING

there will always be sufficient ground current for relaying requirements as


long as each source produces what is needed when it is the only supply
source. For Fig. 6.23 it is correctly concluded that the larger machine
needs a 1200-amp resistor and the smaller oue only ao 800-amp unit.
If ground differential relaying were added to the two generators, a

P$ 1200 AMPERE
GROUNDING RESISTOR

1200/5 C T

FEEOERS
T i € CIRCUIT

8 0 0 / 5 CT

$
T
FEEOER
400/5C.T.

FIG. 6.23 Selectim of grounding rerirtor bcired on cvrient-tronrforrner rotingr


SYSTEM GROUNDING 381

further analysis might be made. I n this case other system requirements


may determine the rating of the resistor. The largest feeder circuit
demands a t least, 400 amp, but 800 amp is required t o satisfy pilot-wire
relaying on the tie circuit, if present. This would establish a minimum
rating for both resistors. If this value also satisfies the requirements of
adequate gcnerator differential protection of the larzer generator, the
rating of both resistors may be 800 amp.

REACTOR RATING

The reactance of a neutral grounding reactor should be chosen to limit


theground-fault current and the current in the faulted phase t o the desired
value. As previously stated, in order t o minimize transient overvoltages
the ground-fault current must not he less than 25 per cent of three-phase
fault current. This corresponds to a ratio of X o / X 1 equal to 10. For
reartance grounding of generators the current in any winding must not
exceed the three-phase fault current. This corresponds t o a ratio of
X , / X , equal t o 1 . This establishes the criteria for maximum and mini-
mum values of neutral reactance.
It can be shown that under the condition of X , / X , equal t o 1 for any
given generator on the system the current contribution in one phase
winding of this generator t o a line-to-ground fault any place on the sys-
tem (external t o the generator) cannot exceed the three-phase fault cur-
rent of the machine. However, the neutral current may exceed this
value, as shown later.
The calculations concerning momentary duty (which is of interest for
mechanical strength and transient overvoltages) are made using suh-
transient values of machine reactance. The calculations concerning the
thermal rating of apparatus are made using transient values of machine
reactance.
I n calculating the reactance of a neutral reactor, the positive-sequence
reactance XI is taken t o equal the machine subtransient reactance. The
calculation for determining the required reactance in the neutral t o limit
the current in the machine winding to three-phase fault current becomes
a very simple procedure, as illustrated below:
3E
lo =
XI + x2 + xo + 3x8
E
I (three-phase) =
x1
~

where I, = ground-fault current, amp (for a single generator this also


equals the fault current in the machine winding)
E' = line-to-neutral voltage, volts
382 SYSTEM GROUNDING

X , = positive-sequence reactance of generator, ohms per phase


Xp = negative-sequence reactance of generator, ohms per phase
Xo= zero-sequeiiw reactance of generator, ohms per phase
5,= reartance «f neutra1 reaitor, ohms
If I,, = I (three-phase) and X , = X,,
a
+ xo + 3x.v _- -xi
3E
ZX, (6.5)
2x, + x o+ 3X." = 3x1
3xx= x,-x.

The rated riirreiit of a iieutral groundiiig reactor is the thermal current


rat,iiig. It is the rms iieiit,ral curreiit iii amperes which the reactor will
rarry uiider staiidard conditioris for its rated time without exceeding
staiidard ternperature lirnitatioiis. T h e rating establishes an rms current
xhich is assumed to be eoiistant duriiig the rated time, for purposes of
dcsigii, calculatioti, aiid test. I n service it is expected t h a t the current
may he grcatcr thaii the rated value duriiig the initial cycles of the fault.
The ixrreiit ratiiig of a iieutral groundiiig reactor is equal t o the rms sym-
mctrical vurreiit (deulated i)y usiiig the t,ransient reactaiice t o represent
syiii'hroiious ma(.hiiie positire-sequeiice reactaiice and the proper nega-
tive- aiid zero-sequenre reactanie values of the system.
The mrreiit whirh will floiv throiigh a generator iieutral reactor is iiot
iiidepeiidrnt of systrm coiistaiits, hut mil1 vary mith the number and siae

N0.I N0.2

x'd = 26%
KVA A & I000 KVA

x'd = 13% x'h = I3 %


x0 = 7% xo = 7 % -

480 VOLTS-60 CYCLE


-
TOTAL CONNECTEO SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR LOAD 1000 KVA
Xh = 31%

FIG. 6.24
1) Xd = 2 5 %
Reectance-grounded generotorr and rolidly grounded tranrformer on 480-
volt ryrtem.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 383

of power sources. Thus the current rating of a neutral reactor is deter-


mined by the number and characteristics of system sources and whether
they are grounded or ungrounded.
The following example illustrates the calculation of ratings for generator
neutral-grounding reactors to limit the fault current in generator windings
t o three-phase fault current. Assume a system as show1 in Fig. 8.24.
To determine the reactance of each grounding reactor from Eq. (6.6),
XI is taken as the subtransient reactance X y of the related generator and
Xuas the zero-sequence reactance of the related generator

X (ohms) = x(%
__ kvz
base kva
lo (ohms per phase) (6.7)

No. 1:

No. 2:

xu = 0'482 lo = 0.0129 ohm


1250
0.0239 - 0.0129 = o,oo37 ohm
XN = 3
To calculate the current rating of each reactor, it is first necessary t o
calculate the total ground-fault current le from Eq. (6.3). The positive-
sequence reactance of the system X , is calculated using the transient
reactance X : of synchronous machines and the negative-sequence
reactance of the system X 1 is calculated using the subtransieut reactance
of synchronous machines.
No. 1:
304 SYSTEM GROUNDING

No. 2:

2'0 3 0'482 lo = 0.0129 ohm


1250
Transformer:

x,= x,= x o= 5'5 0'482


1000
lo = 0,0127 ohm

Connected load:

x2 =a
25 x 0.4s2 x 10 = 0.0575 ohm
1000
An equivalent circuit with values indicated is illustrated in Fig. 6.25.
From Eq. (6.3)
3 (480/d%)
I'
0.00803 + 0.0063 + 0.00705
830 = 39,000 amp
*-
0.0214
N0.I N0.2 TRANSF CONN. LO40

,0920 ,0479 ,0127 ,0713 .00803


XI

.0479 ,0239 ,0127 ,0575 ,0063


x2

.02 5 8 ,0129 ,0127 .00705


XO

3%
:022I .0111

FIG. 6.25 Connection of positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence impedance networks for
calculating ground-fault currents for system shown in Fig. 6.24.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 385

From inspection of the equivalent circuit it is evident that this total


ground-fault current will divide through the paths to ground in inverse
proportion to the impedance in the path.
No. 1:

I,, = 0'00705 l o =
~ 0.147 X 39,000 = 5900
0.0479
No. 2:
0.007051 -
I,, = ~~ o - 0.294 X 39,000 = 11,500
0.024
To complete the picture, the ground-fault current a t the transformer
will be
0.00705
IDT = ~ ~ = 0.555I X 39,000
o = 21,600
0.0127
The reactor for generator No. 1 must be rated for a t least 5900 amp, and
for No. 2 a t least 11,500 amp.
This serves to indicate the method of determining the reactor current
rating and proves that this rating is determined by system characteristics.
The rating may be considerably greater than the three-phase short-circuit
current of the related generator, as shown shove.

GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS

The electrical specifications of a grounding transformer are as follows:


1. Voltage. The line-to-line voltage of the system.
2. Current. The maximum neutral curyent. I n a resistance-grounded
system, this current is determined by the neutral resistor. I n a solidly
grounded system, the current is determined by the grounding transformer
impedance and the system impedance.
3 . Time. Usually designed to carry rated current for a short time,
such as 10 see or GO sec.
4. Reactance. This quantity is a function of the initial symmetrical
system three-phase short-circuit kva (use Fig. 6.26).
The theory behind the determination of grounding transformer react-
ance is discussed in the following. When the grounding transformer is
resistance grounded, the criteria for limiting transient overvoltages is
either Xo/X, equal to or less than 10, or R o / X oequal to or greater than 2.
It should he noted that Ro as it appears in this relationship is equal to
3 times the resistance of the neutral kesistor. When the grounding trans-
former is solidly grounded, the criterion for limiting transient overvolt-
ages is X , / X , equal to or less than 10. The criterion for using grounded-
neutral-type lightning arresters is that X , / X , should be equal to or less
386 SYSTEM GROUNDING

than 3, and R o / X , should be equal to or less than 1 (see Chap. 5 ) . A


summary of criteria for selecting neutral reactance is shown in Table 6.10.
In a system having a grounding transformer, its reactance is the prin-
cipal part of X, in the above criterion. Also, the positive-sequence react-
ance XI is equal to the reactance of the system to initial symmetrical
rms three-phase short-circuit currents. Thus, the grounding-transformer
reactance is a function of the initial symmetrical system three-phase
short-circuit kva. On a system otherwise ungrounded, the grounding-
transformer reactance required to provide any specified X o / X 1ratio is
given by the following formula:
100

% 50
4
I
30
a
W
a 20-lf

10

\
5

.5

,110 31 00
MAXIMUM SYSTEM SHORT CIRCUIT MVA CALCULATED USING
SUBTRANSIENT REACTANCES OF ROTATING MACHINES
FIG.6.26 Maximum allowable reactances of grounding transformers lo limit ground-fault
current to 25 per cent of three-phase fault current.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 387

(-Y,,/.YJ x kv' x 1000


x,, = system symmetrical three-phase short-rircuit kva
(masiniom ohms prr ]>haw) ((i.8)

Taking the specific case X d X , = 10, the desired grounding-trans-


former reactance may lie idriilated Ily thr fiirmula
10,000 X kv'
xo, = system initial symmetrical three-phase sh;rt-rircuit kva
~ (lj.!))

Curves shoiving typical values of groniidiiig-transformer rrartaiire for


this condition are shown in Fig. 6.2(i.
For example, it is desired t o apply a groundirig transformer i n thr fol-
loning system: 2400-volt 50,000 itiitial s y m m e t r i d short-ririwit Iivn.
The grounding transformer reactatice should be
10,000 x 2.4%
XCT = -~ - = 1.15 ohms per phase (mas)
50,000
Grounding Transformer Grounded Solidly. The gri)rtiidiiig-traits-
former voltage, reactatwe, and time are determined as outlined al>ove.
When grounded-neutr&type lightning arresters arc t o IIC applied, ttie
grouiiding-transformer reactatice may tie determitied by

90, = _ X
_ 3000 _ kv?
_ _~ (li.10)
system initial symmetrical three-phase short-rircuit k v s
When grounding transformers are solidly grounded, care should lie
taketi that the reactanre is selerted at a value 1011- enough to provide
sufficient fault current for tripping relays, Tuses, and circnit tjreakers.
Grounding Transformer Resistance Grounded. I u this CBSP it is not
necessary t o provide less groiiiiditig-tratisformer reactanre than t,hc values
giveu in Fig. 6.26 siiice groiuidcd-tteotral-type lightning arrrsters are not
applicable in resistailre-grounded systems. The values of reactatire
given in Fig. (j.Z(i are equal t o ten times the system reavtatm t o three-
phase initial symmetrical rnis short-circuit current. This is cqnivalent
to the ratio Xo/XI equal t o 10.
Where the ratio of Ro/Xo is equal to or greater than 2 , the ratio of
X , / X , may be greater than 10 without the dsirger of severe transient
overvoltages. However, I?, must be low enough to permit sufficient
current for good relaying.
On systems of 600 volts or lo\\-er it is usually desirable to permit cur-
rents of magnitude considerahly greater than 25 per rent of initial sym-
metriral rms three-phase short-circnit current in order to assure positive
tripping of protertive devices. 111 such systems the grouuding trans-
former is connected solidly t,o ground. The minimum current required
for tripping is determitied by esamination of the system aud the ground-
388 SYSTEM GROUNDING

ing-transformer reactance selected t o permit at. least that much current


t o flow in the event of a ground fault.
TABLE 6.10 Summary of Criteria for Selection of Neutral Reoctavce

For application of
For limiting transient
grounded-neutral
OVerYOltoge
lightning arresterr

XdX, Ro/Xo XdX,


_____
........................
R e o d m C e grounding.. 10 or leis ........ 30, 11..
Grounding transformer solidly grounded.. ......... I 0 or leis ........ 3 or less
Grounding transformer resistance grounded'. ...... 10 or leis 2 or more

* Either criterion is mtisfactory.

OTHER METHODS OF GROUNDING

LINE GROUNDING

I n lorn-voltage systems (600 volts and below) which in the past have
almost universally been connected in delta, it was sometimes advocated
that one line be grounded, as illustrated in Fig. 6.27. This was done i i r
order t o obtain some of the advantages of grounding at minimum expense.
Because of its limitations and disadvantages it is strictly a compromise
method and is rarcly encountered in modern industrial systems. Staud-
ard load-center unit substations are now readily availahle with Y-con-
nected secondaries at 480 and 600 volts i n all standard kva ratings. For

( A ) N E U T R A L GROUNDING
--
( 8 ) CORNER- OF- THE- DELTA
GROUNDING
FIG. 6.27 Two melhodr of grounding a low-voltage power system.
SYSTEM GROUNDHG 389

existing 480-volt delta systems dry-type zigzag grounding transformers


provide a relatively inexpensive method of establishing a neutral.
One of the outstariding disadvantages of corner-of-the-delta grounding
is the necessity for positive identification of the grounded phase through-
out the entire system. Instruments, meters, and overload relays should
not be connected in the grounded phase.

MID-PHASE GROUNDING

Where existing systems at 600 volts and below are supplied by three
single-phase transformers with midtap available, it is possible to gain
some of the advantages of neutral grounding by grounding the midtap
of one phase. This method is illustratrd in Fig. 6.28.

FIG. 6.28 One phore of (I delta system


grounded ot the mid-point.

THE INFLUENCE OF GROUNDING METHOD ON CONTROL-CIRCUIT


SAFETY IN SYSTEMS 600 VOLTS AND BELOW
Frequently the safety of a control rirruit is offered as a reason for a
particular method of grounding. In all cases where motor-starter control
eircnits are set up without control transformers, it becomes evident that
there are problems with regard t o circuit arrangement which must be
considered in order t o minimize operating difficulties and persolinel
hazards. Accidental motor starting due t o faulted control circuits may
be associated with ungrounded systems as well as most types of grounded
systems. During such times as accidental motor starting may constitute
a hazard, it should be standard practice to open the discomiiecting means
whether the system is grounded or not, and regardless of the method of
grounding.
Analysis of the fault performance of motor control circuits from the
standpoint of safety reveals that hazards may exist with all types of
ungrounded and grouuded systems. Three methods quite commonly
used are described. A similar analysis should be made with any other
contemplated arrangement.
Figure 6.29 shows a direct,ly connected control circuit on a n ungrounded
system. A ground fault on any phase will remain unnoticed, and pro-
tective devices will not trip. Assume that a ground exists on either phase
390 SYSTEM G-ROUNDING

a L.

44
FIG, 6.29 Control circuit on ungrounded system without control power transformer.

-
-
-

A L 6

-
-
.
0.L .
A L B C
SYSTEM GROUNDING 391

2 or 3. A subsequent ground fault,at point R will impress full line-to-line


voltage across the coil arid close thc contactor. A ground fault a t point C
will pick up the coiitact,or, and the stop button will not stop the motor.
Figure 6.30 shows a system wit,h solidly grounded neutral. A ground
fault on any phase x i l l cause circuit tripping, and the fault mill be isolated.
A ground fault a t point R or C will impress liiie-to-neutral voltage (58 per
cent) amass thc coiitactor roil. This will usually not pirk up the con-
tactor, but it will prohably burn out the (.oil. If the “start” button is
closed during t,his period, full fault curreiit Xi-ill flow until interrupted by
a protert,ire devirc. .Iground fault a t C ii-hilc t,hc motor is running ivill
prevent stoppitig the motor from the stop button if the contactor fails
t o drop out on 58 per rent voltage. Furthermore, the stop button may
be called upon t o interrupt a fault, current in excess of its capability.
Figure 6.31 shows one method of connecting a control circuit on a
line grounded system. Here a ground fault on any phase except 1 d l
cause circuit tripping. A ground fault a t R or C ivill not pick up the
contactor and remain unnoticed. Closing the start hutton under this
condition will cause full fault current t o flow through the start button.

SPECIAL PROBLEMS

AUTOTRANSFORMERS

Poiver autotransformers are quite frequently used in public-utility


poiyer transmission and distrihutiori systems; however, their use in
industrial power systems as a part of the power distribution system is
relatively infrequent. Autotransformers are quite common, however, in
control and utiliaatioii equipment.
Systems using autot,rausformers may be subject t o dangerous funda-
mental frequency overvoltage during system faults or from high-frequency
or steep wave-front transient overvoltages on the lines, originating from
lightning or switching surges. Since the magnitude of these overvoltages
depends in part upon the method of grounding the system and autotrans-
former, the nature of these overvoltages will be explained.
Consider the case of a n ungrounded system using an autotransformer
as represent,ed in Fig. 6.32.
Lines a , b, c represent the loiv-voltage system normally operating at
line-to-line voltage and points d , e , f represent the terminals of a
step-up autotrarisformer normally operating a t line-to-line voltage E2.
111the event of a line-to-ground fault on the line connected t o terminal d,
thc loiv-voltage phases b and c are elevated aboveground by the amount
392 SYSTEM GROUNDING

1
8:dc= Ed, = -dE,2
4 3
+ E,2 + h,,E* (6.11)

For example, in the case of an autotransformer rated 13.8/34.4 kv


operating ungrounded on an ungrounded system, a line-to-ground fault
on one of the high-voltage lines will impress a voltage t o ground on two of
the loii.-voltage lines of

0.58 m+
34.4' + (13.8)(34.4) = 25 kv
Obviously, this is an undesirable situation and cannot be tolerated.
Solid grounding of the autotransformer neutral eliminates this type of
overvoltage.
Another type of overvoltage called transient inversion can occur in a n
autotransformer, as illustrated in Fig. 6.33.
Steep wave-front transient overvoltages produced by lightning or
slyitching surges coming in over lined and arriving a t point, .J are impressed
across a portion of the aut,otransformer winding .IK, point K remaining
a t it,s normal frequency value until C , can he rharged. The result is that
the port,ion of the ivinding J K has impressed upon it practically the entire
voltage disturhance. Since the port,ion of the winding K N is closely
coupled t o J K , the voltage ivill be stepped up in K N by t,he turn rat,io of
K.V t,o K J . Since the initial disturbance may he several times normal
voltage, and since this may be stepped up tivo t o twenty times or more by
inversion (depending upon the winding ratios), it, is evident that a serious
overvoltage may be experienced. The hazard due t o transient inversion
is greatest for autotransformers in which the high- t o lowvoltage ratio
approaches unity. This type of overvoltage can be eliminated by solidly
grounding the neutral. I n cases where this is not feasible, a lightning
arrester or Thyrite* resistor connected between the neutral and ground
can he used t o minimize this voltage. The presence of a tertiary delta on
the autotransformer also tends t o minimize transient overvoltages of this
hature.
Another system autotransformer connection which is subject to both
normal frequency inversion and transient inversion is operation with the
supply system neutral grounded and the autotransformer neutral isolated,
as shown in Fig. 6.34.
A line-to-ground fault on the high-voltage line 2onnected t o terminal h
forces the voltage of point h t o that of N , . This inverts the phase of
winding hd by impressing voltage N , , from point h t o d . The hd portion
of the winding induces in the d N , portion of the winding a voltage of
corresponding phase and of a magnitude depending upon the turn ratio
* Registwed trademark of General Electric Company.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 393

T O HIGH
VC LTAG E
UNGROUNDED
SYSTEM
a

-
FIG. 6.32 Ground fault on ryrtem with autotransformer connecting ungrounded systems.

(1

;ca

TO UNGROUNDED
HIGH VOLTAGE
I SYSTEM

-
FIG. 6.34 Autotransformer neutral isolated, supply-system neutral grounded.

of the two parts of the winding. This results in a shift of point Nz,as
shown in Fig. 6.35.
Note that phase voltages N P jand N 2 k are far above normal for the case
394 SYSTEM GROUNDING

illustrated, where the step-up ratio was 2 : l . If the step-up ratio had
heen 1 . 1 : 1, that is, the autotransformer normally boosting the low voltage
hy 10 per rent, the faulted phase would be overexcited by ten times nor-
mal, resulting in a much more severe shift of N 2 and overexcitation of the
other phases. That is, the closer the autotransformer ratio is t o unity,
the more severe is the overvoltage from this type of fault.
Overvoltages from this cause can be prevented by solidly grounding
the neutral of the autotransformer.
The resultiirg voltage magriitudes are given by the following relations:

For example, in the case of a n autotransformer stepping up 10 per cent


= 1 E Z = 1 . 1 Der unit
1.1
E.V%h= = 6.35 per unit
d T ( l . 1 - 1)

= 7.32 per unit

S o t e also in this rase that only the high-voltage lines and connected
apparatus are subject t o overvoltage. The lorn-voltage lines are not
subjected to any ahnormal voltages in this case.
The foregoiiig examples illustrate the nature of the overvoltages which
ran be obt,ained with autotransformers. I n general, solidly grounding
the neutral of t,he autotransformer is a satisfactory means of eliminating

t
EZ

b
t
El 1
-

FIG. 6.35 Vector diagram illustrating normal frequency inversion of clutotmnrformer.


SYSTEM GROUNDING 395

overvoltages. The disadvantage of solid neutral grounding is that third-


harmonic currents aiid telephone interfereiice may heromc excessive iii
rertaiii cases. These harmonic problems ran usually he eliminated h?,
use of a tertiary delta 011 the ant,otransformer. See referetire 5 for a more
romplet,e discussion of this s n b j w t .

SYSTEMS WITH PUBLIC-UTILITY SUPPLY

Some iiidustrial systems are directly roiinerted at t,heir operat,iiig volt-


age t o public-utility systems. The scheme of grounding the industrial
system should be properly coordinated \\-it,ht.hat, for the utility system.
If two systems are interconnected by means of a transformer bank, at
least one \\-inding of t,he bank will normally be roiinevted i t 1 delta, and t,his
delta-rotiiierted i~iiidingwill make grorindilig of earh systrm itidepetident
of grounding of the other.

GENERATOR-TRANSFORMER UNIT INSTALLATIONS

Figure (i.36 shorn an arrangemelit using a distrihut,ioti-t,ype t,raos-


former, loading resistor, and relay in the gciierat,or neutral. This scheme
may he provided x i t h a 5- or 10-miti ratiiig t o permit time for traiisferriiig
load off the atrected mavhiiie before it is takeii out of service. The dis-
tribut.ioii transformer will usiially have a rating of 25 t o 50 h a , aiid the
relay may be connerted t o operate on resistor current, or volt,age, depeiid-
iiig 011 the particular illstallation.
This system is used bei,aose sometimes the rost of the resistor and dis-
tribntioii-type transformer is less than the vost of + high-voltage Ion-
rurreiit resistor roiiiiertrd dirwtlv hetween the neutral and ground.
DISTRIBUTION
TRAN 5 F O R M E R RELAY

Y
-I-
FIG. 6.36 Grounding the neutral of (I generator-tr~nrformerunit with resistance-loaded
distribution transformer.
396 SYSTEM GROUNDING

This results in a n effective high-resistance ground which, because of the


limited system and the absence of switching devices, is satisfartory from
the standpoint of transient overvoltages, and since no problem of relay
coordination is involved, the relaying problem is simple.

THREE-PHASE FOUR-WIRE SYSTEMS

I n these systems, single-phase loads are connerted between phase coti-


ductors and the neutral conductor. The neutral conductor is insulated
over its entire length except where it is grounded at its source of supply.
The neutrals of such systems should be grounded so solidly that during a
ground fault the voltage between any phase conductor and ground does
not appreciably exceed normal line-to-ground voltage; otherwise, abnor-
mally high voltage t o ground mill be impressed on the unfaulted circuits.
T o be adequately grounded, therefore, four-wire systems must use
solid or reactance grounding with ground-fault currents approximately
equal to three-phase fault currents. This is usually accomplished by
direct connection of transformer bank neutrals t o ground.

FAULT DUTY MAY BE INCREASED BY SOLID GROUNDING

Solid grounding of the service transformer neutral can be responsible


for fault currents exceeding the three-phase values. This may i n some
cases necessitate larger circuit breakers than would be dictated by three-
phase faults. Here is another advantage of limiting the ground-fault
magnitude.
A specific example (Fig. 6.37) incorporating a representative arrarige-
ment will serve to explain what factors contribute t o a greater line-to-
ground duty. The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequelire impedance
diagrams for the system in Fig. 6.37 are shown in Fig. G.38.
Three-phase fault-momentary duty :
1.0
I,, = x- (IJ(l.5)
El
= ~

0.0832
(1040)(1.5) = 18,750 amp asymmetrical

Interrupting duty:

I,,, = $ (Id(1.0) = ~

0.0985
(1040)(1.0) = 10,570 amp symmetrical

Line-to-ground fault-momentary duty :


3E, 3
I",, = Xi' + x,+ xo (IB)(l.5)=
0.0832 + 0.0832 + O.OF (1040)( 1.5)
= 20,650 amp asymmetrical
SYSTEM GROUNDING 397

Interrupting duty:

lint =
X; +3XEI, + Xu (zB)(l'o) = 0.0985 + 0.0832
3
+ 0.06 (1040)(1.O)
= 12,900 amp symmetrical
Ratio of line-to-ground t o three-phase fault duty:
Momentary:

Interrupting :

The key t o this problem is the fact that three-phase fault current is cou-
trolled by the factor l / Z 1 while line-to-ground fault is controlled hy thc
factor 3/(Z, + +
Z, Zo). If Z,, Z?, and ZU\yere all equal, the two fault
currents would be equal. Any system condition uhich acts to reduce

7 5 0 0 UVA
A X = 6 PERCENT

IND MOTORS SYN MOTORS


3000 K V A 2000 KVA
X- 25 PERCENT X " / X ' = 2 0 / 2 5 PERCENT

X" = 6 2 . 5 PERCENT X ' ? X ' = 7 5 / 9 3 . 7 5 PERCENT


ON 7500 KVA ON 7 M 0 K V A

FIG. 6.37 Typical system where ground-fault current may be greater than three-phore
fault current.
398 SYSTEM GROUNDING

POSITIVE SEQUENCE BASE CURRENT(IB)= 4 7500


, 1 6 1040
~ -
bMP

X"
I /O.Il 9.09
110.75 1.33
N if 1 / 0 . 6 2 5 = ~
12.02
0.625 1/12.02= 0 . 0 8 3 2

X" EQUIVALENT

N *
0.0832
IF

.eF
x ' ( FOR INTERRUPTING DUTY )
1/0.9375=
I/O.lI '9.09

10.16
0.9375 I/I0.16=0.0985

X ' EQUIVALENT
El
N - 0 F

NEGATIVE SEQUENCE

X 2 (SAME AS POSITIVE SEQUENCE X" EXCEPT OMlTTlhO E l )

X, EQUIVALENT

N 2NLh/L. IF
0.0832
ZERO SEQUENCE

XO

N -2AN\r IF
0.06
FIG. 6.38 Sequence impedoncer expressed in per-unit on 7500-kva 4160-volt three-
phase bare, for circuit shown in Fig. 6.37.
SYSTEM GROUNDING 399

Z, or Z, or any condition which tends to increase Z, mill make the line-to-


ground fault current greater than the three-phase value.
In the example the utility service line coutaiiis a fair amouut of react-
ance ii-hic,h becomes iiicluded i n the positive-sequence uct\vork but, riot
in the zero-sequence netn-ork. Thus, referred to the 4I6O-volt bus Xo is
smaller than X , and XI. Had the iiwomiug h i e shortkiri.uit dut,y been
500 mva instead of I50 mva (lower X , slid X2),there wor~ldbe scarcely
auy difference hetween line-to-ground and three-phase fault-currrnt
values. 111 the case of load-renter suhst,ations for inataiii,e, the high-
voltage supply system reactanre \ d l he very small compared il-ith the
transformer rcactauce; thus solid ueutral groundiug i n prarhically all
cases results i i i 110 iircreased short-riruuit duty.
In passing it is iuterest,ing t o note that grountliug any other ueutrals of
4160-volt equipment i n the esample would redwe %,, and (.&useline-to-
grouud fault rurrciit to be elevated.

EXAMPLES OF PRACTICE
Example 1. Consider the syst,em of Fig. 6.39. ;\pplirat,ion proredure
is as follows:
I . All necessary data are giacit oii the diagram.
2. Select groundiug method. From Table (i.5, voiiditioti d , resist,anre
grounding is suggested.
3. Select all three generator urutrals as grounding point,s, to assurr
that the system \\-ill alij-ays he grounded.
4. Review system rclayiiig.
a. Ground-fault curretit required for relaying is as follo\vs, from Table
6.9:
Generators.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 amp
Feeder irsiug (iOO;5 current tmisformers.. . . . . . . GOO amp
Smaller freders.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.ess than (i00 amp
h. Ground-fault protection is available 011 every circuit esvcpt the bus,
which can be protected by neutral back-up rdays.
5 . Select neutral circuit arrangement. Resistors should be rated at
least GO0 amp. Three iudividual rcsistors would provide a maximum
total ground-fault curretit of only 1800 amp. Therefore, individual
resistors are selei.ted, as suggested uuder Seiitral (:iri,uit Arrangements.
6. Select neutral grnuilditlg equipment. Since gtwerator breakers may
be used for back-up protwtion, a IO-sei. timc interval rating may hc used.
Resistors for iudoor mounting are suggested.
7. The oiily additional devices needed arc three iirwtral current trans-
formers and three neutral overr.urrent relays.
SYSTEM GROUNDING

51 PHASE OVERCURRENT RELAYS(TH0SE ON GENERATORS


HAVE VOLTAGE RESTRAINT)
@) GROUND OVERCURRENT RELAYS

07 GENERATOR PHASE DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS(NEUTRAL CT'S


NOT SHOWN)
@ GROUND OVERCURRENT BACK-UP RELAYS
FIG. 6.39 Circuit diagram tor Example 1.

Example 2. Consider the system of Fig. 6.40. Procedure is as follows:


1. All necessary data are found on Fig. 6.40.
2. Select grounding method. From Table 6.5, condition R.
3. Select location of grounding point, as the neutral of the main bank.
4. Select neutral circuit arrangement, as a direct connection to earth
(from Table 6.5).
5 . Review system relaying. We shall consider in turn each breaker
used for system protection.
a. Transformer primary breaker. This breaker will operate on trans-
SYSTEM GROUNDING 401

former secondary faults. For such faults the ground-return path will be
so short that its resistance will be negligible, if the transformer case is
properly bonded to the system neutral. From Table 6.4,a ground-fault
current of about 17,300 amp may flow to a terminal fault. This is over
ten times the circuit rating and
hence is sufficient for operating
phase overcurrent relays in the
primary circuit.
21. T r a n s f o r m e r secondary
breaker. This breaker is pri-
marily for bus faults. Since the
maximum ground-fault current is
only about ten times the circuit
rating, fast tripping may not be 1600 AMP .)
provided by the breaker, but the I 480 V
primary breaker will give satisfac-
tory protection, as discussed for
transformer faults.
G. Feeder breakers. Since the
maximum . mound-fault current FIG. 6.40 Circuit diagram for Example 2.
,
(17,300 amp) is a t least twenty times the rating of the largest feeder
breaker, these provide adequate ground-fault protection.
6. No neutral grounding equipment is required. The transformer
neutral must, of course, be available for grounding.

OPERATING EXPERIENCE
Case 1. The following is quoted from theexperience of an engineer of a
large glass-manufacturing company as related to an AIEE group recently.
“ A few years ago in one of our large plate glass plants two feeder
grounds occurred on two different phases about 2000 feet apart in two
departments. When the fireworks and excitement had subsided the two
departments involved were shut down for several hours until repairs
could be made. Within a few hours after this trouble happened a num-
ber of motors, seven altogether, were brought into the electric shop with
burnt out or grounded windings. This, we believe, is an important effect
of the system surges that occur during very bad fault conditions such as
this., The loss of production and damage on that occasion amounted to
several thousand dollars.
“With continuous process operations the hunting of ground faults is
very difficult, and two grounds on the same phase but on two different
feeders are exceedingly difficult to trace. This is because all the feeders
must be opened a t once and closed one at a time to find the trouble. Our
402 SYSTEM GROUNDING

experience is that the first ground remains on the system because we can-
not open the feeder breakers to hunt it. The result is that the system
operates with two phases a t line-to-line voltage to ground, and the operat-
ing electrician hopes that no other grounds occur before he has an oppor-
tunity t o find the first one.
“It was because of our experiences, such as I have mentioned, and the
need in our operations for the highest possible service continuity, that we
began to seriously consider the use of grounded neutral low voltage dis-
tribution systems.
“The cost of a grounded neutral low voltage system is slightly higher
than an ungrounded system. The additional transformer neutral bush-
ing and connections, the neutral bus and wiring are items that add t o the
cost. These are first costs that do not add more than one per cent t o the
total cost of a unit substation.
“Two of our plate glass plants are now operating 100 per cent with
600 volt grounded neutral systems, and t.wo other works are about 50 per
cent cut over. Two window glass plants, operating a t 460 volts, are
completely changed over t o grounded neutral and a third is in the process
of being changed. Several new plants, one paint plant and two fabri-
cating plants were built with 460 volt grounded neutral systems. Our
total transformer capacity operating a t 600 volts or 460 volts grounded
neutral is now 40,000 kva, consisting of 30 units.
“Our experience with these systems has been very satisfactory. There
is no question that the service reliability has greatly improved. A
majority of the faults occur on branch feeders and are cleared by the
local branch protection devices such as fuses. Troubles are localized and
promptly repaired. As the electricians become used t o the new systems
they are more enthusiastic and quickly learn, for instance, that a single
blown fuse probably indicates a ground. None of them has expressed any
desire t o return to nongrounded systems.”
Case 2. An engineer from a large steel company reported as follows
on experiences with a grounded-neutral 6900-volt system which was
placed in operation in 1947:
“The operating record of the system since the grounded neutral was
installed is most gratifying. The ground faults experienced show a
marked reduction in number and severity. For instance, during the year
1944, the number of ground indications recorded totaled 34. Of these
34 indications, 19 resulted in equipment failures such as grounded motor
coils or flashed-over bushings. During the year 1951, there were two
ground relay operations resulting in one equipment failure, and the first
fifty weeks of 1952 show a similar record. Particular attention has been
paid t o the severity of the damage caused by these ground faults. I n
each instance i t appears that the relaying has been fast enough t o clear
the fault before any destructive burning resulted.”
SYSTEM GROUNDING 403

REFERENCES
1. Concordia., C.., and H. A. Peterson. Arcine Faults in Power Svstems. Trans. A I E E .
I

vol. 60, pp. 340-346, 1941.


2. Concordia, C., and W. F. Skeats, Effect of Restriking on Recowry Voltage, Trans.
AIEE, vol. 58, 1939.
3. AIEE Standards No. 32, “Neutral Grounding Devices.”
4. National Electrical Code.
5. Blume. L. F.. “Tranaformer Eneineerins.” John Wilry & Sons. Inc., 1951.
6. Allen, J. E., and S. K. W a l d o r f , k n g Ground Tests i n a Normally Ungroundcd
13-Kv, 3-Phase Bus, Tmns. AIEE, 1946, p. 298.
7. Shott. H. S., and H. A. Peterson, Criteria for Neutral Stability of Y-Grounded
Primary, Broken Delta Secondary Transformer Circuits, Tiann. AIEE, 1941.
p. 997.
8. Clarke, Edith, “Circuit Analysis of A-C Power Systems (Symmetrical Com-
ponents),” John Wiley &Eons, Inc., New York, vol. I, 1943, vol. 11, 1950.
9. Application Guide for the Grounding of Synehronoua Generator Systems, AIEE
Committee Report, Power Apparatus and Systems KO. 6, June, 1Y53, pp. 517-526.
10. Quinn, R. F., Should the High Voltage Neutral of a Wye-delta. Stepdown Trans-
former Bank Be Grounded? Gen. Elm. Rev., June, 1945.
chapter 7 by L. J. Carpenter, Shelby C. Cooke, Jr.,
R. H. Kaufmann, and David Stoetzel

Equipment Grounding

STATIONARY EQUIPMENT, BUILDINGS, AND STRUCTURES

OBJECTIVES OF EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

Equipment grounding consists of the connecting to ground of non-


current-carrying metal parts of the wiring system or apparatus connected
to the system. This includes all metal conduits, metal raceway, metal
armor of cables, outlet boxes, cabinets, switch boxes, motor frames, trans-
former cases, switchgear enclosures, metal enclosures of motor controllers
and other frames, and metallic enclosing cases of all electric equipment
and electrically operated equipment.
One objective of equipment grounding is to limit the potential between
non-current-carrying parts of the plant and between these parts and earth
to a safe value under all conditions of normal and abnormal system opera-
tions. To accomplish this objective, a plant grounding system is required.
The purpose of this is t o seek to achieve a uniform potential in all parts
of the structure and apparatus, as well as to provide that operators and
attendants shall also be a t the same potential a t all times. By achieving
more nearly a uniform potential throughout the grounding system, the
chances of large differences of potential within reasonable reaching dis-
tance of a person, great enough to shock or injure an attendant when short
circuit or other abnormal occurrences take place, are reduced.
A grounding system is very likely called upon to function very infre-
quently, and inadequacy may become evident only a t that time. It is
like the gun that nobody thought was loaded until someone pulled the
trigger. When a ground fault occurs on an electric system, lives may
depend on an adequate equipment-grounding installation.
404
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 405

A second objective of equipment grounding is a low-impedance return


path for ground-fault current. The hazard to personnel exists a t the
time a ground fault occurs. Forcing the current to flow through a high-
impedance grounding connection may create a dangerous potential
difference. Also, high impedance a t joints and connections or insufficient
cross section in grounding circuits may cause arcing and heating of suffi-
cient magnitude to ignite nearby combustible material or explosive gases.

IMPORTANCE OF EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

The published data of the Division of Industrial Safety, Department of


Industrial Relations, State of California, states that in the year 1952
there were 909 recorded electrical work injuries, of which 40 were fatal.
For comparison, similar figures for several previous years are listed in the
accompanying table.

Iniuries

Year Rdio

Total Fatal

1946 305 28 10.9


1947 572 57 10.1
1948 755 48 15.7

I I I ;;:;
1949 693 42 16.5
1950 690 33 20.9

:;:: :;
Of the 909 recorded injuries, 153 could be related directly to contact
with frame case or non-current-carrying metal parts. It was found that
in these 153 recorded injuries either no grounding or inadequate ground-
ing could have been responsible for the injury. Typical injury descrip-
tions are as follows.
“Refrigerator Repairman. Electric drill shorted out-severe shock;
employee knocked out for about fifteen minutes.”
“Carpenter. Operating portable electric hand-saw on wet ground-
received shock and dropped saw. Laceration, severe, dorsal surface a t
base of distal phalanx, third finger left hand.”
“Cabinetmaker. Ground wire broken off in drill. Hot wire grounded
to frame, took hold of another grounded drill-unconscious about one
minute.”
406 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

Inasmuch as adequate equipment grounding tends to keep the potei


tial difference between equipment frame and ground within safe limits,
it can he safely said that these 153 accidents, or approximately 17 per cent
of the total, were attributable to inadequate equipment grounding.
The National Fire Protection Association consistently reports that
about 10 per cent of all fires, representing about 10 per cent of losses from
fires, are specifically attributed to “Electrical, fixed services, fires due to
misuse or faulty wiring and equipment.” They also report that another
10 per cent, representing about 30 per cent of losses from fires, is of
unknown origin. I t is inevitable that many of these fires were caused by
inadequate equipment grounding and insufficient attention given to
return paths for ground-fault currents.
The increased use of system-neutral grounding has focused attention
on the necessity for good equipment grounding systems to obtain low-
impedance return paths for ground-fault current. For safety to per-
sonnel, it is generally recognized that equipment grounding is required
but is often provided as an afterthought and, consequently, may or may
not he adequate-for the purpose intended. With a little careful con-
sideration, it becomes apparent that a well-planned equipment grounding
system must be provided whether the system neutral is grounded or not.
Ungrounded neutral systems often operate for extended periods with a
single-phase faulted to ground. During such periods, a contact between
another phase conductor and a metallic enclosure raises the enclosure to
full-line potential aboveground. Failure to provide a suitable connection
between enclosure and ground presents a serious hazard to personnel.
Also, the flow of fault current through a high-impedance connection dur-
ing a double line-to-ground fault may create differences of potential of
dangerous proportions.

COMPONENTS OF AN EQUIPMENT GROUNDING SYSTEM

Definitions. For the purpose of further explanation of the grounding


system the following definitions are established (see Figs. 7.1 and 7.2).
Grounding electrode is a conductor embedded in the earth, used for
maintaining ground potential on conductors connected to it and for
dissipating into the earth currents conducted to it.
Ground bus is a protective ground network used to establish a uniform
potential in and about the structure. I t is tied solidly to the grounding
electrodes. h typical ground network is illustrated in Fig. 7.3.
Grounding conductor is a conductor used to connect equipment frames
or wiring-system enclosures to the ground bus. The distinction between
a neutral conductor (white) and a grounding conductor (green) is illus-
trated in Fig. 7.4.
Typical grounding system for on outdoor substation. c
0
Y
FIG. 7.1
408 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

FIG. 7.2 pical grounding system for a building and heavy electric opparatvr in the
building.

GROUNDING ELECTRODES

CONNECTlON TO
WATER PlPiNG

CONNECTIONS TO
JOINT BUlLDlNG STEEL
E A C H SlDE OF
EXPANSlON .IOlNT

FIG. 7.3 Typical ground bur.


410 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

Types of Grounding Electrodes. A continuous underground water-


niping system provides a very satisfactory grounding electrode (Fig. 7.5).
Consideration should be given t o the
size of pipe arid the extent of the sys-
tem if this is t o be the sole means of
connection t o earth. Table 7.1 tahu-
lates the size of wat,er pipe in terms
of equivalent grounding conductor or
bus. Artiiicial grounding electrodes
should also be used. Such electrodes
may be rods, pipes, plates, or conduc-
tors embedded in the earth. They
should be of noncorrosive metal, such
as copper or copper-hearing steel.
They are embedded in the earth by
bring driven or by burial.
The Ground Bus. The importance
of a continuous metallic circuit of low
FIG. 7.5 ~ ~ method
~ of grounding
i ~ i~npedarice
~ l in the returo path for
to o large w o t e i pipe. ground-fault currents is illustrated in
Fig. 7.G.
Fig. 7.Fa shows a 120/240-volt single-phase system with transformer
neutral connccted to ground through a grounding electrode ivhich meas-
ures 10 ohms resistauoc to earth. The conduit is connected t o earth
through a separate grounding electrode which measures 20 ohms t o earth.
h fault oc(?urs lictween conductor B and the conduit.
120
Ground-fault current =
20 + in
= 4 amp

Voltage drop from conduit to earth equals 4 X 20, or 80 volts.


Figure 7.iib shows the same system with both transformer neutral and
conduit connected to a common ground network which is connected t o
earth through a single grounding electrode which measures 25 ohms
resistance. A fault occurs between coilduotor B and t h e conduit. A
high fault current will flow through the low-resistance ground-return path
causing fault interrupting devices t o operate. Little, if any, current flows
through the 25-ohm resistance, and therefore the conduit will remain very
close t o earth potential.
It should not be inferred from the above t h a t 80 volts potential is
necessarily fatal. T h e example used simply ,illustrates t h a t appreciable
resistance in the ground-return path results in a difference in potential
during a ground fault which may be great enough t o be fatal t o a person
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 41 I

stepping or reaching from one point t o another. A continuous path of


low impedance i5 effeoted by means of a properly designed ground hus.
The size of the ground bus is determined by the magnitude of current
and the time of flow, based on the maximum allowable temperature rise.
For bolted joints the temperature rise should be limited t o 250 C , and for
brazed joints t o 450 C:. While ground buses and connections must be
adequately braced t o withstand the mechanical stresses due t o the initial
asymmetrical line-to-ground fault current, the heating effect of such cur-
rent can generally be disregarded because of its short duration.
The following equations may be used in determining the size of ground
bus when copper is used for conductors.
For bolted joiuts with initial temperature of 26 C and temperature rise
of 250 C,

For brazed joints with initial temperature of 26 C and temperature rise


of 450 C,

1 0 VOLTS

FIG. 7.6 Illustrating the importance of a continuous metallic ground-return path of low
imc-edance.
412 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

where A = cross section, circular mils


I = ground fault current,, amp
S = time of floy, see
For ungrounded, impedance-grounded, arid solidly grounded systems
it is usually easy t o determine the magnitude of fault current t h a t could
flow in the ground hus. For uiigrouiided arid impedaiice-grourided sys-
tems this will approximately equal line-t,o-line fault current,, a i d for
solidly grounded systems i t will approximately equal three-phase fault
current. For the average grounded or ungrounded power distribution
system wit,h adequate (auk protective devices, a time of flow of current of
10 sec is conservative atid may be used in thc above calculation.
Aside from the theoretical considerations t,here are practical limits
which may finally determine the maximum or minimum size of ground
bus. For mcclianical st,rength the ground bus should not be smaller t h a n
S o . 2/0-.4~vgconductor. It is not usually necessary t o exceed 500 MCM
or equivalent for large generating stations and substations, or S o . 4/0
Awg for small stations and industrial plants. However, it may he desir-
able t o exceed these values where exceptional precaihon is required or
where extremely high ground-fault currents are expected.
A ground bus of adequate size for the installation should be run com-
pletely around the periphery of the building (see Fig. 7 . 3 ) . Grounding
conductor material should he soft-drawn or medium-hard-draxn copper
wire or copper bar. For steel-frame buildings the ground bus should be
conneoted t o each outside building column (Fig. 7.7). In large buildings
a network should he provided t o include internal buildiiig columns. The
around bus should he connected t o electrodes a t int,ervals of 200 f t
or less. If the building consists of
more than one floor, each floor should
have its own ground bus, these floor
ground hnses in turn should be con-
nected by a number of condiictors
t o the main ground bus 011 the first
floor. In buildings having no steel
frameivork, a grouiid network equiu-
alent t o the above should be pro-
vided. Where no steel framework
is available, all grounding conductors
must he taken directly t o the ground
bus. Better aocessihility is obtained
if an exposed bus is provided in
the upper structure, and often it is
FIG. 7.7 connectionof ground bur to inore economical t o install it in this
building column. manner.
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 413

T h e gronnd hos may be installed


in the form of a loopoiilsidetlie bound-
aries of the buildings, biiried in the
backfill for the columii footings arid
foundation wall. The loop ground bus
should be installed a minimum of 18
in. orit,side &hebuildiiig wall and 18 in.
below the finished grade. Where ex-
posed to mechanical injury the con-
ductor should be suitably prot.ectcd by
pipes or other Siibstaritial guards. If
guards are iron pipe or other magnetic
matcrial, the conduct,or should be elec-
trically coiiiiected t o both erirls of the
guard t,o prevent, inductive choke ef- S,G,7,8 Codwe,d-type buried ground-
fcct. ( h i d a c t o r s laid iiiidergroii~id ing" connection,
should, urilcss other\\
protected, he laid slack t o prevent their being readily broken.
811 hiiritd grounding corinectioiis should be made by brazing or
(:nd\\-eld-t,ype joiiit (Fig. 7.8). All ot,her grouridirig comicctions may be
ma& by brazing, Cad\reld, or with approved pressure terminals.
Steel-to-copper coririectioiis should he made abovegrouiid wherever
possible.
The ground bus should he coiiiie , at least at two points. to a con-
tinuous uiidcrgroiirid vater-piping ciri or t o suitable grouiiding e k -
trodes (Fig. 7.9).

FIG. 7.9 Cadweld connection to water pipe.


414 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

Grounding Conductors. Grounding conductors should he large


enough to carry the ground fault current safely. Where the grounding
conductor is insulated (green wire), it should be the same size as phase
conductors. Where the conductor is bare, the temperature rise is limited
to the same as the ground bus except that where exposed or adjacent to
inflammable materials the total temperature is limited to 100 C.
Although neutral conductors may be grounded a t the source, they
should not be used for equipment grounding. Separate conductors
should be used for neutral conductors and for equipment grounding.
Equipment-grounding conductors must be identified with green color
code. This is distinguished from neutral conductors which should be
white color code. An illustration of this requirement is shown in Fig. 7.4.
limiting Values of Resistance from Ground Bus to Earth. In large
stations the resistance of the ground bus to earth should not exceed 1 ohm
and should be made as much lower as can be realized economically.
In small substations a resistance from ground bus to earth of higher
values than that in large stations is generally permissible because the
ground-fault currents are relatively smaller and they are in general only
accessible to qualified personnel. Preferably, however, it should not
exceed 5 ohms and should be as much lower as can be realized economically.
For residential customers it is common practice to ground one side or
the neutral of electric services on the premises. In cities this connection
is ordinarily made to a water pipe, which usually provides a very low-
resistance grounding connection. I n rural locations water systems may
not be accessible, requiring that a driven pipe or rod must be installed for
the grounding connection. The National Electrical Code requires that
such grounding connections shall have a resistance not to exceed 25 ohms.
Methods of measuring resistance 60 ground are discussed later.
TABLE 7.1 Minimum Size Water-pipe Electrodes
Size of Grounding Conductor Sire of water Pipe,
or Bus, Awg Inches I.P.S.
8 $5
6 $/a
A I
2 1 >i
1 /o 1%
2/0 2
4lQ 2%

EFFECT OF IMPEDANCE IN EQUIPMENT-GROUNDING CIRCUITS

Of course, no one would contest the fact that reactance as well as


resistance influences the return path taken by ground-fault currents.
Recent tests, however, indicate that reactance his a much more marked
effect than has been previously appreciated. This is particularly true
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 415

where circuit conductors are enclosed in magnetic materials such as steel


conduit or husways. I t was found that, when the enclosing conduit and
a return coiiductor (of about equal resistance) outside the conduit were
paralleled, the current divided approximately 20 parts in t.he conduit to 1
in the conductor at low current,s and 10 parts in the conduit t o 1 in the
conductor at high rurreiits. About the same ratio also held true when the
rurrent was allowed to divide hetween the conduit and a very low-resist-
auce steel-frame huildiirg structure. When the path by may of the eon-
duit was opened, a substantial voltage appeared between conduit and
ground.
With this same ret,rirrr conductor iriside the conduit., the current tended
to divide about equally hetween conductor and corrduit.
This leads to the conr~lusionthat the 60-cycle reactance of any ground-
return circuit remote from the outgoirig circuit conductor will likely be
high compared ivith its resistance and limit the magnitude of ground-
return current which i t will carry. It may also he concluded that t,he
conduit or enrlosing metallic structure will tend to carry an appreciable
port,ion of thc fault rurrent and that failure to provide a continuous path
will result i n arcing and heating, which may cause fires in combustible
materials whirh may he rrear. This may account for the many fires that
are reported tiy insurance statistics as caused hy faulty electrical circuits
or of unkiioirii origin.

POWER PLANT AND DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT

The frames of stationary or permanently located rotatirig electric equip-


ment and the frames and enclosures of static equipment such as trans-
former t,anks and associated equipment permanently lorated should he
grounded by dirert roniieotion t o the building grouiid b u s through a
grouudiug condurtor equal in size t o the largest conductor in the line con-
nected t o the equipment hut not less than No. 6 Amg nor greater than
S o . 4/0 Awg (Figs. 7.10, 7.11, and 7.12). Driven ground electrodes
should be employed a t earh outdoor substation.
To provide a vorrvenient method of grounding switchgear, a ground hus
should be provided as part of the equipment for structures or panels
contaiiring such primary apparatus as current transformers, potential
transformers, pon-er circuit breakers, and disconnecting switches and
such other apparatus as relays, instruments, and meters which require
grounding. Each of these metal structures, metal panels, or metal
supports should lie individually connected to the switchgear ground
hns, which must not he smaller in current-carrying capacity than 25
per cent of the highest rontinuous-current rating of any piece of primary
apparatus t o which it is connected. Usually a 2- by >&in. bar is used.
416 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

FIG. 7.10 Grounding connection-utdoor FIG. 7.1 1 Grounding connection-tronr-


circuit breaker former tank.

FIG. 7.12 Grounding connection-motor frame to building column


EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 417

This switchgear ground hus


should, in turn, be connected t o
the common station ground bus
by suitable conductors having a
current-carrying capacity equal
t o t h a t of the switchgear ground
bus (Pig. 7-13). I n many cases
( f o r example, i n metal-clad
switchgear or other metal strue,-
ture) apparatus may be con-
sidered adequately grounded
through their mountiiig on the
structure.
In some suhstatioii installa-
tions, where all connect,ioris are
underground and there is no pos-
sibility of energizing t,he enclosing FIG. 7.13 Switchgeor ground bur.
fence by falling overhead wires, it
i s desirable t o keep <.he fence serrarated from the stat,iori ground bus.
The reason for t,liis is t h a t during a ground fault the suhstatioii grouiid
bus may he elevated in potential above true earth and may constitute a
hazard t o personnel who come in contact with the fence.

STATIONERY UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT

The frames arid metallic eiiclosiiig cases of all electric equipment a n d


electrically operated equipment not grounded through bus drop cable may
he considered adequately grounded if bolted or welded t o the st,eel frame-
work of a structure which has been suitably grounded. If this condition
does not exist, aii individual grounding conductor should be run from the
equipment t o t.he ground bus.
A rigid conduit system may riot, coiistitut,c an adequate grounding cir-
cuit. However, because of the high reactauce of pat,hs provided outside
the conduit, the conduit will carry a large percentage of t,he current, arid
therefore i t should be made adequate if possible. If it is necessary t o run
a conductor for equipment grounding, it sliould he inside the conduit
which carries the corresponding phase conductors.
A grounding coririectiori run inside the conduit or raceway through
which poGer is brought t o the equipment must be an insulated conductor
equal in size to the largest, conductor in the line feediiig the equipment
but riot larger than No. 4/0 hwg.
r l
1he frames and metallic eiiclosiiig cases of all electric equipment and
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 419

The lead sheaths, shields, and armor of power cables should he grounded
a t both ends, with the exception of single-conductor cables as noted helow.
I n long cables it is sometimes desirable that sheaths also be grounded a t
several intermediate points. The lead sheath, shield, and armor of large
single-condurtor cables (500 MCM and above) should he grounded a t one
end only to prevent rirculating currents. The sheath, shield, and armor
of such a cable should he insulated from ground throughout the remainder
of its length unless the cable is too long, in which case insulating joints
must he provided to permit grounding a t a sufficient number of points to
keep sheath voltagrs down t o desirable limits. For examplc, the mutual
reactance bo neut,ral X , for a 500-MCM standard-strand cable, varnished
cambric insulated, lead sheathed (approximate outside diameter, 1.5 in,),
wit,h equivalent, spacing between cables of 3 in., is approximately 0.0525
ohm per 1000 ft. Assuming a current I , of 400 amp in t,he conductor,
the induced vokage to neutral per 1000 ft can be calculated from the
formula
P, = I , X , (7.3)
= 400 X 0.0525 = 21 volts

For lead-sheathed cable in duct, sheath voltage should be limited to 12


to 15 volts. For jacketed cable, sheath voltages of 40 to 50 volts may be
permitted, because the jacket acts as an insulator.
Conduits, wireways, busways, junction boxes, etc., should be grounded
by adequate connection to the ground bus. The minimum requirements
for these connections are established by the National Electrical Code.

SMALL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

Small apparatus and devices present a very serious problem because of


their diversity and because they are usually associated with low voltage
and relatively small blocks of power which are inclined to be considered as
innocuous. The need for proper grounding is even greater on these
applications, however, because equipment in this category is widely used
by personnel unfamiliar with the potential hazards, and it is usually not
so carefully protected. This is emphasized with radher startling clarity
by the figures from the Division of Industrial Safety of the State of
California. Of the 153 reported injuries attributable to inadequate equip-
ment grounding, 82 were associated with portable electrically operated
tools and 33 more with “cords, plugs, portable extensions, etc.” In other
words 115 out of 153, or nearly 75 per cent, were directly related to rela-
tively small, so-called “harmless” devices. Incidentally, 699 nut of the
total of 909 reported electrical work injuries, over 77 per cent, weredirectly
related to circuits and equipment of 600 volts or less.
420 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

In many cases where portable tools and equipment are connected


through a plug and receptacle, a grounding connection can be made by
using special three-pole outlets with a third, or grounding, conductor in
the connecting cable. It i s now standard practice in many plants to use
only three-pole outlets throughout the factory area where portable equip-
ment is apt to be plugged in. This has not become an effective solution
to the problem as yet, because portable tools are often supplied with a
two-conductor cord and a two-pole plug, and i t is difficult to convert to
a three-conductor cord and get the third conductor connected to the
metallic case of the tool. Furthermore, the three-pole plug will not enter
the conventional two-pole outlet, which tends to discourage its use until
such time as a complete conversion can be accomplished.
Other methods have been used to a limited extent, for example, a
three-conductor cord with a clamp-type terminal dangling a t the plug end.
This method does not present an effective solution because there is seldom
a good place to fasten the terminal to ground, and it is too much bother
to fasten it even if there is a good place.
There appears to be a trend toward the adoption of the “green” con-
ductor in wiring systems and the three-pole plug and receptacle, as stand-
ard. However, there are practical objections which must be overcome
by education and manufacturing standardization.
One of the important objections to the adoption of the green conductor
in wiring systems is the danger of making a wrong connection in the box
or in the tool, and by so doing connect the exposed metallic case to the
ungrounded circuit conductor. This condition is more likely to occur in
the small shop or the home where the inexperienced amateur electrician
does the job than in a large industrial plant where experienced labor,
adequate supervision, and intelligent safety practices are employed.

LIGHTING FIXTURES

The minimum requirements for grounding of lighting fixtures should be


those specified in the National Electrical Code.
The Code states that every metal fixture shall be grounded unless all
the following conditions exist:
1. The fixture is on a circuit operating a t 150 volts to ground or less.
2. The fixture is on an outlet wired with knob and tube work or non-
metallic sheathed cable.
3. The fixture is not mounted on a metal or metal lath wall or ceiling,
or if so mounted is insulated from its support and from the metal lath by
the use of insulating joints or fixture supports and canopy insulators.
4. The fixture is not installed within 8 ft vertically or 5 ft horizontally of
laundry tubs, bathtubs, shower baths, plumbing fixtures, steam pipes, or
other grounded metalwork or grounded surface.
420 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

In many cases where portable tools and equipment are connected


through a plug and receptacle, a grounding connection can be made by
using special three-pole outlets with a third, or grounding, conductor in
the connecting cable. It i s now standard practice in many plants to use
only three-pole outlets throughout the factory area where portable equip-
ment is apt to be plugged in. This has not become an effective solution
to the problem as yet, because portable tools are often supplied with a
two-conductor cord and a two-pole plug, and i t is difficult to convert to
a three-conductor cord and get the third conductor connected to the
metallic case of the tool. Furthermore, the three-pole plug will not enter
the conventional two-pole outlet, which tends to discourage its use until
such time as a complete conversion can be accomplished.
Other methods have been used to a limited extent, for example, a
three-conductor cord with a clamp-type terminal dangling a t the plug end.
This method does not present an effective solution because there is seldom
a good place to fasten the terminal to ground, and it is too much bother
to fasten it even if there is a good place.
There appears to be a trend toward the adoption of the “green” con-
ductor in wiring systems and the three-pole plug and receptacle, as stand-
ard. However, there are practical objections which must be overcome
by education and manufacturing standardization.
One of the important objections to the adoption of the green conductor
in wiring systems is the danger of making a wrong connection in the box
or in the tool, and by so doing connect the exposed metallic case to the
ungrounded circuit conductor. This condition is more likely to occur in
the small shop or the home where the inexperienced amateur electrician
does the job than in a large industrial plant where experienced labor,
adequate supervision, and intelligent safety practices are employed.

LIGHTING FIXTURES

The minimum requirements for grounding of lighting fixtures should be


those specified in the National Electrical Code.
The Code states that every metal fixture shall be grounded unless all
the following conditions exist:
1. The fixture is on a circuit operating a t 150 volts to ground or less.
2. The fixture is on an outlet wired with knob and tube work or non-
metallic sheathed cable.
3. The fixture is not mounted on a metal or metal lath wall or ceiling,
or if so mounted is insulated from its support and from the metal lath by
the use of insulating joints or fixture supports and canopy insulators.
4. The fixture is not installed within 8 ft vertically or 5 ft horizontally of
laundry tubs, bathtubs, shower baths, plumbing fixtures, steam pipes, or
other grounded metalwork or grounded surface.
EQUIPMWT GROUNDING 421

Grounding of the fixture is permissible in a11 cases.


TheNationalEleetricalCodealsos b t e s that fixtures shall he considered
as grounded when mechanically connected in a permanent and effeetive
manner to metal raceway, the armor of armored cahle, the grounding
conductor in a nonmetallic sheathed cable, a separate grounding conduc-
tor not smaller than No. 14 Awg, or to gas piping, provided that the r a c e
way, armor, grounding conductor, or gas pipe is grounded in an approved
manner.
Grounding of hook-suspended uuits supplied through a disconnecting
plug should be accompliihed by means of a separate grounding conductor
in the connecting cable equal in currentcarrying capacity to the liie con-
ductors. Connection shouid be made through separate grounding con-
tacts in the plug aud receptacle.
The grounding of high-intensity mercury lighting fixtures and fluores-
cent lighting fixtures should he accomplished hy running an individual
grounding conductor to the ground hus or ik equivalent. A continuous
row of ktnres may be considered as one fixture if the mechanical connec-
tion hetween a11 sections is such that electrical continuity is assured.

LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING-ARRESTER GROUNDS

For lightnjng arresters, a local grounding connection should be made by


driving rods into tbe earth near the arresters (Fig. 7.15). In addition,
the lightning-arrester grounding conductor should be connected into the
common station ground bus. For the average case, an arbitrary upper
limit of 5 ohms resistance to ground has been estahlished. Lower values
may be desirable, depending on the degree of proteotion required. The
eonnection from arrester to ground
should be as ehort and as straight
as possible. The National Electri-
cal Code states that a lightniag-
arrester ground wire shaii not be
maller than No. 6 Awg. A larger
siee conductor is required as thesys-
tem voltage increases. For in-
stance, a minimum of No. 2 is
suggested for 4160-, 6900-, and
13,800-volt distrihution circuits.
Properly made ground connec-
tions are an ewential feature of a
lightpiug-rod system for protection
of buildings. It appears to be more
RG. 7.15 Lighhing-arreiter p r m d m-
nectim
422 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

important to provide ample distribution of metallic contact in the earth


than to provide low-resistance connection. Low-resistance connections are
desirable, however, and should be provided where practicable. Ground
connections should be made at uniform intervals shout the building, avoid-
ing as much as possible the grouping of connections on one side. Each
down conductor should have a ground connection. Ground electrodes
should be at least 2 f t away from and should extend below the building
foundation. They should make contact with the earth from the surface
downward to avoid flashing at the surface.
Interior metal parts or structures of a building should he grounded
independently, and if they are within 6 f t of metallic roofs, walls, or down
conductors, they should be securely connected thereto.

METHODS OF MEASURING RESISTANCE TO EARTH

For new installations of grounding electrodes it is desirable that test


electrodes be placed at the site for 60 to 90 days before tests are made in
order that the earth around the electrode may become stabilized. By so
doing, a more accurate indication of resistance to earth will he obtained.
Theoret,ically it is possible to calculate the resistance of any system of
grounding electrodes. However, soil resistivity is dependent on soil
material, moisture content, and temperature. It has been found that the
range of soil resistivity usually encountered varies between 500 and 50,000
ohms per cu cm. Also, a considerable variation in soil resistivity at a
given location may he expected because of normal seasonal changes.
Obviously, formulas for calculating the performance of grounding con-
nections hecome so romplicated and involve so many indeterminate fac-
tors that they are of little value. Many such formulas have been devel-
oped, and they are useful as general guides, but the resistance of any given
installation can be determined only by tests. Several methods of testing
have been devised, all of which result in approximations of varying degrees
of accuracy. It is important, that the measurement of grounding connec-
tion resistanre be made a t the time of installation and at periodic intervals
thercafter to determine the adequacy and permanence of the grounding
connection. Usually preiision in such measurements is not required, as
it is necessary to know only whether the resistance is of the order of 1, 10,
100, or 1000 ohms. These values are indicative of whether the ground is
satisfactory for the particular inst,allation or whether improvement is
necessary.
The commonly used methods of measuring and testing the resistance of
a grounding connect,ion make use of two auxiliary electrodes in addition
to thc one under test. The rcsist,ance may b i measured by the use of a
voltmeter and ammeter, a Wheatstone bridge &h a slide-wire potenti-
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 423

ometer, or hy self-contained instruments which give direct readings in


ohms. Portahle ground-testing instruments provide the most convenieut
and sstisfactory means for measuring the resistance of grounding connec-
tions. The common instrument used for measuring insulation resistance
is not suitahle for measuring grounding-connection resistance, however,
becanse it does not measure the iow values.
Three methods of measuring and testing grounding connections are
descrihed helow.
Three-point Method. The connections and measurements of the
resistance of grounding connections 5y the three-point method are illus-
trated in Fig. 7.16. Either alternating curreiit of commercial frequency

A U X I L I A R Y NO.1 A U X I L I A R Y N0.2

f.y '11. {Rz

RI = R x t R y
Rp = R x + R z
Ra = R y t R Z

Ry i R 3 - RZ

RX = RI - Ry = RI - Rg t R Z
RX i Rp - RZ = Rp -RZ
2Rx i RI + Rp - R 3
RX = RI + R p - A 3
7
FIG. 7.16 Three-point method of mearuring rerirlonce of earth connoction.
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 425

potential across the resistance. The connections for this method using
alternating current for test are illustrated in Fig. 7.17. A current of known
magnitude is passed through the electrode under test and one of the
auxiliary electrodes. The drop in potential betweeu the electrode under
test and a second auxiliary electrode is then measured, and the ratio of
this voltage drop to the known current will indicate the resistance to
earth. By using a voltage-measuring device which has a high impedance,
the resistance of the auxiliary potential electrode will have no appreciable
effect on the accuracy of the measurements.

L
-

DETECTOR FOR S L I D E WIRE


MEASURING P O I N T POTENT1 O M E T E R
OF BALANCE
R X t R y I S MEASURED B Y MEANS OF A
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE OR OHMMETER

IS DETERMINED
RAtRB

FIG. 7.18 Ratio method of m e o w i n g resistance of earth connection.


426 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

Ratio Method. The ratio method of measuring and testing the


resistance of grounding electrodes is illustrated in Fig. 7.18. In this
method the resistance of the electrode under test in series with an auxiliary
electrode is measured by means of a Wheatstone hridge or ohmmeter. A
slide-wire potentiometer is connected across the same two electrodes with
the sliding contact connected to a second auxiliary electrode through a
detector for determining the point of balance. The point of balance on
the potentiometer fixes the ratio of the resistance of the test electrode to
the total resistance of the two in series which was determined in the first
measurement.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH AS A CONDUCTOR

The characteristics of earth as a conductor are generally variable and


unpredictable. They are even difficult to measure with any degree of
accuracy. The various methods of measuring resistance previously
described are valuable to the extent that they give a magnitude of resist-
ance in the earth circuit which is relatively accurate and will indicate
whether ground connections are satisfactory or not. It should not he
expected that current magnitude in earth circuits can he calculated by
conventional formulas.
Current values in earth circuits have been found to vary with the fre-
quency of applied voltage, in some instances inversely. Earth resistance
varies with applied voltage. A-C and d-c resistances of driven ground
rods have heen found to differ greatly.
Furthermore, the resistance of an earth connection varies with earth
composition, moisture, temperature, season of the year, depth and
diameter of rod, and other reasons.
Because of the nature of earth circuits, it is difficult to determine the
shock hazard from measured resistance in event of a ground fault. Like-
wise, the effectiveness of ground-fault protective devices which depend on
current return in the earth is not easy t o determine. Metallic return
paths for ground-fault currents ensure a safe and adequate means of
providing a level of safety which is predictable. They should be used in
industrial systems wherever possible.

GROUNDING LARGE PORTABLE MACHINERY FOR SAFETY


Large portable machinery, such as electric shovels and machines of a
similar nature, are not located on permanent foundations and normally
receive power by flexible trailing cable a t a relatively high voltage. Volt-
age levels of 2400 or 4160 volts are common. Such machines as these
present serious problems with respect to the safety of operators and
426 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

Ratio Method. The ratio method of measuring and testing the


resistance of grounding electrodes is illustrated in Fig. 7.18. In this
method the resistance of the electrode under test in series with an auxiliary
electrode is measured by means of a Wheatstone hridge or ohmmeter. A
slide-wire potentiometer is connected across the same two electrodes with
the sliding contact connected to a second auxiliary electrode through a
detector for determining the point of balance. The point of balance on
the potentiometer fixes the ratio of the resistance of the test electrode to
the total resistance of the two in series which was determined in the first
measurement.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH AS A CONDUCTOR

The characteristics of earth as a conductor are generally variable and


unpredictable. They are even difficult to measure with any degree of
accuracy. The various methods of measuring resistance previously
described are valuable to the extent that they give a magnitude of resist-
ance in the earth circuit which is relatively accurate and will indicate
whether ground connections are satisfactory or not. It should not he
expected that current magnitude in earth circuits can he calculated by
conventional formulas.
Current values in earth circuits have been found to vary with the fre-
quency of applied voltage, in some instances inversely. Earth resistance
varies with applied voltage. A-C and d-c resistances of driven ground
rods have heen found to differ greatly.
Furthermore, the resistance of an earth connection varies with earth
composition, moisture, temperature, season of the year, depth and
diameter of rod, and other reasons.
Because of the nature of earth circuits, it is difficult to determine the
shock hazard from measured resistance in event of a ground fault. Like-
wise, the effectiveness of ground-fault protective devices which depend on
current return in the earth is not easy t o determine. Metallic return
paths for ground-fault currents ensure a safe and adequate means of
providing a level of safety which is predictable. They should be used in
industrial systems wherever possible.

GROUNDING LARGE PORTABLE MACHINERY FOR SAFETY


Large portable machinery, such as electric shovels and machines of a
similar nature, are not located on permanent foundations and normally
receive power by flexible trailing cable a t a relatively high voltage. Volt-
age levels of 2400 or 4160 volts are common. Such machines as these
present serious problems with respect to the safety of operators and
428 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

a voltage difference between the frame and ground due to the contact
resistance between the two. In the case of a portable machine, the elec-
tric connection between the frame and the surrounding earth is a poor
one, and, hence, a dangerous voltage can he developed when ground cur-
rent is flowing. This voltage, approximately equal to the product of the
ground current and the frame-to-ground resistance, produces a definite
shock hazard to personnel.
Personnel in the vicinity of portable machines may come in contact
with this frame-to-ground voltage in various ways. Workmen during
idle moments frequently sit on the ground in the shade of the machine
with their backs against the “cats.” In making adjustments or repairs
to the dipper, the workmen usually will be standing on the ground a t some
distance from the base of the machine and will be touching the metal
parts of the dipper as shown in Fig. 7.20. The frame-to-ground voltage
will be transmitted along metal, such as compressed-air, fuel, or water
lines, drag chains, tow cables, or other metal parts connected to the
frame.

FACTORS IN SHOCK HAZARD

The factors which affect the shock-hazard problem are illustrated in


Fig. 7.20. The physical arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.20A and the
equivalent electrical diagram in Fig. 7.20B. The two most important
factors with respect to the shock hazard are
1. Magnitude of ground-fault current
2. Resistance from machine frame t o ground (R,)
The ground-fault current which will flow upon the occurrence of a
ground fault is determined by the power-supply voltage acting on the
fault circuit impedance. The normal power-system impedance com-
posed of the substation-transformer, transmission-line, and drag-cable
impedances Z,, Zf, and Z, are of necessity relatively low t o permit proper
performance of power equipment connected to the system. The fanlt
current might be in the order of thousands of amperes if i t were limited
only by these impedances. A protective system designed to handle such
large ground currents without creating dangerous shock voltages would
require a very extensive and costly low-resistance grounding circuit for
the portable machine. However, another means of limiting the shock
voltage is by limiting the current which will flow on a ground-fault
occurrence. This can be done with no sacrifice in the power-machinery
performance by introducing a neutral grounding impedance Zo,Fig. 7.20.
A resistor, rather than a reactor, is used as the neutral grounding imped-
ance for two reasons: (1) to avoid the twice normal transitory current
magnitude encountered with high reactance, which would be required to
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 429

limit the ground-fault current to 50 amp and (2) to avoid the relatively
high switching and arcing ground transitory overvoltages which would be
permitted by such high-reactance grounding.
The portable-machine frame-to-ground resistance is very indefinite.
Even under favorable circumstances, the ground resistance will not be
low, and it may be 100 ohms or more on rock formations. Even a gr0u.p
of driven ground rods at the line end of a trailing cable may have a ground
resistance of 10 ohms or more unless the installation is carefully made and
maintained. (Kote that a 10-ohm ground and a ground-fault current of
100 amp would produce a shock hazard potential of 1000 volts between
the machine and ground.)
Available shock-hazard information and data indicate that the possible
voltage from frame to ground should not be allowed to exceed 100 volts
and that adequate relaying should be provided to deenergize the circuit
immediately upon the occurrence of a ground fault. A ground-fault
current of 50 amp and a portable-machine ground-return-path resistance
of 2 ohms have proved successful as a satisfactory compromise. A
reliable ground-circuit resistance of 2 ohms requires a ground-return con-
ductor from the frame of the portable machine back to the electric-supply
substation, as represented by impedances Z, and Z, in Fig. 7.20B. This
ground-return circuit alone is designed t o come within the 2-ohm limit
since other ground paths are so variable. This practice assures adequate
safety even if the ground resistance of these other ground paths is very
high. For example, even if the resistance of the other path is infinite and
the ground-fault current is limited to 50 amp, the maximum voltage
which can occur between the frame and ground is 100 volts. In most
cases it will be found that the ground-return-conductor resistance is
appreciably under 2 ohms, thereby limiting the maximum frame-to-
ground voltage to a value under 100 volts.

CIRCUIT PROTECTION

To remove circuit elements which have experienced insulation failure


and the resulting ground fault, circuit breakers should be located t o
isolate the faulty circuit elements. Since it is not normally desirable t o
shut down the entire system because of a ground fault in one of the
shovels, circuit breakers should be located so that the system can be
switched in smaller sections. A common arrangement is that of having
circuit breakers at the main substation feeding individual pole-line circuits
which go out to the portable-machine areas. Along the pole lines at the
point a t which feeders are tapped off to supply portable equipment,
portable switch houses are commonly used which include circuit breakers.
From the portable switch houses, or cable skids, feeder cables are run to
HIGH TENSION

I 1
L . A : S b \ V - 1 STEP
TRANSFORMER
DOWN BANK
MAIN -
SUB. ?
GROUND 1

PROTECTIVE --
CIRCUIT -
GROUND A. PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF CIRCUIT
-
z2
- - -
SHOVEL FRAME IS
AT T n E POTENTIAL
O F rnis POINT
- 25

R2
8. EQUIVALENT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT-
ARROWS INOICATE CONTINUITY
OF CIRCUIT ONLY

-
- - - - -
T
=
$2
0
B -z
0
FIG. 7.20 Simplified circuit showing the factors involved in the shock hazard of portable machines.
- 23A
- ZPA
-
I
t -
, L I N E TO
h GROUNO FAULT
GROUND FAULT
SHOVEL # I
SHOVEL U 2
t TRANSFORMER

- m
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 433

individual shovels. Therefore, by proper detecting means, selectivity in


circuit-breaker tripping can be attained so that upon the occurrence of a
grouiid fault only the faulted portion of the circuit is deenergized and the
remainder of the system continues to operate as normal.
As mentioned before, upon the occurrence of a ground fault the possi-
bility of shock hazard makes it essential that the grounded feeder be dis-
connected from the system immediately. If the grounded feeder cannot
be isolated, then this entire system should be immediately deenergioed.
This can be accomplished by means of back-up relaying equipment
operating the circuit breaker located a t the substation.

SlMULTANEOUS GROUND FAULTS

Should two line-to-ground circiiit faults evist simultaneously on differ-


ent phases a t different, locations, current of line-to-line short-circuit mag-
nitude will flow in the protective ground circuit between the two fault
locations. This current flow is not limited by the neutral grounding
impedance (Fig. 7.21) and could produce unsafe voltages on the protective
ground circuit. To avoid this possibility, automatic switching equipment
must be applied which will function immediately if a ground fault occurs
and isolate that part of the system. Thus each individual ground fault
is automatically removed as soon as i t occurs.
On an ungrounded system, ground-detector equipment can be employed
to detect the first ground fault and to operate to clear the entire system
since with such operation there is no way of telling upon which feeder
circuit the ground fault has occurred. This in most cases is not acceptable
as an operating procedure.

II/ POWER SUPPLY UNGROUNDED

I 1 1
FEEDER TO PORTABLE MACHINES
FIG. 7.22 Ground-detector system for an ungrounded power supply.
434 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

For maximum service reliability and safety, large portable machines


should not he operated on power-supply systems which do not have their
neutrals grounded for the reason mentioned in the previous paragraph
and also because :
1. If for any reason the feeder breaker is not tripped open upon the
occurrence of a ground fault (relays sometimes are blocked), the develop-
ment of a second ground would permit dangerous voltages to appear
where they could produce shock hazards.
2. Ungrounded systems are subject to higher transient overvoltages,
as a result of circuit switching or restriking faults, which increase the
possibility of simultaneous line-to-ground failures.
When the source transformer is not Y-connected, it is still possible to
ground the neutral of the system by the use of a zigzag connected ground-
ing transformer in combination with the resistor. When applying a
grounding transformer, it is necessary that care be used in its selection, as
outlined in Chap. 6.
Large portable machines often receive power from the same system
which supplies the mill load. Because of relaying limitations, it is
necessary that the ground-fault-current level for the mill power system be
considerably higher than that recommended for the portable-machine
power system. I n order to meet the requirements for both of these types
of load, a 1: 1 ratio delta-Y connected isolating transformer is recom-
mended for installation in the feeder supplying the portable machines.
The use of such a transformer permits grounding each system separately
at the proper level.

RELAYING

The portable-machine power system should incorporate relay protec-


tion against phase and ground faults. Relays should be applied a t all
circuit-breaker locations and in the grounding connection, as outlined in
Chap. 9 and shown in Fig. 7.24. Because of the low value of ground-
fault current involved, extra-sensitive relays are often required. Careful
attention must he given to the selection of current transformers to be sure
that their characteristics are satisfactory a t the operating burden imposed
by the protective relay. The current transformer and relay combination
should ensure positive operation a t currents well below the 50-amp level.
It is recommended that all relaying equipment used in connection with
ground-fault protective system for large portable machinery and shovels
be sensitive to current magnitudes of about one-third the solid ground-
fault value (15 amp when a 50-amp neutral resistor is used) so &s to
assure adequate current for relay operation.
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING 435

LIGHTNING PROTECTION

The light,nirig protective equipment at the main substation should con-


sist of the protective devices which would normally he applied t,o a sub-
station of the same size and voltage ratings (see Chap. 5 ) . It is recom-
mended that lightning arresters be applied at the junction of the trailing
cable and the pole-line feeder to limit the maximum linr-to-ground volt-
age. Surge protective capacitor equipment should be applied on the load
side of the circuit breaker, within the portahle machine, to reduce the
slope of the wave front for the protection of rotating machines. h good
driven ground should be established a t the tap-off station, to which the
protective ground circuit as well as the lightning-arrester ground leads
should be connected (see Fig. 7 . 2 0 A ) .
The shork hazard associated with a direct lightning stroke to a portable
machine is a real one and extremely difficult to eliminate. Sumerous
possible protective systems have been investigated, but all are hopeless to
attain in practice. Often a thunderst,orm means a temporary shutdown
of operations anyway. Thus during the danger period of the storm the
personnel should seek shelter in Ihe metal cab of the machine or at a spot
well removed from the machine. To stand on the ground near a portahle
machine is about as dangerous as st,anding under a h e .

GROUNDS AT SUBSTATION

One important point concerning the design of the main suhstation


should be mentioned here. The ground-fault current, which may be
supplied by the high-voltage supply system, is not cont,rolled by the l(ica1
electric-system design and may often be quite large. Any line-to-ground
flashover at the main substation will allow the high-voltage-system ground
current to flow into the main substation ground in the manner illustrated
in Fig. 7.23. This current would persist for a time interval governe:l by
the switching time of the high-voltage protective circuit breaker. A
5000-amp ground-fault current (which might easily be equaled or exceeded)
in combination with the main substation ground resistance of 2 ohms
(which would be considered as a good station ground) would cause the
entire main substation structure to be elevated 10,000 volts with respect
to ground and remain at this potential until the high-voltage-system pro-
tective circuit breaker operated (probably % to I see). If the portable-
machine circuit protective ground were physically interconnected with
the main substation ground, it is obvious that this high potential would
he distributed t o the frames of all portable machines and thus constitute
a serious hazard.
A36 EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
STATION STRUCTURE- -__
r-
I
---- --- 1
I
I
I TRANSFDRMEF

RSC
HT
EC POTENl'IAL
R,
2.
FIG. 7.23 Fault diagram for high-tension system.

As a result of these considerations, it is recommended that the protec-


tive ground circuit, originating a t the step-down transformer low-voltage
neutral, be insulated from the main substation ground system with the
same insulation level as applied t o the low-tension line circuit, and
grounded a t an adjacent separate grounding connection. The voltage
gradient in the earth surrounding the main substation diminishes very
rapidly as one moves away from the substation. In general a 50-ft
separation between the two grounding terminals is sufficient to avoid any
substantial coupling between the two ground beds. It is important to
avoid any direct interconnection between these two grounds such as
would be produced by buried metal pipelines, etc.

TYPICAL POWER SYSTEM

A typical power system for supplying portable-machine loads and illus-


trating the points discussed in this chapter is shown in Fig. 7.24.
T T - - - MAIN ----- --- 1
SUB STATION STRUCTURE
FEEQER
CB

ER FEEDERS

NEUTRAL)

I
I
I
i C T TO
:H nousE
SWITCH

@Y+!+2L SURGECbP
PROTECTIVE TRAILING CbBLt
SURGE PROTECTIVE
CbP

FIG. 7.24 Typical distribution system for supplying power to portable machines.
430 EQUIPMWT GROUNDING

REFERENCES

. , Gen. Eke. Rev.. June.. July.


1. Eaton. J. R.. Grounding- Electric Circuits Effectively. .,
~ U g u s t ,i94i.
2. Groundinv- Princides and Practice. a consolidated remint of five srticles Dublished
in Eleelrical Efi'nginewing.January to May, 1945.
3. Safety Rules for the Installation and Maintenance of Electric Supply and Com-
munication L i n q National Bureau of Standards Handbook H32.
4. Safety Rules for the Installation and Maintenance of Electric Utilization Equip-
ment, National Buresu of Standards Handbook H33.
5. National Electrical Code.

Is'
6. MeCall, M. C., and I,. R. Harrison, Some Characteristics the Earth as a Con-
ductor of Electric Current, U.S. Bur. Mines Repl. Inuesl. 903,September, 1952.
7. Electrical Work Injuries in California Industries Year Ended December 31, 1952.
Depsrtment of Industrial Relations, State of Califomin.
8. Code for Protection Against Lightning, National Bureau of Standards Handbook
46.
9. Accident Facts, National Safety Council, 1952 edition.
10. Kaufmsnn, R. H., Some Fundamentals of Equipment, Grounding Circuit Design,
AIEE Paper 54-244, 1954.
Ch-apter 8 by W. C. Bloornquist

Power-factor Improziement *

Why are power engineers interested in plant power factor, what causes
low power factor, and how can it be improved? The objectives of this
chapter are to answer these questions briefly and to include handy appli-
cation information for power-factor problems. More complete informa-
tion on this subject can be found in the book from which parts of this
chapter were reproduced. *
In summary, the effects of low plant operating power factor may be
any or all of the following: overloaded cables, transformers, etc.; increased
copper losses; reduced voltage level, resulting in sluggish motor operation;
reduced illumination from lighting, especially where incandescent lamps
are used; and increased power costs where a power-factor clause, or its
equivalent, is part of the rate structure and is enforced.
Generally, low power factor is due to partially loaded induction motors.
Frequently drives are “overmotored,” i.e., the motor is selected to handle
the largest load but usually operated at less than full load.
There are also other factors contributing t o lower power factor, such as
replacement of incandescent lamps with fluorescent lamps; use of rectifiers
instead of synchronous motor-generator sets for d-c power supply; and
increased installation of various induction devices, electronic eqrripments,
air-conditioning units, etc. Most of these changes or replacements are
in the interest of worker comfort and efficiency, lower manufacturing
cost, and technological advances; the fact that they contribute to lower
plant power factor is of secondary importance.
As plants become motorized it can be expected that the plant power
factor will become poorer unless some corrective measures are taken.
Improvement of power factor can reduce power costs, release electrical
capacity of the power-distribution system, raise the voltage level, and
* P a t s or this chapter are reproduced, with permission. from “Capacitors f o r
Industry,” hy W. C. Bloomquist and R. C . Wilson, copyright General Electric Com-
pany, John Wilcy & Sons, h e . , XPWYork, 1950.
439
440 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

reduce the system losses. However, the two main reasons for improving
the power factor are (1) to reduce the power bill when there is a power-
factor incentive in the rate clause and (2) to increase or release electrical
capacity of the power-distribution system. Although the first is still of
primary importance, the second is becoming more important as engineers
recognize the economics. This is especially true when capacitors are used
for power-factor improvement because the electrical capacity released is
valued at several times the cost of capacitors.
The two most common methods for improving power factor are shunt
capdcitors or synchronous motors. Each has its own application; usually
the capacitor method is most economical and practical for existing plants,
while the synchronous motor finds its main application when a new and
large motor drive is added.

POWER-FACTOR FUNDAMENTALS
The usual definition of power factor in terms of the phase relationship
of voltage and current in a sine wave is intentionally avoided because it is
abstract and difficult to translate into a simple physical concept. The
concept used here-hased on the fact that there are two types of current in
an a-c circuit--is particularly helpful in understanding the effect of power
factor on system operation and understanding capacitor applications.
Although the following discussion on fundamentals is written around
the use of capacitors because they generally are the most practical and
economical means for improving the power factor, these fundamentals
also apply to other met,hods, such as synchronous motors and condensers.
The current required by induction motors, transformers, fluorescent
lights, induction heating furnaces, resistance welders, etc., may be con-
sidered to be made up of two separate kinds of current: magnetizing cur-
rent and power-producing current. Some loads, such as incandescent
lights, require only power-producing current.
Power-producing current (or working current) is that current which is
converted by the equipment into useful work such as turning a lathe,
making a weld, or pumping water. The unit of measurement of the power
produced is t,he kilowatt (kw).
Magnetizing current (also known as wattless, reactive, or nonworking
current) is that current which is required to produce the flux necessary to
the operation of induction devices. Without magnetizing current, energy
could not flow through the core of a transformer or across the air gap of an
induction motor. The unit of measurement of magrietizing volt-amperes
is the IMovar (kvar).
Total current is the current that is read on an ammeter in the circuit.
It is generally made up of both magnetizing current and power-producing
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 441

current. The unit of measurement of total volt-amperes or “apparent


power” is the kilovolt-ampere (kva). Most a-c power systems require
both kilowatts and kilovars.
2 + 2 Does Not Equal 4! The arithmetic applicable to everyday life
follows the simple rule that 2 +2 = 4. It is unfortunate that instead of
following such a simple rule the addition of kilovar current and kilowatt
current follows a principle of geometry. If the kilowatt and kilovar com-
ponents of current are each 2 amp, Fig. 8.1, the total current may be
found from the right-triangle relationship as follows:
(Kilovar current)2 + (kilowatt = (total current)z
22 + 22 = (total current)?
4 + 4 = (total current)2
Total current = v‘‘%= 2.83 amp
Therefore, 2 + 2 does not equal 4.
The following useful formulas apply when kw, kvar, and kva are sub-
stituted for their respective currents:
+
kva = d ( k w ) * (kvar)z (8.1)
kw = 4 ( k v a I 2 - (kvar)z (8.2)
kvar = 4 ( k v a I 2 - (kw)* (8.3)
2 AMP.

KVAR
CURRENT

TOTAL
CURRENT
2 AMP.
FIG. 8.1 Diagrom showing cornpo-
nent currents in a-c circuits. 2.83 AMPS.

WHAT IS POWER FACTOR?

Power factor may be expressed as the ratio of power-producing current


in a circuit t o the total current in that circuit. Another definition of
power factor, which is generally more useful, is the ratio of kw or working
power t o thb total kva or apparent power. Thus
442 POWER.FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

kw
Power factor = - (8.4)
kva
kw = kva X pf (8.5)
kw
kva = -
Pf

Stated another may, the power factor is that factor by which the apparent
power must be multiplied in order to obtain the working power.
For the case illustrated in Fig. 8.2 the power factor is SO/lOO, or 0.8, or,
as it is commonly expressed, 80 per cent. The angle included between the
kva and the kilowatt components is called the power-factor angle and is
designated by the symbol 8. The cosine of this angle (cox e) is the power
factor.

\
100 K V A 6 0 KVAR

\ FIG. 8.2
ongle
Right-tri-
relationship
for power-factorcol-
dotions in a-c cir-
cuits.

The actual calc.ulation of power fact,or is illustrated hy the following


example.
Example 1. What is the power factor of the load on a 460-volt three-
phase system if the ammeter indicates 100 amp and the wattmeter reads
62 kw?
Since in a three-phase circuit
4 3 volts x amperes
kva =
1000
-_
- 1.73 X 460 X 100 = 79,6
1000
Power factor = kw/kva = 62/79.6 = 0.78, or, as it is often expressed,
78 per cent.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 443

LEADING AND LAGGING POWER FACTOR

The terms leading and lagging power factor are apt to be confusing, and
they are meaningless unless the direction of both kilowatt and kilovar flow
is knoivn. Generally, however, in industrial plants only the load power
factor is considered, in which case the following rule may be helpful in
differentiating between leading and lagging power factor: " The power
factor is lagging if the load requires kilovars and leading if the load fur-
nishes kilovars." Thus, an induction motor has a lagging power fartor
TABLE 8.1 Power Factor of Load and Source

Direction of flow

I
A t load

Figure Type of load

I
-
Kw I I
Kwr Power factor' Kw
-___
Kvar Power factorl

8. a Induction In In Log Out Out Lag


8. b Synchronous motor
(overexcitedl In Out Lead Out In Lead
8. c Synchronous motor
out Out
lundereidtcdl
In In I lag
Lag

* Power factor measured at the load.


t Power factor measured at the generator

z
gAG)
LOAD

INO. MOTOR

FIG. 8.3
LOAD

Diagram for use with Table 8.1.


LOAD

SYN. MOTOR
(UNDER
EXCITED 1
(C)
[ (LAG1
444 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

berause its magnetizing requirements must be supplied by the power


source or other sources. On the other hand, an overexcited synchronous
motor can supply kilovars (from t,he motor d-c field action); so such a
synchronous motor has a leading power factor.
Table 8.1 and associated Fig. 8.3 indicate the power factor for common
operating conditions for both loads and supply sources based on the direc-
tion of kilowatt and kilorar flow. It is obvious from this table that the
terms leading and lagging are apt to be confusing. I n order to avoid this
confusion, varmeters are replacing power-factor meters. The varmeter
has a zero center point with scales on either side, one labeled “ i n ” and the
other “out.” In most industrial circuits the kilowatt flow is in only one
direct,ion, e.g., to a motor load; so single-scale wattmeters are customarily
used. However, in a t,ie line or transfer circuit a wattmeter with a center
point should be nsed.
Kilovar readings are generally more useful than power-factor readings
as they indicate t,he actual magnitude of the magnetizing components.
However, if the power-factor value is needed, it can he computed from
the kiloir.at,t and kilovar values or read directly from the alignment chart,
Fig. 8.9.

POWER FACTOR OF A GROUP OF LOADS

The power factor of an individual load is generally known or can he


estimated quite closely. The poiver factor of a group of different loads
should generally be calculated. This can he done quite simply by means
of t,he relations explained previously.
Example 2. Figure 8.4 shows a substation supplying three different
kinds of loads: incandescent lights, synchronous motors, and induction
motors. The substation power factor is obtained from the total kilovars
and kilowatts of the various loads, and from these the total substation
k r a and poiver factor may be found as follows:
1. Find the kilowatts and kilovars of each load
a. 5 0 - k ~ alighting load: Since incandescent lights are primarily a unity
poiver-factor load, all the current is kilowatt current; so kva = kw.
b. 300 hp of connected induction motor loads: Assume kva load
= 0.75 X (connected motor horsepower) with an operating power factor
of 80 per cent lagging.
kva = 0.75 X 300 = 225
kw = (0.75 X 300) X 0.8 = 180 (8.5)
kvar = 4 ( 2 2 5 i z - (180)2 = 4.5 0 . 6, 2 5 - 32.400
= 4/18,225= 135 (8.3)
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 445

c. 75 hp of 0.8 leading power-factor synchronous motor: At full load


assume kva = motor-horsepower rating = 75 kva
kw = 75 - X (0.8) = 60 (8.5)
kvar = -\/(75)* - (60)2= 4 5 6 2 5 - 3600 = -\/m 45
(8.3)
=

2. Find the kilowatts and kilovars that the substation must supply,

SUBSTATION

INCANDESCENT INDUCTION MOTOR SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR


LIGHTS LOADS LOADS
50 KVA 225 KVA 15 KVA
1.0 PF 0.8 PF (LAG) 0.8 PF (LEAD)

-
SO KVAzKW
180 KW /t
1 5 KVA

60 K W
45 KVAR

135 KVAR

(b)
290 K W

90 KVAR

FIG. 8.4 Construction of load diagram for Example 2.


44b POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

a. Kilowatts:
Lights = 50
Induction motor load = 180
Synchronous motor = - 60
Total = 290 kw

b. Kilovars:
Lights = o
Induction motor load = 135
-
Subtotal = 135 kvar

(Since an overexcited synchronous motor has the ability t o supply


kilovars, the net kilovars that must be supplied by the substation is there-
fore the difference between the kilovars supplied by the synchronous
motor and the kilovars required by the induction motor loads.)
Induction motor loads require 135 kvar
Synchronous motor supplies -
45
Substation must supply 90 kvar

3. Find the substation kva and power factor.


kva +
d ( k i v ) 2 (kvar)2
= (8.1)
d(290)'
= + (90)'
= 484,100 + 8100
= d 9 m O = 303
290
Power factor = - = 0.956 lagging (8.4)
303
Since the substation must supply some of the kilovar requiremei1t.s (the
synchronous motor is riot large enough to supply all the load kilovar
requiremeuts), the over-all p o w r factor is lagging. The various loads
are added diagrammatically as shown in Fig. 8.4.

HOW TO IMPROVE POWER FACTOR

When the kilovar current in a rircuit is reduced, the total current is


reduced. If the kilowatt current does not change, as is usually true, the
power factor will improve as kilovar current is reduced. When the
kilovar current becomes zero, all the current is kilowatt current and there-
fore the power factor will he 1.0 (unity) or 100 per cent. For example, in
Fig. 8.2, if a capacitor is installed t o supply the total or 60 kvar, the line
power factor xi11 he 1.0. Thus, the power factor may be improved hy
supplying the load kilovar requirements by a capacitor.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 447

This is shown pictorially for another example in Fig. 8.5a and b. The
working load requires 80 amp, but because oE the motor magnetizing
requirements of GO amp, the supply circuit must carry 100 amp. After a
capacitor is installed to supply the motor magnetizing requirements, the
supply circuit needs to deliver only 80 amp to do exactly the same work.
The supply circuit is now carrying only kilowatts; so no system capacity
is wasted in carrying nonworking current.
From the right-triangle relationship the following important fact can
be drawn: the simple subtraction of kilowatts from total kua never equals the
kilovars ezcept at unity power factor.
In actual practice, it is generally not necessary or economical to improve
the power factor to 100 per cent; capacitors or synchronous motors are
used to supply part of the load kilovar requirements and the supply sys-
tem the remainder.

INDUCTION
MOTOR LOADS
(0) (b)
FIG. 8.5 Schematic arrangement showing how capacitors reduce total line current by
supplying magnetizing requirements locally.

Example 3. In the example of Fig. 8.2, suppose that the power factor
is to be improved from 80 to 90 per cent with capacitors. How much of
the load magnetizing requirements is furnished by capacitors? (See
Fig. 8.6 for diagram construction.)
Without capacitors a t 0.8 power factor
km = 80
kvar = 60
448 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

IVith capacitors and 0.9 power factor


kw = 80 same
80
kva = = 88.9 (8.6)
0.9
~

Line kvar = ~ ‘ / ( 8 8 . 9 )-
~ (SO)z (8.3)
= 47903 - 6 4 5
= 38.7

Since the line supplies 38.7 k m r hiid the load requirement is 80 kvar,
the capacitor supplies tho difference, or 80 - 38.7 = 21.3 kvar.

FIG. 8.6 Diagram for Example 3.

CONVENIENT CALCULATION METHODS FOR POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

The calculating method described previously mas primarily intended


t o show how kilorars influence the power factor and that in a-c circuits
the total kva is obtained by using the right-triangle relationship and not
just by arithmptical addition of the kilowatts and kilovars. It is evident
from these ralrulations that the right-triangle method is rather laborious
for pover-factor calculations.
From the right-triangle relationship several simple and useful mathe-
matical cxpressions may he written:
kw
cos 0 = pf = -
kva
kvar
tan 0 = ~-
kw
kvar
sin 0 = -
kva
Because the kilowatt component usually remains constant (the kva and
POWER4ACTOR IMPROVEMENT 44v

kvar components change with power factor), Eq. (8.8) involving the kilo-
watt component is the most convenient to use. This expression may be
rewritten as
kvar = kw X tan e (8.10)
For example, assume that it is necessary to determine the capacitor
rating to improve the load power factor.
kvar a t original pf = kw X tan 8 ,
kvar a t improved pf = km X tan O2
Therefore, the capacitor rating required to improve the power factor is
ckvar* = kw X (tan 8 , - tan 02) (8.11)
For simplification (tan O1 - tan Sz) is often written asA tan. Therefore,
ckvar = kw X A tan (8.12)
All tables, charts, and curves which have a “kw mu1tiplier”for determining
the capacitor on synchronous motor kilovars are based on the above expression.
Table 8.2 lists the “kw-multiplier” values for a wide range of operating
conditions; various trigonometric functions useful in power-factor applica-
tions are included in the Appendix.
Example 4. Determine the capacitor rating for Example 3 by using
Table 8.2.
The “kw multiplier” or A tan as read from the table is 0.266. Sub-
stituting in Eq. (8.12),
ekvar = 80(0.266) = 21.3

KllOVAR GENERATORS

Capacitors. The concept of a capacitor as a kilovar generator is help-


ful in understanding its use for power-factor improvement. A capacitor
may be considered a kilovar ‘generator because it supplies the magnetizing
requirements (kilovars) of induction devicen.
This action may be explained i d terms of the stored energy. When a
capacitor and an induction device are installed in the same circuit, there
will he an exchange of magnetizing current between them, i.e., the leading
current taken by the capacitor neutralizes the lagging current taken by
the induction device. Because the capacitor relieves the supply line of
supplying magnetizing current to the induction device, the capacitor may
be considered to be a kilovar generator, since i t actually supplies the
magnetizing rkquirements of the induction device.
The prefix “ c ” in ckvar is used to designate the capacitor kvar in order to differ-
entiate it from load kvar.
Desired improved power factor, COI 92
Originol power ~~

factor cos 8 ,
0.80 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.0

0.50 0.982 1.0081.034 1.0601.0861.112 1.1391.165 1.192 1.220 1.248 1.2761.3061.3371.3691.403 1.440 1.481 1.529 I 589 1.732
I'
0.51 0.9370.9620.989 1.015 1.041 1.0671.0941.120 l.1471.1751.2031.231 1.261 1.2921.3241.358 1.395 1.4361.484 1.5441.687
0.52 0.8930.9190.9450.971 0.9971.023 1.050 1.0761.1031.131 1.1591.1871.217 1.2481.280 1.314 1.351 1.392 1.4401.5001.643
0.53 0.8500.8760.9020.9280.9540.9801.0071.033 1.0601.0881.116 1.1441.1741.2051.237 1.271 1.308 1.3491.3971.4571.600
0.54 0.8090.8350.861 0.8870.9130.9390.9660.992 1.019 1.0471.075 1.1031.133 1.164 1.196 1.230 1.2671.308 1.3561.4161.559 5
0.55 0.7690.7950.821 0.8470.8730.8990.9260.9520.979 1.007 1.035 1.063 1.093 1.124 1.156 1.190 1.227 1.268 1.3161.3761.519 <
0.56
F
0.7300.7560.7820.8080.8340.8600.8870.9130.9400.9680.9961.024 1.054 1,085 1.1171.151 1.188 1.229 1.2771.337 1.480 j:
0.57 0.6920.7180.7440.7700.7960.8220.8490.8750.9020.9300.9580.9861.0161.0471.0791.1131.1501.191 1.2391.2991.442 2
0.58 0.6550.6810.7070.7330.7590.7850.8120.8380.8650.8930.921 0.9490.979 1.0101.042 1.0761.1131.lS41.202 1.262 1.405 0
0.59 0.6190.6450.671 0.6970.723 0.749 0.7760.802 0.8290.8570.8850.913 0.943 0.974 1.006 1.040 1.077 1.118 1.166 1.226 1.369 ?
0.60 0.583 0.609 0.635 0.661 0.687 0.713 0.740 0.766 0.793 0.821 0.849 0.877 0.907 0.938 0.970 1.004 1.041 1.082 I. I30 I. I90 1.333 5
3
0.61 0.5490.575 0.601 0.6270.653 0.6790.70610.732 0.7590.7870.8l50.8430.8730.9040.9360.970 1.007 1.048 1.096 1.156 1.299 2
0.62 0.5160.5420.5680.5940.6200.6460.6730.6990.7260.7540.7820.8100.8400.8710.9030.9370.974 1.015 1.063 1.123 1.266 2
0.63 0.483 0.5090.535 0.561 0.5870.6130.6400.6660.6930.721 0.749 0.7770.8070.838 0.8700.904 0.941 0.982 1.030 1.090 1.233 f
0.64 0.451 0.4740.5030.5290.5550.581 0.6080.6340.6610.6890.7170.7450.7750.8060.8380.8720.9090.9500.998 1.058 1.201
0.65 0.4190.4450.4710.4970.5230.5490.5760.6020.6290.6570.6850.7130.7430.7740.8060.8400.8770.9180.9661.0261.169

0.66 0.388 0.414 0.440 0.466 0.492 0.518 0.545 0.571 0.598 0.626 0.654 0.682 0.712 0.743 0.775 0.809 0.846 0.8870.935 0.995 1.138
0.67 0.358 0.384 0.410 0.436 0.462 0.488 0.515 0.541 0,568 0.596 0.624 0.652 0,682 0.713 0.745 0.779 0.816 0.8570.905 0.965 1. 108
0.68 0.3280.3540.3800.4060.4320.4580.4850.511 0.5380.5660.5940.6220.6520.6830.7150.7490.7860.8270.8750.935 1.078
0.69 0.299 0.325 0.351 0.377 0.403 0.429 0.456 0.482 0.509 0.537 0,565 0.593 0.623 0.654 0.686 0.720 0.7570.798 0.846 0.906 1.049
0.70 0.270 0.296 0.322 0.348 0.374 0.400 0.427 0.453 0.480 0,508 0.536 0.564 0.594 0.625 0.6570.691 0.728 0.769 0.817 0.877 1.020
I ' I ' I
0.71 0.242 0.268 0.294 0.320 0.346 0.372 0.399 0.425 0.452 0.480 0,5080.536 0.566 0.597 0.629 0.663 0.700 0.74 I 0.789 0.849 0.992
0.72 0.21 4 0.240 0.266 0.292 0.3 I8 0.344 0.37 I 0.397 0.424 0.452 0.480 0,508 0,5380.569 0.60 I 0.635 0.672 0.71 3 0.761 0.82 I 0.964
0.73 0,186 0.21 2 0.238 0.264 0.290 0.31 6 0.343 0.369 0.396 0.424 0.452 0.480 0,510 0.541 0.S73 0.607 0.644 0.685 0.733 0.793 0.936
0.74 0.159 0.185 0.211 0.2370.263 0.289 0.316 0.342 0.369 0.397 0.425 0.453 0.483 0.514 0.546 0.580 0.617 0.658 0.706/0.7660.909
0.75 0.1320.1580.1840.2100.2360.2620.2890.3150.3420.3700.3980.4260.4560.4870.5190.5530.5900.6310.6790.7390.882

0.76 0.1050.1310.1570.1830.2090.2350.2620.2880.3150.3430.3710.3990.4290.4600.4920.5260.5630.6040.6520.7120.855
0.77 0.0790.1050.131 0.1570.1830.2090.2360.2620.2890.3170.3450.3730.4030.4340.4660.5000.5370.5780.6260.6860.829
0.78 0.052,0.0780.1040.1300.1560.1820.2090.2350.2620.2900.3180.3460.3760.4070.4390.4730.5100.5510.5990.6590.802
0.79 0.0260.0520.0780.1040.1300.1560.1830.2090.2360.2640.2920.3200.3500.381 0.4130.4470.4840.5250.5730.6330.776
0.80 0.0000.0260.0520.0780.1040.1300.1570.1830.2100.2380.2660.2940.3240.3550.3870.421 0.4580.4990.5470.6090 750

0.81 ..... 0.000 0.026 0.052 0.078 0.104 0.131 0.1570.184 0.212 0.240 0.268 0.298 0.329 0.361 0.395 0.432 0.473 0.521 0.58110:724
0.82 ..... .....0.0000.0260.0520.0780.1050.1310.1580.1860.2140.2420.2720.3030.3350.3690.4060.4470.4950.5550.698
0.83 ..... ..... .....0.0000.0260.0520.0790.1050.1320.1600.1~~0.2160.2460.2770.3090.3430.3800.421 0.4690.5290.672
0.84 ..... ..... ..... ..... 0.0000.0260.0530.0790.1060.1340.1620.1900.2200.251 0.2830.3170.3540.3950.4430.5030.646
..... . .... ..... ..... ..... 0.000 0.027 0.053 0.080 0,108 0.136 0.164 0.194 0.225 0.257 0.291 0.328 0.369 0.417 0.477 0.620 05
~

0.85

..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0,000 0.026 0.053 0.081 0. I09 0. I37 0. I67 0.I98 0.230 0.264 0.301 0.342 0.390 0.450 0.593
m
0.86
0.87 ..... ..... ..... ..... .......... ..... 0.0000.0270.0550.0830.1110.I4l0.1720.2040.2380.2750.3160.3640.4240.567 &
0.88 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....0.0000.0280.0560.0840.1140.1450.1770.2110.2480.2890.3370.3970.540 5
0.89
0.90

0.91
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....0.0000.0280.0560.0860.1170.1490.1830.2200.261 0.3090.3690.512 m
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....0.0000.0280.0580.0890.121 0.1550.1920.2330.281 0.341 0.484 5
..... ..... , ..., ..... ..... , .... ..... , .... ..... ..... ..... 0,0000.030 0.061 0.093 0.127/0.1640.205 0.253 0.313 0.456 0
-
io

0.92 ..... ..... ...., . .... , .... ..... ..... . .... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0.000 0.031 0.063 0.097 0.I34 0.I75 0.223 0.283 0.426 3
0.93 ..... ..... ..... ............... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0.0000.0320.0660.103,0.1440.I920.2520.395 9
0.94 ..... _......... _......... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0.0000.0340.0710.1120.1600.2200.363 +
0.95 ..... ..... ...., ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... _......... .._....... ..... 0.0000.0370.0790.1260.1860.329
0.96 ..... ..... ...., ..... ., ... , ., .. ..... ..... ..... .., .. ..... ..... ..... ..... ..., , ..... 0,0000.041 0.089 0.149 0.292
0.97 _......... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0.000~0.048~0.1080251
..... ..... ..... ............... ............... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....,.......... ..... 0.0000.06~0:203
1 1
0.98
0.99 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .......... ..... .....0.0000.143
10.000

ckvar = kw X multiplicr
= 5on x 0.691
= 345.5
IS? POWER-FACTOR IMFROVEMENT

Synchronous Motors and Synchronous Condensers. Synchronous


motors and synchronous condensers may also act as kilovar generators.
They generate kilovars in the same manner as a conventional generator
does. Their ability to generate kilovars is a function of excitation and,
in the case of synchronous motors, it is also a functioii of load. When
underexcited, they do not generate sufficient kilovars to supply their own
needs and consequently must take additional kilovars from the system.
When overexcited (normal operation), they can supply all their own
kilovar requirements and in addition can supply kilovars to the system.
Thus, they may be considered as kilovar generators.
Synchronous motors are widely used for power-factor improvement.
The kilovar output that t,hey are capable of supplying to the line is a
function of excitation and motor load. The curves of Fig. 8.7 show the

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR LOAD

FIG. 8.7 Curves showing approximate kilovan supplied by synchronous motors with rated
excitation.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 453

kilovars that a synchronous motor is capable of delivering under various


load ronditions with normal excitation. A t high overloads (not shown
on these curves) a synchronous motor may take magnetizing current from
the line.
The two powr-factor ratings of synchronous motors most commonly
used in industry are unity power factor and 0.8 power factor. These
ratings refer t o t,he operating power factor at full load and with normal
field excitat,ion. In the case of the 0.8 power-factor motor, this always
means 0.8 power-factor leading.
Synchmnous condensers are rarely economical for industrial plants; so
no further reference will be made to them.

INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS FOR


POWER-FACTOR STUDIES
When power-fartor studies are made, it is essential that sufficient and
useful data be availahle or taken in order t o select the proper value and
loratioti of capacitors. If the study is for rate purposcs, t,hen the power
bills usually furnish sufficient information to determine the kilovars
rcquired.
Most rates are based on a “billing” demand which is determined from
the actual dcmaiid and power factor. Actual kilowatt demand is usually
obtained from a demand register attachment on the watthour meter or
by rerording- or prititing-type instruments.
Power fartor may he measured directly or obtained from other indica-
tions such as from kilowatt, kilovolt-ampere, or kilovar values or from
kilon-atthours and kilovar-hours. If power factor is measured directly,
it is almost, always measured at the time of average or normal conditions.
Measurements by recording or graphic instruments are most desirable
and useful because t,hey provide a permanent record.
Indicating instruments are satisfactory for spot checking, such as for
indiridual feeder circuit,s or loads. They can be used also to good adran-
tage in place of rerording instruments if readings are taken at frequent
intervals.
The preferred measurements are kilo&atts, kilovars, and volts; from
these the kva and pover factor can be calculated. Vokage readings are
especially desirable if automatic capacitor control with a vohge-respon-
sive master elemcnt is contemplated.
There are many t,ypes of meters and instruments available for pomer-
factor studies. Generally, portable devices are preferred because of their
convenience. Accuracy, while desirable, is not as important as porta-
bility, and accuracy within a few per cent is generally acceptable for the
purpose.
454 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

There is now availahle for operatiori on circuits up to ti00 volts the


hook-on t,ype of ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter and varmeter, and power-
factor meter. These instruments provide a convenient means for obtaiu-
ing the data normally required for plant studies; their main advantage is
that the circuit does not have to be broken t o measure t,he current compo-
nent-the instrument is merely hooked over the conduct,or.
Figure 8.8 is useful for obtaining the power factor wheri wattmeter
readings are available. Fig. 8.9 is handy when kw and kvar or kmhr and
kyar-hr values are known; this latter method is frequently used by
utilities to obtain t,he power factor of small industrial plank where the

R VALUES
R,V'
W,
-
FIG. 8.8 Curve for obtaining power factor from ratio o f wattmeter readings (applicable
only for balonced loodl.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
456 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

more expensive types of power-factor measuremeirt are not economically


jnstilird. The power factor can be read directly from Fig. 8.9 by suh-
stituting kwhr for kw and kvar-hr for kvar values.

LOCATION OF CAPACITORS AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS


All the benefits that shunt capacitors and synchronous motors provide
stem from the redurtion of kilovars. This is true of power-bill savings,
releasr of system capacity, voltage improvement, and reduction of losses.
3Iauimum henefit is obtained when they are located at the load. The
concept of a kilovar generator as described previously is particularly help-
ful in understanding this point.
Whenever possible, capacitors should be located at or near the load on
180- or GOO-volt systems III order t o obtain the minimum cost and maxi-
mum benefits. These locations are shown in Fig. 8.10. The most effcc-
tive locatioii is a t the load, as shown by C1, next ‘22, etc.
In the case of synrhronous motors the same freedom of electrical loca-
tion is not always practical or economical. Vsually synchronous motors
INC SUPPLY

c3

&( I

c2
DISTRIBUTED LOADS

.
0

c2
FIG. 8.10 Electrical location of shunt capacitors on indurtriol power systems. Locate
copacilori 01 load, such (IS CI or C2, for maximum over-all benefits.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 457

arc of larger horsepon.cr rating than is ecooomical for operation at 2-10 or


480 volts, the common utilization voltages of industrial plants. 1 1 0 ~ -
cver, the samr principle applies, i.c., connection t o t,hr load bus whose
power fact,or is to be impro\wl.
Typical iris(al1:rtions of capacitors and synchronous motors arc shown
in Figs. 8.11 to 8.13.

FIG. 8.1 1 Installation showing capacitor locoted near the motor ond connected (15 shown
in C1 of Fig. 8.10,

FIG. 8.12 Installation rhowing copocitor Flex-A-Plug and connected as shown in c2


of Fig. 8.10.
ECONOMIC CONSlDERATlONS
Although maximum o v e r 4 operating bendita are obtained when
eapacitom are located at the load, it is not always practical or economical
to locate capacitors at each load.
M& industrisl plenta contain a number of small loads;Since capacitors
are made in etandard sises it would be imprsetical to apply the m m t
capacitor Hovara at each load. Then, too, in the genersl caae all thwe
I d sre not on sll the time, EO it is poesible to take advantage of the
divemity by instslling a single capacitor equipment at ~ o m ecentral loek
tion. For example, if only 60per cent of the total motor load is in o p e n
tion at one time, then a group capacitor need be only half the kilovar
ra&g of the total number of kilomra connected at individual loada
T h e syetem operating voltage infIuenced the economic Considerations
aesoeisted with location of apaeitora and motora For example, 23O-vdt
capscitor equipmta c& more than twice lls much es 460-or 575-volt
equipmenta. Ah, economic c0m-m should include a enitable
switching device, For example, although 24Wvdt capacitor units are
the most economical, yet theae equipmenta with the proper switching
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 459

device usually cost more than 460- or 575-volt equipments for prartically
all industrial applirations because of the higher cost of siritrhing devires
for 2400-volt service.

ADVANTAGES OF IMPROVED POWER FACTOR


Improved power factor may give economir or system advantages or
both. The largest economic advantages are usually obtained where
power rates include a monetary incentive for improved power factor.
This advantage ran be readily determined by ralculating power costs a t
various plant power factors. Power rates are too varied to permit more
than mention of that point here.
The system advantages of improved power factor usually are (1)
released system capacity, (2) reduction of power system losses, and (3)
improved voltage conditions.

POWER-BILLING SAVINGS

The main use of capacitors in industrial plants and often a deciding


factor in the selection of synchronous motors is to reduce purchased power
costs when the rate contains a power-factor clause or its equivalent.
Generally, the return on these investments is many, many times the
return obtained from straight business investments.
It is common for capacitors to pay for themselves in 56 to 3 years.
This represents an annual gross return of 200 to 3355 per cent. The
estimated mean return is in the neighborhood of 65 per cent. This figure
is based on a study of the power-factor clauses of a number of utilities
distributed throughout the country.
The rate of return will depend upon the cost of capacitors, which in
turn depends somewhat upon the voltage class. However, the above
figures are applicable to most industrial installations, the major exception
being 230-volt installations, for which the return will be about half of the
above values.
The amount of power-factor improvement depends upon the original
power factor and the type of rate structure, and each case should he
studied individually. However, it is generally economical to improve
the power factorJo take advantage of the full amount of the penalty and
bonus. A rough rule that has been used is improvement to 90 to 95 per
cent.
The best way t o determine the capacitor kilovars t o use is t o calculaGe
the rate of return and actual dollar savings for various final power-factor
values.
460 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Practically every size of plant having the usual type of power-fartor rate
structure cau justify capacitors. I t is the rafe of retzcrn 011 the capacitor
investment which is the important factor. Actually, the rate of return
will usually be greater for small plauts herause of the higher demand and
energy charges for small loads.

RELEASE O F POWER-SYSTEM CAPACITY BY POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

What is meant by the expression “release of system capacity”? When


capacitors or synchronous motors are in operation in a plant, they deliver
kilovars, furnishing magnrtizing current for motors, transformers, etc.,
thus reducing the current from the power supply. Less current means
less kva or load on transformers and main branch feeder circuits. This
means capacitors and synchronous motors can be used to reduce over-
loading of existing facilities or, if the equipment is not overloaded, permit
additional load to he added.
Release of system capacity by power-factor improvement-and espe-
cially with capacitors-is becoming more important as plant engineers
appreciate their economic advantages. World War I1 demonstrated this
quite clearly; many of the new plants incorporated capacitors as part of
the poner-system layout, and existing plants found they were a quick and
economical means of caring for increased loads.
Thermally Overloaded Apparatus. Many cases arise where a cable
circuit, transformer, or generator is overloaded (kva or amperes) because
of ION power factor.
The procedure for determining the value of kilovars required to reduce
the load to a sperified value can best be explained by an example.
Example 5. A 460-volt cable circuit is rated a t 235 amp but is carrying
a load of 300 amp at 0.7 power factor. What kvar of capacitors is
required to reduce the current to 235 amp?
1.73 X 460 X 300 = 240
kva =
1000
kw = 240 X 0.7 = 168 (8.5)
The kva corresponding to 235 amp is 188; so the operating power factor
corresponding to the new load is
168
cos e1 = K g = 0.895 say 0.90 (8.4)
The capacitor kilovars required
ckvar = 168 X 0.536 (8.12)
ckvar = 90
Kilowatt-limited Apparatus. Some apparatus such as turbine-genera-
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 461

tor and engine-generator sets have a kilowatt limit of the prime mover as
well as a kva limit of the generator. Usually the kilowatt limit corre-
sponds to the generator kva rating, and the set is rated a t that kilowatt
value a t unity power-factor operation. Intermediate kilowatt values,
such as those between 0.8 and 1.0 power-factor operation, are determined
by the power factor and kva rating a t the generator, so neither the kilo-
watt nor kva load exceeds the generator kva rating. Improvement of
the power factor can release both kilowatt and kva capacity.
Example 6. A 1000-kw turbine-generator set (turbine capability of
1250 kw) is already operating a t rated load, 1250 kva and 0.8 power fac-
tor. An additional load of 170 kw a t 0.85 power factor is to be added.
What value of capacitors is required so that neither the turbine nor the
generator will be overloaded?

Original load :
kw = 1000
kvar = 1000 X 0.75 = 750 (8.10)
kva = 1250
Additional load:
kw = 170
kvar = 170 X 0.620 = 105 (8.10)
170
kva = - = 200 (8.6)
0.85
Total load:
kw = 1000 + 170 = 1170
kvar = 750+ 105 = 855
The minimum operating power factor for a load of 1170 km and not
exceeding the kva rating of the generator is
1170
cos e = -= 0.935
1250
The maximum load kvar for this condition is

kvar = 1170 X 0.379 = 444 (8.10)


where 0.379 is the tangent corresponding to the power factor of
cos 0 = 0.935.
Therefore, the capacitors must furnish the difference between the total
load kvar and the permissible generator kvar, or
ckvar = 855 - 444 = 411
461 POWECFACTOR IMPROVEMENT

AMOUNT OF CAPACITY RELEASED BY POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

The foregoing showed how plant kva load could be reduced by power-
factor improvement. This will show how additional load can be added
to a fully loaded circuit, transformer, distribution system, etc., by improv-
ing the power factor of the existing load, and also the magnitude of the
additional load for a given improvement in power factor. Among power
engineers this is termed release of capacity-thermal, electrical, or system
capacity-and is usually abbreviated as T c or S,.
The determination of the amount of system capacity released by porver-
factor improvement is a somewhat arduous procedure; so several useful
curves have been included to eliminate the need for calculations.
Since any additional load added because of release of capacity by
power-factor improvement may be at any power factor and different, from
the original load power factor, there is 110 single convenient curve which
will give the permissible load that can be added, although there is a rather
involved equation which expresses this relationship. One approach, and
a conservative one which also permits rather easy form of expression, is to
assume that any additional load is at the same power factor as the original
load.
Figure 8.11 shows the basic diagram which applies to all the following
expressions for T,
where T , = capacity released, in terms of kva or per cent. load
cos 0, = original power factor
cos e2 = improved power factor of original load
cos O3 = final power factor of combined load
Since the total kva must not exceed the original load OR, the circle BB'
will establish the limits. To satisfy this requirement, OE must equal OB
OC + Tc = OE = OB
where OC = origirial load O B + capacitors OF or BC.
Although the follo\ving data and figurrs ha1.e bren prepared specifically
for caparitors, they a,lso apply t o synchronous motors for the same output
of leading kilovars. These data are prcseiited in various forms, Figs. 8.15
to 8.17, for convenience.
Figure 8.15, which includes an example for its use, shows the electrical
capacity released for a specific value of capacitors.
For estimating purposes and when there is not a large charige in power-
factor improvemerit, i.e., cos 0, to cos &, the followirig equation may be
used:
T C (in kva) = ckvar X sin 0, (8.13)
Figure 8.15 is also valuable in that it may be used to shew the incremen-
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 463

tal gain in capacity released per kilovar of capacitors added. If, in the
example in Fig. 8.13, t,he value of capacitors is doubled, the capacity
released will increase from 28.5 t o 42.5 per cent, or a gain of 50 per cent.
However, this 50 per cent gain in capacity requires a 100 per cent increase
in capacitors. Even t,hough there is a gain in the total capacity released,
the incremental gain may not necessarily be economically attractive.
T, in Terms of Power-factor Improvement (cos 8 , to cos &). Often it
is more convenient t o work in terms of the original and improved power
factor rather than actual values of ckvar. In such cases Fig. 8.l(i, which
also contains additional useful information, should be used
F

A 8 : LOAD KVAR
BC: OFzCKVAR \

FIG. 8.14 Basic load diogrorn for determining r e l e ~ r eof system electrical capacity by
power-factor improvement.
0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 SO 90 100 I10 120 130 140
CAPACITOR W A R I N PERCENTAGE OF INITIAL KVA

EXAMPLE
IF A PLANT HAS A LOAD OF 1000 KVA 4 T 70 PERCENT POWER FACTOR AND 480 KVAR OF CAPACITORS ARE
ADDED. THE SYSTEM ELECTRlC CAPACITY RELEASED 15 APPROXIMATELY 28.5 PERCENT: T H A T IS. THE SYSTEM
CAN CARRY 2 8 . 5 PERCENT MORE LOAD (AT 10 PERCENT POWER FACTOR1 WITHOUT EXEEDING THE KVA BEFORE THE POWER
FACTOR WAS IMPROVED T H E F I N A L POWER FACTOR ICOS 831 OF THE ORIGINAL LOAD P L U S THE ADDITIONAL LOAD
I S APPROXIMATELY 90 PERCENT

FIG. 8.15 Per cent electrical capacity released by capacitors and the approximate Rnol power factor (COI 081
of the combined load.
POWER.FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 465

=E
IF THE LOAD POWER FACTOR (GO5 e,1 OF A SUBSTATION IS IMPROVE0 FROM 70 TO
95 PERCENT, THE SVSTEM ELECTRICAL CAP&CITY RELEASED IS 28.5 PERCENT; THAT IS,
THE SYSTEM CAN CARRY 28.5 PERCENT MORE LOAD IAT 70 PERCENT POWER FACTOR)
WITHOUT EXCEEDING THE KVA BEFORE THE POWER FACTOR WAS IMPROVED.
THESE CURVES ALSO SnOW THAT IT IS MORE ECONOMICAL TO OBTAIN THIS AMOUNT
DF SVSTEM CAPACITV 81 POWER-FACTOR WPROVEMENT WITH CAP4CITORS THAN BY
~ D D I T I O N A LSUBSTATION AND DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES FOR A L L SIC VALUES
GREATER THqN 1.7 IOBTAINED BV INTEPPOLATION.
THE FINAL POWER FACTOR (GOSe,I OF THE ORIGINAL LOAO PLUS THE ADDITIONAI.
LOAD IS 90 PERCENT.
FIG. 8.16 Per cent electrical capaciv released by improvement of load power factor
(COI81 to COI BJ and the relative economics of capacitors for increasing the electrical
capacity.
EXI\*PLL
IF THE ORIGIN#.L LOAD POWER F4CTOR ICOS S,I 15 70 PERCENT b,ND THE FIN4L POWER
FACTOR lCOS 93) OF THE COMBINED LOAD (ORIGINbL LOLID PLUS THE ADDITIONAL LOAD ALSO
4 1 70 PERCENT POWER FACTOR1 15 90 PERCENT, THE SYSTEM ELECTRICAL CAPACITY RELEbSED
IS 2 8 5 PERCENT, THAT 15,TWF SYSTEM GAN CARRY 2 8 5 PERCENT MORE LOAD (AT 70 PERCENT
POVER FACTOR1 WlTHOUT EXCEEDING THE K W BEFORE THE POWER FACTOR WAS IMPROVED
THESE CURVES ALSO SHOW TH41 IT 15 MORE ECONOMICAL TO OBT4IN THIS AMOUNT OF
SYSTEM CAPACITY BV POWER-F4CTOR IMPROVEMENT WITH CAPaCITORS TH4N BY 4DDITION4L
SUBSTATION by0 OlSTRlBUTlON F4CILITIES FOR ALL S/C WLUES GREATER THAN.17 (OBTAINED
BV INTERPOL4TlONL

FIG. 8.17 Per cent electrical capacity released by improvement of load power fador
lcos 8 , to COIBJ and the relative economics of capacitors for increasing the electrical
capacity.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 467

Example 7. (Original load power factor improved to a specified


value. See Fig. 8.16.)
Substation rating = 500 kva and operated a t full load
Original power factor = 70 per cent (cos 8 , = 0.70)
Average kilon-att load = 0.7 X 500 = 350 km (8.5)
System voltage = AGO volts
Improved pover factor of original load = 95 per cent (cos = 0.95)
From Fig. 8 . l F it is found that improving the power factor of the load
from 70 to 95 per cent releases 28.5 per cent capacity; i.e., 28.5 per cent of
350 kw or 99.8 km load at the original 70 per cent power factor can be
added without increasing the load on the 500-kva substation; or, in terms
of kva. this is 0.285 X 500 = 142.5 kva.

.oo
j
.:: .!:: ! ...... :: : : : -:..:
AS..
~ , .. .. .. .. .. .. --
-.=I

D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF CKVAR
TO G I V E D E S I R E D I M P R O V E M E N T
" S" OF W O V E R A L L POWER

SAPACITOR K V A R I N T E R M S OF O R I G I N A L KW L O A D

FIG. 8.18 Graph for determining the value of capacitors required for improvement in
load power factor (COI 61to cos 6a). There doto are for use only with Fig. 8.17.
460 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

From Fig. 8.16 it will also be noted that. the resultant power factor
(cos &), i.e., the over-all power factor of the original load and capacitors,
plus the additional load, is 90 per cent. Thus, this curve gives both the
per cent load that can be added (or capacity released) and the final or
over-all operating power factor.
Tc in Terms of Final Power Factor (cos 8 , to cos OS). I n those cases
where it is desirable to know the capacity released for a specific final
ouer-all power factor cos R3, use Fig. 8.17.
The value of capacitors required to release T c for this condition must be
obtained from Fig. 8.18: the required ckvar value cannot,be obtained from
any of the expressions, tables, or curves given elsewhere in this chapter.
Use of Figs. 8.16 and 8.17. The difference between Figs. 8.16 and 8.17
should be clearly understood for a proper interpretation of T c . For
example, Fig. 8.16 is used when the power factor of the original load is
improved to a definite value, cos 82. The resultant power factor cos B3 is
of secondary importance. On the other hand, Fig. 8.17 is used when the
final power factor of the combined load, i.e., original load plus the addi-
tional load, is required to be a definite value, cos 03,as is often true in con-
nection with power-factor rate studies.
The examples in Figs. 8.16 and 8.17 show that the per cent capacity
released is the same; the reason is that in both cases the original and final
power factors (cos 03)are also the same. These charts can be used inter-
changeably only when the original and final power factors are the same
for each case.

ECONOMICS O F CAPACITORS FOR RELEASING SYSTEM CAPACITY

System load current-carrying capacity can he increased by power-factor


improvement or by additional substation and distribution facilities.
Actually there are several other factors in favor of power-factor improve-
ment which should be given consideration. I n addition to releasing
capacity, improvement of the power factor reduces losses and raises the
voltage. Then too, in the case of capacitors, their installation need not
he so permanent as substation and distribution facilities; so they can he
more easily moved as changes occur in system loading or arrangement.
If the allied benefits are neglected, the comparison is dependent upon
the cost relationship between new substation and distribution facilities
(8)and the cost of capacitors ( C ) . I n order to get a true comparison, all
costs should he on an installed basis.
Where actual installed cost data of substations and capacitors are not
available, Table 8.3 may serve as a guide.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 469

TABLE 8.3 Installed Costs (1954)

IS1
Substation and (Cl
System
distribution Capacitors, SIC
"oltoge
facililie,. dollars per k v m t
dollars per kvo*

240 40-50 18-20 2-2.8


480 30-40 8-10 3-5
600 25-35 8-10 2.5-4.4
- I

* Instslled cost Id-ccntcr system ineludina primary and secondary switch-


of a I
pear. cable. and transi rncrs. (The load-center svstem 1s thc most economical
method of ,ewer distrihution.) '
t Installed cost of capacitors with a manually operated switching device.

These data are also applicable to synchronous motors; for thc C value
use the cost of the leading kilovars output in dollars per kilovar.
Once the ratio S / C has been obtained, it is a simple matter t o det,crmirle
the relative economics since, in Figs. 8.16 and 8.17, lines of various S / C
ratios have been plotted. The cost relationship applies t o anu case,
whether it is for an entirely new substation or for addit,ional feeder cir-
cuits, etc., for an existing substation or plant. In all cases, the appropri-
ate S costs should be used.
I t should be specifically noted that the values to use for S arid Care
their unit costs, i.e., dollars per kva and dollars per kvar, respectively, and
not the total dollar cost; to use total dollars in Figs. 8.16 and 8.17 irill give
erroneous answers.
For all points under an S/C curve (or for all S/C values greater than
that established by the power-factor points) it is more economical to
release system capacity by power-factor improvement, with rapacitors
than by expanding substation and distribution facilities.
Example 8. Are capacitors economical for releasing the amount of
system capacity stated in Example 71
Assume that new substation and distribution facilities cost $30 per kva
installed and capacitors cost $10 per kvar installed. The S/C ratio is
30/10, or 3.
From Fig. 8.16 i t will be found that t,he intersection of the power-factor
points (cos = 0.70 and cos .Q2 = 0.95) lies undcr an S,'C value of 3.
Therefore, the capacitor method is more economical than expanding sub-
station and distribution facilities for handling this amount of load.
This can be checked in actual dollars as follows:
470 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

The value of ckvar required t o improve the power factor from 70 t o 95


per cent is
ckvar = kw X multiplier (8.12)
= 350 X 0.691
= 242
Installed cost of capacitors = 242 X $10 = 52420
Substation capacity released = 142.5 kva
Installed cost of substation and distribution facilities = 142.5 X $30
= $4275
I n this case, additional system capacity obtained by use of capacitors
costs only 56 per cent as much as new substation anddistrihutionfacilities.
Not only can capacitors be used economically t o release the capacity of
existing facilities hut, where the load power factor is low, it is economical
t o use capacitors in new installations. This fact was recognized during
World War 11, and many plants incorporated capacitors as part of the
power-system design.

POWER-SYSTEM LOSSES

The reduction in electrical losses due t o power-factor improvement


results in an annual gross return of as much as 15 per cent on the capacitor
investment. Although the return from loss reduction alone is seldom
sufficient to justify t h e installation of capacitors, it is an attractive addi-
tional benefit.
I n most industrial plant power-distribution systems, the kilowatt ( P R )
losses vary from 2.5 t o 7.5 per cent of the load kilowatthours, depending
upon hours of full-load and no-load plant operation, wire size, and length
of main and branch feeder circuits. Capacitors are effective in reducing
only that portion of the losses that is due t o the kilovar current.
Losses are proportional t o current squared, and since current is reduced
in direct proportion t o power-factor improvement, the losses are inversely
proportional t o the square of the power factor.
original pf
kw losses cc (8.14)
improved pf
original pf
Loss reduction = 1 - (8.15)

The capacitors have losses, but they are relatively small-only one-
third of 1 per rent of the kvar rating.
Example 9. Determine the savings in losses due t o improved power
factor for the following conditions:
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 471

Total kilowatthours per year = 150,000


Origiiral power factor = 0.75
Improvcd power fartor = 0.95
Assume losses as 5 per cent of the total kilowatt hours, or 7500

1,oss reduction = 1 - -
(E)* (8.15)

= 1 - 0.623
= 0.377 or 37.7 per cent
ltedurtioii i n losses = 0.377 X 7500 = 2828 kwhr
Assuming a net realization of GO per rent, then the actual reduction in
losses = 2828 X 0.60 = 1697 kwhr.

VOLTAGE IMPROVEMENT*
The disadvantages of low voltage are so well known that they will not
be rcit,cratcd here exrept to state t h a t they are economic and operational
liabilities. Akhough caparitors raise voltagelevels, it is rarely economical
t o apply them in industrial plants for voltage improvement alone. Volt-
age improvement may therefore be regarded as an additional benefit of
capacitors.

HOW CAPACITORS RAISE VOLTAGE LEVEL

'l'hc follo\ving simplified expression is usually used to ralculate the


voltage drop of a circuit:
e = R I ros 8 X I sin 8 (8.16)
where thc ( f ) value is used for a lagging power factor and the ( - ) value
for a leading power factor.
When the total current, and power factor are known, the component
rurrents may he 0t)taiired from the right-triangle relationship.
k w current = I,,,,,, cos 8 (8.17)
kvar current = I,,,,,, sin 8 (8.18)
Thus the above equat,ioir for voltagc drop may b e rewritten:
e = IT'X (kw current) X X (kvar current) (8.19)
From this expression it is evident that kilorar rurrent operatcs only on
* Also S<T Clrap. 4.
472 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMEN1

reartanre, and sinre raparitors reduce t,he kilovar current they reduce t,he
voltage drop and by an amount equal t o the rapacitor rurrent times the
reartance. Therefore, it is neressary only t o know the capacitor rating
and system reartanre t,o predirt the voltage change due to caparitors.
There is some misunderstanding regarding voltage replalion when
shunt rapacitors are used. Capacitors do not redure the voltage regula-
tion uiiless they are automatirally switched. The voltage regulation
wit,h unswitched rapacitors is prartirally the same as without capacitors,
hut the voltage leuel is raised.

MAGNITUDE OF VOLTAGE RISE DUE TO CAPACITORS

There is generally a good deal of misapprehension regarding “high volt-


age” due to caparitors. Actually, in most cases where the voltage a t
light load is high it will be found t h a t most of the voltage variation is in
t,he incoming supply source and is not primarily due to the variation or
regulation mithin the plant. As far a s the voltage rhangedue t o capacitors
is concerned the ralculations are simple; generally Eq. (8.21) or (8.22) is
acrurate enough for this purpose.
The volt,age rise due t o capacitors in industrial plants with modern
poiver-distrihotion systems and one t,ransformation is not very great and
is rarely more than 4 or 5 per cant.
The greatest gain in voltage improvement, will be i n plant-distribution
circuits having high reactance and low system voltage, such as is true of
240-volt systems having long runs of open wire, and where the spacing
between phase wires is large, such a s 0 t o 10 in. When the load-center
method of distrihution is used for 480- and 600-volt systems, the voltage
improvement will be small.

WHY POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT IS SO EFFECTIVE IN


REDUCING VOLTAGE DROP

From Eq. (8.19) above it is seen that voltage drop is made up of two
parts, one part due t o the kilowatt current and resistanre, which is usually
called the resistance component, and the other part due t o the kilovar
current and reactance, which is usually called the reactance component.
I n industrial power systems the reactance is usually much larger than
the resistance and in the order of two t o four times for distribution circuits
and five t o ten times for power transformers. It is evident, then, that a
change in the kilovar current has a larger effect than the kilowatt current
in reduring the total voltage drop. Also, since the resistance component
is tixed for a given kilowatt load, and the rircuit reactance is fixed, the
practical way t o reduce the voltage drop is by reducing the kilovar cur-
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 473

rent. The kilovar current is reduced when the power factor is improved.
For example, if a circuit has a resistance of 1 per rent, a rcartatire of
j per cent,, and au operating power factor of 0.70, t,he voltagc drop is
4.3 per cent. The major part of t,he drop is due to reactanre mid is 3.(i per
cent. If the power factor is improved to 0.90, the voltage drop is 2.4 pcr
cent; if improved to unity (no kilot-.ar current): the drop is niiiy 0.7 of
1 per cent.

CALCULATION OF VOLTAGE RISE DUE T O CAPACITORS

There are many calrulating methods for determining the voltage rise
due to capacitors (or voltage change due to stvitchiirg blocks of capacitors
in and out of service), but the per cent method is perhaps the most prac-
tical and simple; occasionally data in terms of actual values of volts,
amperes, and ohms are used.
The following few expressions are gcnerally sufficiently accurate, for
practical purposes, to determine the voltage change due to capacitors or
the leading kilovars from a synchronous motor or condenser. ,i few
formulas from other sections are repeated here for convenience.
Formulas for Voltage Change
v, = ICX (8.20)
ckvar X (% X,)
% vc = (8.21)
base kva
ckvar X yo transformer reactance
% vc = (8.22)
transformer kva rating
Other Useful Formulas
X X base kva
% ohms = (8.23)
10 X (kv)z
base kva X ( % X,)
% x*= kva,
(8.24)

base kva X 100


(8.25)
% xs = system short-circuit kva
Nomenclature

ckvar = capacitor rating, kvars


I, = capacitor current, amp
kv = line-to-line voltage, kv
kva = kva selected as a base for calculations
474 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

kva, = kva rating of equipment, such as a t,ransformer, on its own base


I', = voltage change, volts (line-to-neutral)
% Vc = per cent volt,age change or rise due to capacitors
X = reactance, ohms
70X b = per cent reactance of equipment, such as that of a transformer,
on selected common base
%X, = per cent react,ance of system. Actually, Eq. (8.25) gives per
cent impedance, but reactance may be assumed equal to imped-
ance in computing voltage rise for this purpose
%X, = pcr cent reactance of equipment such as that of a transformer on
its own kva rating
Reactance data necessary for calculating the voltage rise or change in
transformers, cable, open wire, or busway are included in Chap. 1. It is
generally sufficiently accurate to assume that the transformer reactance
is the same as the impedance for this type of approximation.
Equation (8.22) is derived from Eq. (8.21) and is based on the assump-
tion that the primary-system reactance is negligible as compared with the
transformer reactance. The error introduced by this assumption is gen-
erally small. When the available short-circuit kva at the transformer
primary is less than 100 times the transformer rating, the system react-
ance should be added to the transformer reactance.
The following example illustrates the use of the simplified voltage-rise
equation.
Example 10. A 360-kvar bank of capacitors is connected t o the sec-
ondary of a 1000-kva transformer having an impedance of 5.5 per cent.
The short-circuit duty of the primary system is 100,000 kva. What is the
approximate per cent voltage rise due to the capacitors?

(8.22)

SELECTION A N D APPLICATION OF M O T O R S A N D CAPACITORS

INDUCTION-MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Power-factor improvement of induction-motor loads by means of shunt


capacitors has been a common practice for many years. A recent devel-
opment is the practice of connecting the capacitors directly at the motor
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMM 475

terminals in order to permit switching the capacitors and motor aa a unit.


A typical installation is shown in Fig. 8.19. This unit arrangement is
desirable because the capacitors are always on when the motor is in
operation.
The power factor of an induction motor is quite good a t full load,
usually between 80 and 90 per cent, depending upon the motor speed and
type of motor. At light loads, however, the power factor drops rapidly,
as illustrated in Fig. 8.20. Generally, induction motors do not operate
at fullload (often thedrive is “overmotored”), resulting in a low operating
power factor. Even though the power factor of an induction motor
varies materially from no load to full load, note that the motor kilovars
are essentially constant. This characteristic makes theinduction motor a
particularly attractive capacitor application; with a properly selected
capacitor the operating power factor is excellent over the entire load
range of the motor, aa shown in Fig. 8.20, generally 95 to 98 per cent at
full load and higher a t partial loads.
The capacitor rating for the motor data of Fig. 8.20 is 5 kvar, which also
corresponds to the motor no-load magnetizing requirements. Therefore,
since the capacitor supplies all the motor no-load magnetieing current,
the no-load operating power factor is unity. The reaaon the power-factor
curve with capacitors is so flat over the entire motor-load range is that the

;~~
FIG. 8.19 Installation of a dkvar 4W-volt three-phase capacitor Iacated on the motor
5k starier. Capacitor is switched with the motor and el&ically connected as shown in
(A) in Fig. 8.21.
&
476 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

net kvar is low and varies only a little with load. For example, the net
kvar at no load is zero and at full load only 2.0: kvar, which compares with
j and 7.6 kvar, respectively, for operation without capacitors. Therefore,
since the kvar load with qapacitors is so small in respect to the kw load,
the kiv and kva are almost eyual, which means that the operating power
factor is almost unity.
The addition of capacitors for power-factor improvement does not
change the motor performance characteristics, as the operating speed and
shaft output depend upon the motor load and applied voltage.

100

90 KW
KVAR
KVA

80 16

70 14

0:
60 12
0
a
LL

10
: 5 0
:
P
40 8
I-
z
Y
0
0: 30 6
w
n

20 4

10 2

0 -
0
0 -I -I -
3 -
4
4 2 4- 4

MOTOR LOAD
FIG. 8.20 Motor characteristics for a typical medium-rile and speed induction motor.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 477

LOCATION OF MOTOR CAPACITORS

Capacitors may he connected t o each motor and switched with the


motor, as shown in Fig. 8.21A or B , or capacitors may bepermanentlycon-
nected to the feeder circuit a t selected starters for convenience, as shown
in Fig. 8.21C.
The preferred and most advantageous electrical location from an
over-all standpoint is that of Fig. 8.21.4 or B. In either easethecapacitor
and motor are switched as a unit by the motor starter; so the capacitor is
always in service when the motor is in operation. The connection of
Fig. 8.21.4 may be used for new installations, as the motor overload relay
can he selected, a t the time of purchase, on the basis of the reduced line
current due to the capacitors. This connection also has the advantage
that the short-circuit current is less hecause of the impedance of the over-
load relay.
Figure 8.21B may be preferred for existing installations as no change i n
the overload relay is required because the current through the overload
relay is the motor current. (Reduhon of current due to capacitor stems
from the electrical location hack through the power syskm; therefore the
current through the overload relay is not reduced in this case.)
The arrangement shown in Fig. 8.21C is used when capacitors are
permanently connected to the system. Its main advantage is the elimi-
nation of a separate switching device for the capacitors.

LIMITATION OF CAPACITOR AND MOTOR WHEN SWITCHED AS A UNIT

Capacitors have been applied to induction motors and switched with


the motor as a unit with good results except in a few cases. Experience
has shown that when difficulties are encountered it is because too large a
capacitor bank is used or the capacitors have been applied on jogging or
quick reversing service. The two factors which limit the value of
capacitors to be switched with a motor are (1) overvoltage due to self-
excitation and (2) transient torques. These limitations apply when the
capacitor is connecled to the load side of the motor starter, as shown i n Fig.
8.21A and B , and the capacitor and motor are switched as a unit. These
limitations also apply to that type of induction motor which has an
auxiliary winding in the stator (transformer action) for connection to an
external capacitor.
Overvoltage Due to Self-excitation. A capacitor can supply part or
all of the motor magnetizing requirements. Thus, when the motor line
switch is opened &nd the motor disconnected from its power source, the
capacitor furnishes the motor magnetizing current and the motor will
“self-excite,” i.e., act as a voltage generator. The magnitude of the
470 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMEM

generated voltage will depend upon the value of the capacitor current,
motor speed, and type of motor. However, as a bench mark, the result-
ing overvoltage with capacitor values to improve the full-load motor
power factor to unity will range from 35 to 75 per cent. Self-excitation
can he measured by connecting a voltmeter across the motor terminals
and reading the voltage after the motor-starter switch is disconnected
from the power source.
In the usual motor application, the motor slows down rapidly after the
switch is opened; so the voltage rapidly decreases. A 15 to 20 per cent
reduction in speed eliminates self-excitation sufficientlyto cause the volt-
age to collapse in a few seconds. However, in a few cases with high-
inertia loads the voltage of self-excitation has been sustained for several
minutes.
Transient Torques. Transient electrical torques of twenty times fnll-
load motor torque have been obtained in tests when too large a capacitor
w&s switched with a motor. These transient torques may occur when a
motor is transferred to the line from the reduced-voltage tap of an auto-
transformer-type starter or when a running motor is temporarily discon-
nected from its line and the starting switch is reclosed while the motor is
still running and maintaining voltage a t its terminals by self-excitation
due t o capacitors.
To produce transient electrical torques, the motor voltage developed
POWER SOURCE

CONTACTOR

RELAY

CAPACITOR
MOTOR

(A) (8) (C)


FIG. 8.21 Electrical location ot capacitors when used with induction motors for power-
factor improvement.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 479

by self-excitation must be of appreciable magnitude and out of phase with


the line voltage when the switch is closed. This torque is similar to that
caused by connecting two synchronous generators which are out of phase.

SELECTION OF CAPACITOR RATING FOR INDUCTION MOTORS

Tables 8.4 and 8.5 list the suggested capacitor ratings for the two most
popular types of polyphase induction motors when the capacitors and
motor are switched as a unit and connected as shown in Fig. 8.21A or R.
The capacitor values are based on actual tests for transient torques and
overvoltages by one large motor manufacturer. In addition, electrical
characteristics of motors of other manufacturers as obtained from puh-
lished data have heen correlated and a representative average used. The
capacitor ratings are conservative and prevent overvoltages due to self-
excitation and limit transient torques to normal values.
The data are also applicable to wound-rotor-type motors.
The operating power factor of motors with the suggested capacitor
ratings mill generally range from 95 to 98 per cent a t full load and 95 to
100 per cent a t partial loads. There will be exceptions, of course, because
of the variation in motor electrical characteristics and the fact that
capacitors are built in only certain ratings. The greatest effect will be a
partial-load operation, especially if the size of capacitor available is less
than the value listed in Tables 8.4 and 8.5; even so, the power-factor
characteristic with load is relatively flat from 25 to 100 per cent load.
For example, a 20-hp 1200-rpm motor with a capacitor rated 25 per cent
less than listed in the table will have a power factor of 92 per cent a t half
load.
For motor ratings not listed in these tables the following conservative
rule may he used. The capacitor current should not exceed the motor no-load
magnetizing current. This is approximately the motor no-load current,
which can usually be conveniently measured with a hook-on ammeter.
The tabular data may he extrapolated for estimating purposes, provided
that allowance is made for the fact that the per cent magnetizing current
and therefore the capacitor current, decreases as the motor horsepower
rating increases.
All the capacitor values listed in these tables do not necessarily corre-
spond to standard S E M A ratings. However, the trend is toward addi-
tional ratings beloy 10 kvar, and some manufacturers have a line of these
ratings to match closely the requirements of motors in the 5- to 25-hp
range. When capacitors are not available for the values listed, it is sug-
gested that the closest lower capacitor rating he used.
480 POWER-PACTOR IMPROVEMEN1

TABLE 8.4 Suggested Maximum Capacitor Rating When a n Induction


Motor and Capacitor Are Switched as a Unit
For Normal Starting Torque, Normal Starting Current, and NEMA
Classification Design B Motors*

Nominal motor speed in rpm and number of poles

Induction 900 600


3600 1800 1200 720
m0tW 8 I2
2 4 6 10
horsepower
rating - .- - - - - - _. ~ - -
~-

"0
'b K"W r, :"or
% K"W
% thr
% K"a,
%
,R% IR 1R AR 4R 4R
- - - - ~ - ~ - - - - -

3 1. 14 1.5 5 I .5 20 2 27 2.5 35 3.5 41


5 2 I2 2 3 2 I17
5 3 25 4 32 4.5 37
7t 2. I1 2.5 2 3 4 22 5.5 30 6 34
10 3 10 3 I 3.5 14 5 21 6.5 27 7.5 31
15 4 9 4 0 5 13 6.5 18 8 23 9.5 27
20 5 9 5 0 6.5 I2 7.5 16 9 21 I2 25

25 6 9 6 0 7.5 I1 9 I5 11 20 14 23
30 7 8 7 9 9 I1 10 14 12 18 16 22
40 9 8 9 9 II 10 12 13 15 16 20 20
50 I2 8 11 9 13 10 15 12 19 15 24 I9
60 I4 8 14 8 I5 10 18 11 22 15 27 I9
75 17 8 16 8 18 10 21 10 26 14 32.5 18

100 22 8 21 8 25 9 27 10 32.5 13 40 17
125 27 8 26 8 30 9 31.5 10 40 13 47.5 16
150 32, 8 30 8 35 9 37.5 10 47.5 12 52.5 15
200 10 8 37.5 8 12.5 9 47.5 10 60 12 65 14

250 50 8 45 7 52.5 8 57.5 9 70 I1 77.5 13


300 57 8 52.5 7 $0 8 65 9 80 I1 87.5 12
350 55 8 60 7 57.5 8 75 9 87.5 10 95 11
400 ro 8 65 6 rs 8 85 9 95 lo I05 I1
450 75 8 67.5 6 30 8 92.5 9 100 9 110 11
500 77 8 72.5 6 82.5 8 97.5 9 107.5 9 115 10
- - - - - - -- --
NOTE:For 50-cyclp-operation the following representative data may be used:
1. For standard 60-cyelc motors opwating a t 50 cycles:
kvsr = 1.4 to 1.7 of the kvar values listed
yo A I l = 1.35 to 1.8 OF the Yo A R values listed
2. For standard 50-cycle motors operating s t 50 cycles:
kvnr = 1 . 1 to 1.4 of the kvar values listed
% .4R = 1.05 to 1.4 of the '3 A R values listed .
(The larger multipliers apply to motors having the higher speeds.)
Far standard OO-cycle wound-rotor-type motors operating a t 60 cycles, the follow-
ing representative data may be used:
kvar = 1.1 of the kvar vslurs listed
% A R = 1.05 of the % AIi values listed
For explanation of *, t, and i,see footnotes to Table 8.5.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 481

TABLE 8.5 Suggested Maximum Capacitor Rating When an Induction


Motor and Capacitor Are Switched as a Unit
For High Starting Torque, l o w Starting Current, and N E M A Classification
Design C Motors*

Induction-
I Nominol motor speed in rpm and number of poles

mOlOI
~ 1800 1200 720 ~ 600
horsepower
4 6 10 12
- ~ - -

%
W
K"0,
%
AR
K"or
%
AR
K"0, ,"k ~ Kvor
%
AR
- - - ~- ~ -
3 .... .. 2 26 3 31 4 40 4.5 51
5 2 15 2.5 21 4 29 5 36 6.5 46
7% 2.5 13 3.5 16
18 5 27 6.5 34 8 41
10 3.5 13 4 6 25 8 32 9.5 39
15 5 12 5 5 13
I4 8 21 10 28 13 36
20 6 12 6.5 9.5 19 12 25 17 35

25
30
40
50
7.5

13
I2
12
11
11
8
9
I2
16
12
12
I1
11
I1
13
16
20
17
17
16
16
14
16
20
25
,':
22
;:
30
1 33
32
30
29
60 11 19 11 23 15 27.5 27
75 11 24 11 27.5 14 35 25

100 28 11 32.5 11 35 13 42.5 19 55 24


125 35 11 40 II 42.5 13 50 19
I50 42.5 11 45 I1 50 13 55 19
200 50 11 55 I1 60 13
-- - - -
* These data apply when a capacitor and motor are electrically connected RS shown
in Fig. 8.21A or B.
These data are representative for three-phase 60-eyele general-purpose open- or
splashproof-type motors of 220-, 440-, 55&, or 2300-volt rating.
The operating power factor, for capacitor ratings as listed, will range from 95 to
98 per cent a t full load and 95 to 100 per cent a t partial loads.
t Kvar is the rating of the capacitors in kilovars. This v d u c is approximately
equal to the motor no-load magnetizing kilovars.
i % A R is the per cent rcduetion in line current due to espaeitars and is helpful for
selecting the proper motor-overload relay. If a capacitor of lower kilovar rating is
used, the actual percentage reduction in the line current ( % AR) will be approxi-
mately proportional to
Actual capacitor rating
kvsr value in tables
The relay selection should be based o n t h e motor full-load name-plate current
reduced by the % A R value.
482 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

THERMAL-OVERLOAD PROTECTION O F MOTORS

When capacitors are connected to the motor terminals, they supply


some of the motor magnetizing requirements so that the actual line cur-
rent is less than it would be without capacitors. If the capacitors are
connected to the motor starter on the load side of the thermal-overload
device, as shown in Fig. 8.21A or B , the overload relay will not provide
proper protection to the motor if it is selected for the uncorreeted motor
full.load current. The relay should be selected for a smaller current
rating commensurate with the reduced line current due to the effect of the
capacitors. The percentage of this current reduction is shown in Tables
8.4 and 8.5. For the low-speed motors this reduction in line current is
rather Iarge, particnlarly for the motors of lower horsepower rating.
If the motor rating is not included in these tables, the reduction in line
current due to capacitors may be obtained by measuring the line current
witb and without capacitors a t full motor load or by ealculation.

PRECAUTIONS IN APPLYING BUS CAPACITORS FOR A GROUP OF MOTORS

Wben capacitors are connected to a bus serving a group of motors, their


effect can be similar to that of switching a capacitor and motor as a unit
since overvoltages and excessive transient torques can result. However,
if the power factor of the bus is improved to about 95 per cent under full-
load conditions, there will seldom be harmfnl overvoltages or transient
torques.
Overvoltages and excessive transient torques will seldom occur if
Tables 8.4 and 8.5 are followed in applying capacitors to single motors or
groups of motors where a11 motors remain connected to the same bus as the
capacitors. However, special precautions should be taken when applying
large banks of capacitors in systems with fast reclosing high inertia loads,
or where a major portion of Lhe load may be switched off leaving a small
group of induction motors on tbe same bus with a large capacitor bank.

INDUCTION MOTORS AND CAPACITORS VERSUS SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Where power factor has been an importmt consideration in the past,


the synchronons motor has often been selected on the basis that it will
give “free” power-factor improvement. Actnally, it is often more eco-
nomical to purchase an induction motor plus capacitors than asynchronous
motor.
Factors Affecting Selection of Synchronous Motors or Induction
Motors and Capacitors. First cost is one factor, and often the deciding
factor, in the selection between a synchronous motor and an induction
POWER.FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 483

motor with capacitors. In some cases the type of drive or inherent


characteristics of the motors dictate the selection.
Synchronous motors have the advantage that they are capable of sup-
plying smoothly varying values of kilovars, and the number can be readily
changed by adjusting the motor field rheostat. The net kilovar output
increases as the load decreases. However, there is little difference in the
net kilovar output for load changes between a synchronous motor with
fixed and rated field excitation and an induction motor with capacitors
selected for the same kilovar output as the synchronous motor at full load.
From the standpoint of losses, the two are about equal. Synchronous
motors are generally more efficient than induction motors, but when the
exciter losses are included with the synchronous motor losses, the totals
are about the same.
The synchronous motor has the disadvantage that it must be in opera-
tion to produce its kilovars; in the induction motor and capacitor comhi-
nation, the capacitors do not have to be connected and switched with the
motor but can be permanently connected to the power system. This can
be important from the loss standpoint if the synchronous motor must be
operated just to produce kilovars.
Maintenance is apt to be higher on the synchronous motor with its
exciter and more complicated control than on the induction motor-
capacitor combination.
To obtain the same power-factor improvement from the induction
motor and capacitor arrangement that can be obtained from an 0.8- or
unity-power-factor synchronous motor, more capacitors must be used
than can safely be switched with the motor. The cost of an extra switch
a t low voltage is small, but above 600 volts it becomes appreciable.
Price Comparison of Induction M o t o r and Capacitors vs. Synchronous
Motors. Initial cost is perhaps the most important guide in making the
selection between the induction motor with capacitors and the synchronous
motor. Surely, it is the easiest to evaluate. Tables 8.6 and 8.7 show the
motor ratings where the cost of an induction motor plus capacitors
(including a separate switching device for the capacitors) and motor
starter is less than an 0.8- or unity-power-factor synchronous motor,
exciter, and starter.
For these comparisons, the capacitor rating was selected on the basis
that the induction motor and capacitor Combination will furnish the same
amount of power-factor improvement a t full load as an 0.8- or unity-
power-factor synchronous motor of equal horsepower rating.
For 2300- or 4006volt service the synchronous-motor equipment costs
less than the induction-motor equipment over the entire horsepower and
speed range if a power circuit breaker is used for switching the capacitors.
However, if the capacitors can he located on the 480- or 600-volt systems,
484 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

and that is where they mill give the maximum benefit, then the induction-
motor arrangement becomes attractive. In that case the motor ratings
will he approximately the same as listed in Tables 8.6 and 8.7.
There are many cases where the induction motor-capacitor method is
economical for much higher motor-horsepower ratings than those indi-
cated in Tables 8.6 and 8.7. Often it is necessary only to improve the
power factor of the motor to around 95 per cent, as that is generally
accepted as a high operating power factor. In such cases the capacitor
kilovars required are considerably less than those required to equal the
full-load kilovar output of a unity-polver-factor synchronous motor.
The kilovars required to improve a load whose power factor is already
high increase much faster than the improvement in power factor. For
example, it requires just as many ckvar to improve a load power factor
from 95 to 100 per cent as it does to improve a load power factor from 80
to 92 per cent or 85 to 96 per cent.
The full-load operating power factor of induction motors for the capac-
itor values suggested in Tables 8.4 and 8.5 ranges from 95 to 98 per cent,
and these values can be switched directly with the motors. Therefore,
where an operating power factor in the order of 95 per cent is all that is
required, the induction motor with capacitors will he au economical
selection for motor horsepower ratings much higher than those listed in
Tables 8.6 and 8.7.
TABLE 8.6 Horsepower Ratings Where an Induction Motor and Capacitors
Cost Less Than a 0.80-power-factor Synchronous Motor
440- and 550-volt 60-cycle Equipment
(Full-voltage motor starter1
Motor Speed, Rpm Motor Rating, Hp
1800 250 and less
1200 I 5 0 and less
900 150 m d less
M)O 200 and loss
TABLE 8.7 Horsepower Ratings Where an Induction Motor and Capacitors
Cost Less Than a Unity-power-factor Synchronous Motor
440- and 550-volt 60-cycle Equipment

Motor rating, hp

Motor speed.
rpm Wilh full- Wilh reduced-
voltage ,toner dtage .tarter

I I
I800 750 and less 400 and lers
t 200 350 and leu 350 and INS
900 300 and less 300 and leu
600 300 ond less 300 and leis
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 485

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Synchronous motors are available in a wide range of horsepower and


speed for various types of drives and for the common utilization voltages.
General-purpose synchronous motors are available in standard ratings
a t 1.0 and 0.8 power factor. For driving a given mechanical load, the
unity power-factor motor is the lower in price, the more efficient, and
draws no lagging or leading current. The 0.8 power-factor motors oper-
ate a t leading power factor and are used t o improve the power factor of
the power line t o which they are connected, as well as for delivering rated
horsepower output.
If full-load excitation is maintained while the motor operates a t part
load, the motor-will operate a t a more leading power factor, giving more
than rated power-factor improvement. Figure 8.7 shows the approxi-
mate amount of corrective leading kvar delivered by the synchronous
motor a t any load, provided the excitation is maintained a t its rated full-
load value.

SELECTION OF CAPACITOR SWITCHING DEVICE AND


CABLE SIZE
I n low-voltage circuits, i.e., 600 volts and below, air circuit breakers or
fused safety switches are used for manual switching and air circuit
breakers or contactors for electrical switching of capacitors.
In medium-voltage circuits, 2400 t o 13,800 volts, power circuit breakers
are almost always used.

AMPERE RATING

Circuit breakers, contactors, disconnecting devices (except safety


switches), and all other current-carrying parts should have a current
rating of a t least 135 per cent of the rated capacitor current; safety
switches, either fusible or nonfusible, should have a current rating of not
less than 165 per cent of the rated capacitor current according to NEMA
Standards for Shunt Capacitors.
When contactors are used and they are housed in an enclosure, the
rating should be taken as 90 per cent of the open rating.
The standard ampere rating for molded-case air circuit breakers is based
on 25 C ambient. Tables 8.8 and 8.9 include the appropriate derating
factor for 40 C ambient and for installation of the breaker in an enclosure.
Table 8.8 lists the recommended minimum ampere rating of safety
switches, contactors, and air circuit breakers for standard ratings of low-
voltage capacitor equipments.
equipment
Mognetic- Molded-
,oti"g.

15 50 100 100 70
30 100 150 200 150
45 150 300 200 225
60 200 300 400 300
90 300 600 400 450
180 600 900 800
270 I000 1350
450 I600 2500
630 3000 2500

For 4MI-mlt Copocitors


~ ~ ~

30 50 100 100 70
60 I00 150 200 150
90 150 300 200 225
120 200 300 400 300
180 300 600 400 450
360 600 900 800
540 I000 1350
900 1600 2500
1260 3000 2500
~

For 575-volt Capacitors


__
I
30 50 70
60 90 125
90 I25 175
I20
I80
360
I75
250
500
300
300
600
1I 200
440
600
225
350

800

I
540 900
. ..
900 I200 2500
1260 2000 2500

Table 8.9 lists the appropriate capacitor kilovar multiplier for selecting
the sivitrhing device for nonstandard hank ratings or various comhina-
tions of capacitor units.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 487

I n high-voltage circuits, 2400 t o 13,800 volts, the breaker continuous


ampere rating is rarely the determining factor in the breaker selection
because at these voltages the line current per kilovar is low arid for the
usual capacitor ratings the current is well below the breaker ampere rating.
TABLE 8.9 Approximate Capacitor Kvor Multipliers to Obtain Ampere
Rating of Switching Device Three-phase Service
[Enclosed Rating end 40 C 1 1 FI Ambientl

copocimr "oltoge

Switching device

230 460 575


~~

Magnetic-type circuit breoken. .......... 3.38 1.69 1.35


contoctor.. .......................... 3.76 1.88 1.5
Safety switches.. ..................... 4.14 2.07 1.65
Molded-case ~ i r ~ ubreakers.
it ........... 4.68 2.34 1.87

INTERRUPTING RATING

The switching device should also he selected for the short-circuit duty
of the system on which it is to operate. Since a circuit breaker has a
relatively high interrupting ability, it is well suited for such service.
Most contactors have a limited interrupting ability; so short-circuit pro-
tection should be provided externally.

REPETITIVE DUTY OF SWITCHING DEVICES

Repetitive duty of the switching device is seldom a factor unless switcb-


ing is automatically controlled. Even then the number of switching
operations which occur in practice is relatively small and rarely exceeds
five to ten per day in industrial service.
Contactors are designed for an exceedingly large number of operations
before requiring maintenance of mechanical parts. The number of
operations for which low-voltage air circuit breakers and oilless power
circuit breakers are designed is not so great as for contactors hut is entirely
satisfactory for this type of switching duty.

SELECTION OF CABLE -SIZE FOR CAPACITORS

In selecting cables for capacitor applications, allowance must be made


for the 35 per cent factor plus any additional factors, such as the decreased
rating of a cable if it is operated at higher than rated 30 C (86 F) ambient.
488 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Sinre most capacitors for industrial service are designed for use in an
ambient of 40 C (104 F) maximum, the cables should also be selected for
that ambient operation unless it is definitely known that the ambient
temperatures are less. More care should be given in selecting the cable
size for capacitors than for usual distribution feeder circuits because the
load factor of a capacitor when energized is 100 per cent.

H A R M O N I C S A N D RESONANCE AS AFFECTED BY CAPACITORS


There are probably more imaginary difficulties associated with capaci-
tors than with any other electrical equipment. Almost invariably these
imagined difficulties concern harmonics and resonance. These fears are
often based on the fact that theoretical calculations indicate such possi-
bilities; anu circuit having inductance and capacitance has a resonance
frequency, but in power systems such resonant combinations rarely
occur. So many articles have been written on the theoretical aspects of
the subject that they have contributed to fear, doubt, and misunderstand-
ing of capacitors. Allied is capacitor fuse blowing, which invariably is
blamed on harmonics and in many cases without any basis of fact. From
a practical standpoint the subject can be dismissed; over 20 million kvar
of capacitors are now installed in this country, and there have been rela-
tively few cases of difficulty. If difficulties do arise, they can be overcome
with knovn practical remedies.
Capacitors do not generate harmonics, but they may reduce or increase
harmonics, depending upon the particular circumstances. The major
sources of harmonics are transformer-magnetizing current, rectifiers, arc
furnaces, and generators.
Harmonic voltages and current exist on all systems hut generally go
unnoticed because of their small effect on operations. On rare occasions
they may affect telephone communication service or cause capacitor fuses
to blow.
The reactance of a capacitor decreases as the frequency (harmonic)
increases ( X , = 1O6/24' ohms). This means that for a given harmonic
voltage Eh the harmonic current Ihincreases. However, in practical
power applications the harmonic voltage decreases with increase in har-
monic frequency; so from an over-all standpoint the current is small.
Although any combination of capacitance and reactance has a resonant
frequency, that fact is not important unless a harmonic voltage of that
frequency and of sufficient magnitude is also present.
A good practical rule for industrial applications is as follows: the kvar
rating of the capacitor hank should not be greater than two-thirds of the
transformer kva rating; if more capacitors are required, they should he
automatically switched.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 489

Capacitors have a large margin for harmonic currents and voltages.


They are designed in accordance with KEMA requirements to carry 135
per cent of rated kilovars, including that of the fundamental and har-
monics. This means that they can carry considerably more than 135 per
cent of current, depending upon the magnitude of harmonic voltage.
I t was recognized long ago that high harmonic currents were unusual;
therefore, the NEMA standards pertaining t o the rating of switching
devices, wire sizes, and other thermally rated devices prescribe their
selection on the hasis of 135 per cent current rather than kilovars. Unless
such a practical approach were taken, it would he necessary that each
installation be checked for harmonic content before the switching device
and wire sizes could he selected.
In summary, it may he stated: i f the voltage i s approximately normal, i t i s
practically impossible to overload a capacitor by harmonics.

AUTOMATIC SWITCHING OF CAPACITORS


Automatic switching of shunt capacitors is seldom necessary in indus-
trial plants, but when used is generally for one of the following reasons:
1. To reduce plant voltage or losses during light-load conditions
2. To control current or circuit loading
3. To meet the requirements of a rate clause
4. To comply with utility requirements
5. To prevent instability of generators during light-load conditions

TYPES AND SELECTION OF CONTROL

Although many types of automatic controls are available, the ones most
suitable for industrial spplications are
Time clock
Current, single-step
Voltage, generally single-step
Kilovar, generally multistep
I n general, the master element should be responsive to the quantity to
be controlled or regulated. For example, if capacitors are to be switched
off a t light load, then a load-responsive master element would normally he
selected.
One exception to the above rule is the power-factor control, which is not
recommended even though capacitors are used for power-factor improve-
ment. The reason is that for constant power factor the load kilovars
vary directly with the kilowatts, and such a control would have to be
made inoperative when the load kilovars are equal t o capacitor kilovars
of the largest step to avoid pumping action of the control equipment.
490 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Table 8.10 iiidicates the preferred types of controls t o use.


I n general, i t is desirable t h a t the master element obtain its signal from
a point of measurement which includes the effect of the capacitor. One
exception is the current control where the uncorrected load measurement
must be used. The multistep voltage- and kilovar-responsive controls
should always obtaiii their signal from the corrected load measurement.
Table 8.10 and Fig. 8.22 indicate the point of signal measurement for
various types of controls.

SWITCHING FOR LIGHT-LOAD CONDITIONS

Most attention in automatic switching is directed t o the problem of


overvoltage during light-load conditions in a plant. However, before
purchasing automatic controls for this purpose, one should be certain t h a t
the overvoltage is due t o capacitors. Ofteii most of the voltage variation
is in the incoming supply source and is not due t o the voltage variation or
regulation within the plant. Automatic switching of capacitors in such
a case would be of little help. If there is any question regardiiig the
magnitude of voltage rise due t o capacitors, t h a t can be easily checked
by direct measurement or by calculation using the simple formulas (8.21)
or ( 8 . 2 ) .
If automatic switching is required, the simpler controls are preferred.
The time-clock control is especialiy applicable where plant working hours
are regular, e.g., capacitors are switched off at the end of the working day.
In most industrial applications involving single-step capacitar switch-
ing, a current-responsive control usually results in better over-a11 oper-
ation than a voltage-responsive control because the operation of a
current-respousive control is practically independent of system voltage

. " y
SUPPLY

ulu
. : r
POINT OF SIGNAL
va (BUS)

FEEDER
CIRCUIT

T Va BUS

n LOAO
CAPACITOR

(0) ib)
FIG. 8.22 Electrical location of capaciton ond point of signo1 meaiurement.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

uuu U U
3 3 3 3 3
L ,.
$ 2 5 O U O U
" U " U 3 uu3 uu3 uu

.: .: u= U .. .. ..
.. .. ; u .. . .
... ...
3
..
. .uu3 u;: : U
492 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

fluctuations: also, the capacitors are switched off in accordance with the
plant load, so a t light load the capacitors are off, which is desirable in
reducing the voltage.
A current-responsive control is also better than a voltage control when
capacitors are located on adjacent feeders. In that rase, switching capac-
itors on one feeder affects the voltage level on the other feeder, thus
requiring the O N and OFF settings of a voltage-responsive master element
to he much wider than desirable.
If a voltage-responsive control is used, the O N and O FF settings must be
wide enough to avoid unnecessary operation due to voltage fluctuations in
the supply source. Also, a voltage-responsive control may switch the
capacitors independently of the actual load requirements and thus switch
them off when they are needed most. Furthermore, in some plants, most
of the voltage variation is in the incoming supply source and is not due to
variation or regulation xvithin the plant. If there is any question regard-
ing the magnitude of voltage rise due to capacitors, that can be easily
checked by direct measurement or by the calculations.
Single-step current and kilovar-responsive controls have the same gen-
eral application. However, the current control is generally used because
it costs less and requires only a current transformer for signal indication.

SERIES CAPACITORS
It is the purpose of this section t o familiarize the reader briefly with
the series capacitor and its functions. Complete information on its
applications, limitations, and operating benefits is available elsewhere. *
The main applications of series capacitors have been to individual
resistance welders, the main power supply for welder services, graphitizing
furnaces, high-frequency generators, and to the main power system to
reduce voltage variation for fluctuating or flicker-producing loads.

WHAT IS A SERIES CAPACITOR?

The term series capacitor is an ahhreviation and is the engineer’s


terminology for a series-connected capacitor. Similarly, a shunt capaci-
tor is a shunt-connected capacitor. It is the type of connection and not
the type of capacitor which is implied. These are shown in Fig. 8.23.
Although the difference between the shunt and series capacitor is the
manner in which they are connected in the circuit, they perform different
functions. The shunt capacitor is simply a capacitive reactance in shunt
* Ser Chap. 13 in “Capacitors for Industry,” hy W. C. Bloamquist and R. C.
Wilson, copyright General Electric Company, John W h y & Sons, Ine., New York.
1950.
LINE LOAD LINE

U'OAD

9 ORIGINAL POWER FACTOR ANGLE


8' POWER FACTOR ANGLE WITH CAPACITORS B
2?
i
2
2
z
5F
I' = I, = I 7

I Ec

(0) SHUNT CAPACITORS (b) SERIES CAPACITORS


FIG. 8.23 (Upper] Typical shunt and rerier connections of capacitors. (Lower) Vector diagram c
0
w
showing how power-factor improvement is obtained.
494 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

with the load or system and is fundamentally for power-factor improve-


ment. The benefits of improved voltage level, released system capacity,
reduced system losses, and the reduction in the power bill all stem from
the improvement in power factor. Unswitched shunt capacitors do not
improve voltage regulation caused by load changes, but they do increase
the normal voltage level.
A series capacitor may be considered a nrgative (capacitive) reactance
in series with the line. The voltage rise across the caparitor, a function
of the circuit current, is automatic and practically instantaneous; so the
series capacitor may be thought of as a voltage regulator. However, it
differs from an induction or step voltage regulator in one very important
respect-it cannot compensate for voltage variations originating in the
supply source.
A series capacitor at rated load provides power-factor improvement to
the same degree as do the same kilovars of shunt capacitors. It provides
power-factor improvement by an out-of-phase component of voltage, in
contrast to the shunt capacitor, which accomplishes this by an out-of-
phase component of current; these relationships are shown in Fig. 8.23.
I n the usual application for power service, the series-capacitor kilovar
rating is too low to improve the power factor significantly.

WHAT THE SERIES CAPACITOR DOES

If a series capacitor is thought of as a negative reactance to neutralize


the system reactance, rather than a device producing a voltage rise 180
degrees out of phase with the system reactive drop, its function in the
system performance may he more readily understood.
Principle of Operation. The voltage across a series capacitor is a
function of its reactance and current, or
Ec = IXc (8.26)

However, the effect of the series capacitor on the circuit voltage depends
upon the power factor of the load current and is
ec = I X , sin 0 (8.27)

The basic voltage-drop formula, Eq. (8.16),for three-phase service may


be rewritten to inrlude series capacitance as follows:
e = I R cos 0 + Z(X, - X , ) sin 0 (8.28)

where P = circuit roltage drop or change, volts


ec = circuit voltage rise due to series capacitor
E , = voltage across series capacitor only
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 495

I = total current, amps


0 = power-factor angle
X c = capacitive reactance, ohms
X , = inductive reactance, ohms
( X , is positive and X C is negative in accordance with accepted terminology.
Convention also defines the effect of a lagging power-factor current
through a n inductive reactance as voltage drop.)
Equation (8.28) indicates that the voltage drop and, therefore, the
voltage regulation are reduced by reducing the reactive drop I X , which
is usually the largest portiori of the voltage drop on industrial power sys-
tems. The effect of the negative reactance of a series capacitor on volt-
age regulation is illustrated hy the vector diagram of Fig. 8.24, using the
voltage at the receiving end or load, Ex,as the reference.
The voltage regulation of a system without a series capacitor is large,
as indicated by the relative lengths of the voltage vectors En and E,.
However, with a series capacitor of X , = X,, the capacitor completely
neutralizes the system reactance; so the regulation is reduced considerahly
as indicat,ed by vector E S I . This may be improved even further by over-
compensation as indicated by E,,, which is the case for zero regulation.
As far as the power-system operation is concerned, the less the voltage
regulation, the “stiffer” the system is electrically, i.c., it is equivalent t o
one with a higher iriterrupting duty. A system with zero voltage regula-
tion is equivalent t o an infinitely large power system. I t is practical t o
compensate for all the react,ancc i n many iirdustrial systems; so the volt-
age regulation is only that due t o the resistance component, vtrirh is
usually only a few per cent. Thus, a series rapacit,or stiffens the system,
which is especially beneficial for starting large motors from ail otherwise
weak power system, for reducing light flicker caused by large fluctuating
loads, ctc.
Even though a series capacit,or stiffens the system, it docs not increase
the interrupting duty herause of the control scheme associated ivith the
series-capacitor protect,ive equipment.

W H E N TO USE THE SERIES CAPACITOR

h good test for the application of series capacitors for line-rractance


compensation is: “Would the problem be satisfactorily sol\wl by an
induction or step regulator that could automatically and almost instan-
taneously correct the voltage drop for the new load rendition:"' If the
answer is “yes,” theii it is very probable that a series rapacitor is applica-
ble. (Voltage regulators arc riot applicahle for flui,tuatiiig loads siiice
the voltage drop itself is used to initiate the voltage correction.)
Because of the instantaneous aud automatic response of the serics
496 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

capacitor, it is admirably suited to compensate for voltage drop or fluctu-


ation assoriated with intermittent, fluctuating, or suddenly applied loads,
such as n-elders, arc furnaces, and motor-starting conditions; or fluctu-
ating motor loads, such as sawmills, rubber mills, elevators, and shovels.
The rlne to the applicahility of a series capacitor lies in an examination
of the voltage-drop formula
F = I R cos 0 + I ( X L - X , ) sin 8
and the relative values of the resistance I R and reactance [ X companents.
I n most industrial power systems, the reactance is much higher than
the resistance, with the ratio of X r / R ranging from 3 to 10. If the power
fart,oris low (sin 0 is large), as is true for motor starting, then the I X drop
will be the largest portion, and a series capacitor mill be helpful in reducing
the voltage drop.

\
\
ES
\

1 I 9
ESI
Esz

III
I,

ES XsONLY
r;, X C ' X S
ESp xc ) xs
FIG. 8.24 Diagram showing now o series copocitor reducer voltoge regulation.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 497

FIG. 8.25 Voltage charts on (I system with a highly fluctuating rowmill motor lood. Chart
B shows the effectiveness of the series capacitor for improving the voltage.

The series capacitor is effective when


1. The reactance is greater than the resistance.
2. The load power factor is low.
The ideal application is that in which the capacitive reactance com-
pletely neutralizes the inductive reactance, leaving only the small resist-
ance component. Thus, fluctuating loads, regardless of changes in the
load power factor, will have very little effect on the voltage drop.
The resistance and reactance of cables, lines, transformers, etc., given
in Chap. 1, will he useful for preparing data for predicting the perform-
ance of a system with capacitors.
Figure 8.25 shows actual voltage charts for a highly fluctuating motor
load. Note how flat the voltage is with the series capacitor.
The capacitive reactance can be selected greater than the inductive
reactance and will thus compensate for part or all of the resistance drop a t
a given power factor, as indicated in Fig. 8.24. However, if the power
factor varies appreciably, overcompensation may cause a voltage rise a t
498 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

some load and power-factor conditions. Applications involving over-


compensation should be carefully scrutinized to make certain that the
over-all voltage pattern will be satisfactory.
It is important to know something about the motor characteristics to
predict the effect of a fluctuating motor load on the voltage drop, espe-
cially if the series capacitor does not compensate completely for the sys-
tem reactance. The power factor of an induction motor a t no load ranges
from 10 to 40 per cent and a t full load from 80 to 90 per cent, depending
primarily upon the motor speed. A typical characteristic is shown in
Fig. 8.20. However, the power factor changes very little in the motor
overload region; e.g., for a 100 per cent overload the power factor may
change only 5 points. Therefore, a motor load fluctuating from light to
full load will have a much greater effect on voltage drop than a load chang-
ing from 100 to 200 per cent of rated load.

SERIES-CAPACITOR LIMITATIONS

There are several limitations of series capacitors relating to circuit


performance; so a word of caution is mentioned here.
The prediction of circuit performance during transient conditions, i.e.,
loads suddenly applied or removed, such as motor starting and welder
operation, is not so simple as for steady-state conditions as expressed in
Eq. (8.28). The difficulty arises when the circuit constants become non-
linear. Although the performance can be predicted, a great many data
are necessary, and even then prediction is usually difficult without the
aid of a network or differential analyzer. Therefore, the practical solu-
tion for most applications of this type is based on experience.
Some of the difficulties which may occur are self-excitation of induction
and synchronous motors during starting, causing motors to lock into step
a t suhsynchronous speed, vibrate excessively, or produce large current
pulsations; hunting of synchronous motors during normal operation; and
ferroresonance in transformers. Even though such abnormal operations
can be eliminated, it is well that each series-capacitor application be
thoroughly checked.

CAPACITOR RATINGS AND OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS


KILOVAR R A T I N G S

Standard ratings of individual shunt capacitor units are listed in Table


8.11 and of capacitor equipments in Table 8.12. Although the standards
list only a limited number of ratings for low-voltage service, some manu-
facturers have additional ratings, usually in unit sizes from 1 t o 10 kvar,
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 499

to cover applications of small motors. There are no S E M A standards


for two-phase caparitors, although manufacturers are often able to supply
low-yoltage units in standard kilovar raliirgs.
TABLE 8.11 NEMA Standard Ratings for 60-cycle Shunt Capacitor Units*
1
Kilovor ratings I
Phase
Indoor lndaor
Outdoor
enclosed nonenclosed
units
""it. ""it.
-
I I I
230 0.5. I , 2.5.5, 7.5 5, 7.5 2.5, 5, 7.5 Single, three
460 1, 2, 5, 10. 15 10.15 5, 10, 15 Single, three
575 1. 2, 5, 10, 15 10.15 5, 10, 15 Single, three
2,400 .............. 15. 25 15, 25 Single, three
4,160 .............. 15.25 15, 25 Single, three
4,800 .............. 15.25 15.25 Sngle,threet
7,200 .............. 15, 25 15. 25 Single, threet
7.960 .............. IS, 25 15, 25 Single
12,470 .............. 15 15 Single
13,800 .............. 15 15 Single

* From KE41.4 Standard CA1-1949.


t Three-phase ratings outdoor only.
It will he noted from Table 8.11 that the standard capacitor voltages
generally correspond t o the system operating voltages. The capacitor
voltage ratings mere selected that way for very sound reasous. For
example, take a nominal 480-volt system; motors for this service are rated
440 volts, supply transformers are usually rated 480 volts secondary a t no
load, and generators are rated 480 volts. The actual plant operating
voltage is less than the supply voltage by the voltage drop from the supply
point to the load. Generally, industrial plant voltages under normal load
conditions are about 460 volts, which correspond to the capacitor voltage
rating for that service. The capacitor then operates a t or near rated
voltage and output which contributes to long life.

VOLTAGE

Because shunt capacitors are designed for operation a t comparatively


high electrical stresses and continuous full load, definite overvoltage
limits must be established. Most other electrical apparatus has an allow-
ance for a duty cycle or load factor, taking advantage of partial-load or
noncontinuous operation to allow for short-time overload or overvoltages.
Capacitors are suitable for operation a t a terminal-to-terminal voltage
500 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

TABLE 8.12 Standard Kilovar Ratings of Indoor and Outdoor Types of


Capacitor Equiprnents for 60-cycle Operation

230 1 46iLld 1Copocitor d t a g e rating

2,400 and 4,160 ~ 4.800-13.800

Kilovor rating of units


~ ~ -

7% 15 15 25 15 25
~ ~ ~

15 30
45'
30 60
45 90 90' .... PO*
60 120
135.
90 180 180. .... 180'
180 360 .... 600
270 540 .... 900 .... 900
450 900 .... 1,200 .... 1,800
630 1.260 .... 1.800
2,700 .... 2,700
3,600 .... 3,600
4,500
5,400

* Outdoor equipments may be pole or base mounted.

(including harmonics) a t a maximum of 110 per cent of rated voltage for


either continuous or short-time operation, but exclusive of transients.

KlLOVAR MARGIN

From a practical standpoint it is necessary to allow some kilovar margin


in capacitors for increased output due to operation above rated voltage,
harmonic currents if present in the power system, and the plus kilovar
tolerance in manufacture. This kilovar margin, an industry standard,
is 35 per cent; i t is a rare application where this margin is not ample.

TIME OF DISCHARGE

When a capacitor is disconnected from its power source, it will retain


its charge (voltage) and therefore be a hazard to personnel unless some
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 501

means is provided to discharge it. All modern capacitors have built-in


discharge resistors, which usually discharge a unit in less time than is
required by the National Electrical Code.
The NEC requires capacitors to he discharged to a residual voltage of
50 volts or less in 1 min for capacitors rated 600 volts or less and in 5 min
for capacitors rated more than 600 volts.

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS

Voltage. While the operating voltage should he vithin the voltage


limits discussed previously, it may not he the same as the name-plate
voltage and the actual kilovar output will be different from the rated
value as follows:

Actual ckvar = rated ckvar X


operating vo~tagc
rated voltage )' (8.29)

Frequency. Capacitor kilovar output is directly proportional to the


frequency of the applied voltage. Thus (for a given voltage)
operating frequency
Actual ckvar = rated ckvar X (8.30)
rated frequency

USEFUL DATA FOR CAPACITOR APPLICATIONS

Nomenclature

C = capacity in microfarads
Xc = reactance in ohms
f = frequency in cycles per second
kvar = kilovars, reactive kilovolt-amperes
E = line-to-line voltage
kv = line-to-line voltage in kilovolts
I = amperes
kva = kilovolt-amperes

Formulas

Capacitor connected in parallel:

c = c1+ c2 + C3 +
502 POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Capacitor connected in series:

x, = 2653
- at 60 cycles
C
(1 ,if = 2653 ohms)
1000(kv)2
xc = kvar
c=- 106
(2d)xc
C' = 1000 kvar
2rf( kv) *
2lrfC(kv) *
kvar =
1000
1000 (kv)*
kvar =
X,
G E X I
kvar = (three phase)
1000
= 4X (kv) X I
13I
kvar = -(single phase)
1000
= (kv) I
Capacitor Constants
Single-phase capacitors:

Capacitor Microfarads
volts per k v d

230 50.15 52.9


460 12.54 211.6
575 8.025 330.6
2,400 0.4606 5.760
4,160 0.1534 17.300
4,800 0.1151 23,040
7,200 0.05118 51,840
7,960 0.041 87 63.360
12,470 0.01 706 155.500
13.800 0.01393 190,400

* To find microfarads for other kvar values m n l l i p l y by t h c number of kvar.


t To find ohms for other kvar valucs divide hy t h e number of kvar.
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT 503

Three-phase, Y-ronnerted caparitors: Line-to-neutral microfarads per


kvar and line-to-neutral ohms for 1 kvar are same as single-phase values.
Three-phase, delta-roiruerted capacitors: Line-to-line microfarads are
one-third of the single-phase values; line-to-line ohms are three times the
siugle-phase values.
Chapter 9 by Francis P. Brightman

Svstem Overcurrent Protection

Fault-current (also designated overcurrent or short-circuit-current)


protective devices-fuses, circuit breakers, and relays-are the watchmen
of a power system, whose job it is to detect trouble and get rid of it as
expeditiously aspossible. Thedesign of surh a protective system iuvolves
two separate although iriterrelated steps:
1. Selection of the correct devices to do the job
2. Choice of correct current and time settings for the adjustable
devices that \rill enable them to function selectively with other adjustable
and nonadjustable devices to disconnect that portion of the system in
trouble with as little disturbance to the rest of it as possible
The two steps are interrelated in that the devices selected for a given
system must be capahle of the required range of current and time settings
needed, or inherently have the desired characteristics incorporated in
their design.
The objectives of this chapter are twofold. First, to describe the
various types, rharacteristics, and principal uses of the fault-current pro-
tective devices commonly used ou industrial plant electric power systems
as a guide to the reader in selecting suitable protective devices for his
system. Second, to evplain how the time-current operating character-
istics of the various devices should be selected initially i n the case of
nonadjustable devices, or subsequently set on the adjustable ones, to
obtain the selective operation essential to good system performance.

BASIC TYPES OF SHORT-CIRCUIT DETECTION DEVICES


There are three fundamental types of devices designed to detect over-
currents due to short circuits somewhere on the system. These basic
devices are:
1 . Relays
2. Direct-acting trips on circuit breakers
3. Fuses
504
S Y S T u l OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 505

RELAYS

Relays are devices installed on the system to detect trouble and com-
plete a circuit to electrically trip their associated circuit breakers, or eon-
tactors, when necessary to isolate the trouble spot. Relays may be simple
nvercurrent devices responsive to current magnitude only, or they may
have a combination of current and voltage, or current and current coils,
to detect the direction of current flow, current balance, differences in the
current a t two ends of a circuit, distance, etr. The majority of relays in
modern power systems operate from the secondaries of current and poten-
tial transformers rather than from series current coils or line voltage.
Relays provide the best protection. They can he built to a much
higher degree of accuracy than fuses and direct-acting trips, and they are
adjustable both as to time and current. Also they can be designed to
operate on only one direction of power flow to the point of fault or t o
locate the fault by measuring the line impedance (distance) from the
relay to the trouble spot.

DIRECT-ACTING CIRCUIT-BREAKER TRIPS

Direct-acting trips are mounted directly on the circuit breaker they are
associated with and trip it by direct mechanical action in response to
current magnitude in the circuit. The direct-acting trips on low-voltage
(600 volts and below) air circuit breakers are almost always actuated by
the current in the circuit, but direct-acting trips on high-voltage (2300
volts and above) circuit breakers are usually energized from the second-
aries of current transformers.
Most time-delay direct-acting trips on low-voltage air circuit breakers
are adjustable in the field, but some of them and many of the instantane-
ous trips are preset a t the. factory to operate a t a given multiple of the
trip-coil rating of the breaker.
Although direct-acting trip coils are much less accurate than relays,
they are good enough for most low-voltage power system applications
and for the small medium-voltage systems where t.hey are occasionally
used. The justification of their use is strictly economic.

FUSES

Fuses are thermally operated devices that combine the functions of


fault detection and circuit clearing in one device. They are used on both
high- and low-voltage systems. Refer to Chap. 3 for further discussion
of the economics and other factors involved in their application.
Fuses are subject to the disadvantages of being nonadjustable and
506 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

quite slow in operation on moderate values of short-circuit rurrent. They


are less accuratc than relays, but comparable n i t h direct-acting lom-
voltage cirruit-breaker trips on high-current and superior to them on low-
current short circuits. Fuses also have the disadvantage that only one
may be hlown, thereby leaving the circuit operating on single phase,
which may cause trouble if the circuit is not properly protected with a
thermal or other type of relay that will operate quickly enough on the
current drawn during single-phase operation to protect the motor or other
equipment on the circuit involved.

TYPES, OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS, A N D USES OF


PROTECTIVE DEVICES
In order to use any tool or device correctly, it is essential to know how
it works and what it can do, or, putting it another way, what can be done
with it, Therefore, the first step in learning t o apply and coordinate
short-cirruit protection relays and other devices is to find out what types
are available, how they operate, and what their time-current character-
istics are.
All relays and other short-circuit protective devices except fuses and
the thermal trips on some low-voltage breakers work on one or the other
of two fundamental operating principles:
1. Electromagnetic attraction
2. Electromagnetic induction

ELECTROMAGNETIC-ATTRACTION-TYPE RELAYS AND OTHER DEVICES

Devices of the electromagnetic-attraction class are operated by means


of a magnetic plunger drawn into a solenoid or a hinged magnetic arma-
ture attracted t o the poles of an electromagnet. I n some cases the
operating coil has taps to permit adjustment of the pickup-current setting.
Pickup current is that value of current at which the plunger or armature
will just start to move. Changes in pickup setting of plunger-type
devices are accomplished by varying the position of the plunger in the coil.
The pickup of hinged-armature devices may likewise be vaTied by chang-
ing the air gap or by maintaining a fixed air-gap setting and varying the
spring tension. The farther it has to travel, or the greater the spring
tension holding it back, the greater the amount of current or combination
of current and potential required to operate the device.
Hinged-armature-type construction is used in the direct-acting trips
of air circuit breakers (600 volts and below) and also in some relays.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 507

Plunger type construction is used for direct-acting trips on power circuit


hreakers (2400 volts and above) and some relays.
In modern practice most of t,he plunger-type relays are instantaneous
units. Those used i n industrial plants are usually intended to provide
fast tripping on high-magnitude short-cirruit currents. In such cases
accuracy of the pickup setting is not so important as it is with time-delay
relays, which may he required to operate accurately on relatively low
currents. However, plunger-type relays with a bellows and adjustable
air valve are available for use on systems where time-delay operation is
required, but the more accurate and expensive induction-type relays can-
not be justified.
Since electromagnetic-attraction devices work about equally well on
either direct riirrent or alternating current of the frequencies ordinarily
used, all instantaneous plunger and hinged-armature-type relays and
other devices are affected by the d-c component of asymmetrical short-
circuit current. Consequently, the offset (asymmetrical) factor must be
taken int,o account when determining the performance of such devices.

ELECTROMAGNETIC-INDUCTION RELAYS

The electromagnetic-induction principle is used in the design of many


relays but not for direct-acting trip mechanisms. Such relays are essen-
tially induction motors. The “stator” has current, or current and poten-
tial coils, and the fluxes created by the flow of current in them induce
corresponding currents in a disk or cup. Interaction of the induced cur-
rents and fluxes creates torque to drive the rotor and thereby close or open
the relay contacts. Surh relays are commonly referred to as “induction”
relays. Figure 9.1 shows an induction-type overcurrent relay removed
from its case.
Electromagnetic-induction relays do not operate on direct current and
consequently are not affected by the d-c component of an asymmetrical
short-circuit current, as plunger-type relays are. Actually, the rate of
change of the d-c component has some effect, but i t is of no practical
significance.
The rotor of the relay, which usually carries the moving contact, works
against a restraining spring which returns it to the normal position when
the relay is deenergized. It rotates a very small fraction of a turn, in the
fast-operating nonadjustable time-setting relays, or almost a full revolu-
tion on the maximum time-dial setting of the adjustable time-current
characteristic relays. Variations in time are accomplished by moving the
time dial, or lever, t o a specified setting previously determined from a
family of time-current curves supplied by the manufacturer for that
SYSTEM OVRCURRENT PROTECTION

FIG. 9.1 Induction avMulrent relay wHhDut cam.

particular type of relay. Moat adjustable induction-type overcurrent


relays have 10 or 11 timedial positions, whose identifying numbers are
arbitrarily assigned without regard to the actual operating time for the
particular setting. The relay contacts are closed a t zero setting, and the
contact gap opens progressively aa the timedial settings are increased.
All short-circuit protection relays have silver contacts capable of cloaidg
breaker tripping circuits up to 30 amp without injury to themselv&
They cannot open them, however, without being damaged by the resulti
arc. Consequently, they are sealed in by a seal-in unit, and an auxilia
switch on the breaker mechanism is connected in the circuit to open it
ti
when the breaker opens. If the tripping current exceeds 30 amp, c
auxiliary tripping relay must be used.
Occasionally, induction relays have to operate on quite small values f
Short-circuit current. When doing so, there is relatively little torque
d
available to hold the relay contacts tightly closed while the auxiliary
switch on the breaker ia opening the tripping circuit. Therefore, in order
to prevent the possibility of damaging the relay contacts by arcing which
may occur with light contact pressure and also to ensure positive tripping,
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION SOP
provision is made t o bypass the main relay contacts with a seal-in circuit
or alternatively t o hold them closed magnetically until the tripping circuit
is interrupted by an auxiliary switch on the circuit breaker being tripped.
The seal-in, or holding-coil, circuit is completed when the main relay
contact closes. The holding coil energizes an electromagnet which
attracts a soft-iron armature mounted on the rotating element of the
relay, thus holding the relay contacts firmly in the closed position. The
seal-in coil closes a seal-in contact which completes a circuit t o bypass the
main relay contact. I n some cases the contacts are both held closed and
bypassed, in which case one coil accomplishes both functions.
The usual practice is t o have the holding, or seal-in contact, coils
simultaneously release the operation-indication target also. I n some
designs, targets are positively actuated, and in others they are gravity
operated when a latch is released. They are always manually reset by
means of a button on the outside of the relay case.
Sometimes a separate auxiliary seal-in relay is provided inside the main
relay case to bypass the relay contacts. Its coil is connected in series
with the trip coil and the main relay contacts so that it is energized and
closes its contacts as soon as the tripping circuit is completed. The
seal-in relay does double duty by completing its own coil circuit and seal-
ing itself in, as well as bypassing the main relay contacts in the tripping
circuit. I n such cases, the operation target is actuated by the same coil.
Both seal-in and holding coils are in series with the main relay contacts
and the breaker trip coil, or auxiliary relay coil, and therefore must be
capable of picking up on the current drawn by them when the main relay
contacts close. These coils are usually supplied with 0.2-amp and 1.0-or
2.0-amp taps. The 0.2-amp tap is for use with trip coils and auxiliary
relays that take 0.2 t o 3.0 amp and can safely carry tripping currents as
high as 5 amp. The 1- or 2-amp coils should he used when the protective
relay contacts trip a circuit breaker directly and the tripping current is not
more than 30 amp.
In some cases, i t is necessary for the fault protective relay t o energize
several tripping circuits simultaneously, e.g., common practice is to trip
the generator main and field breakers and the turbine throttle valve, and
possibly also sound an alarm and operate an annunciator when the gener-
ator differential relay operates. I n such cases an auxiliary tripping relay
having multiple contacts, each capable of energizing a trip-coil circuit, is
provided. The opefating coil of the auxiliary relay is connected in series
with the main relay contacts. When the main relay contacts close, they
energize the target and hold-in or seal-in contact coils, as well as energizing
the auxiliary relay coil. The generator-differential auxiliary relay is hand
reset, i.e., its tripping and alarm contacts stay in the closed position even
though its coil circuit is opened. This makes i t possible for the auxiliary
510 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

relay t o open its own coil circuit without having any risk of a “race”
between the breaker-tripping contacts and the self-deenergization opera-
tion of the auxiliary relay.
Sometimes auxiliary relays are used simply as a means of increasing
the number of trip circuits without including the lockout (hand-reset)
feature.

OPERATING-TIME CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES

All short-circuit-current protective relays and other devices can be


classified under one of these headings: (I) instantaneous, (2) high-
speed, (3) time-delay, (4) combination instantaneous or high-speed and
time-delay.
By ASA (American Standards Association) definition, instantaneous
relays are those which have no intentional time delay. Some of them
operate in less than one-half cycle, while others may take as much as 0.1
sec (six cycles). Those which operate in three cycles or less are also
classified as high-speed relays.
Time-delay relays may he induction, hinged-armature, or solenoid
type. Usually the time delay is adjustable. Most of them are induction
type with an inverse characteristic, i.e., the relay speeds up progressively
as the actuating quantity (rurrent alone or the product of current and
voltage, etr.) inrreases. However, a few time-delay relays operate a t a
constant speed predetermined by adjustment and are independent of
current magnitude as long as the current is sufficient to operate the relay.
These are known as definite-time relays.
The dirert-arting trip mechanisms on rircuit breakers may be instan-
taneous, or time-delay, or a combination of the two. R’ormal fuses are
instantaneous or time-delay in their operation, depending on the magni-
tude of the short-circuit current. Some fuses, however, are designed t o
give evtra time delay on moderate values of overcurrent in order to ride
through permissible high overloads.

INDIVIDUAL RELAY CHARACTERISTICS

There are many types of short-circuit-detecting relays. Some work on


current magnitude only, and some operate on rurrent only, but take into
account the direction of current flow. Others work on a differential
principle, and still others on the basis of measuring the impedance in the
circuit as represented by the current and voltage to determine when the
relays shall work.
Following is a hrief description of the relays in the different rategories
and their general operating chararteristirs.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 51 1

Relays Operating on Current Only (Nondirectional). Probably the


most commonly used short-circuit protection relays in industrial plant
power systems are the instantaneous and time-delay relays responsive to
current magnitude alone without regard to the direction of current flow.
Most instantaneous overcurrent relays are plunger or hinged-armature
type. They may he supplied as an instantaneous element mounted
inside the ease of a time-delay induction relay or as single or multiple
instantaneous elements alone mounted in a case. Even though such
relays are classified as instantaneous, a finite length of time is required for
them to operate at different current magnitudes, as shown in the lower
left corner of Fig. 9.3. Instantaneous relays are available in a wide range
of current coil ratings from 1.5 to 80 amp or even more if required. Most
time-delay overcurrent relays are inverse-induction type. An “inverse”
time-current characteristic means that the relay operating time decreases
as its operating current inrreases. Such relays are classified as “inverse-
time,” “very inverse-time,” and “extremely inverse-time.” Current
pickup of the relay is selected by means of the taps in the operating coil,
and time adjustments are made by means of a time dial or a time lever.
For convenience in making adjustments, the total dial or lever-movement
scale is arbitrarily divided into 10 or 11 divisions. Each design of relay
has a family of time-current operating curves corresponding to the num-
hered divisions on the scale. Figure 9.2 shows such a family of curves
for a relay with an inverse-time characteristic. The same family of
curves is applicable for all current ranges of a given model of relay.
There are different models of relays with varying degrees of inverse-
ness. Figure 9.3 shows the difference in the time-current characteristics
of inverse-time, very inverse-time, and extremely inverse-time types of
relays on minimum and maximum time-dial settings. It also shows the
time-current charact,eristic of the instantaneous element when it is pro-
vided in any of these three types of relays. The time-current curves of
the three relays are quite different, making it difficult to obtatn satisfac-
tory coordination when relays with different characteristics operate in
series (see Fig. 9.17).
The inverse-time relay is widely used for general application. It is
better than either of the others on systems where there are wide variations
in short-circuit current levels because of changes in the number of power
sources in use. Its relatively flat time-current curve permits the
relay to give reasonrtbly fast operation over a much wider range of short-
circuit current than the others can. This feature enables the inverse-time
relay to afford a satisfactory degree of fault protection with one or all of
the power sources in operation.
The very inversetime relay has a steeper curve, which makes it slower
on lox values of current and faster on the higher magnitudes of fault cur-
512 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

rent. I t is not so good for systems with variable generating capacity as


the inverse-time relay, but it is better on systems supplied from large
power company systems where the short-circuit-current level at a given
point is more or leas fixed by the impedance of the system up to that point.
The latt,er limitation restricts the current range over which the relay has
to provide fast, performance so the curve ran he steepened.
The extremely inverse-time relay was designed primarily for use on
power company distribution system feeders, where it is necessary t o have
a relay which will ride through the high initial-load current encountered
when reenergizing a feeder after an outage and yet provide fast operation
when needed for short-circuit protect'ion. I

At first glanre, one might think that the extremely inverse-time relay
was partirularly well suited for coordination with fuses, since the shape
of its time-current curve is nearer that of fuse melting-time curves than
420

360

300

60

0
MULTIPLES OF MINIMUM CLOSING CURRENT (TAPVALUE)
FIG. 9.2 Time-current curyes of inverse-time induction overcurrent relay.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 513

are the other relay curves. Practically, however, this relay is undesirable
immediately ahead of a large fuse operating 011 the same magnitude of
fault current, because it is so fast on high values of current that it is quite
likely to tripits breaker unnecessarily when the fusealoneshould bloivfora
fault on its load side. The behavior of this relay when installed on the

FIG. 9.3 Curves of time-current characteristics of inverse-time (A), very inverse-time (El,
extremely inverse-time (C) induction relays, and instantaneous element ( D ) .
514 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

line side of large fuses is discussed further in the section on coordination


and is illustrated in Fig. 9.21. However, the extremely inverse-time
relay is satisfactory when the fuses on its load side are relatively small,
or when the circuit impedance between relay and fuse results in sufficient
current differential to permit selectivity, and also when used to trip a
circuit breaker with a fuse ahead of it.
I t will be noted that the time-current curves in Figs. 9.2 and 9.3 are
plotted in terms of multiples of minimum pickup. Pickup current of a
relay is the rating of the current tap in use. Induction relays generally
have several taps brought out of their operating coils to permit selection
of the desired pickup current. For euample, the tap range of a 4- to
16-amp relay coil is 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16 amps. To illustrate the meaning
of multiples-of-pickup current, a relay operating with a 6-amp tap setting
connected to the secondary of a 200/5-amp current transformer (40/1
ratio) would see 2400/(40 X 6) = 10 multiples of its pickup setting with
2400 amp flowing in the primary of the current transformer.
Since standard relays are built on a production-line basis, manufac-
turers are allowed certain tolerances in operating characteristics. There-
fore, an induction overcurrent relay meets standard specifications if i t
operates Ivithin 2 to 7 per cent of the standard characteristic time-current
curves for that type of relay. I n general, the accuracy will be highest a t
high values of operating current, i.e., high multiples of pickup. However,
after a given relay has been adjusted t o have a specific time-current curve
by putting current through it and accurately checking its operating time
for varying values of current, it should operate consistently within
approximately 2 per cent of that time-current curve.
Induction-type overcurrent relays are available as standard devices for
25-, 50-, and 60-cycle service and in a variety of current ranges such as
0.5 to 2, 1.5 to 6 and 4 to 16 amp. The low-current coils rated 0.5 t o 2
and 1.5 to 6 amp may, of course, be used wherever low-current pickup is
desired, but they are primarily intended for residual connection in the
neutral (Fig. 9.4) of the phase-short-circuit-relay current transformers t o
detect ground-fault currents. It should be noted that the low-current
relays impose heavier burdens on their current transformers than the
others do.
All time-delay overcurrent induction relays will start t o move and will
eventually close their contacts on current equal t o their current-tap
(pickup) setting, assuming that they are in good operating condition and
free from dust, etc. However, because of the manufacturing tolerances
allowed and the low operating torque available from such small currents,
i t is desirable to select a current-tap setting such that the relay will
not be expect,ed to give accurate time-current performance below approxi-
mately 1.5 multiples of minimum pickup.
iYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 515

PHASE

J
1
I_
FIG. 9.4 Schematic diagram of residual connection for a ground reloy.

The reset time of induction overcurrent relays, i.e., the time for their
contacts t o returii t o their completely open position when the relay is
deenergized, varies with the time-dia1 setting and the type of relay. On
the 10 time-dia1 setting, the approximate reset time is O sec for the
inverse-time and GO sec for the very inverse-time and extremely inverse-
time relays. For loiver time-dia1 settings, the reset time is reduced
approximately in proportion t o the setting. The relay contacts will also
reset eventually, if t,hey are not sealed closed, mhen the current decreases
t o less than 90 per cent of t h e pickup setting.
Although the complete reset time of a relay for a given time-dia1 posi-
tion may he quite long, the contacts wili have separated in six cycles
(0.1 sec) with normal adjustment or “ivipe.” This permits using the
relay in instantaneous reclosing schemes; i.e., a circuit breaker can be
automatically reclosed following an outage without having t o mait for the
disk t o reset completely. The relay contacts will not be in their normal
position, however, and therefore, if the circuit is still short-circuited, the
relay will operate t o trip its hreaker in much less than the normal time
for the time-current setting of t h a t particular relay.
Basically, different manufacturers’ versions of a given type of relay will
conform t o the general patterns discussed. Nevertheless, there are suffi-
cient variations in time-current curves t o necessitate procurement of the
manufacturers’ d a t a for the particular device involved, if reasonably
accurate settings and performanee are t o be ohtained.
Generator Overcurrent Relay with Voltage Restraint. An overcur-
rent relay with voltage restraint is an induction-disk unit with a voltage-
516 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

restraining circuit which restrains or bucks the actiou of <he rurrent


element. This relay was designed especially for gerrerator eyternal-short-
rircuit protection. The presence of the restraining coil enables the relay
to distinguish between normal operating overload rurrents and short-
circuit currents of the same magnitude. This discriminatiou is accom-
plished by the fact that voltage is esseiitially normal during any permissi-
ble operating load condition, so that the voltage-restraining element of
the relay is able to keep the current element from operating the relay.
When a short circuit occurs, the voltage drops, thereby reducing the
restraining effect and permitting the relay to operate. Its sensitivity and
speed inrrease as the voltage restraint decreases, reaching a maximum at
zero restraint during a three-phase fault close to the generator. Figure

10
8

6
5
4

v)
0
z
0w 0 '
0.8

0.6
0.5
0.4

0.3

0.2
---I1

0. I
pI
-1
RELAY

0. I 0.2 I

FIG. 9.5 Time-current characteristic curves of generator overcurrent relay with voltage
restraint.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 517

9.5 shows the zero- and 115-volt-restraint time-current curves. The


amount of voltage restraint will depend on the type, location, and
severity of the fault. The curves for intermediate values of voltage
restraint, which will fall inside these two extremes, can he obtained from
the manufacturer.
The relay has current taps, to permit adjustment of the current pickup
setting, and time-dial adjustment. to control the operating time for a
given combination of current and voltage restraint.
Voltage-controlled Overcurrent Relay. The voltage-controlled over-
current relay has an induction-disk time-delay overcurrent element and a
solenoid-operated undervoltage element. The two elements are inter-
connected so that the voltage element must close its rontacts before the
overcurrent element can start t o move. The overcurrent element can
have a n inverse, inverse-definite-time, or very-inverse time-current char-
acteristic as desired. It has current t,aps and a time-dial adjustment.
The relay is applicable where it is desired that an overcurrent element be
set t o operate on less than full-load current when the voltage falls helow a
predetermined value. A typical application is overcurrent backup pro-
tection for generators.
Directional Relays-General. A directional relay operates when the
current in the rircuit floivs in a given direction and ignores current flowing
in the opposite direction regardless of its magnitude. It ran he designed
t o work on either useful power (kw) or short-circuit current (most,ly
reactive). This discussion will be confined to the latter type.
Directional short-circuit-detecting relays may he of the directional-
overcurrent type or directional-product type. The current-measuring
element of the overcurrent t,ype is a simple inst,ant,aneous and/or time-
delay overcurrent relay. In the product-type relay, which is iised only
for directional ground-fault protection, a single operating element,artuated
by the product of two currents, or a current and a potential, indicates the
direction of current flow as well as its magnitude.
Some of the uses of directional relays are the following:
1. T o permit tripping a circuit breaker for one valne of time and cnr-
rent when the short-circuit current flows in one direction in the cirruit
and a different time and current when the current is flowing in the opposit,e
direction.
2. T o obtain selective tripping between circuit breakers at the receiving
ends of parallel lines when a fault occurs on one of the lines causing the
same current to flow thi-uugh the relays on the good line and the one in
trouble.
3. T o obtain selective tripping of a grounded-neutral generator or
transformer circuit breaker -when a ground fault occurs in the protected
unit and there are other sources supplying ground-fault current.
518 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

Phase-fault directional relays will also operate on ground faults pro-


vided that the ground current is large enough t o operate the relay, i.e., is
not unduly restricted by external impedance in the neutral of the trans-
former, or generator, supplying power t o the system. However, direc-
tional ground relays, either overcurrent or product type, are usually sup-
plied in addition t o the directional phase relays on both solid and resist,-
ance-grounded-neutral circuits.
Directional-overcurrent Relays. One design of directional-overcurrent
relays has a low-energy instantaneous directional-control element whose
contacts prevent operation of both the instantaneous and time-delay
overcurrent elements unless the short-circuit current is flowing in the
direction for which it is desired t o have the associated circuit breaker
tripped. The dirertional element operates on the same hasic principle as
the wattmeter, but is designed t o respond t o out-of-phase short-circuit
current rather than in-phase load current. This element responds t o the
direction of current flow without regard t o its magnitude. The over-
current element, \yhich measures the magnitude of the current, may be
instantaneous or time-delay, or the relay may have both elements. The
time-delay element is essentially the same as that in the ordinary inverse-
time or very inverse-time overcurrent relays. It has current taps t o per-
mit adjustment, so that the relay will operate on the desired magnitude of
short-circuit current. The relays also have a time dial, or lever, with
which t o adjust the distance which the induction disk has t o travel,
therchy controlling the time required for the relay t o close its contacts.
Their dial, or lever, wales are arbitrarily divided into approximately 11
divisions as in the case of ordinary overcurrent relays, and their time-
current curves are the same.
In other designs of directional-overcurrent relays the time-delay ele-
ment is (.ont,rolled hy the directional element, hut the instant,aneous ele-
ment picks up independently of it. Directional operation when the
instant,aneous element operates is ohtained hy having the contacts of the
dirertional and instautaneous elements in series, so that, even though the
instantaneous clement does pick up, nothing happens unless the contacts
of thc directional clemciit are also closed. Provision is made to prevent
possihle false operation that might occur because of the fact that for a
given fault loration t,he current might, he flowing in the wrong direction
for tripping and yet the nondirectional instantaneous element would pick
up, therehy (.omplet,ing the tripping circuit falsely, if the sensitive, fast-
operating ilirertional element should suddenly reverse and close its con-
tarts before the instantaneous element had time t o drop out during the
surge folloiving interruption of the short circuit by some other breaker.
Iiirectional-o~erciirretit relays for phase-phase and three-phase faults
arc single-phase units, and three are normally used for a three-phase cir-
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 519

cuit. Both the directional and overcurrent-element current coils are con-
nected t o current transformers in the line, and the potential coils are
usually connected to t,wo open-delta or three Y-Y potential transformers
in a quadrature or 90" arrangement (i.e., the current at unity power factor
leads the potential 90').
Directional-overcurrent ground relays are similar in construction t o the
directional phase-fault protection relays. I n order t o simplify the appli-
cation and also reduce the number of varieties to be carried in stock, some
of the designs of direcbional-overcurrent ground relays have provision for
dual polarization, i.e., they have both current and potential polarizing
coils. The use of both coils is often advantageous in that it assures
polarization of the relay whether or not the grounded-neutral generator
or transformer at a given location is in service.
The operating-current coil of a directional-overcurrent ground relay is
connected in the neutral of the line-current transformers (Fig. 9.4). Nor-
mal load currents in t,he current-transformer secondaries even though
unbalanced and phase-to-phase or three-phase short-circuit currents do
not cause current to flow in the neutral. Therefore, only ground-fault
current flows in the neutral connection except for error currents which will
be discussed later under the general subject of coordination.
The polarizing-current coil is connected to a current transformer in the
neutral ground connection of a power transformer or generator, where the
current flow will always he in the same direction (Fig. 9.6.4). The poten-
tial polarizing coil of t,hese relays is connected across the open corner of
the broken-delta secondary of Y-delta-connected potential transformers,
as shown in Fig. 9.6B. Under normal operating conditions the three
voltages are equal and no voltage appears across the relay coil, but as soon
as a ground fault occurs the relay potential coil sees a voltage, whose
phase angle corresponds to that of the grounded primary phase and whose
magnitude is three times the zero-phase-sequence voltage. On high-
voltage systems, polarizing voltage can also be obtained from hushing
potential devices and coupling capacitor potential devices. The latter
are seldom required on industrial plant power systems because the power
system voltages are relatively low.
The potential coils of the phase-fault directional relays can be con-
nected to the same potential transformers by using a 60" connection, i.e.,
the current at 1.0 power factor leads the voltage 60'. An alternative
arrangement would consist of Y-Y-connected potential transformers for
the phase-fault relays with Y-broken-delta auxiliary transformers for the
polarizing coil. .
Product-type Directional Ground Relays. Product-type directional
ground relays indicate the direction, as well as the magnitude, of the
520 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

t m D
ETC
r.
t b
\/
-\ I F
GROUNDED Y-CONNECTED

.,
e
. TRANSFORMER OR GEN-

1 ERATOR

MAIN POLARIZING -

t
TIE LINE
(A)

/.+
PHASERELAYS
ETC

.\
4.d

.I
J-

t
TIE LINE (8)
FIG. 9.6 Schemotic diagrams of directional ground relay polarized with current ( A ) or
potential (8) for operation on ground-fault current flowing in direction of owow in tie line.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 521

short-circuit current flowing in the tripping direction by means of a single


element operating on torque obtained from the product of ground-fault
current and a polarizing current or potential. The main coil is connected
in the neutral of the three Y-connected line current transformers (Fig.
9.4). The polarizing effect required for directional operation is obtained
by means of a current or potential coil. The connections of both oper-
ating and polarizing coils would be the same as for the directional-over-
current ground relays.
Either the overcurrent or product type of dirertional ground relay will
afford essentially the same degree of protection to industrial plant power
systems, which are relatively compact and usually have the system neutral
grounded a t only one station. The product-type relays are somewhat
more sensitive and permit greater selectivity between relays under certain
conditions, which factors may be advantageous on a complex power com-
pany system but are of minor, if any, advantage in industrial plants.
Directional-overcurrent relays are simpler to apply and adjust than the
product type, because only the current magnitude and time-dial setting
affect their operating time, whereas the operation of a product-type relay
is affected by the line current and the polarizing voltage or current, or
both, and the phase angle between them.
Directional-overcurrent Relays with Voltage Restraint. These relays
are the same as the ordinary directional-overcurrent relays except that
there is an additional voltage-restraint circuit in the directional unit.
This feature enables the relay to distinguish between short-circuit and
heavy-load currents, which may not be very differentin magnitude under
some conditions. Under normal overload conditions the system voltage
is essentially normal and the voltage-restraining coil prevents operation
of the directional element of the relay. As soon as a short circuit occurs,
however, the voltage decreases and the restraining effect is reduced or
entirely removed, whereupon the contacts of the directional element
close and permit operation of the overcurrent element. Since these
relays are intended for use on circuits with low magnitudes of short-
circuit current, they are available with 2- to 8-amp coils, as well as the
usual 4- to 12-amp or 4- t o 16-amp rating.
Differential Relays-General. Differential relays depend for their
operation on the fact that when conditions are normal the current flowing
into one end of a generator winding, one side of a transformer, or one end
of a circuit is balanced by an equivalent current flowing out the other end,
i.e., what goes in has t o come out, if everything is in order. This makes
it possible to build relays that “watch” the ingoing and outgoing currents
and operate when idifference between them indicates that something is
wrong inside the protected equipment or circuit.
Plain overcurrent relays can be used as differential relays. However,
522 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

since they work on simple current differential without the help of restrain-
ing windings, they must he set quite high in current t o avoid false opera-
tion due to current-transformer inaccuracies. Therefore, specially
designed differential relays have replaced them almost entirely.
Generator Differential Relays. As shown in the diagram of Fig. 9.7,
two current transformers of equal capacity and similar characteristics are
installed in opposite ends of each generator phase winding, and their
secondaries are connected in series with the restraining coils (RC) of the
differential relay. Under normal operating conditions the same current
flows through the two current-transformer primaries, and corresponding
secondary currents circulate through the restraining coils of the relay in
the direction of the arrows. When a short circuit develops inside the
generator, the current in the two current transformers is no longer the
same and the difference in current will circulate through the operating coil
(OC) of the relay. When this difference-current flowing through the
operating coil exceeds the current in the restraining coil by a certain per-
centage, the relay operates instantly to trip the generator line and field
circuit breakers through an auxiliary relay.
These differential relays are of two types. One works on a constant
percentage difference in current in the two current transformers (Fig. 9.7)
and the other works on a percentage difference that increases rapidly as
the short-circuit current increases (Fig. 9.8). They are commonly referred
to as constant-slope and increasing-slope relays, because of the shape of
their operating characteristic curves. Both types work on the same basic
principle of checking the balance of current in the ingoing and outgoing
current transformers. The important difference between them is the
fact that the increasing-slope type, while costing slightly more, requires
less arcuracy in the performance of its current transformers than the con-
stant-slope type does. This means that less time need be spent in calcu-
lating the performance of the current transformers, less accurate and
consequently less expensive current transformers might possibly be used,
or other relays or meters, etc., could be connected in the same circuit with
the differential relays, without running the risk of false relay operation
due to unequal current-transformer behavior.
The purpose of the slope in the two relays is t o prevent false operation
due to current-transformer-error currents that might flow in the differ-
ential-relay circuit during a severe short circuit outside the differentially
protected zone. Error currents ocrur because no two current trans-
formers will perform exactly alike even though made to the same
specifications and from the same lot of material. Because the current
transformers are not absolutely alike, they saturate unequally when high
currents flow through them during external short circuits and t,heir ratio
breaks down unequally. If this happens, the unbalanced current flows
in the differential-relay circuit, and the relay has no way of knowing
SYSTEM OVERCURPENT PROTECTION 523

l l / V X A A / I / ~ / W l I I I I 1 1 I 1 I I 1 I 1 ~ ! I
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
12 AMPERES 12 AMPERES
CURRENT FLOWING FROM BUS T O GEN CURRENT FLOWING FROM GEN TO BUS

FIG. 9.8 Schematic connection diagram and operating choraderirticr of increaring-slope


generator differential relay.
514 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

whether the current it sees indicates a fault in the generator or a “mis-


take” on the part of the current transformers, which the relay should
ignore.
The constant-percentage differential relay works on a 10 per cent slope,
as shown in Fig. 9.7. The V-shaped shaded area represents the plus or
minus 10 per cent margin allowed for current-transformer errors due to
unequal characteristics and saturation. The current transformers to be
used with such a relay should be selected so that the difference in second-
ary current output of I , and I , current transformers will not exceed 5 per
cent under maximum fault conditions, which leaves a safety factor of
5 per cent without exceeding the 10 per cent margin built into the relay.
The increasing-slope differential relay works on the same principle of
watching the difference in current output of the current transformers in
opposite ends of the generator winding. The essential difference is that
the relay is designed so that the margin allowed for current-transformer
errors increases rapidly as the short-circuikcurrent magnitude increases.
This permits the relay to operate on 10 per cent current differential on
low-magnitude faults when there is no danger of current-transformer
errors and still not operate incorrectly during severe through faults
(external to the generator) even though one current transformer falls
down completely.
In order for generator differential relays to operate when current is
flowing from the generator to the bus, two requirements must be met,
namely, (1) the per cent difference between I I and 12 must be greater than
the per cent slope shown in the relay curves for the current magnitude
involved in that particular fault, and (2) the differential current must
equal or exceed the minimum pickup current of 0.1 or 0.2 amp. The
relays will always operate on internal faults in a generator when there is
feedback current from other power sources, provided the differential
current exceeds their minimum pickup current.
For all practical purposes both the constant- and increasing-slope
differential relays are instantaneous in operation, but the latter is slightly
faster.
The limitation of ground-fault current, which is usually done on indus-
trial plant power systems for reasons discussed elsewhere in t,his book,
reduces the sensitivity of generator differential-relay protection in vary-
ing degrees, depending on the relative magnitude of the ground-fault and
rated-load current of the generator and the characteristics of the current
transformers. The generatar neutral relay can be set to compensate for
this deficiency as far as sensitivity is concerned, but i t is only an ordinary
overcurrent relay and hence may not operate selectively ip case of an
internal fault in one of several individually grounded generators in parallel.
Consequentk, a sensitive differentially connected directional ground
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 525

relay should be installed to supplement the main generator differential


relay unless the nature of the load is such as to permit shutting down all
generators in the plant, if an internal fault in one generator happens to be
close enough to its neutral to limit the ground-fault current to such a low
value that the main differential relays cannot operate. The unprotected
area varies from about 11 to 19 per cent when the neutral current is
limited to generator full-load current, and increases if the ground-fault
current is further reduced.
Transformer Differential Relays. Transformer differential relays are
of the constant-percentage-differential type. They work on the same
basic principle as generator differential relays, i.e., they watrh to see that
when current enters one winding a corresponding amount leaves the other
winding, or windings in the case of multiple-winding units. The connec-
tions of a transformer differential relay are the same as for a generator
differential relay except that the current transformers in the different
circuits to transformers have to be of different ratios to compensate for
the fart that there is a different voltage in each circuit, and ronsequently
the currents are not the same. One type of differential relay used with
large transformers has a harmonic restraining feature \\ hich prevents
false operation of the relay on the magnetizing current when the trans-
former is first energized. Since this magnetizing current may be as much
as twelve to fifteen times normal, a differentially connected relay respon-
sive only to current magnitude has to be set high enough in current and
time to ride through the magnetizing period, which means corresponding
reduction in the protection it can provide. The harmonir-restraint
feature works on the basis of the fact that the magnetizing inrush current
has a distorted wave form containing mostly second- and third-harmonic
components, which are not present in short-circuit current. These har-
monic components are filtered out and used to restrain the relay and pre-
vent its operation on the inrush of magnetizing current. Provision is
made to keep the harmonic-restraint circuit from blocking desired relay
operation on internal transformer faults severe enough to create sub-
stantial amounts of third-harmonic current due t o a-c saturation of the
current transformers.
Another form of differential relay used with large transformers uses a
supplementary tripping suppressor to prevent false operation on inrush
current. The suppressor introduces the necessary time delay to ride
through the magnetizing-current inrush under normal conditions and also
makes provision for immediate tripping in the event that there is a fault
inside the protected zone during the magnetizing period.
The non-harmonic-restrained relays used with relatively small trans-
formers depend on a slight time delay to enable them to ride through the
magnetizing inrush. I n some cases, however, the inrush current is so
526 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

high that this time delay is not sufficient t o prevent false operation, and
i t becomes necessary t o supply supplementary desensitizing equipment,
or the suppressor just mentioned. The desensitizing equipment auto-
matically makes the relay less sensitive until the magnetizing current
inrush has disappeared.
Transformer differential relays require more slope, i.e., a greater per
cent difference in the output of t.heir current transformers than generator
differential relays do, to allow for the unbalances in current caused by
transformer-tap changing in addition t o the differences due to current-
transformer saturation. Without the extra slope it would be necessary
to readjust the relay taps whenever the tap ratio of the transformer was
changed, e.g., a 5 per cent change in transformer taps causes a correspond-
ing change in the current in that winding, whereas the c.nrrent in the ot.her
winding remains essentially t,he same for a given kva load. Some trans-
former differential relays have a single per cent slope characteristic, while
others are adjustable for different slopes. The higher percentage slopes
are for use with transformers having a wide tap range, as in load-ratio-
control equipment.
The currents in the different connections to transformers differ depend-
ing on the voltage ratio, and consequently different current-transformer
ratios are required. I t is necessary for economical reasons to use stand-
ard current transformers, however; so it is seldom possible to obtain a
cornhination of current transformers that will produce exactly equal cur-
rent in their secondaries. Therefore, some transformer differential relays
are provided with several taps in their windings to permit balancing the
ampere-turns in the relay elements connected to the different main-trans-
former circuits. Other designs of relays depend on external tapped auto-
transformers to do this. The tap range is sufficiently broad to take care
of the requirement that the current-transformer secondaries must be con-
nected in the reverse order of the main-transformer windings, e.g., the
current transformers for a Y-delta-connected transformer would he con-
nected delta on the Y-connected side of the transformer and Y on the
delta side. This means that the relay coil connected to the delta-con-
nected current transformers would see 1.73 times the current in its indi-
vidual current-transformer sesondaries, i.e., there would he 8.7 amp in
the relay coil when a 5-amp secondary current transformer had full load
in its primary.
Differential relays are available for hoth two- and three-winding trans-
formers. Those designed for use with three-winding transformers work
on the same principle as the others.
Bus Differential Relays. There are three types of relays available for
differential protection of buses:
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 527

1. Ordinary time-delay overcurrent relays


2. Current-actuated bus differential relays with restraining coils
3. Voltage-actuated relays either differential-voltage or linear-coupler
type
Ordinary overcurrent relays can he differentially connected, so t h a t
they will operate on the difference between the summation of the currents
entering and leaving the bus. They are not particularly well adapted for
the purpose, however, because the only vay to prevent their false oper-
ation when the ratio of a current transformer breaks down, because of
d-c and a-c saturation during a severe external fault on a feeder, is to set
them high in both current and time. When so set, they are too slow and
insensitive to he very effective.
The current-actuated differential relays have restraining coils and are
much better than the ordinary overcurrent relays, hut they are still not
so effective as the voltage-actuated relays. The latter are able to dis-
criminate instantly between faults in the bus and external short circuits
on feeders outside the differentially protected zone, even though one or
more of the current transformers in the group become completely
saturated.
One form of these voltage-actuated relays is known as a differential-
voltage relay. It is designed for use with hushing-type or the through or
window-type current transformers used in metal-clad switchgear. The
relay is connected across the paralleled secondaries of current trans-
formers i n each of the incoming and outgoing circuits. When conditions
are normal, the vertor sum of these secondary currents is zero, and no
voltage appears across the relay coil. But as soon as either a bus (inter-
nal) or external fault occurs, the vector sum is no longer zero and the flow
of unbalanced current creates a voltage drop across the relay. Because
the voltage appearing across the relay for any magnitude of bus fault is
greater than that during an external fault, the relay is able to distinguish
between an external and internal fault.
The other form of voltage-actuated bus differential relay is known as a
linear-coupler relay. These relays are connected in series with air-core
mutual react,ors (linear rouplers), which look like conventional bushing
current transformers. T h e couplers are installed in all the circuit,s con-
nected to the hns and generate volt,ages in proportion to the flow of cur-
rent in their primary circuits. Under normal load and external fault
conditions, the voltages generated in the couplers in the incoming power
circuits' rancel those in the outgoing circuits and no current circulates
through the relay. V h e n a bus fault occurs, however, the voltages do
not cancel each other, and the resulting current flow causes the relay to
operate.
528 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

A-C Wire-pilot Relays (Tie-cable and Relatively Short Transmission-


line Protection). 4 - C wire-pilot-relay protection is a form of current-
differential relaying modified so that a very small portion of the current
appearing in the secondary of the current transformers at opposite ends of
t.he circuit, actually f l o ~ through
s the pilot wires. I t is designed to pro-
vide fast phase-phase, three-phase, and ground-fault protection of tie
cables or relatively short transmission lines.
In an ordinary differential-relay circuit, the secondary current from the
current transformers circulates continuously through the relay and cur-
rent transformers over a set of four control wirea. Since the four wires
must be large enough to limit the impedance sufficiently to avoid satura-
liou trouble by overburdening the current transformers, such a system is
impractical unless the latter are within a few hundred feet of each other
and the relay. This obstacle is overcome in the a-c mire-pilot protection
system, because the relays and auxiliary devices are designed to take just
a “sample” of the currents flowing in the current transformers at each
end of the cable or transmission lines and then compare these samples
over a pair of relatively small pilot wires.
Under normal load conditions, or even when short-circuit current flows
through the line to a fault outside the protected zone (through short
circuit), the samples match each other and the relays do not operate. As
soon as a fault occurs in the line between the relays, however, the samples
no longer match each other, indicating that there is trouble in the pro-
tected zone, and the relays operate instantly t o trip their respective circuit
breakers.
There are two types of a-c wire-pilot relay systems. One operates on
the opposed-voltage principle and the other on the circulating-current
principle. In an opposed-voltage system, the current samples taken at
each end of the line create voltages that are equal and opposite to each
other, with the result that no current f l o w in the pilot mires under normal
conditions. When a fault occurs, the voltages are thrown out of balance,
current flows through the pilot wires, and the relays operate. In the
circulating-current system, the small sample current circulates con-
tinuously through the pilot wires and directional relays a t each end.
When a fault occurs inside the protected zone, the pattern of current flow
changes and the relays operate to trip the breakers.
Either system will provide adequate protection, although each has
some minor advantages that might make it bett,er adapted for a specific
application. These systems work best on two-terminal lines, i.e., single
circuits with no t,aps or branches, but they can be modified for use with
some combinations of lines with branch circuits or taps. .
Both systems incorporate the necessary restraint features t o prevent
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 529

false operation due to current-transformer errors during severe short


circuits outside the protected zone.
These systems will work with pilot wires having a total loop resistance
of 2000 ohms and a capacitance of 1.5 pf, which is equivalent to approxi-
mately 23 miles of single-conductor No. 19-Awg telephone wire (11.5
power-line-circuit miles). With certain special modifications, the sys-
tems will work with higher resistance pilot v.ires, permitting smaller
wires or a longer pilot circuit. Industrial plant tie cables are generally of
moderate length installed inside the plant, and privately owned multiple-
conductor control cables are used for pilot wires. It is common practice,
however, to rent pilot wires from the local telephone company for the
longer circuits involved in transmission-line protection.
Pilot-wire Supervisory Equipment. Supplementary eouiprnent can
be provided, if desired, which will continuously check on the condition of
pilot wires to give warning in case the wires become short-circuited or
open-circuited.
Current-balance Relays. Current-balance relays are available in
induction-disk and induction-cup-type construction for the protection of
parallel transmission lines that feed a common terminal and have no
branch lines. They operate on the principle that, under normal load or
through-fault conditions, the current will be balanced between the two
lines. If the currents become unbalanced by a predetermined amount
because of a fault in one line, the relays operate instantly to trip the cir-
cuit breaker on the line in trouble. Current-halance relays provide
phase-phase and three-phase fault protection.
Current-halance protection of lines is subject to the handicap that the
fast-operating current-halance relays must he disconnected from the
tripping circuit when one of the circuit breakers is opened, either manually
or by relay operation. Otherwise, the load current which was formerly
divided between the parallel lines will unbalance and, therefore, operate
the relay when i t is all thrown onto the remaining line or lines. The
transfer from current-balance to plain overcurreut relay protection is
accomplished automatically by means of auxiliary switches on the circuit
breakers. Because of this disadvantage, i.e., reversion to ordinary over-
current protection on occasion, current-balance protection of transmission
lines is losing popularity in favor of distance relays, which provide high-
speed protection to the lines whether they are operating individually or in
parallel.
Distance Relays. Distance relays obtained their family name from
the fact that they operate on the basis of the balance between voltage and
current, the ratio of which can he expressed in terms of impedance.
Since impedance, in turn, is an electrical measure of distance on a trans-
530 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

mission line, which these relays are rommonly used to protect, it seemed
quite appropriate to call them “distance” relays.
They are a very versatile and useful family of relays operating on the
hasis of the location of the fault without regard t o the magnitude of the
short-circuit current. Consequently, they can give much faster tripping
than relays depending on current magnitude and time settings for
selectivity.
They are seldom used on industrial power systems, however, because
the latter are too compact and the distances too short in most cases to
permit proper application of these relays. Consequently, it seemed best
not to attempt t o discuss them in detail in this book.

CURRENT-LIMITING AND STANDARD FUSES

The two basic types of fuses are the current-limiting and non-current-
lirnking or what might he termed standard fuses.
Practically all fuses will melt in considerably less than one-half cycle
on a 60-cycle basis when subjected t o high values of fault current. How-
ever, the arc is a conductor and enables the current to reach its mavimum
crest value unless provision is made to put the arc out before the current
can reach its crest. When such provision is made, the fuses are classified
as current-limiting.
Most fuses are self-protecting, that is, they are capable of extinguishing
the arc for any value of current within their interrupting-capacity rating
limit. Current-limiting fuses for motor-starting service are purposely
designed t o carry low values of current for considerable periods of time t o
permit repeated starting or jogging of motors. Such fuses must he used
in conjunction with a thermally controlled contactor, or other circuit-
interrupting device, capable of interrupting currents that would require
more than 10 sec to melt the fuse link. Otherwise the entire fuse unit
might he overheated to such an extent that. it would not be able to success-
fully interrupt the current when the link finally melted.
Some current-limiting fuses used in the primary of load-center trans-
formers, where it is desired to have selective operation between the fuse
and a transformer secondary breaker, are designed to give somewhat
longer melting time than standard fuses on high values of fault current in
order t o clear the instantaneous trip in the rircuit breaker.
Most fuses have a “smooth,” that is, a continuous melting-time curve,
but certain types are purposely designed to give more time on moderate
I
overloads of two or three times fuse rating. Such fuses have a jog in
their melting-time curves a t the point of transition from slow t o st,andard
melting-time characteristic.
Fuse time-current operating characteristics are given in terms of the
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 531
532 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

melting time for a given value of current, but unfortunately there is no


accepted industry-wide standard as t o the method of showing them, i.e.,
whether they should be plotted on t.he basis of short time, or minimum
melting, maximum melting, or total clearing time. The various time-
current characteristics of a fuse can be calculated from the given charac-
teristic by adding or subtracting allowances, as shown in Fig. 9.9. If, for
example, the characteristic of a power fuse is given in terms of minimum
melting time, the maximum melting time can be determined by plotting
another curve 20 per cent higher in current for each value of time t o allow
for variations in manufacture of the fuse wire. Distribution-type fuse
links have a smaller manufacturing tolerance. After the fuse melts,
some time is required for the arc t o go out, and this must be added to
the maximum melting time t o obtain the total clearing time curve.
Another factor that must be considered in determining the over-all
time-current characteristic of a fuse for coordination purposes is the dam-
age tolerance (see Fig. 9.9). This is an allowance that must be made if
the fuse is used ahead (on the power-source side) of some other short-
circuit protective device. If the fault is on the load side of one of these
other devices, the latter must operate and clear the fault in less than the
time shown by the damage-tolerance curve, in order t o avoid any possi-
bility of overheating the fuse link sufficiently t o weaken i t and thereby
eventually cause false operation. I n some cases the damage tolerance is
minus 25 per cent in time for any given current, i.e., the protective device
on the load side of the fuse should open and clear the circuit for any given
value of current before that time is reached in order t o avoid overheating
the fuse detrimentally. I n other cases, the damage tolerance is given in
per cent current. Specific curves for the particular fuse involved should
be obtained from the manufacturer. The short-time curves sometimes
provided include the damage tolerance.
The suffix “ E ” on fuse current ratings simply means that the fuse or
fuse link is made to meet the 1944 EEI-NEMA Committee Standards for
temperature rise a t certain loads, and the suffix“ N ” means that the fuse
or fuse link conforms to the corresponding 1936 NEMA Standards. Both
the N and E fuses will carry their rated current continuously.

DIRECT-ACTING-TRIP DEVICES-GENERAL

A direct-acting-trip device is one that trips its circuit breaker by direct


mechanical action when the flow of short-circuit current reaches a pre-
determined value, whereas a relay works through the medium of an a-c or
d-c potential trip coil, or an undervoltage device, t o trip the breaker.
Direct-acting trips may be operated by (1) an armature attracted by the
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 533

electromagnetic force crrated by the short-circuit current flowing through


a series trip coil or (2) a bimetallic strip or the equivalent actuated by the
heat generated by the fault current. The bimetallic strip is usually in
series with the circuit on small breakers. On large breakers it may be
heated by induction.
The majority of direct-acting trips are used on low-voltage (600 volts
and below) air rirruit breakers. However, they are also used on power
(above 600 volts) circuit breakers in small installations as the only form
of short-circuit protection and in conjunction with relays to avoid the use
of a tripping battery.
All direct-acting-trip devices are less accurate ill their time-current
characteristics than relays. It might he possible to build such devices
capable of developing sufficient force to trip their breakers directly and
still have as high a degree of accuracy as is afforded by overcurrent relays,
but the cost would not be justifiable on systems where this type of device
is used.
Inasmuch as their construction varies, the discussion mill he continued
under the heading of the types of breakers with which they are used.
Direct-acting-trip Devices on Power Circuit Breakers (above 600
volts). Direct-acting trips are commonly used on relatively low-inter-
rupting-capacity power circuit breakers and are available when required
on some of the larger breakers. They are electromagnetic, plunger
operated, and may he either instantaneous or time delay. They are
usually operated from the secondary of current transformers rather than
being connected in series with the primary circuit.
Instantaneous-trip direct-acting-trip devices may he used alone to trip
their respective circuit breakers, but, for the most part, they are used in
conjunction with time-delay overcurrent relays to trip the circuit breakers
when there is no tripping batt,ery available.
Time-delay direct-acting-trip devices have an oil dashpot with pro-
vision for adjustment of the time delay. Adjustment of the current
pickup of either the time-delay or inst,antaneous-trip devices is accom-
plished by varying the position of the plunger in the solenoid.
Direct-acting-trip Devices on Air Circuit Breakers (600 Volts a n d
below). The direct-acting-trip devices on low-voltage circuit breakers
(600 volts and helow) are electromagnetic. They are usually of hinged-
armature construction actuated by t,he flow of current through coils in
series with the circuit.
Three tripping devices are provided on each three-phase breaker.
They can he built with instantaneous and long- or short-time-delay trips.
These different trips-can he used in a variety of combinations: (1) instan-
taneous, ( 2 ) long and short time-delay, (3) instantaneous and long or
534 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

short time-delay, (4) instantaneous and both long and short time-delay.
A “family” of long- and short-time-delay tripping-device time-current
characteristic curves for 15-, 25-, and 50,000-amp interrupting-
capacity low-voltage air circuit breakers is shown in Fig. 9.10. The
shape of different manufacturers’ direct-acting-trip curves differs some-
what, but the curves have the same basic characteristics as those shown
here.
I n the design of a tripping device whose curves are shown in Fig. 9.10,
the current pickup is adjustable, but the operating time for different cur-
rent values is not adjustable. I n other designs, both the current trip
and the time delay may be adjustable.
Tripping-device operation coils are available in a wide range of current
ratings up to and including the maximum continuous-current-carrying
capacity of the circuit breakers. This is 225 amp for the 15,000-, 600
amp for the 25,000-, and 1600 amp for the 50,000-amp interrupting-
capacity (IC) breakers, respectively. The current rating of a circuit
breaker is determined by its trip-coil rating rather than its maximum con-
tinuous-current-carrying capacity, or so-called ‘‘ frame size.”
The current setting of long-time-delay trip devices is adjustable in the
field, and pickup-setting calibration markings are a t 80, 100, 120, 140, and
160 per cent of the trip-coil rating. They can also be set a t any inter-
mediate value between these calibration points.
Some short-time-delay trip devices are also adjustable, in which case
they usually have three current pickup settings marked on the calibration
scale. The NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers’ Association)
standard calibration markings of 5, 756, 10 times the trip-coil rating are
supplied unless another combination is requested. They can he had with
ealihrations anywhere in the range of 2 to 10 times the trip-coil rating, as
long as the desired maximum setting is not more than 255 times the mini-
mum setting. Short-time-delay trips are sometimes supplied without
provision for adjustment of the setting, because only one of a possible
choice of pickup settings will coordinate properly with the characteristics
of the tripping devices on the other hreakers in series with it in a factory-
designed selective-tripping system.
The curves in Fig. 9.10 are plotted in “multiples-of-the-pickup setting”
of the trip coil, e.g., if a 400-amp trip is set a t 80 per cent pickup, 1
multiple of pickup would be 320 amp, 2 multiples would he 640 amp, etc.
Present NEMA Standards refer only to upper and lower boundaries
of air-circuit-breaker tripping-device curves, and some published curves
are plotted in that manner. The area hetween these NEXA limits is
shown divided into it,s two components in the curves of Fig. 9.10, so that
their significance could be explained in order to give the reader a better
understanding of the operation of the device.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 535

The solid-line curves represent the boundaries of the tripping-time


zones of the respective devices. Points on the lower of these lines repre-
sent the minimum time required for the device to trip on a given value of
current. Similarly, points on the upper curves show the maximum limit
of the tripping time of the device plus the arc-clearing time of the breaker.
These maximum and minimum tripping-time curves represent the manu-

FIG. 9.10 Typical time-current choracterirtic curves of long clnd short time-delay trips
on6W-volt aircircuit b r e o k e n ( l 6 0 0 a m p and below).
536 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

facturing tolerances adopted by the industry to define the limits of


acceptable performance of hreaker time-delay tripping devices. These
tolerances include allowance for variations in magnet and armature struc-
ture performance due to machining and slight differences in magnetic
material, plus oil-viscosity changes due to temperature. These two curves
represent the extremes of acceptable performance, and the operating-time
tolerance hand of a given tripping device will be much narrower.
All mechanically operated devices have a certain amount of overtravel,
i.e., they continue to move in the original direction of motion because of
inertia after removal of the driving force. Also, less current is required
to creat,c the same pull in an electromagnetic circuit when the air gap is
reduced.
The dash-dot (reset-time) curves in Fig. 9.10, which correspond to the
lower boundary of the operating zones of the tripping device as defined by
S E M A , make allowance for these factors in order to avoid false tripping
of circuit breakers on the line side of another hreaker, as explained below.
SERIES TRIP
As soon as t,he current in the cir-

w/
COIL ON ARMATURE POSITION cuit exceeds the pickup setting of
BREAKER AT RESET TIME
either a long- or short-time-delay
AIR f trip device, the armature starts to
ARMATURE move at a rate proportional to the
PoSITIoN
NORMAL series-connected
electromagnetic force
trip exerted
coil. At
by the

time indicated by the intersection of


the dash-dot curves in Fig. 9.10 and
a current-magnitude ordinate, the
/
armature will have reached a par-
t.ially picked-up position designated
FIG. 9.1 1 Schematic diagram rhowing position at resettime”
operation of 6Mlvolt air-circuit-breaker
tripping mechanirm.
in Fig. 9.11. When the armature
of the tripping device reaches this
position, the current in the circuit must he reduced immediately to 80
per cent or less of the pickup setting of a long-t,ime-delay (LTD) device,
or 20 per cent or less of the pickup setting of a shortbtime-delay device.
Otherwise the armature will continue to move and eventually trip the
breaker. This continuation of movement in the closing direction from
the reset-time position is caused by a combination of overtravel and the
increased effectiveness of current in the series coil. The position of the
reset-time curve shifts somewhat with variations in the magnitude of the
current left flowing in the circuit after the major reduction in current is
effected, hut it is impractical to try to make allowance for such-variations.
The permissible 80 per cent current limit on the long-time-delay trips
enables the hreaker t o carry some normal load current after the high
overcurrent period has passed. The same is true of the 20 per cent limit
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 537

on the short-time-delay trip device. The latter, incidentally, is more


generous than appears a t first glance, since minimum pickup on the com-
monly used short-time-delay devices is five times normal.
To illustrate the meaning of the reset-time curves, assume that a 200-
amp 1C long-time-delay tripping device, as shown in Fig. 9.10, has its
pickup set a t 100 per cent of the coil rating and that the current in the
circuit is five times normal. I n order t o prevent false operation, the
current must be reduced to 80 per cent of the pickup setting by the open-
ing of some ot,her device, or by a reduction of the start,ing current in the
case of motor-starting duty, a t not later than 5.7 sec; otherwise the device
will continue to move and eventually trip the breaker, even though its
minimum normal tripping time would be 11 sec with five times normal
current flowing.
When plotting coordination curves of time-delay air-circuit-breaker
tripping devices, the area hetween the reset-time and the maximum-time
curves (NEMA’S lower and upper boundaries, respectively) should he
reserved for the tripping device of each circuit breaker.
The long-time-delay and instant,aneous trips are usually combined in a
common device. When this is done, the long-time-delay curves “blend”
smoothly into the instantaneous-setting curves, as shown by the broken
lines on the trip-coil curves in Fig. 9.10 and the typical combination of
long-time-delay and instantaneous-trip curves shown in Fig. 9.12.
The instantaneous curves are plotted in multiples of rated current and,
therefore, are applicable t o any rating of trip coil available in the 15-, 25-,
and 50,000-amp interrupting-capacity circuit breakers. It should he
borne in mind, however, that the multiples of rated current times the
current rating of the particular trip coil must not exceed the interrupting
capacity of the breaker.
The short-time-delay trip is usually a separate device and does not
blend with the others. Consequently, when it is used in conjunction
with a long-time or instantaneous trip, or both, there are sharp corners
where its time-current curves meet the others, as in the typical combina-
tion of curves shown in Fig. 9.13.
Instantaneous trips, when supplied alone, are generally adjustable in
the field. Some of the instantaneous devices furnished in combination
with time-delay trips are also adjustable, whereas others have a fixed
setting a t perhaps 4, 8, 12, or 15 times normal, whichever is deemed best
suited for the intended use of that particular breaker.

DIRECT-ACTING THERMAL-MAGNETIC TRIPS ON MOLDED-CASE BREAKERS

A combination of thermal and instantaneous magnetic trip is commonly


used on the so-called molded-cape low-voltage circuit breakers t o provide
time-delay operation on moderate overcurrents and instantaneous opera-
538 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

CURRENT I N TIMES BQEDUER RATING

FIG. 9.12 Time-current curve of long time-delay and instantaneous trips on MX)-volt air
circuit breakerr (1600 amp and below).
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 539

FIG. 9.13 Time-current curves of long and short time-delay and instantaneous trips on
600-volt air circuit breakers (1603 amp and below).
540 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 541

tion on high-magnitude short-circuit currents. I n some cases the thermal


element only is used on small circuit breakers.
The thermal characteristic is usually nonadjustable after installation,
hut the iustantaneons trip is available in adjustable or nonadjustable
eonstrnction. Figure 9.14 shows the a-c time-current tripping character-
istic curves of the nonadjustable thermal trips in combination with adjust-
able instantaneous trips for the various ratings available in a 600-amp
frame-sizemolded-case breaker.
It will he noted that the minimum tripping-time curve of the time-
delay thermal device, as shown in Fig. 9.14, is the same for all ratings,
whereas the maximum tripping-time curve varies with the current rating
of the trip unit. Arc-clearing time is included in both the time-delay and
instantaneous-trip curves.
Breaker trip units are usually supplied with the instantaneous trip set
at the maximum position. Adjustment to other trip positions is made by
means of a lever, or knob, provided for this purpose. Maximum and
minimum tripping current positions are stamped “ H i ” and “Lo,”
respectively. The maximum, or “Hi,” setting is the same for all ratings,
usually ten times normal. The minimum, or “Lo,” setting varies with
the breaker (trip-unit) rating as shown by the short heavy lines a t the
left side of the magnetic-trip-adjustment range in Fig. 9.14. The two
lighter lines on either side of the heavy ones show the manufacturing
tolerance in the low-current-adjustment pickup.
The instantaneous trip on the W a m p frame-size breaker of Fig. 9.14
is adjustable from 2.6 t o 10 times normal in seven uniformly spaced steps,
including the “ H i ” and “Lo” positions. The number of steps varies
with different breaker designs and frame sizes. The manufacturer’s
operating-tolerance bandwidth decreases from plus or minus 25 per tent
a t the “Lo” setting, approximately proportional t o the pickup setting,
until it reaches the plus or minus 10 per cent allowable tolerance a t the
maximum current (“Hi”) setting.
Figure 9.14 shows how the “Lo” setting of a 600-amp breaker and the
“Hi” setting of all ratings blend into the time-delay thermal-trip curves.
Intermediate instantaneous-trip settings would blend in a similar manner
a t whatever point they intersected the thermal-trip curves for that trip-
unit rating.
A molded-case breaker having a nonadjustable instantaneous as well
as thermal trip would have a time-current characteristic curve similar t o
one of the combinations that might be made up from the curves of Fig.
9.14.
542 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

FIG. 9.15 Schematic diagram of typical industrid power system showing possible
choice of fault proteclive devices.

DeRnition of Device Numbers and Abbreviations

50 Inrtmtmeous overcurrent relay [phase protection)


51 Time-delay overcurrent relay (phore protection)
51 * Time-delay generator overcurrent relay with voltage restraint
51N Time-delay overcurrent residually connected ground relay
51G Time-deloy overcurrent ground relay in neutrol circuit
67 Directional overcurrent relay (phase)
67N Directional overcurrent relay (ground)
87 Differential relay
87G Generotor differential ground relay
ACB Air circuit breaker
LTD Long time-delay direct-acting trip
STD Short time-deloy direct-acting trip
Instant Instantaneous direct-acting trip
MCB Molded-care breaker with nonadjurtoble thermal and instantaneous trip
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 543

TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM FAULT-CURREN1


PROTECTIVE-DEVICE LAYOUT

The schematic diagram of a typical industrial plant electric power sup-


ply and distribution system shown in Fig. 9.15 with the fault-current pro-
tective devices that might he used on it illustrates the use of the various
relays, fuses, and direct-act,ing trips described in this chapter. In accord-
ance with usual practice, the protective devices are identified on the
diagram by means of standardiaed device function numbers. For con-
venience, the numbers that are used on the diagram are identified in the
tabulation helow it. A complete list of the industry standard ( M A )
device function numbers is given in the Appendix.
This plant has some generators of its own in addition to an incoming
circuit from the local power company. This necessitates the use of
directional relays for selective fault detection on the incoming line and
also introduces another prohlem, namely, how t o disconnect the local
plant’s system from the power company line in the event that something
goes wrong on the power company’s system resulting in the two systems
being split apart, with some of the power company’s load being fed from
the industrial plant generators. This condition, as well as the case where
t.he local generation is inadequate to carry its own plant load in case the
incoming line is disconnected, can cause serious trouble by overloading
the local plant generators to such an extent that the whole system col-
lapses and shuts down the plant. The possihility of such a collapse can
be prevented by the use of underfrequency relays and other devices whose
characteristics and use are outside the scope of this book.

COORDINATION OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES


The final step in the creation of an adequate a-c short-circuit protective
system is to be sure that the various devices are selective in their opera-
tion, i.e., coordinated nith each other.

WHAT IS COORDINATION?

On all but the simplest systems there will be two or more circuit
breakers, or other circuit interrupting devices, hetween a fault and the
source of power. In order to localize the disturbance as much as possible,
these devices should be selective in operation, so that the one nearest the
fault on its power-source side nil1 have the first chance to operate. If
for any reason this protective device fails t o function on schedule, the next
device in the chain must be ready to take over the task of opening the
circuit, and so, in successive steps t o the power-source circuit breaker
544 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

itself, if necessary, to clear the fault. T o accomplish this objective, the


faulecurrent protective devices must have been selected, as in the case of
fuses and instantaneous trips, and so forth, or be capable of adjustment
to operate on the minimum current that will permit them to distinguish
between fault current and perniissible load-current peaks and to function
in the minimum possible time and still be selective with others in series
with them. When these two requirements are met, the damage to equip-
ment, or the interference with production due to loss of power during a
short circuit, or both, will also be a t a minimum.
On very simple systems with but one fault-current protective device
between the power source and the load, there is no coordination problem,
but i t is still necessary to choose a current setting compatible with the
load characteristics.
All the adjustable devices must be set in the field to achieve the desired
coordination.
Following is a detailed discussion of some of the basic fundamental pro-
cedure involved in making the necessary study of an a-c power system to
determine what the current and time settings of the adjustable devices
should be, assuming that they and the nonadjustable devices have been
selected correctly for the application.

DATA REQUIRED FOR A RELAY-SETTING STUDY '

An overcurrent protective system is simply a multiplicity of coordinated


individual devices, i.e., fuses, direct-acting trips, and plunger or induc-
tion-t,ype relays. Therefore, an understanding of their individual
behavior, in so far as it affects their coordination with other devices, is a
logical starting point for a coordination study; frequently termed a relay
study. The necessary data on their individual characteristics were given
earlier in this chapter under the heading Types, Operat,ing Characteris-
tics, and Uses of Protective Devices.
The next problem is to secure the necessary data from which specific
relay or other overcurrent-proteetive-devieesettings may be determined.
Following is a list of the basic information needed for this purpose:
1. A one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing the type
and rating of the protective devices and their associated instrument trans-
formers and t,he impedances of all transformers, rotating machines, and
feeder circuits.
2. Maximum and minimum values of short-circuit current that are
expected to flow through each protect,ive device whose performance is to
be studied under varying operating conditions. These data can be
obtained from a short-circuit study based on the information contained
in the complete detailed diagram of item 1.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 545

3. Starting current requirements of motors, and so forth, and their


maximum peak-load current.
4. Manufacturers’ characteristic performance curves of the relays,
trip coils, and fuses to be coordinated.
5. Manufarturers’ performance curves of current transformers, espe-
cially bushing types.
6. Any special overcurrent protertive requirements such as those
stipulated by the National Electrical Code or dictated by the load
characteristics.
7. Any special overrurrent-protective-device setting reqnirements
stipulated by the public-utility company with which the industrial plant
may be interconnected.
8. Decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault current sup-
plied by generators.

SHORT-CIRCUIT-CURRENT CALCULATIONS FOR A RELAY STUDY

The basic data and procedure required for making short-circuit calcu-
lations as a preliminary t o a relay study are the same as for a circuit-
breaker-duty study, but the combinations studied will be somewhat
different. In a relay study the problem is t o determine the characteristics
of devices that will (1) be sure to operate on the minimum values of fault
current expected at certain fixed times following the instant of short
circuit, and (2) be selective in their sequence of operation over the range
between minimum and maximum values of short-circuit current, so that
the relay or other device nearest t o the fault will be the first to operate.
The magnitude of the short-circuit currents, which will determine the
settings of the overcurrent protective devices, should be calculated on the
basis of the fault current from any power-company ties, plus that con-
tributed by all rotating machines directly connected to the local power
system, that is, the user’s own power generation and distribution system.
It is, of course, unlikely that every one of the local machines will he in
operation simultaneously under normal conditions, but it could be the
case during transfer periods when load is being switched from one machine
to another; hence the relays, and so forth, must be capable of giving the
desired sequential operation on the maximum possible magnitude of
current.
Usually the fault-current contribution from the power company can be
calculated on the Basis of a single reactance value because the relatively
high reactance of the tie circuit supplying the industrial plant is sufficient
to limit the fault current so much that the effect of differences between
maximum and minimum generating capacity and subtransient X y and
transient X : reactances are unimportant. Also the decrement effect will
546 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

he eliminated for all practical purposes, see curve 4, Fig. 9.16. If, how-
ever, the tie circuit hetween the power company and industrial plant is of
large kilovolt-ampere capacity and relatively low reactance, variations
in power-rompany system reactance will affect the magnitude of fault
current on the industrial system sufficiently to require taking them into
account. I t would be advisable in all cases t o check the effect of any
variations in power-company reactance until enough experience has been
accumulated t o warrant deciding by inspection whether or not their
effert would be significant.

EFFECT O F FAULT-CURRENT DECAY DUE T O GENERATOR-CURRENT


DECREMENT O N RELAY PERFORMANCE
As shown by the upper curve of Fig. 9.19 and curve 1 of Fig. 9.16, the
fault. current supplied by generators to a local bus, where the total react-
ance is relatively low, decreases very rapidly and reaches steady-state
short-circuit current in 0.5 to 1.0 see for the usual industrial-plant-size
generators.
The operating time of all time-delay overcurrent protective devices is
affected by the decay of fault current due to this current decrement of the
rotating machines supplying the short-circuit current. The decrement
can be neglected when selecting settings for feeder relays, or time-delay
trips, if the steady-state short-circuit current will be sufficient t o operat,e
them and the number of relays in series is small so that the accumulated
operating-time error will not he objectionable (see discussion relative to
Fig. 9.20). I t must he taken into account, however, when (1) setting a
generator overcurrent relay with voltage restraint (Fig. 9.20) and (2)
setting relays or circuit-breaker trip coils on small systems with very
limited generating capacity.
In case 1 an actual decrement curve is needed to determine the settings
of the generator and feeder relays. I n case 2 i t may not be necessary
actually to construct a decrement rurve or curves, hut their general
behavior and effect on the magnitude of fault current must he visualized
mentally and taken cognizance of t o he sure that the protective devices
will operate on the current available a t the time they are supposed t o
function.
For example, the decrement factor must be given consideration in those
cases where a relatively small generator unit supplies power to a large
system over week ends. On such a system it is quite possible that the
available fault current will he insufficient t o operate the relays on large
feeders, in which case a practical solution would be t o let the generator
relay trip the generator circuit breaker and shut down the whole system
in case of trouble on such feeders.
It is particularly important to keep the current decrement in mind when
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 547

selecting the devices, as well as their settings, for a system supplied from
one or two engine-driven or geared-turbine-driven salient-pole generators,
because even their initial fault current is quite low herause of their high
inherent reactance.
It will he noted from the curves in Figs. 9.16 and 9.19 that the presence
of a voltage regulator and the addition of evternal circuit impedance have

40

30 KV BUS AT POWERHOUSE
25 NO 2 FAULT AT SUB 3- LINES I 8 2 IN PARALLE
20 NO 3 FAULT AT S U E 6 - 2 LINES PARALLELED
NO 4 FAULT AT SUE 9 - I L I N E ONLY IN USE
15

10
9
E
7
6
5
4

m
0
0 20
0.5
40
1.0
60 60
1.5
T I M E AFTER SHORT CIRCUIT
00
2.0 SECONDS
120
!
140 CYCLES
FIG. 9.16 Short-circuit decrement curves on 33-kv system supplied by two 10.000- and
four Moo-kw hrrbine-generator-h~nrformerunits.
548 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

a pronounced effect on the magnitude of fault-current contributed by


generators.
The amount of external impedance in the circuit between the central
station generators and the industrial plant is usually sufficient virtually t o
wipe out the decrement on short-circuit current from that source. There-
fore, the current will be maintained a t the magnitude determined by the
system reactance.

SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS NEEDED TO PREDICT THE OPERATION OF


VARIOUS OVERCURRENT PROTECTIVE DEVICES

Instantaneous Induction or Plunger-type Relays and Circuit-breaker


Trip Coils. All these devices are responsive to direct current as well as
alternating current and are fast enough t o operate on the first half-cycle
of fault current. Therefore, their operating current will he the initial
(instantaneous) asymmetrical fault current contributed by all rotating
equipment (including induction motors and generators) calculated on
the basis of its suhtransient reactance ( X y ) . Use a 1.6 multiplier t o
obtain the magnitude of the asymmetrical or offset current, except on
systems of 5 kv and below when there are transformers or appreciable line
resistance between the point of fault and the source, in which case use a
1.5 multiplier.
High-speed Induction-type Relays. Since these relays operate in three
cycles or less, the initial X y symmetrical fault current may also be
used as their operating current. Actually, the fault-current magnitude
will drop during the three cycles because of the generator-current decre-
ment, but, the influence of this reduction can generally be neglected in
industrial-system relay studies.
Time-delay Relays and Direct-acting Trips. Generally speaking, the
devices of this class are too slow t o be appreciably affected by the sub-
transient reactance Xl: values of fault current. Therefore, their maxi-
mum operating current will be the initial value of symmetrical transienb
reactance ( X i ) current supplied by the power company and the local
plant’s synchronous equipment (generators, condensers, and motors).
Current-time settings of such devices that permit operation in approxi-
mately 0.1 sec (six cycles) or less on high-current magnitudes are theo-
retically an exception to this rule, hut practically, such relays usually are
the first in a series of relays (farthest from the power source), so that any
reduction in their operating time simply increases the time margin
between that relay and the one ahead of it.
Unless very accurate relay operating time is needed, the reduction in
fault current acting on it due to generator decrement can be neglected.
The procedure involved and the effect on relay operating time, when
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 549

allowarce is made for the decay in generator current, are discussed in


detail later in this chapter under the heading How to Make Allowance for
Current Decrement on Operation of Feeder and Generator Overcurrent
Relays.
Fuses. The performance of fuses is an inherent characteristic of the
particular unit involved and must be taken into account when they are
selected for the job. Nevertheless, the following discussion of expected
fuse performance seems desirable a t this point to afford a better under-
standing of the problem of coordinating them with other devices.
Fuses of all types depend on the beat created by the passage of the fault
current through them to melt their fusible elements. Since the heat is
due solely to the P R loss, d-c as well as a-c components of current will
affect them; so the initial asymmetrical subtransient current will affect
fuse operation. However, the effect of the d-c offset current decreases in
importance very rapidly as the expected fuse melting time increases.
The melting time of fuses varies from less than 0.01 sec to several
hundred seconds, depending on the fault-current magnitude. For exam-
ple, the lOOE current-limiting fuse in Fig. 9.9 has a melting time of 0.01
sec (0.6 cycle) a t 2700 amp, 0.1 sec a t 780 amp, 10 sec at 320 amp, and
300 sec a t 200 amp. For good performance on a system which has most
of its power locally generated, the fuse minimum melting-time curves
should show that the initial magnitude of unrestricted (no intentional
limitation) fault current under minimum power-supply conditions is
sufficient to blow the particular fuse within 1 or 2 cycles (0.033 sec). If
it cannot do that, the use of fuses should be carefully scrutinized because
the rapid generator-current decrement may reduce the fault current so
much that the fuses either might not blow a t all, or else might be objec-
tionably slow. Also there would be no margin t o allow for any current
limitation due to fault impedance. An exception would be the case of a
fuse a t a location where the fault current was reduced substantially by
high circuit impedance, as shown in curve 4 of Fig. 9.16. Under such a
condition the difference between the initial symmetrical X y current as
represented by the curve and the initial X : value of current as represented
by the “dot” is negligible, and so is the decrement effect. Therefore, if
the X i current is sufficient to blow the fuse in a few cycles, the application
is satisfactory.
Modern power systems are often designed to have quite low values of
line-to-ground fault current. In such cases, i t will often be found that
the available ground-fault current will be so low as to make large fuses
either extremely slow or inoperative. When such a condition is encoun-
tered, additional means such as relays and circuit breakers must be pro-
vided for opening the circuit under line-to-ground fault conditions.
There are certain types of low-voltage fuses that are purposely designed
550 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

t o be slow on low magnitudes of fault current in order to ride through high


normal-load peak currents. Such fuses, however, have normal fast-
melting characteristics on high-magnitude fault currents.

SETTING OF RELAYS AS AFFECTED BY THEIR FUNCTION

When the short-circuit currents are all calculated, the next step is to
start at the load end of each circuit and work back toward the power
source.
The minimum current setting of the relays must be high enough to
carry normal load swings and yet low enough t o be sure that they will
operate positively on the minimum expected short-circuit current. The
latter is the magnitude of current ralculated with minimum power supply
available and assuming a solid short circuit with no allowance for any cur-
rent limitation due to impedance in the fault itself.
Normally, there will be plenty of margin between the minimum short-
circuit-current level and the relay setting dictated by the maximum per-
missible load. Occasionally, however, that will not be true, such as in
the case of high-reactance generators whose total output is transmitted
over a single line. Such possibilities must be recognized and provided
for initially when designing the protective system by specifying devices
that do not depend on current magnitude alone for operation and
selectivity.
The following general rules will serve as guides in determining the
minimum relay current settings that will not trip on permissible load
currents.
Relays on Transformer Feeders. The National Electrical Code states
that time-delay overcurrent relays on a feeder for a single transformer
should he set not more than 2.5 times the full-load rating of the trans-
former for units without secondary circuit breakers and up to six times
transformer full-load current if there is a secondary circuit breaker and
the transformer reactance is around 0.06 per unit. The fact that the Code
permits it, however, does not mean that the relays always should be set at
these upper limits. If the load on the transformer is diversified with no
relatively large motor units whose starting current might be the limiting
item, a relay current setting of 1.5 times transformer rating is often suffi-
cient to enable time-delay relays t o carry normal load-current swings.
Ordinary time-delay overcurrent relays are too slow t o be operated by the
transformer magnetizing current inrush.
If there are several transformers on the feeder without individual
primary-side fault protection, a relay current setting corresponding t o
1.5 times the total full-load rating of the several transformers should be
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 55 I

ample, except in those cases having large individual motors. However,


the setting selected should not he more than the six times full-load current
of the smallest transformer as required by the National Electrical Code.
If there are several transformers on a main feeder, each of which has its
own primary protection, this Code rule does not apply and the main
feeder relays should he set t o coordinate with the transformer primary
protective devices.
An instantaneous relay in the primary circuit of a single transformer
with an instantaneously tripped secondary circuit breaker should he set a
little above the asymmetrical value of the fault current in the primary
during a short circuit close t o the transformer secondary terminals. This
setting is usually high enough to clear the magnetizing current inrush of
the transformer, although the latter may theoretically be as much as 15
times normal for a few cycles. If the primary feeder circuit breaker trips
when the transformer is energized, the relay current setting should be
increased slightly until the circuit breaker will stay closed.
The minimum setting of the instantaneous relay in a high-voltage
feeder with several transformers on it will quite likely be dictated hy the
need for riding over their total magnetizing current inrush. As stated,
this will be in the neighborhood of 10 to 15 times normal, which should he
high enough to clear any probable condition such as a short circuit on the
secondary of one or two units and normal load current on the others.
Relays on Single-motor Feeders. The minimum setting of a time-
delay relay intended t o provide short-circuit protection for a motor feeder
has to he above the maximum motor-starting current so that the relay
will not operate on the latter. This is necessary because any time-delay
overcurrent relays that are expected to afford worthwhile fault protection
are much too fast to ride through motor starting current. The long-
time-delay induction relays that can be set lower than this in current and
still he able to ride through the starting period afford a measure of normal
overload (overheating) protection hut are much too slow to provide
adequate short-circuit protection.
Instantaneous relays, usually plunger type, with a current range of
10 t o 40 or 20 to 80 amp, normally are used to provide fast short-circuit
protection in case of a fault in the motor or its leads. These relays should
not operate on the short-circuit current which their particular motor will
cootribute to a fault elsewhere on the system. Therefore, since they are
fast enough to operate on the first half-cycle of short-circuit. current and
also are affected by the d-c component,, it is necessary t o set them slightly
above the initial asymmetrical fault current which their motor can supply.
This current, which-may he slightly higher than t,he full-voltage locked-
rotor starting current, can be determined by dividing the full-load current
552 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

by per unit subtransient reactance ( X y ) of the motor (either synchronous


or induction) and then multiplying by the factor of 1.6 to account for
the d-c component.
Relays on Incoming lines and Feeders with Miscellaneous load.
The minimum setting of a time-delay overcurrent relay on an incoming
line or feeder with miscellaneous load, which may include one or more
motors, should be just above the expected peak load on the circuit. This
usually itill be the total of the starting current of the biggest motor plus
full load on the other circuits. This will hold unless it is intended to
start more than one motor a t a time normally or the motor controls are
so designed that the motors would restart automatically when the circuit
is reenergized following an outage.
Instantaneous relays may not be usable on such circuits because of
inability to coordinate them with other instantaneous relays in the branch
circuits, as previously discussed. If they can be used, they should be set
a little above the total of initial asymmetrical short-circuit current which
all the motors could contribute to a short circuit elsewhere on the system,
plus full-load current on t,he nonmotor load. It is unlikely that any nor-
mal load snrges would exceed this value.
Residually Connected Ground-fault Relays. Residual ground-fault
relays are connected in the Y of three current transformer secondaries
where they see only the unbalanced residual current flowing during
ground faults (Fig. 9.4). Under normal balanced three-phase load condi-
tions, no current will flow in the residual relay. Therefore, it can be set
at low current levels to give sensitive operation on ground fanlts, which
incidentally are the most common variety. Such relays are normally
rated 0.5 to 2.0 amp or 1.5 to 6.0 amp. These relays will operate satis-
factorily over their entire tap range when connected to high-accuracy
current transformers, but they may not on the 0.5-amp tap when con-
nected to the low turn ratio taps of some bushing current transformers.
This is due to the fact that the bushing-current-transformer ratio breaks
down because of the high volt-ampere burden imposed by the relay on
the low-current tap. If a check of the bushing-current-transformer per-
formance curves with the expected volt-ampere burden indicates that the
relay may not operate, it will be possible usually to obtain satisfactory
operation by using a higher current tap on the relay or bushing current
transformer, or both.
Ground relay current and time settings are handled in the same manner
as phase relays. However, ground-fault current will be of different mag-
nitude than the phase-fault current, and it may not appear in all parts of
the system since a transformer in the circuit blocks its flow. Also its
source may be different; for example, a grounding transfomer might be
used to ground a system supplied by a delta-connected generator.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 553

Frequently ground-fault relays can be set to operate faster than the


phase relays a t the same location because the latter must coordinate with
other phase overcurrent protective devices on the secondary of trans-
formers, for example, whereas a residual ground relay on the primary will
not see ground-fault current in the secondary system.
Residually connected ground-fault relays (Fig. 9.4) are subject to
possible false operation because of the current-transformer error currents
during a phase fault. This possibility is caused by the fact that duplicate
current transformers are not exactly alike, even though made from the
same batch of material. Although the variations are small, they are
enough t o cause appreciable amounts of unbalanced current to flow in the
Y of residually connected current transformers during severe phase-phase
or three-phase short circuits. Such unnecessary operation of the ground
relay is of minor importance if the ground and phase relays involved con-
trol the same circuit breaker. I t might be quite troublesome, however,
if the ground relay tripped a main-line circuit breaker, thereby shutting
down several branch feeders when only one of the latter was in trouble.
One possible solution t o the error-current tripping problem is to design
the system t o have sufficient ground-fault current to ensure positive
tripping with the ground relays set above the expected maximum current-
transformer error current.
Unfortunately, however, available data regarding current-transformer
saturation indicate that the possible magnitude of error currents due t o
differences in ratio breakdown caused by unequal saturation because of
differences in their burdens, combined with d-e saturation and the differ-
ences permissible under manufacturing tolerances, may he as much as 30
to 40 per cent or even more. Consequently, this solution would require
increasing the ground-fault current to several thousand amperes, resulting
in far greater damage during a ground fault.
The other and better way is t o keep ground-fault current and relay-
current settings a t a minimum consistent with positive low-current relay
operation and then prevent false operation by timing the ground relay to
be selective with any phase relays on its load side. This, of course, raises
the question as to which causes more damage, high ground-fault current
and less sensitive relay pickup with slightly shorter relay operating time
or minimum ground-fault current and sensitive relay pickup but maybe
one step (0.4 sec) slower operating time. It is a difficult qnestion t o
answer, hut probably the odds are in favor of the latter combination.
If there are single-phase loads connected from line to neutral, any
expected unbalance in current must be taken into account when setting
ground relays, whether they are connected residually (Fig. 9.4) to feeder
current transformers or t o the secondary of a current transformer in the
neutral of a generator or transformer (Fig. 9.15).
554 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

Ground-fault Relays in Series with Generator or Transformer Neutral.


It is general practice to connect a final backup ground-fault relay to a
current transformer in the generator or transformer neutral earth connec-
tion. A low-current relay and a current transformer whose current
rating is 25 or 30 per cent of that of the neutral grounding resistor for that
unit is the combination generally used. This combination, which affords
maximum sensitivity and protection, is permissible since current flows in
the neutral of a balanced threephase three-wire circuit only during a
ground fault.
The relays usually furnished for this purpose are capable of being set
slow enough to permit the flow of ground-fault current up to the thermal
limit of the neutral grounding resistor, if there is one, and many users set
the neutral relays todo that. Sinceitisfairlygeneralpresent-day practice
t o ust 10-sec rated resistors, the relay would have t o be set for 7 t o 10 sec
in such cases.
Such a slow setting is probably a carry-over from former days when it
was standard practice t o use a 60-sec or longer rated resistor. The
accompanying relay system would (1) sound an alarm immediately in the
hope that the operator might be able to clear the fault soon enough t o
avoid system shutdown by manually tripping a circuit breaker which had
failed to open, and (2) if necessary trip the main generator or transformer
circuit breaker in time to avoid dangerous overheating of the resistor.
I n actual practice i t is doubtful that the operator was able to do much
in the 60 see allowed, and he could accomplish even less in a 10-sec
resistor-heating-time allowance.
Another method of setting the neutral relay is t o time it to coordinate
with the other system ground relays, that is, one time step slower. This
seems preferable, since experience indicates that if a relay or circuit-
breaker trip coil is going t o work a t all i t will do so in its normal time,
which means that any further delay simply means more damage caused
by the ground fault.

COORDINATION OF RELAYS IN SERIES

Time-delay Relays. As mentioned previously, the time-current curves


of direct-acting time-delay trips, fuses, and time-delay thermal devices
include the necessary allowance for overtravel, manufacturing tolerances,
and so forth. The time-current characteristics of relays, on the other
hand, are represented by families of single-line curves (Fig. 9.2) to which
tolerance bands must be added. Most relay time-current curves begin
a t 1.5 multiples of minimum closing current or pickup setting because
their performance cannot be predicted too accurately below that value.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 555

However, curves showing expected time-current performance down t o 1.1


times pickup usually can be obtained if required.
This time margin or tolerance band is based on the fact that the second
relay in a “chain” of relays continues t o see fault current until the circuit
breaker associated with the first relay has opened and the arc has been
extinguished. This is nominally eight cycles for the circuit breakers com-
monly used in industrial systems, although actually the opening time will
be four to five cycles. Then after the first circuit breaker has opened the
circuit and deenergized the second relay, the latter’s contacts will con-
tinue to close for approximately 0.1 sec because of the inertia in the
induction disk to which the movable contact is attached (Fig. 9.1).
A minimum total time margin of 0.4 see with maximum fault current
flowing should be sufficient to afford satisfactory selectivity between
inverse-time relays. This margin allows for the 0.13-sec circuit-breaker
opening time (eight cycles), 0.1-sec overtravel, and a safety factor of
0.17 see t o cover manufacturing variations and inaccuracies in positioning
of the time dial or lever when setting the relay.
The minimum time margin between very inverse-time and extremely
inverse-time relays can be reduced t o about 0.33 see because their over-
travel is less and a shorter safety factor is needed since the difference in
relay operating time caused by changing from one timedial setting t o
another is also shorter on these higher speed relays, so that the positioning
error is reduced.
If the total accumulation of even these short time intervals makes the
operating time of the last relay (one nearest the source) undesirably long,
the total time can be reduced a little by very careful checking of relay
operating time. Generally speaking, however, the fraction of a second
saving that might be made in the time margin between these values and
the minimum possible settings that would not cause false operation is not
of sufficient importance on industrial power systems to warrant the extra
trouble involved in making the settings.
When selecting current-tap and time-dial settings for induction relays,
it should be borne in mind that, when two relays in series are set t o
coordinate properly under the maximum value of fault current expected,
they will always be satisfactorily selective on lower values of current if
they have the same shape time-current curves and the current setting of
the slower relay is equal to, or higher than, that of the faster relay. If
the current setting is lower, the operating-time curves of the two relays
will cross each other a t some low value of fault current, and the slow relay
will beat the fast one for all currents below that value (curves 2 and 3, Fig.
9.17).
Another factor t o be considered, when choosing between two combi-
556 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

nations of current-tap and time-dial settings, either of which will give a


desired operating time with maximum fault current flowing, is that the
combination with the lower current and higher time-dial setting is usually
preferable. The reason is that such a setting will be more sensitive and
faster on low values of short-circuit current (curves 1 and 2, Fig. 9.17).
For example, suppose an operating time of 0.5 sec is desired with a relay
connected to 1000/5-amp current transformers in a circuit with maximum
symmetrical fault current of 20,000 amp. Relays with 6-amp tap and
2.1 time-dial or 10-amp tap and 1.7 time-dial settings will both give the
desired time. But in case of a fault involving only 3000 amp, the relay
with the 6-amp setting would operate in 1.25 sec compared with 2 sec for
the 10-amp combination. If the current is still further reduced to 2000
amp, the first relay will still operate in 2.1 sec, but the second one will be
very, very slow, since the current is only 1.0 times relay pickup, at which
point operation is uncertain.
901
TD = R E L A Y T I M E DIAL SETTING

250 MVA AVAILA0LE

'0 1500 2000 3000 5000 10,000 20,000 40,000 6Q 0


AMPERES AT 2400 VOLTS
FIG. 9.17 Examples of incorrect coordination of induction relays.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 557

Instantaneous Relays. When two instantaneous relays are used in


series, their selectivity is dependent solely on their current settings.
Therefore, they must be set so that the second relay will not pick up on
the maximum asymmetrical current which the first relay (nearest the
source side of the fault) can see. Such being the case, there must be
sufficient impedance in the circuit between instantaneous relays in series
t o create the necessary current differential. If this ohjective cannot be
attained, the second relay must be rendered inoperative by short-circuit-
ing its coil or opening its contacts.
Usually the impedance of a transformer is sufficient to permit coordi-
nating an instantaneous relay on the high-voltage feeder panel with the
instantaneous trip coil of the low-voltage secondary circuit breaker. Also,
the reactance of open transmission lines is frequently sufficient to provide
the necessary differential in short-circuit-cnrrent magnitude t o permit the
use of instantaneous relays a t both ends.
Instantaneous relays cannot be coordinated on ordinary-length cable
systems (2400 volts and above) because the circuit impedance is too low
t o cause the necessary current differential. On such circuits it is pref-
erable t o use the instantaneous relays on the branch feeders a t the
receiving end of the main feeder cable (Fig. 9.15). This will afford fast
selective tripping of the branch circuit in trouble, whereas using the
instantaneous relay on the main feeder circuit hrea,ker a t the bus would
shut down all the branch circuits regardless of fault location. Ordinary
instantaneous overcurrent relays should not be used on low-impedance
ties between two buses with power sources connected to each.
Incidentally, the fact that a relay-setting study reveals that some of the
instant,aneous relays must be made inoperative should not be interpreted
as a sign of a poorly designed protective system. This is so, because it is
quite common practice to include instantaneous attachments on all time-
delay overcurrent relays on switchgear equipment so that the relays will
be interchangeable.

GRAPHICAL PROOF OF DEVICE COORDINATION


I t is always advisable t o plot the curves of relays and other devices that
are t o operate selectively in series, because rarely will all the fault pro-
tective devices involved have the same shape time-current curves, and it
is difficult to visualize mentally the relationship of the many different
shapes of curves. They should be plotted on a single sheet of graph paper,
using a common current scale. It seems t o work out best to use a scale
corresponding t o the currents expected a t the lowest voltage level; for
example, for faulhcurrent protective devices on both sides of a 2400-480-
volt transformer plot everything on a 480-volt current scale. To plot
558 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

2400-volt device time-current curves on the 480-volt scale, first determine


the desired time and current settings in the usual manner on the basis of
current expected in the 2400-volt circuit. Then plot time directly since
that scale is unchanged, but multiply the 2400-volt currents by 5 (ratio of
voltages) before plotting on the 480-volt scale.
Preferably the curves should be plotted progressively as each circuit is
studied, starting with the device a t the end of the chain (farthest from the
source). This procedure will show whether or not the proposed time-
current characteristic of each successive device coordinates with the one
on its load side. Figure 9.17 illustrates the importance of doing this by
revealing two conflicts that otherwise might have escaped notice.
I n the case illustrated, it was assumed that the power supply was
capable of maintaining a 250,000-kva short-circuit level without appreci-
able decrement and that there was no pump-hack short-circuit-current
contribution from synchronous equipment on the 2400-volt system. On
this basis, the maximum symmetrical fault current would he 20,000 amp
on the 2400-volt system and 10,250 amp on the 13.8-kv system (60,000
amp on a 2400-volt base). I t was also assumed that the end relay in the
chain ( D ) must be set a t a minimum of 0.5 see.
The three sets of 2400-volt relays were coordinated by selecting time-
current settings that would make their operating times 0.4 sec apart at
the maximum current of 20,000 amp. Then, the single set of relays on
the 13.8-kv system was coordinated with those on the 2400-volt system on
the same value of fault current (3480 amp a t 13.8 kv), because that is all
that the relays at A would see during a fault on the 2400-volt side of the
transformer. This was accomplished by selecting time-current settings
that would give 0.4 see between relays A and B for a 20,000-amp fault on
the 2400-volt system.
This procedure would give satisfactory results without plotting the
curves, if the basic rules for coordinating relays were observed: (1) use
relays with the same shape curves in series with each other, and (2) make
sure that the relays farthest from the source of power always have current
settings equal to, or below, that of the relays ahead of them. Unfortu-
nately, however, it is easy to overlook one, or both, of these basic rules,
and that is when the effort required t o plot the curves proves worthwhile.
As shown in Fig. 9.17, time-current settings on relay D that would give
either curve 1 or curve 2 would satisfy the requirement that it take a
minimum of 0.5 sec a t 20,000 amp. Curve 2 setting, however, is slower
and less sensitive than that represented by curve 1 throughout most of
its range. Furthermore, curve 2 crosses curve 3, representing the desired
setting for relay C, thereby compelling desensitization of C to make i t
selective with D. Thus curve 2 setting on relay D would mean that
much poorer short-circuit protection could be provided by either C
or D.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENl PROTECTION 559

Curves 4, 5 , 6, and 7 illustrate what would happen if relay B had a


very inverse-time characteristic instead of an inverse-time curve, as the
others do. Curve 4 meets the requirement that i t be 0.4 sec slower than
curve 3, representing relay C, when both ere operating on 20,000 amp.
Also curve 6 satisfies the requirement that relay A be 0.4 sec slower than
B when A is operating on the equivalent of the 20,000-amp 2400-volt
system short-circuit current.
If the curves had not been plotted, there would be reason to believe
that the contemplated settings for A and B as represented by curves 6
and 4 would be satisfactory. Actually, however, the very inverse-time
characteristic of relay B causes its curve to cross that of A a t a high level
of fault current, which would mean that the tripping sequence of the
breakers would be reversed. For this particular circuit, that would not
be too serious, since tripping either breaker would shut down the whole
circuit, but it would still nullify the effectiveness of the relays in giving
indication as t o where the trouble was. If it was necessary to retain the
very inverse-time relay a t B , the setting of relay A would have to be
desensitized and increased in time, as shown by curve 7, t o he selective
with B. This would presumably result in greater damage during a
short circuit; so it would be better to substitute an inverse-time relay
for the very inverse-time relay a t B , thereby making it possible to se:
B to give performance as shown by curve 5. This would mean that A
and B could both be more sensitive and faster and, consequently, could
afford better protection for the system.
I t should also be noted that, if the very inverse-time relay was used a t
B , the backup protection that relay B could afford t o C would beverypoor
indeed, because of the big “gap” in the pickup currents (sensitivity) of
relays B and C , as shown by curves 3 and 4.

EFFECT O F CURRENT-TRANSFORMER SATURATION ON RELAY BEHAVIOR

Industrial plants have a considerable number of relatively small


feeders operating at the main-bus voltage, which may be subjected to
high levels of fault current, especially when there are “local” generators.
Consequently, some of the current transformers in such plants may be
subjected to symmetrical short-circuit currents as high as 200 times their
rating, and multiplies of 50 t o 100 times current-transformer rating will
be quite common. U hen subjected to such magnitudes of fault current,
most curient transformers will saturate, and then their accuracy breaks
down badly. The extent of this breakdown in current-transformer ratio
depends on the burden imposed by the impedance of the relays, instru-
ments, and leads connected to their secondaries and the primary current
imposed on them. The available data are not conclusive, hut it apppars
that the ratio can break down so badly that only 50 per cent, or even
560 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

less, of the theoretically correct secondary current will be available


(Fig. 9.18).
Such a breakdown in current-transformer ratio means that relays con-
nected t o them will not operate so fast as their time-current curves indi-
cate they should, assuming perfect performance of the transformers.
This factor should be taken into account when coordinating relays in
series that are subjected to the same fault current, but connected to
different size current transformers. For a given fault condition the
smaller transformers would be subjected t o a greater ndmber of multiples
of their rating, and if their burden was the same as that on the larger
current transformers, they would probably show a greater breakdown in
transformation ratio. The relays connected t o them would, therefore,
see fewer multiples of their tap setting and be slower in operation than
they would have been if the current-transformer ratio had been main-
tained. Meanwhile the relays connected t o the larger current trans-
formers would be seeing more current in proportion and consequently
would be operating nearer to their theoretical time-current curves,
thereby reducing the time margin needed for selectivity between the
relays. The possibility of nonselective operation from this cause should
he investigated when it is important to have selective operation of relays
connected to widely different current transformers or having substan-
tially different burdens on their respective current transformers.

FIG. 9.18 Approximate performance of 4@3/>8W/5-amp wound-type current trans-


formers with varying secondary burdens and primary overcurrentr.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 561

This problem is less likely to he encountered on power company sys-


tems, hecause a t the generating stations where the short-circuit-current
levels are high, the voltages are higher than in industrial plants, meaning
less current for the same short-circuit kva. Also, larger blocks of power
are being dealt with on the average utility system; so the current trans-
formers are of higher ampere rating. These two factors comhined mean
fewer multiples of their rating when current transformers are subjected
to short-circuit current. On those portions of utility systems where the
blocks of power are smaller, requiring smaller current transformer, the
fault-current magnitudes are also greatly reduced by system impedance,
so that the current transformers are not subjected to such high multiples
of their rating. However, power company st,ation auxiliary power sys-
tems, when supplied by “house” generators rather than transformers,
will often encounter the same problem.
In many cases it will be possible to ignore the effect of current-trans-
former saturation, but it should be given consideration when trying t o
make closely coordinated relay settings on large systems. I t will be
necessary t o obtain the required current-transformer-performance
curves from the manufacturer for the specific case involved, because a t
the present time the published ratio-correction-factor (RCF) curves
stop a t 20 times current-transformer rating.

H O W T O M A K E A L L O W A N C E FOR CURRENT DECREMENT ON OPERATION OF


FEEDER A N D GENERATOR OVERCURRENT RELAYS

As indicated earlier in this chapter, it is usually permissible on indns-


trial plant systems to ignore the slowing-down effect of the fault-current
decrement when selecting time-hrrent settings for devices that are
expected to operate in not over approvimately 0.6 sec after the short
circuit occurs. I n such rases the settings are made on the basis that. the
fault current is maintained at the initial X : or X y level. However,
those devices having loager time settings, such as the generator-overcur-
rent and main-feeder relays, are affected sufficiently by the reduction in
operating current t o warrant making allowanre for it as evplained below.
The problem in setting a generator external-fault backup relay is to
select time-current settings that are selective with the feeder relays and
will also enable the relay to distinguish between fault currents and legiti-
mate high-overload currents. The recommended current setting is
between 200 and 250 per cent of generator full-load rating if there is a
generator voltage regulator and 150 to 200 per cent if there is no regulator.
The reason for the difference in settings is that, as shown in Fig. 9.19,
the short-circuit-current output of a generator with a voltage regulator
decays t o a steady-state value of 2 to 3.5 times normal, depending on
562 SYSTEM OVERCURRWT PROTECTION

generator characteristics and exciter ceiling voltage, but without a regu-


lator the steady-state fault current would he less than twice normal.
The shape of the generator-relay time-current characteristic curves
changes radically with variations in the amount of voltage restraint, as
shown in Fig. 9.5. During normal operation with 115 volts restraint,
the relay curves are even more inverse than those of an extremely inverse-
time induction-overcurreut relay. With zero-volts restraint their shape
approximates that of a very inverse-time relay, and the relay picks up
at about 25 per cent of the 115-volt-restraint setting. This change in
the shape of the operating curves makes it possible to set the relay so
that i t will permit the generator t o carry any permissible overload likely
to he encountered and yet be capable of operating quickly on the same,
or lower, current levels when there is a fault. In the following discussion
i t is assumed that the generator and feeders are connected directly to
the hiis, as is the usual practice in industrial plants. Consequently, the
worst conditions for coordination with the feeder relays is for a three-
phase fault close to the bus under which condition there would be zero-
volts restraint on the relay so that it operates a t maximum speed for a
given current. If the system connections were such that a three-phase
fault on or close to the bus did not produce zero-volts restraint on the
relay, it would be necessary t o use the appropriate time-current curves
for voltage restraints between zero and 115 volts.
To illustrate the procedure involved in selecting the settings for a

30 60 90 120 CYCLES
FIG. 9.19 Short-circuit decrement wrvei of 9375-kw 13,800-volt 3600-rpm generator
for faults on o m bur and on 4160-roll bur fed through 2Mx) h a 0.055 per-unit reactance
transformer.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECllON 563

generator external-fault backup relay, consider a portion of a power sys-


tem supplied by a 9375-kva 13,800-volt 3600-rpm turbine-generator with
direct-connccted exciter controlled by a voltage regulator (see Fig. 9.20).
Full-load rurrent of the generator is 390 amp, and 200 per cent of that
would be 780 amp, which is greater than the 720-amp current-trans-
former primary rurrent corresponding t o the nearest current tap on the
relay (6 amp). Consequently, it mill be neressary to use the 8-amp tap,
which is the equivalent of 960 amp primary current, or 246 per cent of
generator rating.
The next step is to select a time-dial setting, which will make the
generator relay A in Fig. 9.20 selective with relay B, which in turn must
be selective with relay C farthest from the power source. I t was assumed
that relay C had to be set on the 6-amp tap and 2 time dial (TD) to give
0.6 sec on the maximum symmetrical X i fault current of 3320 amp for a
fault a t I on the 4160-volt circuit, in order to be selective with other
devices on its load side. I n making this time-dial selection the effect
of generator fault-current decay was neglected, because for practical
purposes the 4160-volt-system decrement curve in Fig. 9.19 is so flattened
out because of the transformer impedance that the effect of variations
on relay performance is unimportant. If extreme accuracy is desired,
allowance could be made for it as described later.
Since relay R has to be selective with C, it must be 0.4 see slower when
the two are operating on the 3320-amp fault current on the 4160-volt
side of the transformer (see points D and D’ on curves C and B of Fig.
9.20). I t was necessary to set B on its 6-amp tap in order to ride through
the starting current of a large 4160-volt motor on another feeder. With
this tap setting, relay B would see
3320 4160 x (CT
- 4.17 multiples of its tap setting
200 (CT Pri) 13,800 6 (tap)
for a 3320-amp fault on the 4160-volt circuit. Since B is an inverse-time
relay, it will require a 2.5 time-dial setting to give the required 1.0 sec
with this much current, as determined from the family of time-current
curves for the relay (Fig. 9.2).
Generator relay A must be made selective with B for faults a t H on
the 13.8-kv side of the transformer. Since the short-circuit-current
magnitude there is much bigher than a t I, B’s time-current curve should
be extended to the right of point D’where it coordinates with C. Then
if the user was willing to sacrifice some of the benefit from the generator
relay by acrepting slow operation, it could be assumed that the fault cur-
rent on the 13.8-kv system would also be sustained a t the transient react-
ance X i level. If this were done, generator relay A could easily be
564 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

coordinated with feeder relay B by selecting a zero-restraint time-dial


setting from Fig. 9.5 that mould make il 0.4 sec slower than B at this
maximum value of current, as shown by points F and F’ on curves B
and A’ of Fig. 9.20.

CURRENT IN AMPERES
ON 4160 VOLT BASE
N

FIG. 9.20 Coordinated time-current C U W ~ Sof feeder and generotor overcurrent relays.
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 565

If greater accuracy is desired i n order t o obtain maximum value from


the money invested in the relays, it will be necessary to secure a generator
decrement curve (Fig. 9.19) and calculat,e the performance of both feeder
relay I?arid generat,or relay 4 on the decaying current. The first, step
would be to determine how long it would take for relay B t o close its con-
tacts on the decaying current for a three-phase fault at N when set a t
6 amp and 2.5 time dial as required t o coordinate xit,h C. Then select a
zero restraint time-dial setting for A , whirh is set on its 8 amp tap, t o
make it 0.4 see slower than B , as shown by points E arid 12’ on curves R
and 4 of Fig. 9.20.
The difference in time between curves .4 and .4‘ represents the worth-
while improvement in performance of the relays made possible hy sim-
ply taking the trouble to determine the effect of the generator-current,
decrement,.
The behavior of relays A and B on the decaying generator current is a
cut-and-try operation. First determine the arithmetical average of
the symmetrical fault current represented by the 13.8-kv-circuit decre-
ment curve in Fig. 9.19 for the estimated period of time required by the
relay t o dose its coritacts when operating on the decaying rurreut. I n
determining the average current. the decrement-curve ordinates that are
averaged should be uniformly spaced and close enough together that the
segment of the curve between adjacent ordinates is essentially a straight
line. Incidentally, it should be noted that the subtransient reactance
( X y ) value of fault current is included when using decrement curves,
whereas it, is neglected when determiuiiig the performance of relays
assumed t o he operating on fault current sustained at the initial value.
Then convert this average value of short-circuit current t o multiples-of-
the-tap setting of relay R , and find the operating-time rate of the relay on
that much current from its time-current curves (Fig. 9.2). If the rate
of speed thus determined is insufficient t o complete the closing operation
in the estimated time, continue the same procedure until the contacts
will close in the total time allowed.
For this illustration, it was first .assumed that 36 cycles mould be
long enough for B t o close its contacts for a fault at H . The average
current under the decrement curve for 36 cycles is 5.47 times generator
rating, or 8.85 times B’s &amp pickup setting. The relay curves in
Fig. 9.2 show that an inverse-time induction overcurrent relay would
travel at a rate that would take it 0.75 see t o close its contacts with this
much current when-set on 2.5 time dial. Thus, for the first 0.6 see,
relay B would have traveled 0.6/0.75 = 0.80 of the required distance t o
close its contacts. I t appears, therefore, that the first estimate was too
short as the relay still has t o go 0.20 of its t.otal distance; so it is necessary
566 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

to estimate how many more cycles are needed for it to close, when oper-
ating a t the slower rate of speed which the lower magnitude of fault cur-
rent available during an additional period will produce. Since the
decrement curve has flattened out considerably by this time, it is rela-
tively easy to pick an average, convert it to multiple@-of-relaypickup,
and find the rate of travel from the relay curves. I n t,his case, 11 more
cycles with an average current of 3.51 times generator rating (5.70 times
the relay pickup setting) gives a rate of travel that would close the con-
tacts in 0.90 see. The disk will, therefore, travel 11/(60 X 0.90) = 0.204
of its total distance in t,he estimated 11 cycles. Adding this to the 0.8 of
the distance already traveled makes a total of 1.004, which is close
enough. The total time therefore is 36 + 11 cycles, or 0.783 see.
This procedure gives the same results as the so-called step-by-step
method. The latter involves determination of the percentage of its
total travel that the disk would move when subjected to the arithmetical
averege for each portion (increment) of the decrement curve that follows
a straight line, then summing up the total distance traveled for the suc-
cessive increments. Either method applies only when a relay is working
on the saturated portion of its curve, which condition prevails in less than
twice pickup current in the case of inverse-time relays and only a little
later in the case of the generator and very inverse-time relays.
The next step is to select a time-dial setting for generator relay A that
will make it selective (0.4 see slower than relay B ) a t point E . This set-
ting should be selected on the basis of zero-volts restraint corresponding
to a solid three-phase fault close t o the bus, which would be the worst
condition in the average industrial plant. The generator-relay curves
(Fig. 9.5) show that a 4.5 time-dial setting would meet the requirement
of 1.2 sec. If A is selective with B for a maximum fault with zero-volts
restraint (curves A and B ) , it will be selective a t any lesser fault condi-
tion, when the system voltage is higher, because any voltage restraint
slows down the generator relay. Curve A" shows how the 115-volt
restraint imposed under normal load conditions pulls relay A ' s operating
curve out of the way of any permissible short-time overloads.
It appears from an inspection of the curves of Fig. 9.20 that neglecting
the effect of generator fault-current decay would slow down the generator
relay about 0.5 sec. While this may seem too short a space of time to be
conrerned about, it is a relatively long time electrically, and could be the
major factor in the amount of damage done by the short circuit.
On low-voltage systems (600 volts and below) the circuit and fault
impedance have a very pronounced effect on both the magnitude of fault
current and the voltage a t the generator. These factors should be taken
into account when selecting coordination settings for either the generator
SYSTEM OVERCURRB(1 PROTECTION 567

overcurrent relay with voltage restraint or the voltagecontrolled over-


current relay discussed in the following section.

SELECTING SETTING FOR VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OVERCURRENT RELAY


FOR GENERATOR EXTERNAL-FAULT PROTECTION

The voltage-controlled overcurrent relay, when used for generator


external-fault backup protection should he set so that it will not operate
on any maximum permissible overload but will operate on short-circuit
current selectively with feeder relays.
The instantaneous voltage element controls operation of the induction
overcurrent element and should be set to operate a t a voltage below the
minimum value expected under the worst conditions likely to be encoun-
tered in normal plant operation. The current element has essentially
the same time-current characteristics as a conventional induction over-
current relay and is provided with current-tap and time-dial adjustments.
The desired time-current setting is obtained from a family of curves
similar t o those in Fig. 9.2. The shape of the time-current curves
depends on which of three possible time-current-characteristic elements
was supplied by the manufacturer for that particular relay. In order t o
obtain maximum benefit from them, the effect of fault-current decay
due t o generator-current decrement should be taken into account, as
described in the preceding paragraphs, when selecting the time-current
settings for coordinating these relays.

SETTING DIFFERENTIAL, CURRENT-BALANCE, AND WIRE-PILOT RELAYS

Generator and transformer-differential, parallel-line current-balance,


and wire-pilot relays operate only on faults within the zones they pro-
tect and, therefore, do not require time-current-characteristic coordina-
tion with other devices. Generator-differential relays require no adjust-
ments of any kind.
Transformer-differential relays have current taps to compensate for
differences between current-transformer ratios and the currents on oppo-
site sides of a transformer, as well as the effect of Y-delta phase shift.
Detailed instructions for selecting the proper taps are supplied by the
manufacturer.
Wire-pilot relays have provision for adjustment to (1) compensate for
variations in length-(resistance) of the pilot wire, (2) vary the phase and
ground-fault sensitivity, (3) permit the use of current transformers of
different ratios. The manufacturer’s instruction book contains the
560 SYSTW OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

necessary information for making or changing any of these adjustments


in the field.

EFFECT OF Y-DELTA AND DELTA-Y CONNECTED TRANSFORMERS ON


OVERCURRENT-RELAY COORDINATION

Y-delta and delta-Y connected transformers introduce a 30” shift in the


phase relationship of fault currents ou opposite sides of them. On three-
phase fanlts this does not matter as Ear as ordinary overcurrent relays are
coucerned, because the currents in the three phases are still halanccd.
The phase shift is import.ant, however, when coordinating overcurrent
deviccs on opposit,e sides of a transformer for phase-phase faults. In
this case, t,he currcrits are no longer balanced, and the phase shift causes
current to appear in the three line leads on the unfaulted side in the ratio
of 2: 1:1. The magnitude of this “ 2 ” current is the same as that which
would flow during a three-phase short circuit on the other side of the
transformer, whereas the phase-to-phase short-circuit current on the
faulted side of the transformer is only 86.6 per cent of that which would
flow in a three-phase fault. This factor should be taken into account
when selecting relay settings if complete selectivity is desired.

EXAMPLES O F OVERCURRENT-PROTECTIVE-DEVICE COORDINATION

The following two examples of artual overcurrent-protect,ive-device


roordination graphically illustrate the application of some of the princi-
ples discussed in this chapter.
Case 1. The diagram of a portion of the distribution system in a plant
and the coordinated time-rurrent curves of the various overcurrent pro-
tective devices installed on it are shown in Fig. 9.21.
This plant had some local generators, and it was also connected t o a
large utility system, so for all practical purposes it was safe to assume
that the fault current could be maintained a t the 150,000-kva level in
case of a severe short circuit on the 2400-volt system. The entire load
on this port,ion of t,he system consisted of electrical heating equipment;
so there was no pump-back fault oirrent,. Also, continuity of power
supply mas of sufficient importance to require selective operation of all
short-circuit protective devices.
The calculated mavimum symmetrical fault current was approvimately
6500 amp on the 480-volt buses and 36,100 amp on the 2400-volt bus, as
indicated by the heavy “stub” ordinates at the bottom of the graph in
Fig. 9.21.
Curve 1 shows t,he long and short-time tripping mechanism time-cur-
rent characteristics of the 225-amp frame size 15,000-amp interrupting-
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 5bQ

FIG. 9.21 Coordination of time-current curves of relays, fuses, and oir-circuit-breaker


hips (Case 1).
570 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

capacity feeder breakers. It was necessary to use the 2C short-time-


delay trip instead of an instantaneous trip for high-current faults in order
t o make the feeder breakers selective with the devices in the branch
circuits supplied hy them.
The short-time-delay 2C trip, being a solenoid-type device, is affected
by the d-c component of the fault current, as well as the symmetrical
a-c component. Therefore, the right-hand edge of the operating-time
zone of the 2C trip is tapered to allow for the effect of the decay of the
d-c component on its operating time. Actually, the d-c component fol-
lows a curve in its decay, and also it may on occasion disappear com-
pletely somewhat sooner than indicated, but for practical purposes the
straight line shown is sufficiently accurate. I t was determined by draw-
ing a line from the point on the base line representing the maximum
asymmetrical short-circuit current t o the point on the upper boundary
of the operating-time zone of the 2C trip where the latter crosses the
6500-amp ordinate (maximum symmetrical current).
Curve 2 shows the combination of long- and short-time-delay trips
required on the transformer secondary breaker t o make it selective with
the feeder breakers. In plotting the high-current end of the 2B shore
time trip i t was assumed that the d-c component of the fault current had
disappeared and that the current was maintained a t the maximum sym-
metrical level. The operating-time bands of curves 1 and 2 include the
reset-time allowance.
Curve 3 represents the expected performance of the 200E (200 amp
continuous) fuses protecting the primary of the transformer. B and C
are its minimum- and maximum-melting-time curves, and the area
between them is the accepted manufacturing tolerance. D represents
the time required for the arc t o clear after the fuse melts, and A is the
minus 10 per cent current tolerance, which must be allowed to avoid the
possibility of the fuse being damaged, if some device on its load side
fails to clear as soon as it should. Total area between curves A and D is
the time-current operating zone which must be allocated to the fuse when
plotting coordination curves.
As long as there is clear space on the graph between the areas allocated
t o the various circuit-breaker tripping mechanisms and fuses, they will
coordinate satisfactorily with each other. Relay curves do not have
tolerance hands similar to those used in coordinating fuses and low-volt-
age circuit-breaker trips, because the necessary allowance for relay over-
travel, inaccuracy in adjusting the time dial and safety factor are taken
into account when selecting the desired minimum time margin between
a relay and the adjacent protective devices operating on the same maxi-
mum short-circuit current.
The fact that one corner of the short-time trip 2 B overlaps slightly on
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 571

the damage-tolerance zone of the fuse is theoretically wrong. Practi-


cally, however, the risk of having exactly the right combination of fault-
current magnitude and maximum-time operation of the 2B trip to cause
damage to the fuse appears to be so small that it is better to accept it
than to (I) use a larger fuse or (2) lower the circuit-breaker trip settings.
The latter would probably cause complications by crowding the time-
current characteristics of the various devices on their load side, and chang-
ing the fuse would mean poorer protection of the transformer.
In this particular case, the original plan was t o use an extremely
inverse-time induction overcurrent relay on the main-line circuit breaker.
Subsequent consideration, however, revealed that an inverse-time relay
should be used instead, because the time-current characteristics of the
extremely inverse-time relay do not coordinate satisfactorily with the
fuse. As shown by curve 5 of Fig. 9.21, the extremely inverse-time relay
could he set t o give satisfactory performance on moderate values of fault
current, but when so set, it would be much too fast on high-current faults
to permit satisfactory selectivity with the fuse. Conversely, if the
minimum-time (maximum current) end of the curve was raised t o 0.2
see, which is about as close as it is safe to try to coordinate relays with
fuses unless extreme care is taken to time them, the relay became too
slow on moderate values of fault current as shown by curve 7.
Curve 4 shows how an inverse-time relay would be coordinated with the
fuse to provide good protection in both the high- and low-current zones
of fault current. The performance of a very inverse-time relay, as repre-
sented hy curve 6, is slightly better than the inverse-time relay in the
high-current zone, hut not as good in the low-current zone, and, therefore,
the latter was substituted for the extremely inverse-time relay originally
considered.
I t will he noted that curves 3 and 5 appear to show ample time margin
between the fuse and extremely inverse-time relay curves a t high magni-
tudes of fault current, although the margin is actually too short for
dependable coordination. This deceptive chararteristic of log-log graph
paper should be constantly kept in mind when plotting and reading
curves, in order to avoid false conclusions.
Case 2. The diagram of a small portion of a mill power system and
the coordination curves of the protective devices used on it are shown in
Fig. 9.22.
In this case the calculated maximum symmetrical current was 21,600
amp and was assumed t o he sustained a t that level, since the power came
from a large system through the impedance of the step-down trans-
formers. The maximum asymmetrical current was 60,000 amp, includ-
ing the pump-back current from the large number of induction motots
on the system and using a 1.6 d-c component factor.
572 SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

Curve 3 shows the time-current characteristics of the temperature


overload relay and current-limiting fuses protecting the 600-hp motor.
Since there were no other protective devices on the load side of the fuse,
the damage-tolerance curve was omitted.
Curve 1 represents the minimum-melting-time curve of the fuses for

CURRENT IN AMPERES I
0
I

FIG. 9.22 Coordination of time-current curves of relays and fuses (Core 2).
SYSTEM OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 573

the 300-hp motor. The rest of the operating-time band of this fuse and
the associated Ghermal relay characteristics were not shown, because the
behavior of the fuses and t,hermal relays of the 600-hp motor was the con-
trolling factor in securing coordination with the incoming-line relays.
The original intention was to use 300/5-amp current transformers on
the incoming feeder in accordance with the usual practice of having the
full-load current of a circuit half t o two-thirds of full-scale reading on the
ammeter. However, the subsequent coordination study of the circuit
revealed that it would be better t o use 600/5-amp current transformers.
With the original 300/5-amp current transformers the inverse-time
relays, when set on their highest tap (I 6 amp), would have provided good
short-circuit protection on high fault-current levels, as shown by curve 2.
When so set, however, the time-current curve of the relay cuts across
both the upper portion of the fuse curve and the lower portion of the
thermal-relay curve. Theoretically, that is not good practice because
the relay would not be selective with the other devices, but practically
such a setting might be acceptable when viewed from the standpoint of
the probabilities that a fault in the motor would persist a t that rela-
tively low value of rurrent for just the right time to blow the fuse or
operate the thermal relay, as well as the line relay. The operating time
of the inverse-time relay could have been increased sufficiently to make it
clear the fuse and thermal relay by setting i t on the 10 time dial (curve
5), but such a setting would have made the relay too slow, even on high
fault currents, with consequent poor protection t o the system.
Substitution of 600/5-amp current transformers proved a satisfactory
solution to the problem. They permitted setting the relay as shown by
curve 4 t o afford fast short-circuit protection and still be selective with
the fuses and thermal relays of the 600-hp motor. To be sure, the change
in current-transformer ratio resulted in a full-load-current reading rather
low down on the ammeter scale, but that was of minor importance rom-
pared with the improvement in fault protection. I n general, if one or
the other has t o be sacrificed, i t is much better to accept a poor ammeter-
scale reading than poor short-circuit protection.
As indicated by the vertical portions of curves 2 and 4, the instan-
taneous elements on the line relays could not he used, even when set at
their maximum current of 80 amp, because they would not be selective
with the fuses, which are essentially instantaneous devices a t high levels
of fault current. This is in accordance with the rule that instantaneous
devices in series cabnot be coordinated when both are subjected to the
same fault current.
Curve 6 shows the safe heating limit for the incoming-circuit cable,
i.e., how long fault current of a given magnitude can be left on without
damaging the cable insulation.
chapter 10 by Donald Beeman

Selection of System Voltages

The selection of voltage is one of the most significant factors in the


design of a power system for an industrial plant, a commercial building,
a hospital, or any other type of building or plant. I t is a major factor in
determining over-all system cost, flexibility, and ease of future expansion.
This chapter will deal with the selection of voltage only for industrial-
type plants. The selection of voltage for commercial-type buildings is
included with the over-all discussion of power systems for commercial
and office buildings in Chap. 14.

FACTORS AFFECTING VOLTAGE SELECTION


There are several factors which affect system voltage selection:
1. Load magnitude
2. Distance power is to be carried
3. Utilization-device availability as a function of voltage ratings and
limitations
4. Safety
5. Codes and standards
The effect of these factors vanes widely in an industrial plant. Total
load magnitude and plant area have little if any hearing on the selection
of voltage in the 600-volt class. Here the utilization-equipment voltage
ratings and voltage limitations are almost the entire governing factors.
However, when selecting the primary voltage, load magnitude and dis-
tance are very important. If the plant is compact, 8s most of them are,
then magnitude is the major determining factor. However, should the
buildings he widely scattered as in some plants, both magnitude and
distance are important factors.
In some plants there are sizable portions of load, such as a pump house,
quite a distance from the main plant. Here the problem is one of trans-
mission of a block of power from one point to another. Magnitude and
distance and type of line construction are important factors.
574
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 575

EFFECT OF UTILIZATION DEVICES

Utilization devices have a profound effect upon voltage selection in


industrial plants. Incandescent lamps, small fractional-horsepower
motors, hand tools, business machines, appliances, etc., are generally
available with 115- or 120-volt single-phase ratings. Where this class of
equipment is used, 120 volts single-phase must be available.
Polyphase motors are available for voltages from 110 to 13,200 volts.
However, the desirable voltage from a motor-design standpoint and from
a system-cost standpoint is a function of horsepower. Motors up to
200 hp are generally lower in price when rated 550 volts or less and
because of their small size lend themselves better to those lower voltages
from a design standpoint. Motors below 40 hp are not listed above 550
volts. From these same standpoints there are lower desirable and eco-
nomic horsepower limits for other voltage ratings of motors. Thus,
horsepower ratings of motors definitely affect system voltage selection in
the secondary voltage class of 600 volts and below and in the plant pri-
mary voltage class of 2400 t o 13,800 volts where larger motors are used.
Lighting-fixture voltages have, in the past, been generally limited t o
120 volts. With the advent of gaseous-discharge lamps the 120-volt
limitation no longer exists. In many cases the gaseous-discharge lamp
fixtures can he operated directly off the 480-volt power system that sup-
plies motors and other power loads.
Many furnaces cannot be designed and built most economically for
voltages above 240 volts. Where these are used eutensively, they may
have a very decided bearing on the selection of system voltage in the class
600 volts and below.
Large arc-furnace transformers are generally limited to mavimum 23-
or 34.5-kv primary voltage because of the arc-furnace-transformer
switching means. Thus, these can affect primary voltage selection for
very large plants.
The foregoing illustrates how the utilization equipment may affect
system voltage selection. These specific effects are treated in the follow-
ing text as a function of voltage class. I n many cases two or more second-
ary voltages in the 600-volt-and-below class are required in a given plant.
How to obtain the combination of voltages most economically is discussed
later. Similarly, more than one voltage may be required in the voltage
range 2400 to 13,800 volts.

SAFETY

Safety is generally a factor in selecting system voltage only in the area


where appliances or portable tools are used. The National Electrical
576 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

Code for safety reasons requires that voltages on some lighting circuits
and portahle-appliance units he limited to 150 volts to ground.
Where there is great, possibility of contact with energized parts such as
in ungrounded frame portable tools, some portable lamps, etc., voltages
of the order of 32 volts are seleckd because it has been shown that volt-
ages above 50 volts t o ground can he lethal.
On circuits above 120 volts there seems to be little concrete evidence
that voltage selection from a safety standpoint is a major consideration.
While the chances of electrocution do, to a certain extent, increase with
an increase in voltage, any higher voltage can electrocute a person if h e
contacts a live part under proper conditions. For a highest order of
safety on circuits 50 volts and higher, work on current-carrying part,s
should be done only with the circuit deenergizcd.

CODES AND STANDARDS

The National Electrical Code places definite limitations on the voltages


that can be applied to equipment. As previously mentioned, some light-
ing circuits arc limited to 150 volts to ground. Primary circuits in build-
ings are limited to 15,000 volts line-to-line. There are other limitations,
hut these are not particularly effective in the area under discussion here.
TABLE 10.1 Advantages of 480-volt Systems O v e r 240-volt Systems*

1 240volb 1 480volh

........
:
Avmilobilily of equipment. Same
cost.. ........................ 135% 100%
Lolei.......................... High Lox
Voltage drop.. ................. High Low
Safely.. ...................... No proved difference.
Bolh should b e worked on
only when deenergized

* While 600-volt systems are less expensive, 550-volt motors, control, &c., m e not
80 readily available as 440-volt equipmcnt.

SELECTION OF VOLTAGES 600 VOLTS OR LESS


In most industrial plants the majority of the loads are integral horse-
power polyphase motors, furnaces, and welders which are most suitable
for operation on systems 600 volts or less. The choice of system voltage
in this class for serving these loads is 208Y/120 or 240 or 480 or 600 volts.
The use of a 480-volt system is generally desirahle for the average manu-
facturing plant because it costs less than 240-volt systems, and 410-volt
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 577

equipment for use on 480-volt systems is much more readily availahle than
550-volt equipment for use on 600-volt systems. These reasons are dis-
cussed in the following text.

480- VS. MXI-VOLT SYSTEMS

While 600-volt load-center systems cost ahout 2 to 7 per cent less than
480-volt load-center systems (Fig. l O . l ) , they have derreased in popu-
larity primarily because of the lack of availahility of standard 550- and
575-volt utilization equipment from manufacturers' and distributors'

STANDARD KVA RATINGS OF


LOAD CENTER UNIT SUBSTATIONS

FIG. 10.1 Chort showing the approximate comparative costs of 208Y/120-, 240.. 480..
and 600-volt redid lood-center-systems.
9 s SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

stocks. This was brought out forcibly during World War 11, during
which time the percentage of standard 550-volt induction motors decreased
from 11 to 4 per cent of the total standard induction motors made.
When ordering machine tools or other utilization equipment with a
considerable number of electric control circuits, it is often difficult t o
obtain 550-volt equipment, particularly on short shipment. Pumps and
other equipment which are stocked by the manufacturers with motors
already mounted are generally stocked with 220- or 440-volt ratings and
not with 550-volt ratings.
Availability of utilization equipment is the major problem when choosing
between 600-volt and 480-volt systems. Today, 600-volt systems are
limited pimarily to expansion of those plants which already operate a t
600 volts or t o some textile plants where most motors are of special design,
thus are not widely available from manufacturer’s stocks.

480- VS. 240-VOLT SYSTEMS

Economically speaking, there is seldom any reason for selecting 240


volts instead of 480 volts. The 240-volt load-center systems cost about
35 per ccnt more than 480-volt load-center systems (Fig. 10.1). As
outlined in Table 10.1, 240-volt systems generally have higher losses
and higher percentage voltage drop than 480-volt systems. If enough
copper is used in t h e 240-volt feeders, the losses and percentage voltage
drop can be made comparable to those in 480-volt systems, but in prac-
tical systems this is seldom done.
The lower voltage systems cost more because there is more current per
kva to he carried, thus larger circuit breakers and feeder conductors are
required. For example, a 500-kva unit substation costs about $25 per
kva a t 240 volts secondary compared with $20 per kva a t 480 volts secoud-
ary. A single cable feeder to carry 200 kva costs about $9 per ft a t 240
volts compared with $3.75 per ft a t 480 volts. Motor control on an aver-
age will cost more a t the lower voltage. For example, a combination
magnetic motor starter for a 745-hp motor would be size 2 a t 220 volts and
size 1 a t 440 volts with comparative approximate costs to the user of
about $135 a t 220 volts and about 595 at 4iO volts. Combining all these
factors in their proper proportion results in the cost difference shown in
Fig. 10.1,
Some industries, where there is considerable dampness such as in
dairies and slaughterhouses, have often selected 240 volts because i t is
felt t o be safer than 480 volts. Operating records show that-the biggest
factor in safety in this respect is to ground all non-current-carrying parts
properly and securely, as outlined in Chap. 7, so that insulation hreak-
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 579

downs cannot place dangerous potentials on the uon-current-carrying


parts. When working on circuit conductors while energized, there is a
greater chance for injury from electric shock with higher potentials to
ground or phase-twphase. However, as pointed out previously, any
voltage above 50 volts can be lethal; therefore, the only safe way to handle
these circuits in damp or other locations is to enclose the current-carrying
conductors in securely and properly grounded metal enclosures and to
work on current-carrying parts only when deenergized and if necessary
with a temporary ground established on the current-carrying parts.
In areas having mostly electric furnaces, 240 volts may be most advan-
tageous because of the limitation of voltage which may be applied to these
furnaces. In general, however, furnaces are large spot loads and cover
only a small portion of the area of the plant. Therefore, these furnaces
may be supplied by a separate load-center substation stepping down to
240 volts for the furnace only, the rest of the load being supplied a t 480
volts. For smaller furnaces the power may be stepped down from 480 to
240 volts. Seldom is it economical to use 240 volts for general distrihu-
tion in a plant even though a sizable portion of the total kw load may he
230-volt furnaces.

WHERE 208Y/lZO-VOLT SYSTEMS ARE APPLICABLE

There are certain areas where 208Y/120-volt systems are more economi-
cal than 480-volt systems because the type of utilization equipment
involved should or must be operated a t 120 volts. When such utilization
equipment and incandescent lamps constitute a major portion of the load
(more than about 50 t o 65 per cent of the total load), 208Y/120-volt sys-
tems may he more economical than 480-volt systems. Typical of such a
load is that of a clothing-manufacturing establishment where practically
a11 the power is utilized by motor-operated hand shears. Other areas in
which 208Y/120 volts may be desirable are on assembly benches where
small components are assembled and where small portable tools such as
soldering irons, electric hand drills, electric nut tighteners, etc., are used.
A typical case would he a small electronic-equipment assembly line.
Again the choice of the lower voltages is primarily based on the desire to
limit the voltage on the hand tools to 120 volts. In these assembly areas,
most of the power is utilized at this low voltage.

THREE-PHASE VS. ONE-PHASE CIRCUITS

I n general, threephase voltages are used exclusively for general dis-


tribution of power except for 120-volt loads which are fed from very small
580 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

transformers. When fed from small transformers ahout 50 kva or less,


120/240-volt single-phase three-wire systems may be more economical
than 208Y/120-volt three-phase four-wire systems if there are no poly-
phase motors t o he fed a t this particular voltage.

LOW-VOLTAGE POWER SYSTEMS SERVING DIFFERENT VOLTAGES

The following discussion shows, for lights and power in most plants
where integral horsepower motors are the major load, that combined
light and power substation systems are more economical than separate
light and power substation systems.
Later there is a discussion that shows how power loads, such as electric
furnaces, electric kitchens in cafeterias, and other electric heating equip-
ment requiring 240 volts or 208 volts, can he served from a480-volt system.

FIG. 10.2 Two combinations of substation voltage ratings and Irva ratings to supply loodl
which must operate at different voltages in the d m s 6CQ volts and less.
SELECTION OF SYSlEh4 VOLTAGES 58 t

Besides the economic consideration given later, there are other impor-
tant factors of the combined power system with all substations stepping
down t o one voltage such as 480 volts.
The single-voltage systems are simpler in their concept and often
enable a substantially lower cost primary system. For example, as
shown in A , Fig. 10.2, a single primary feeder will care for four 1000-kva
load-center substations requiring only one primary-feeder breaker and no
protection a t each individual load-center unit substation. If, instead of
stepping all power down to 480 volts, half were stepped down to 480 volts
and half t o some lower voltage such as 210 volts, then two primary feeders
may be required as shown in B , Fig. 10.2, if no individual primary proter-
tion is used a t each load center. This method doubles the primary feeder
system cost. An alternative method would be t o use fuses ahead of each
individual load-center unit substation; this also increases the cost of the
primary system compared with the arrangement shown in A , Fig. 10.2.
In other cases where there may be large power units and smaller lighting
units, fusing of the smaller units may be required, which is still an addi-
tional cost to the primary system compared with that shown in A ,
Fig. 10.2.
Arrangement B , Fig. 10.2, requires more installation expense because
there are more substations t o put in, it requires more space for the sub-
stations, and there is extra maintenance because of the greater number of
units. It costs very little more t o maintain a 1000-kva transformer than
it does t o maintain a 300-kva transformer. The elimination of fuses is
also an advantage from the standpoint of selectivity of overcurrent
devices.
Greater service continuity can often be obtained by stepping all power
down t o one voltage instead of two different voltages. For euample,
a plant office building may require 400 kva of power a t 480 volts and 200
kva of lights, etc., a t 120 volts. A nominal arrangement might be a 500-
kva power substation and a 200-kva lighting substation, Fig. 10.3A.
Should either substation be out the building may be useless. However,
if two 300-kva 480-volt substations were put in and the 120-volt load
served off the 480-volt system, as shown in Fig. 10.3R, then the loss of one
substation or primary feeder would leave some lights and some power in
the building to permit a t least essential operations t o be carried on.
Even a t greater over-all system cost i t may be desirable t o make all
substations 480 volts, for example, to get increased flexibility and to save
money when future changes are made. By having all substations with
the same secondary voltage, then the same voltage is available everywhere
in the plant. Therefore, the availability of proper voltage will not be an
expensive bottleneck for flexibility in shifting loads.
582 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

rvyn 500 K V A "7n 200 KVA

480 V 208 Y / I20 v


(nl

FIG. 10.3 One-line diagram of ( A ) two substations operating a t different recondory


voltages and IN two substations in iecondory selective orrongement operating at the
some voltage with step-down trclniforrneri to supply 120 or 240 volts.

SELECTION OF LIGHTING VOLTAGE

The most general plant load other than that for motors is generally the
lighting load. At the present time, illumination levels of 50 foot-candles
are considered good practice, and levels as high as 100 foob-candles are
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 583

not out of the ordinary. Load densities of 2 t o 4 va per sq ft for lighting


and 8 t o 10 va per sq f t for power are about normal.
Until the advent of the fluorescent lamp, most distribution of power for
lighting loads was a t 120 volts for the most efficient operation of incan-
descent lamps. Higher voltage incandescent lamps are fragile and
generally not satisfactory.
Modern lighting practices, however, include more and more use of
fluorescent lamps, either alone or in combination with other types. 3'ince
the fluorescent lamp has a ballast in series with it, the 120-volt limitation
no longer applies. The required voltage a t the instant of starting is
always above 120 volts and is supplied by a transformer built into the
ballast. Thus the use of fluorescent lamps has opened new possibilities
for the use of higher voltage circuits t o reduce the cost of the power system.
Three Systems for Obtaining Proper Voltage for Lighting Loads.
Because of the 120-volt limitation imposed by incandescent lamps, the
208Y/120-volt system has been commonly used for lighting circuits.
However, most industrial plants have' long recognized the benefits of
higher voltages for motors, and 480 volts is a common power-load voltage.
Thus system A (Fig. 10.4) includes a 208Y/120-volt three-phase four-
wire system for lighting and a 480-volt system for the power load. Such
a system requires two separate substations.
A second alternative is a combined light and power system using the
same substation for both power and lights. System B (Fig. 10.5) includes
a 480-volt substation with small step-down transformers located through-
out the plant for supplying the lighting load a t 120 volts. This system
has the advantage of using only one substation instead of two smaller
ones, hut i t still uses 120 volts for lighting.
The third system goes one step further and uses a higher voltage for the
fluorescent lamp ballasts. System C (Fig. 10.6) uses the same substation
for supplying power t o the plant using a 480Y/277-volt three-phase sys-
tem. The power load is supplied a t the line-to-line voltage of 480 volts.
The lighting load is distributed on the three phases but connected from
one line t o neutral a t 277 volts.
These three systems are considered being used in a typical industrial
plant of a given size and shape to form the basis of comparison. A light-
ing load of 3.1 va per sq f t is assumed. In addition, it is assumed that
% va per sq f t would be required for 120-volt convenience outlets.
Summary of Economic Comparison. Representative first costs of sys-
tems A , B , and C are shown in Table 10.2. System A has a total installed
cost of about $82 per kva. System B shows some savings relative to sys-
tem A in that the total installed cost is about $59.50 per kva. System C
is the least expensive, costing only $46.75 per kva total. On the basis of
2.4 TO 13.8 KV-PRIMARY FEEDER-
7 r---

--- ll--------- ?,
\A*&.
'"1.'' UNIT SUBSTATION
UNIT SUESTATION T I~
,t_ FOR
FOR LIGHTING 7' I, 4 8 0 V POWER
(AND 120 VOLT POWER) 1'
i(:
I
_ r _ -7
i-- -

.,'
.I
I' I'
.il Y!
%' T
300 MCM 3-CONDUCTOR
SECONDARY FEEDER
100 KVA LOAD

&--7

- CL?+SIDERED IN COST COMPARISON


_--- NOT CONSIDERED IN COST COMPARISON CGH,lNG FiXTmES

FIG. 10.4 One-line diagram of system With reporate substations for power and light service-
system A.
FIG. 10.5 One-line diagram of system with one substation for power and light service and 4 8 s
120-volt step-down transformers to provide.120-volt power for lights-system B.
Ad.., BASIC SU0STAlION COMMON TO
aT } LI6HTlNG AN) 480 V POWER LOAD

>

I ~ L C I R U I T BREAKER
+FORMER
-PbNEL BOAR0
(SIZE I COMBINATION
MOTOR STARTER1 MISCELLANEOUS
!swlEn WWER AT 120 VOLTS v)
1T !T !T 'i '''' <
Y
F

FIG. 10.6 One-line diagram of system with one substation for power and light service with general.
area fluorercenf lighting a t 277 volts-system C.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

i d ti
588 SELECTION OF SYSTCM VOLTAGES

system A being 100 per cent, system R costs only 75 per cent as much and
system C only 57 per cent as much. The savings of the combined light
and power system will justify the selection of this system where the total
120-volt load is as high as 50 t o 65 per cent of the total load a t 480 or 6M)
volts.
Although cost comparisons of fluorescent,-lighting systems are beyond
the scope of this book, it is well to point out that the aforementioned
figures must be considered in relation to the specific fluorescent-lamp
layout. The first cost of the distribution system is small compared with
the first cost of the lighting fixtures. The carrying charges on capital
investment of the power system are small compared with the operating
cost of the lighting system. Even taking these factors into account, how-
ever, will still show that combined light and power systems are less expen-
sive than the separate substations of system A.
Selection of Voltage for Combinations of Different lamps. Many
plants may have high bays and low bays. The low hays are generally
lighted by fluorescent lamps, and the foregoing discussion applies specifi-
cally to such areas. I n high-hay areas, mercury and incandescent lamps
are often used in combination. The mercury lamps have ballasts like the
fluorescent lamps and are, therefore, suitable t o higher voltage. As
shown in Fig. 10.7, the combined light and power system C can be used to
supply these combinations. At A , Fig. 10.7, is a combination incan-
descent and small mercury unit. The small mercury unit can he operated
off 277 volts and the incandescent lamps a t 120 volts through a small
step-down transformer connected to the 480-volt system. The large
3-kw units may he operated a t 277 or 480 volts and the companion incan-
descent lamps a t 120 volts off the small transformer connected to the 480-
volt system, as shown in B , Fig. 10.7. The fluorescent lamps are con-
nected line-to-neutral as shown in C, Fig. 10.7.

SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS WITH COMBINED LIGHT AND POWER SYSTEMS

While the following discussion does not hear upon the problem of
selection of voltage, i t is, however, included a t this point to consolidate
the various engineering items that must be considered in designing com-
bined light and power systems.
Short-circuit Currents. The short-circuit currents on the lighting sys-
tem are actually quite low when the fused combination motor starter is
used for controlling the lights. The starters are equipped with silver-
sand current-limiting fuses which very definitely limit short-circuit cur-
rents to low values. Not more than about 5000 amp short-circuit current
can flow to a fault in the lighting system even though the available short,
circuit current on the 480-volt system may be as high as 50,000 amp.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 589

Twenty-ampere fuses are used in the controllers to give proper protection


to the fluorescent-lamp ballasts. In this regard, it should be noted that a
480Y/277-volt system, for example, requires better protection than a
120-volt system. With the lower voltage system, it is difficult, if not
impossible, t o get a restrike when a short circuit occurs. The short may
often burn itself free on a 120-volt system. However, with higher volt-
ages it is entirely possible to get restriking, and therefore the best protec-
tion is indicated. The silver-sand current-limiting fuse protects the
entire branch circuit with system C .
Actually, the short-circuit protection generally furnished with system

1
POWER LOADS

(A) (81 ICI


FIG. 10.7 One-line diagram showing how combined light and power rubrlcltions using
system C can supply various types of lamps which moy operate at different voltages.
590 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

A is less adequat,e than t h a t descrihed ahove for system R or C . I t is


recognized that the circuit breakers in the pane1 hoards do not have s u f f -
cient interruptiiig ratiiig (only 5000 amp) for this service. Hoivever,
there are no available devicej which meet the space requirements for this
service and which have adequate interrupting rating for the short-circuit-
current duty imposed ou them.
Voltage Flicker. Voltage flicker duc t o fluct,uating power loads will
not canse ohjectionable light flicker iii the average factory. Large resist-
ance welders or large motors mhich start frequeiitly should not he coii-
nected t o the 480-volt hus t h a t serves the plant lighting. Resistance
melders are being used iii increasing quantities in manufacturing plants,
particularly in those mhich fabricate metal products. I n many larger
plants employing load-center pomer distribution systems, the welders are
connected t o a separate transformer whirh supplies nothing but weldirig
load. In these plants there is no prohlem of lamp flicker due t o resistaiice
welders, unless t h e plant i s supplied by a very meak primary system, in
mhich case the Ricker prohlem will bc esseiitially thc same whether or not
cnmhined light and p o n w syst,erns are used.

v A
Y v L
Y
.,
-Y
$
hL

x
Ali

T' T T
+-3&
2 2
Y Y
NO

42.1
2 J
TO WELOING
L O A O ONLY
AT 7 + 7 NORMALLY
2 2 d-0PEN-d
A
f
1
7
' 7'
d
WELOERS
ANO
'OWER
POWER
LIGHTS
Y Y Y
WELOERS
ANO
POWER
Y4L V I
POWER
LIGHTS

FIG. 10.8 Secondary relective orrcingemenl of load-center power dirtribulion ryrtern wilh
reiiitonçe welderr on m e 480-volt bur and lighti on the companion 480-volt bur. Motor
load may be on both burer.

I n manufacturing plants where the total resistance-welder load is not


sufficient t o justify separate ivelding transformers or where there are no
euceptionally large welders, the secondary selcctive arraiiscment of the
load-center distribution systrm may he used, with oiie of the tivo sub-
stat,ions (Fig. 10.8) for general power load aiid resistance w l d e r s and the
othcr for comhiiied light and pomer. Diiring normal operation the tivo
suhstation biises are iiot in parallel, and the flicker on the hus t o which the
welders are connected will iiot affect the light,s coiinected t,o the other hus.
When diiring an emergency one of the primary feeders or oiie of the trans-
formers is out of servire, the buses may he paralleled, and during t h a t
emergeiicy period the flicker may bc iiot,icerhle. I n general there has
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 591

been no difficulty with comhined light and power systems where the
principles mentioned have been followed.
Reliability. With either system B or C , separate feeders should be
used for serving lighting load only. There are many more outages on
power feeders than on lighting feeders because of the greater numher of
changes made in power feeders. Furthermore, the power feeders may
have more voltage drop because of fluctuating loads. Hence separate
lighting feeders should he used for greater reliability and t o reduce voltage
drop.
With any of the systems discussed in t,his hook, consideration should be
given t o overlapping the area fed by one substation, so that an outage 011
that substation mill not cause complete outage of lamps in any one area.
One method of accomplishing increased reliability economically is wit,h
the secondary selective load-center power svstem shown in Fig. 10.9.
Small plants with demands of 500 t o 1500 kva usually require only oiie
substation. It has been common practice t o install a power transformer
hank and a lighting transformer bank. The welders and power load are
connected t o the larger bank, and the lights t o the smaller one. By usiiig
the arrangement shown in Fig. 10.9, with two transformers equivalent in
total kva t o the lighting plus the power demand, considerable increase in
service reliability can he ohtained without incurring objectionable flicker
from the welders. With two transformers of equal size, both stepping
down t o 480 volts, the plant may he kept in at least partial operation
with lights and major power apparatus in service with one transformer

FIG. 10.9 Secondary selective arrangement of load-center power distribution system with
overlapping oreor of lights supplied from differenl substation burer to prevent complete
lois of light should one bur b e deenergized.
592 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

deenergized. Where separate lighting and power banks are used, this
cannot he done. Increased service reliability for the same reason can he
obtained in larger plants by using the secondary selective system with
substations in pairs, both stepping down to 480 volts, instead of individual
light and power substations scattered through the working area.
Other Than General-are0 Lighting. In systems A (Fig. 10.4) and R
(Fig. 10.5), 120 volts are available for general-area lighting, as well as
miscellaneous 120-volt power and lighting. Therefore, all load other than
480-volt load can be taken off the same circuit in those two systems.
With system C (Fig. 10.6), 265-volt ballasts should he used only in
fixtures for general-area lighting. These fixtures must he more than 8 f t
from the floor and must not have switches mounted in them. The
National Electrical Code requires that all lighting for individual benches,
machines, and so forth should he operated a t 120 volts. Since there is
always some load of this nature around any plant, it is necessary to
obtain the power for that load from the 480-volt feeders of system C .
Factory-office Power Supply. Frequently, industrial plants are
designed with a sizable office area a t one end of the factory area. Here
again system C (Fig. 10.6) can he used for general-area fluorescent light-
ing within the office area. In such a building, system C as described
above would he used for the factory area. One or more feeders would
also be run into the office area for general lighting, Fig. 10.10,
For further discussion of officepower and lighting systems, see Chap. 14.

OFFICE FOR
FACTOR"

FIG. 10.10 One-line diagram showing how combined light and power iubrtotion using
system C supplies some factory power, some factory lights, and factory-office general-
area fluorescent lamps.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 593

Selection of Small Dry-type Tronsformers for Combined Light and


Power Systems. Selection of the proper kva and voltage rating of the
small dry-type transformers for t,he combined light, and power system R
(Fig. 10.5) is essential. These traiisformers are a11 si,ngle phase and may
be used as separate single-phase units or iii ùanks t o supply three phase,
240 or 208Y/120 volts.
In general, single-phrtse units are less expensive and more adaptable
than three-phase hanks. Three-phase hanks are used when three-phase
208-\dt small power as well as single-phasc 120-volt power is needed.

'
The single-phase units are connected line-to-line ori the 480-volt systém
and arraiiged for 120/240, three wire, one phase, on the seaondary (Fig.
480 VOLTS 3-PHAÇE 3WIRE

1201240 VOLTS
n- 20ôVOLTS I-PHASE 3 - W I R E
3 PHASE SINGLE PHASE LOADS
ONLY
ia)
120 VOLTS
n- IPHASE

2 0 ô Y I 120 VOLTS
3-PHASE 4 - W I R E
3-PHASE ANO SINGLE PHASE LOAOS
(bl
FIG. 10.11 Variour lighting tranrforrner connections for stepping power down from 480
to 120 "Olt..
SPA SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

10.11a). Three-phase units are connected delta on the 480-volt side and
208Y/120volts, threephase, four wire, on the secondary side (Fig. 10.11b).
Most economical sizes of step-down transformers depend upon the load
t o he served. In general, single-phase units are limited to 25 kva maxi-
mum and three-phase units t o 50 kva maximum. These sizes limit the
short-circuit current on the 120-volt system to about 5030 amp maximum,
thus the short-circuit current available is within the rating of most of the
better grade of lighting panel-hoard protective devices.
Many dry-type transformers available for lighting service have even
ratios, i.e., 480-120 (4:1), 240-120 (2:1), etc. Where no taps are pro-
vided in the primary windings, these units do not in most cases have the
correct ratio to supply proper voltage for a lighting system from the usual
480-volt power system. The difficulty arises because the ratio between
motor and lamp name-plate ratings is not even multiples. Motors are
rated 440 volts, while lights are rated 120 volts. It is obvious that, if the
voltage is correct for the motors it will he too low for the lamps using a
standard 4: 1 ratio lighting transformer. With 440 volts applied t o such a
transformer, there would he only 110 volts less voltage drop for the lights.
T o remedy this condition, lighting transformers with two full-rated 5 per
cent taps or four full-rated 255 per cent taps below normal in the primary
winding should be used. This 480-120-volt normal rating will have a tap
5 per cent below (456 volts) and 10 per cent below (432 volts). Thus, i t
really has three ratios:

Normal 480-120 4:l


Tap-5 per cent below 456-120 3.8:l
Tap-10 per cent helow 432-120 3.6: 1

If, for example, the power system voltage is correct for the motors, i.e.,
440 volts, theii by using the 10 per cent below tap on the lighting trans-
former the voltage will he more nearly correct for the lights. The lamp
voltage will he (440 X 1)/3.6 = 122 volts. Therefore, by having proper
taps in the lighting transformers, i t is feasible to have the correct voltage
for 440-volt power equipment and for 120-volt lights all supplied from the
same power system.
I n actual practice, voltages are seldom exactly equal t o the name-plate
rating of power-consuming apparatus because of voltage drop and pri-
mary circuit regulation. A report by the AIEE Industrial Power Sys-
tems Committee (see Chap. 4) established a maximum desirable range of
480 volts maximum t o 420 volts minimum for 440-volt systems and 125
volts maximum t o 114 volts minimum for lamps. I n t h e case where
the voltage varies from 440 t o 475 on the 480-volt power system, the
voltage would vary on a lighting system supplied from this power system
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 595

in this way. If the 5 per cent below normal tap is used in the lighting
transformer, the maximum voltage on the lighting system would be
475/3.8 = 125 volts. The minimum voltage would be 440/3.8 = 116
volts less the voltage drop in the lighting wiring system. These are
within the limits set above. With 4: 1 ratio lighting transformers with-
out taps, the voltage on the lighting circuit would have been 475/4 =
118.5 volts maximum and 440/4 = 110 volts minimum. The minimum
value is too low for best illumination level from the lamps. The taps
below normal in the primary of the lighting transformers permit raising
the lighting voltage t o more nearly the lamp voltage rating while main-
taining proper voltage on the 480-volt system for power apparatus.
Similar transformers are available for supplying lights from 600-volt
power systems.

SELECTING VOLTAGE FOR POWER SUPPLY TO ELECTRIC FURNACES

Wherever practical, electric furnaces should he designed for operation


on 480-volt systems. This provides the lowest over-all cost of the power-
supply system and, in general, does not increase the cost of the furnace.
As a matter of fact, in some cases, the cost of the furnace control may
actually be reduced.
As an example, one manufacturer installed four 2000-kw enameling
furnaces. A comparison of the design of the furnaces showed that they
could be designed with equal operating characteristics and life when
rated either 230 or 460 volts. Selecting the 460-volt rating for operation
on a 480-volt system reduced the power supply system cost by over
$50,000.
Some furnaces, particularly the smaller ones, cannot be designed for
operation on 480-volt systems and, hence, must be designed for operation
on 240-volt systems. Larger furnaces, that is, ones of the order of 500 t o
1000 kw which must operate on 240-volt systems, may have a separate
unit substation to supply the furnace. In such cases the unit substation
is considered a part of the furnace and will generally be moved with it.
A system with 480-volt substations for supplying general load and 240-
volt substations for supplying furnace loads is shown in Fig. 10.12.
Smaller furnaces, less than about 500 kva, can, in general, be most
economically served off 480-volt systems with transformers to step down
from 480 to 240 volts for the furnace. The problem of supplying the
smaller furnaces is much like the problem of supplying combination light
and power loads, as discussed earlier in this chapter. Such a system
would be like that shown in Fig. 10.13.
Even though there are enough smaller 240-volt furnaces in one area to
justify a 240-volt substation, i t is still hest nractice in many cases t o put
596 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

in all substations with 480-volt secondaries and then supply the 240-volt
furnace load through 480-240-volt transformers. These smaller furnaces
are more readily movable and may be used t o form a part of the produc-
tion line. Hence, power supply, because of voltage, will be no problem
when the smell furnaces plus their auxiliary 480-240-volt transformers are
moved from one location to another. Likewise, 480 volts will be avai!able

0 2 4 0 VOLT SUBSTATIONS FOR LARGE ELECTRIC OVENS


0480 VOLT SUBSTATIONS FOR GENERAL POWER AND LIGHTS

-om

FIG. 10.12 Schematic one-line diagram rhowing 480-volt substations for general-purpose
power and lights and 240-volt substations for large spot loads consisting of electric ovens
and furnaces which must operate a t not higher than 240 volts.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 597
- - I<, -7
~.-. _-__--
~Ti.
~\
\
, -----------1 r-------
I

h
T,

240V
FIG. 10.13 One-line diagram showing one substation to serve 080-volts general power
load ond 230-volt furnoce through 480-240-volt transformers.

whenmachine toolsaremoved into areas which may originally be occupied


by electric furnaces.

SELECTION OF VOLTAGES FOR SYSTEMS 2.4 TO 15 K V

Voltages in this class are used mainly for primary power distribution in
industrial plants. All plants using a primary voltage employ voltages of
this class except some of the very large chemical plants, steel mills, etc.
The latter may employ subtransmission voltages above 15,000 volts.
When the utility voltage is below 15,000 volts, there is no problem of
selecting the primary voltage.
Since the National Electriral Code does allow 15,000 volts in the build-
ings, there is generally no reason for transforming voltages of the order
of 13,800 volts to, say, 2400 or 4160 volts for transmission through the
building. The higher voltage ran be carried in cable and conduit or in
interlocked-armor cable t o the load-center substations and there trans-
formed to utilization voltage.
When the utility-voltage supply is above 15,000 volts, then in all evcept
a few very Iarge steelmills, chemical plants, etc., transformation to some
voltage less than 15,000 volts is desirable, both economically and techni-
cally, for transmitting the power through the plant to the load-center sub-
598 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

stations where it is stepped down t o utilization voltage. I n this case the


plant engineer must select a plant primary voltage. The trend in the
past several years has been t o select higher voltages to obtain greater
economy and flexibility for expansion. Many studies have shown that
either of two voltages will suffice in the majority of the cases, Fig. 10.14,
i.e., 4160 volts for plants having a supply transformer and/or generating
capacity of 10,000kva and less and 13,800 volts for plants having a supply
transformer and/or generating capacity of 20,000 kva or greater. For
the range in between 10,000 and 20,000 kva, either 4160 or 13,800 volts
may prove t o he most economical. However, when selecting the voltage
in this range, sight should not he lost of the fact that all plants grow in
size and that while 4160 volts might, for example, be slightly less expensive
for a 15,000-kva plant, if that plant should happen to grow to 25,000 or
30,000 kva, then 13,800 volts would be most economiral. I n that case
the selection of the higher voltage would undoubtedly pay off in the end.
The basic advantages of higher voltage are accounted for by the
improved economy in primary distribution circuits, in lower primary

13200

1 13800 V

$1
6900

1
4160p
{ 4160 V

24001
1000

5000 10,000
KVA
15,000 20,000 25,000

SUPPLY TRANSFORMER GENERATING CAPACITY


FIG. 10.14 Chart rhowing most economical primory system voltage for indurtriol plants
where there is a choice of primory voltage.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 599

switching equipment costs, and in improved economy and simplification


of the main station bus arrangement. The effect of high-voltage motors
will be discussed later.
Because of the wide variation in magnitude of load and in the power-
supply systems, i t is not feasible to draw a simple curve of primary-system
cost as it was for the secondary systems. I n a small plant of 2000 kva,
for example, the cost difference between a 2400- or a 4160-volt system may
be very small, but in a system of 15,000 kva the cost differential may be
several dollars per kva in favor of the 4160-volt system. As a further
example, in some plants the power may be supplied a t 13,800 volts; thus
no transformation is necessary before carrying the primary voltage to the
load centers in the plant. I n other cases a master unit substation may
be required. I n still others power may be generated or generated and
purchased.

13,800 VS. 4160 VOLTS


The data in Fig. 10.14 show that 4160 volts is most economical for
smaller plants and 13,800 volts most economical for larger plants. A few
examples will explain this. First assume a 10,000-kva plant. The source
switchgear costs about $1.10 per kva a t 4160 volts and about $0.75 per
kva a t 13,800 volts. Primary-feeder switchgear costs about $1.90 per
kva at 4160 volts and about $2.70 per kva a t 13,800 volts. Primary-
feeder cable costs about $2.00 per kva per 1000 ft a t 4160 volts and about
$1.60 per kva per 1000 ft a t 13,800 volts. Adding these, the total cost of
the primary system is $5.00 per kva a t 4160 volts and $5.05 per kva a t
13,800 volts. This spread would be considerably widened should there
be many motors that could operate directly a t 4160 volts and could not
operate directly a t 13,800 volts. The difference will be widened in any
case by about $2.00 per kva because of the lower cost of load-center unit
substations with 4160- vs. 13,800-volt primary windings. This makes
the total in favor of the 4160-volt system about $2.05 per kva.
Assume as a second example a 20,000-kva plant, the cost a t 4160 volts
would be about $2.10 per kva for the source unit, $1.90 per kva for the
primary switchgear, and $2.00 per kva per 1000 f t for the primary cable,
making a total of $6.00 per kva. For the 13,800-volt system the approxi-
mate costs are as follows: source unit, $0.35 per kva; primary switchgear,
$2.20 per kva; and primary cable, $1.25 per kva per 1000 ft, making a
total of 93.80 per kya for the primary system. Adding $2.00 per kva
extra charge for the load-center unit substation, the savings for the
13,800-volt system is $0.20 per kva. This load is about a break-even
point. Should the plant have been about 30,000 kva, the saving for the
13,800-volt system would be about $6.10 per kva.
600 SELECTION O F SYSTEM VOLTAGES

2400 VS. 4160 VOLTS

One of the problems that arises quite often is, why select 4160 volts
instead of 2400 volts? There are two major reasons for doing this. The
first is that 4160-volt systems have lower cost, and second, they have
greater allowance for expansion.
I n so f a r as cost is concerned, 4160-volt switchgear for a given inter-
rupting rating costs less than 2400-volt switchgear. Another advantage
costmise in switchgear is that often a 1200-amp circuit breaker will oarry
the full-load current a t 4180 volts whereas a 2000-amp circuit breaker
would be required at 2400 volts. There is a marked difference in the
selling price of 2000-amp and 1200-amp circuit breakers. Often more
kva per circuit can be carried at 4160 volts than a t 2400 volts, resulting
in fewer circuits, thereby further reducing the cost of the switchgear.
Cable costs are generally less at 4160 volts than at 2100 volts because
less copper is involved.
The largest metal-clad circuit breakers made for 2400-volt service have
150-mva maximum interrupting rating. The maximum rating circuit
breaker of similar construction for 4160 volts is 250 mva. This allows a
much larger system t o be built a t 4160 volts than at 2400 volts without
going t o complicated synchronizing buses, etc.
Influence of Motors on Choice of 2400 vs. 4160 Volts. Tho use of
motors at primary voltage does not, in general, alter the selection of
2400 vs. 4160 volts for generation and distribution of power in industrial
plants. This condition arises in certain industries, typical of which are
petroleum refineries and paper mills, where a sizable percentage of the
total electric power is consumed in motors rated above 40 hp. Since
these motors are readily available from most motor manufacturers with a
voltage rating of 2300 volts, motors rated above 40 hp may be operated
directly connected t o 2400-volt power distribution systems without inter-
vening transformers. Hence, i t is often thought that the lowest over-all
electric-system cost, including power generation, distribution, motors,
and control, can be obtained by generating power or transforming i t from
the electric utility system and distributing i t through the plant a t 2400
volts primary voltage.
A review of the factors which influence system costs indicate that such
is not the case. Studies of specific systems show that i t is nearly always
less expensive, so far as over-all electric system costs are concerned, to use
a primary or generation voltage higher than 2400 volts and t o operate
motors, 200 hp and less, on 480- or 600-volt circuits. I n studying the
effect of primary motors on the selection of 2400 vs. 4160 volts in more
detail, certain basic equipment and system elements were considered.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 601

These are discussed in the following. A paragraph is included to show


the effect of other types of motors and motor starters.
I n some areas, 4800 volts is the standard primary voltage. The basic
factors presented are not substantially altered whether the voltage is 4160
or 4800 volts. Since 4160 volts is far more common than 4800 volts, the
former will be used as a basis of comparison.
Motors and M o t o r Starters. As standard squirrel-cage induction
motors are by far the most commonly used motors, they have been con-
sidered to make this study as representative as possible. The curves in
Fig. 10.15 are plotted for 1800-rpm motors. It is equally as important to
select motor starters with adequate short-circuit interrupting rating as it
is to select feeder circuit breakers with adequate interrupting rating, thus
only modern combination motor starters are considered.
System Factors. To use 440- or 550-volt motors in a plant in which
the primary or generation voltage is higher than 600 volts requires a
transformation to less than 600 volts for these motors. Therefore, when
comparing 440-volt motors vs. motors operating directly a t primary volt-
age (i.e., 2400 or 4160 volts), the installed price of a step-down substation
must be included with the 440-volt motors and control. This substation
70

60
a
$
50
w
(0
LL
0
I 40
a
0
k
0
2" 30
ul
20
_I
A
x 10 4000 VOLTS - MOTORS AN0
CONTROL ONLY

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500


INDUCTION MOTOR HP RATING
FIG. 10.15 Approximate cost of induction motors and control and approximate system
cork as a function of motor horsepower.
602 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

is included a t $8 per hp. That figure is based on the installed price of a


unit substation consisting of a transformer and one secondary breaker and
4 4 0 VOLT MOTORS assuming that, because of diversity,
1 kva of transformer capacity will
0 00
$ 2 2
care for 134 hp of connected motors.
~ ~ - 7 0 0 8 Since branch circuits to 440-volt
T T T STARTERS motors require larger conductors than
branch circuits to 2300- or 1000-
volt motors, $1 per hp was included
in curve A , Fig. 10.15, to cover this.
L, The one-line diagram of the circuit
A ] U N l T SUBSTATION elements for 440- or 550-volt motors
operating from 2400- or 4160-volt
A
“cy\ primary systems is shown in Fig.
2400 OR 10.16. The cost of the low-voltage
4160 VOLTS
motors, control, and the step-down
FIG. 10.16 Schematic one-line dia- substation is plotted as a func-
gram of 440-volt motors and control
and rtep-down substation.
kion of motor horsepower rating in
curve A , Fig. 10.15.
Motors Operating Directly at Primary Voltage. The approximate
prices of high-voltage motors and control only are plotted in Fig. 10.15 on
curves B and C. When selecting the primary voltage of the power dis-
tribution system, it is necessary to consider more than just the prices of
the mot,ors and control which operate a t primary voltage, i.e., a t 2400 or
4160 volts.
The cost of the primary system must be considered as well as motors
and control. In factoring the primary-system cost i t is assumed that if
2300-volt motors are used the power will he distributed a t 2400 volts and
if 4000-volt motors are used the power will be distributed a t 4160 volts.
In industrial plants with a total demand of a few thousand kva, the pri-
mary power system (i.e., the generating plant or main step-down sub-
station from the utility system) and the primary switchgear and cable
cost about $4 more per kva for 2400-volt primary voltage than for 4160-
volt primary voltage. This cost will increase to about $8 or $10 per kva
for systems about 10,000kva and larger. Therefore, if a 2400-volt system
is arbitrarily chosen in place of a 4160-volt system, the extra cost of the
entire 2400-volt distribution system plus the cost of 2300-volt motors and
control must be compared with the cost of 4000-volt motors and control
for those motors which operate a t primary voltage. This comparison can
he made by referring to curves C and D i n Fig. 10.15, which show that the
2300-volt motors and control plus the extra cost of the 2400-volt power
system is more expensive than 4000-volt motors and control. For the
general case then, curves C and D and not curves B and C should he used
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 603

when selecting the primary-system voltage for plants where a sizable


portion of the total connected load consists of motors larger than about
200 hp.
The total extra cost of the entire 2400-volt power system compared
with a 4160-volt power system has been included a t $8 per hp of high-
voltage motor, i.e., $8 per hp was added to curve B to obtain curve D.
This figure ($8) is arrived a t by assuming that complete 2400-volt power
systems cost $4 more per kva than 4160-volt power systems and that an
equal kva capacity of power system is required for serving motors oper-
ating a t primary voltage and to serve all other load which is operated a t
600 volts or less. If these motors require only one-half the system
capacity for supplying them, that means that 2 kva of more costly 2400-
volt system capacity (at $4 per kva extra) is required per horsepower of
high-voltage motor. That is the equivalent of $8 per hp of high-voltage
motor. The actual range of extra cost of the 2400-volt system is from
about $2.50 per kva a t 5000-kva plant load to about $7.25 per kva a t
15,000-kva plant load.
The system costs are given in dollars per kva but are added in Fig. 10.15
as dollars per horsepower. This is done on the basis that the kva and
horsepower ratings of high-voltage motors are considered equal.
480- or 600-volt Systems M o s t Economical for Motors Rated 200 Hp or
Less. By referring t o the curves in Fig. 10.15, it can he seen that below
about 175 hp the 440-volt motors enable the least investment in the elec-
tric equipment regardless of the primary-system voltage. Thus, gener-
ally speaking, all motors rated 200 hp or less should he operated on sys-
tems rated 600 volts or less, regardless of the primary voltage selected.
Therefore, there is no economic justifi- 2300 VOLT MOTORS
cation for ever arbitrarily selecting 2400
volts as the primary voltage so far as any
considerations of motors 200 hp and be-
low are concerned.
A close examination of the detailed
prices will show that a t 200 hp the cost of
440-volt motors and starters and step- U 2400 VOLTS
0:s
down substations, Fig. 10.16, is about FIG. 10.17 Schematic one-line
equal t o the cost of 2300-volt motors and diagram of 2300-volt motors and
starters, Fig. 10.17. This is the reason CO"tl0l.
for placing the arbitrary division a t 200
hp rather than 175 hp as pointed out by the curve. These curves rep-
resent approximate prices and do not follow detailed variations.
4160-volt Primary Systems Usually G i v e Greatest Over-all Economy.
Assuming that there will he a transformation from either 2400 or 4160
volts t o supply motors rated 200 or 250 hp and less, respectively (see
604 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

Table 10.3), the choice between these two primary voltages is based on
primary-system costs and the cost of 4000-volt motors and control for
those motors rated above 250 hp, Fig. 10.18. As pointed out previously
and as shown in curves D and C , Fig.
4000 VOLT M O T O R S 10.15, the selection of a 4160-volt system

9-Fa P-Fa Phj CR-7008


STARTERS
and 4000-volt motors and control (for
those motors rated 250 hp and above)
enables an over-all less expensive instal-
lation than the selection of a 2400-volt
system and 2300-volt motors and control.
BUS I n areas where the larger motors (i.e.,
4160 V O L T S
those above 200 to 250 hp) constitute
FIG. 'O.'* One-line more than about 50 t o 60 per cent of the
diagram of 4COQ-rolt motors and
CO"tlOl.
total load, 2400 volts may be less expen-
4 v e provided that the total load of the
plant is not more than a few thousand kva or distances are not too great.
In general, an equally satisfactory yet a lower cost power system can be
obtained by selecting 4160 volts a8 the primary voltage rather than 2400
volts.
TABLE 10.3 Selection of Motor Horsepower Ratings as a
Function of Voltage

480
2400
4160
I I440
2300
4000
Smallest to 250 hp
200 hp up
250 hp up

Where 2400 Volts Is Particularly Applicable. I n plants which are


served a t 2400 volts directly from the utility system, then, of course, i t
would be more economical to use 2400 volts directly and t o place all
motors rated 200 hp and above directly on the primary feeders. How-
ever, in these cases, almost all motors rated less than 200 hp should be
operated on a 480- or 600-volt system, stepping down from the 2400-volt
primary system. I n some cases there are existing 2400-volt systems in
industrial plants, and i t is sometimes more economical t o extend these a t
2400 volts rather than changing to 4160 volts. However, i t may be more
desirable to expand the system a t some higher voltage sncb as 13,800
volts rather than t o extend the system a t 2400 volts.
Where the primary voltage is above 5000 volts, 2400 volts is applicable
t o concentrated loads which supply motors rated 200 hp and above. I n
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 605

these cases it is preferable to step down from the higher voltage t o 2400
volts rather than to 4160 volts, if the capacity per 2400-volt bus is limited
to less than about 7500 kva and nearly all this load is utilized a t this hus
directly by motors rated above 200 hp. For single loads larger than
7500 kva per bus with motors above about 250 hp, it is often necessary to
go t o 4160 volts to enable the switchgear to handle the short-circuit cur-
rents available from such large systems. A typical application where 2400
volts would be most economical is a pumping station, Fig. 10.19, in which
the control may be of the fused combination type to give fast short-
circuit protection or of the vertical-lift power circuit-breaker type where

H I G H VOLTAGE SYSTEM

1
I 2400VOLTS

&
7" :zz :o'tTS FOR M l S C
POWER A N 0 L I G H T S

B A T T E R Y O F S E V E R A L 2 0 0 H P OR L A R G E R M O T O R S

FIG. 10.19 One-line diagram of 2&O-voh power-supply system for large spot load ar
in (I pumping station.
606 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

the vertical-lift feature is desirable and where the frequency of starting


is not too great. If this preference is followed, it will be necessary to
make a transformation for these large motors. The cost of the trans-
formation is substantially the same whether it is made to 2400 volts or t o
4160 volts. Thus the power-system cost is not a significant factor as all
the load is concentrated in one place. The 2300-volt motors and their
starters are less expensive than 4000-volt motors and their starters. This
can be seen by comparing curves B , C , Fig. 10.15.
Effect of Various Types of Motors and Control. By using 2300-volt
motor starters rated 50,000 kva interrupting rating, some reduction can
be obtained in the over-all cost of the 2400-volt installation compared
with the lower voltage installation for motors below 200 hp. This merely
reduces the crossing points of curves A and B , Fig. 10.15, t o about 150
hp.
Even if plain motor starters (the use of which is not generally recom-
mended) without built-in short-circuit protection are considered for both
the 2300- and 440-volt motors, there will be little change in the relation-
ship of curves A and B. These variables, together with the effect of
explosion-proof requirements, have little bearing on the basic factors
presented bere. As a matter of fact, most variables such as special induc-
tion motors or special starters will tend t o make curve B cross curve A at
a higher horsepower rating than shown in Fig. 10.15. Although Fig.
10.15 is plotted using 1800-rpm motors as a base, other motor speeds over
the range 600 to 3600 rpm have little effect on the general relationship of
the curves.
Synchronous Motors. There is less price differential between low-
voltage (600 volts or less) and 2300-volt synchronous motors and control
than there is between induction motors and control for these voltages.
This differential will tend t o make curve R cross curve A a t about 150 hp
instead of 175 bp as shown for induction motors, Fig. 10.15.
Motors Larger than 200 Hp Operating at 600 Volts and Below. I n
many industrial plants t h e great majority of the motors are rated less
than 200 hp and therefore are operated from 480- or 600-volt distribution
systems. In these plants there may be one or two motors which are
considerably larger than 200 hp. I n general, it is more economical t o
operate the larger motors directly from the 480- or 600-volt system than
i t is t o provide another transformer to step down to 2400 or 4160 volts
where the primary voltage is above 5000 volts.
Summary of Advantages of 4160- vs. 2400-volt Systems. I n general,
it is most economical to operate all motors rated 200 to 250 hp and less on
systems rated 600 volts or less, regardless of the primary voltage (see
Table 10.3).
Where a choice of primary voltage can be made, it is, in most cases,
SWCllON OF SVSlEM VOLTAGES

FIG. 10.20 Std-mill motor room *lowing large a-c-motor-driven d-c generators at the
left. D-c motam are shown in the center.

2. From an electrical standpoint more satisfactory designs of smaller


motors (less than about 2000 hp) can he made a t 6.6 kv than a t 13.2 kv.
The problem of satisfactory designs of smaller motors (under about
2000 hp) losea its significancewhen the over-all utilization-voltage picture
is looked at critically. While it is beyond the scope of this hook t o
analyze the utilization-voltage picture critically, other studies have
ahown that an intermediate voltage in the 5-kv range is desirable for
medium-size motors too large for the 600-volt class system and too small
for the 13.8-kv class systems where 13.8 kv is the main distribution volt-
age. When this intermediate voltage is adopted, the line-up of motor
horsepower vs. voltage is as shown in Table 10.4, and illustrated in one-
line diagram form in Figs. 10.21 and lQ.22.
Basidly, the intermediate voltage is essential to care for those motors
economicslly and technically in the 200 to 2OOO-hp range. Even though
this intermediate voltage has not been used in many 6.9-kv systems, it
is eseential in the 13.8-kv system. This does not represent an economic
penaIty on the 13.8-kv system vs. the 6.9-kv syetem. The intermediate
voltage is desirable from an economic standpoint as well aa from a motor-
design standpoint in the 6.9-kv system to cover the application of motors
in the range of about ux) to 1000 or ZOO0 hp. In the smaller horsepower
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 609

ratings, under about 1000 hp, a 6.6-kv motor and starter costs as murh as
or more than 6.9-2.4-kv transformer capacity arid 2.3-kvmotors and motor
starters. I n either the 6.9-kv or 13.8-kv systems this intermediat,e volt,-
age provides grcater flexibility of system design, and motors more suitable

13.8 K V

LARGE MOTORS
2000 HP
AN0 LARGER

5 0 0 0 K V A MAX.

MOTORS
200 HP
O R LESS

MOTORS
200 T O 2 0 0 0 H P
FIG. 10.21 One-line diagram.rhowing selection of voltage for motors 01 a function of
horsepower. Primary distribution voltage 13.8 kv.
Generator transmission Medium-sire motor* Small-sire motor
and large-motor utilization voltage utilization voltmge
".allage (200-2000 hpl up lo about 200 hp

13,800 volh 2400 volt.


I 480 volh

Where the capacity per bus exceeds about 6000 t o 7500 kva and motors are 250 hp
or larger, it may be desirable to use 4160 volts for these intermediate-voltsge motors
t o permit more economical use of standard interrupting-rating switch gear and motor
control.

TABLE 10.5 Motor Horsepower Range and System Voltage as Functions


of Motor Voltage

Motor voltage Horsepower range System voltage

440 volt, Up to 200-500 hp 480 W1h


2,300 volh 200-2000 hp 2,400 volh'
6.600 v d h Above 1000-2000hp 6,900 volt.
13,200 V d h Above 2000 hp 13.800 volh

* 2400-volt systems are referred to here rather than 4160-volt systems because this
is really a voltage for supplying only local motors and not for extensive distribution of
power. Hence there are not generally sufficient distribution systems savings a t 4160
volts t o pay for the extra cost of 4000-volt motors. See preceding text for 4160- vs.
2400-volt system comparison, However, far very large installatione of intermediate
voltages motors, 4.16 kv may he used instead of 2.4 kv. See footnote on Table 10.4.

With the intermediate voltage in the over-all motor-voltage picture, it


works out that so far as utilization-equipment voltage rating is concerned
the only significant economic penalty of the 13.8-kv system vs. the 6.9-kv
system is the $1.50 to $2.00 per hp higher initial cost of the larger motors
above about 2000 hp.
13.8-kv vs. 6.9-kv Power Distribution Systems. The next important
point of consideration in 13.8-kv vs. 6.9-kv systems is to see if there is
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 61 1

enough saving i n the 13.8-kv system compared with the 6.9-kv system to
pay for the extra cost of the larger, more expensive 13.2-kv motors. As
a fundamental principlc of selecting power-system voltage, i t is gcnerally
true that the higher the voltage i n a given class, such as 13.8 kv vs. 6.9 kv
in the 15-kv class, the lower the system cost. This will be borne out in
the following discussion. First, a general comparison of the basic system
components of the power system, i.e., transformers, switchgear, unit sub-
stations, cable, and hus must be ronsidered. These comparative costs
were outlined prcviously and are summarized in Fig. 10.23. An euami-
nation of this figure indicates that one would not expect a wide difference

13.8 K V

MOTORS MOTOR 2 5 0 H P
2 5 0 H P AND L A R G E R OR
LESS
FIG. 10.22 One-line diagram showing selection of voltage for motors CIS CI function of
horsepower where large concentration of motors may require 4160 volts instead of 2400
volts to enable we of available metal-clad rwitchgear and motor starters.
612 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES
in cost per kva of 13.8-kv and G.9-kv systems because there are maiiy
items whirh are suhstantially thc same regardless of system voltage, and
the items which are more expensive at one voltage than for t h e othcr volt-
age more or less balance earh other. There are, however, factors in addi-
tion t o those shown in Fig. 10.23 whirh make the larger 6.9-kv systems
increasiiigly more expensive thaii 13.8-kv systems. These factors wili
be studied hy first rniisideriiig small systems, ttieii medium-size systems,
and then very large systems.

TRANSFORMERS ABOUT SAME


T PER KVA

-METALCLAO SWITCHGEAR
COSTS SLIGHTLY MORE AT
6 . 9 KV

v $ I $ TO $ 2 PER H P MORE AT
13.8 KV

8 CABLE COSTS 25 TO 65 CENTÇ


PER KVA PER M F T MORE AT
6.9 K V

J
-.* UNIT SUES COST ABOUT
4 0 CENTS TO $ i PER KVA
MORE AT KV

FlG. 10.23 Chort rhowing comparotive coiti of ryrtem eqvipment a t 6.9 m d 13.8 kv.
SELECTION O F SYSTEM VOLTAGES 613

Small Systems. A one-line diagram showing the typical elemelits of a


small system, for example, of ahout 20,000 kva or less is outlined in Fig.
10.23. I n such systems there is little, if any, economic penalty of 6.9 kv vs.
13.8 kv. Insystems of this size, short-rircuit duties are gcucrallyless than
500 mva, which permits the application of modern metal-clad switchgear
usith removable air-type circuit hreakcrs. I n t,his t,ype of metal-clad
switchgear, interrupting ratings are the same for both 6.9 arid 13.8 kv, and
there is only a very small extra cost for the 6.9-kv sivitrhgear comparrd
with 13.8-kv smitrhgcar. I n general, i n these smaller systems 1200-amp
continuous-rated circuit breakers are adcquat,e berause, as a rule, smaller
feeder circuits go with smaller plants. In ?able cirixiits, for example,
there is more copper but less insulation required for G.9-kv circuits than
for 13.8-kv circuits. The balance hetween these two represents a small
price differential in favor of the 13.8-kv rahle. I n the smaller plants t,he
lower cost of 6900-480-volt substations plus the loiver cost of any 6.6-kv
motors more often offsets t,he higher cost of 6.9-kv sn-itchgear and 6.9-kv
cahle so that there would he little cost differential betwell the two volt-
ages. If a n appreciable portion of the poiver in these smaller systems is
used in large motors, then there may he a saving a t 6.9 kv, depending upon
the feeder circuit lengths arid sizes.
However, since all systems gron, it is better t o choose 13.8 kv instead of
6.9 kv for the smaller systems t o allow for easier, lower cost future expan-
sion. Hence, the syst,em voltages for small-size mills would he as out-
lined in Table 10.5, using 13.8 k v as the plant, primary voltage.
Choice of 13.8 kv vs. 6.9 kv in Larger Systems. The larger the system
becomes, the more factors there are that increase the cost of a 6.9-kv
system faster than for a 13.8-kv system. The first, factor is t,hat stand-
ard 1200-amp and 2000-amp power circuit breakers will carry twice as
much kva at 13.8 kv as a t 6.9 kv. Circuits larger than about 14,000 kva
at 6.9 kv require a 2000-amp circuit breaker whereas circuit,s as large as
28,000 kva can he carried on a 1200-amp circuit hreakcr at 13.8 kv. This
factor alone does not add much t o the cost of the system, but it is nevcr-
theless a step in the direction for inrreased cost of (i.9-kv systems. For
example, if a source unit was rated 18,000 kva, it would require a 2000-
amp circuit breaker at, 6.9 kv and only a 1200-amp circuit breaker a t
13.8 kv. This would add ahout 20 cents per kvatotheG.S-kvsystemcost,.
In smaller systems there would he perhaps only one or two 2000-amp cir-
cuits at 6.9 kv, hut in larger systems there may he an increasing number
of 2000-amp circuit breakers required at 6.9 kv where 1200-amp circuit
breakers would do at 13.8 kv.
An illustration of one of these systems is shown in Fig. 10.2i. All cir-
cuit breakers marked A4would be rated 2000 amp at 6.9 kv and the others
1200 amp. A11 circuit hreakers would be rated 1200 amp at 13.8 kv.
614 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

The auxiliary equipment, such as synchronizing buses, reactors, etc.,


would of necessity he of higher ampere rating a t the lower voltage. On
the basis of the circuits and ratings shown in Fig. 10.24, the 6.9-kv system
costs about $1 per kva more than the 13.8-kv system for switchgear and
synchronizing bus reactors. The extra cost of these items a t 6.9 kv
nearly offsets the extra mot,or cost. arid extra step-down unit substation
costs a t 13.8 kv; and as systems become larger, cable or circuit costs go up
rapidly a t 6.9 kv. I n these larger circuits of several thousand kva each,
more than one conductor per phase is usually required, and such circuits
rost about two-thirds more per kva per 1000 ft a t 6.9 kv than a t 13.8 kv.
For interlocked-armor-cahle circuits this differential runs up t o ahout
10000 KVA 20000 KVA 15000 KVA 15000 KVA
& UL.2

9
Y Y
$A $A

1
A &\
-&&'A M I L L BUS
CANNOT
PARALLEL
FEEDERS

FIG. 10.24 One-line diogrom of power system wring synchronizing-bur arrangement and
a distribution voltage leis than 15 kv. Synchronizing-bur system reducer short-circuit
duty to less tho" 500 mva.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 615

65 cents per kva per 1000 ft. This item is another factor for making
large G.9-kv systems disproportionally more expensive than large 13.8-kv
systems. For an average length of cable circuit of 2500 ft in Fig. 10.24,
the extra cable cost would add about another $1.25 per kva t o the system
rost at 6.9 kv. The saving of $1.00 per kva in powerhouse switchgear and
synchrouizing hus reactors plus the extra $1.25 per kva saved in cable
circuits at 13.8 kv more than pay the extra cost of the 13.8-kv load-center
unit substation arid 13.2-kv motors in medium-size plants up t o about
40,000-kva demand. There would he some additional saving in the 13.8-
kv snzitchgear and cable circuits in the mill area.
Higher Momentary Duties Adversely Affect 6.9-kv Systems. Since
the momentary currents are usually the most l i m i h g factor in applying
power circuit hreakers in power systems, the use of the steel-mill-type
60,000-amp momentary 500-mva 13.8-kv metal-clad switchgear enables
slightly larger systems t o be built without synchronizing buses than does
the 70,000-amp 7.2-kv 500-mva breakers on 6.9-kv systems. The maxi-
mum ampere interrupting rating of the 500-mva 7.2-kv circuit breaker is
44,000 amp, arid the maximum momentary rating is 70,000 amp or about
1.6 times the maximum interrupting-rating amperes. This ratio is only
euough t o care for the d-c component in 6.9-kv systems. The maximum
ampere iriterruptiiig ratiug of the 13.8-kv 500-mva steel-mill magne-blast
cirruit breaker is 25,000 amp, hut its momentary rating is 60,000 amp, or
2.4 times the maximum interrupting rating. I n this circuit breaker, as in
the 7.2-kv circuit breaker, only 1.6 times the maximum interrupting rating
is required t o care for d-c component. Therefore, the difference between
1.6 and 2.4 is available t o care for motor contribution. I n systems in
which the short-circuit duties are helow the momentary ratings associated
with 500-mva magne-blast circuit breakers, there is no significant differ-
ence in the circuit arrarigement or number of circuit components required
t o care for short-circuit current whether the system voltage is 6.9 or 13.8
kv. There is a factor in favor of the 13.8-kv system because of the higher
momentary rating of the 13.8-kv breakers.
Where the mill systems become so large that the short-circuit duties
increase t o above the momentary rating of the 500-mva metal-clad
magne-blast rircuit breakers, synchronizing bus arrangements are
required. While these are workahle and often used for keeping short
circuits within hounds, synchronizing bus arrangements do have certain
limitations. Among these :imitations are that any transfer of kilowatts
through the reactors represents a small Z2Rloss, and it is difficult t o trans-
fer large amounts of kvar between bus sect,ions without creating wide
differences in voltages between the bus sections. When one source unit
is out of service, all load from that bus section must he fed through a
reactor with the attendant voltage drop. The synchronizing bus arrange-
616 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

meiit imposes rirruit desigii aiid operat,iiig restrictioiis too. For example,
feeders from diffcrciit hus sectioiis caiiiiot he paralleled because this will
short out thc syiir,hroiiiziiig bus reartors, Fig. 10.24, aiid iiicrcase the
short-circuit duties of the system. Therc are aiso drtiiiite limits in the
relatioiiship hetweeii the size of t h r soiirre uiiit aiid the iiiterriiptiiig rating
of rirruit breakers whirh raii he iised i i i syiichroiiiziiig bus arraiigemeiits.
For example, ivheii usiiig 500-mva switrhgear, the largest source uiiit per
bus sertion is limited t o ahout 25,000 kva. ‘I’his is ofteii too severe a
limit for larger systems. Whilc syiichroiiiziiig hiis arraiigemerits are
expedieiits t h a t solve maiiy system short-rircuit prohlems, it is, however,
desirahle iii larger mills to operatc with as many souice units as possihle
oii one hus t o allom more freedom of system operatioii and desigii. When
more source uiiits are operated oii one hus, it requires higher iiiterruptiiig-
raparity stat,ioii-type switchgcar. This statiori-type switchgear is avail-
ahle x i t h circuit breakers for iiiterruptiiig dut,ies as high as 2500 mva a t
13.8 kv. Thcse circuit breakers can he used u p t o nearly their full inter-
rupting rating on 13.8-kv syst,ems. They i a n , hoivever, be used t o orily
part of their mva int,errupt,ing ratirig on 6.9-kv systems because of
inoment,ary and maximum interrupting-ratiiig limitations. This can he
seen hy referring t o Tahle 10.6.

TABLE 10.6 Station-type Circuit-breaker Interrupting Ratingr a t


13.8 and 6.9 kv

Intorrvpting roting, mro


~

At 15.8 kv At 6.9 kv

iO00
1500
2500
. 77,000
l i 5.000
190,000
1 O00
1500
2500
1 575
860
1440

Csing a 1000-mva station-type circuit breaker at 13.8 kv enables the


capacity per hus t o he nearly doubled compared with using the 500-mva
magne-hlast-type metal-clad switchgear, but a t 6.9 kv the use of the
1000-mva circuit breaker eriables ari iiirrease of only 75 mva or 15 per cent
per bus compared with metal-clad switchgear. The serious limitations
of 6.9 kv using other interrupting-rating circuit breakers can be seeri from
Table 10.6. It will be noted that only by going to the 2500-mva circuit
breaker can a real gain he made at 6.9 kv. Not only is there a limitation
in the interrupting duty and therefore the size of a system t h a t can be put
on one bus, there is also a very severe economic penalty on the use of
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 617

these larger circuit breakers at 6.9 kv. This can be noted from Table
10.7, which shows that this larger switchgear costs almost twice as much
per mva of interrupting duty at 6.9 kv as it does at 13.8 kv.

TABLE 10.7 Approximate Cost of Station-type Metal-enclosed


Switchgear per M v a per Circuit-breaker Position

Approximate price
cirruit- per my.*
breaker rating,
m*a
&t 13.8 kv
I At 6 9 kv

$16 $16
16 28
16 28
2500 22 38

* Interrupting rating.
Summary of System Cost Differences. T o combine the factors that
have been discussed in the foregoing, Fig. 10.25 has been chosen to illus-

40 MVA

0 0 0
~
25MVA

~
25MVA

~ -$-
&
7A TRANSFORMERS
25 MVA EACH

SHORT CIRCUIT DUTY


I

Hd!H
1 1250 MVA

IS00 FT
EACH
$1 LOOFT';-.

2100 F T
'3 2300 F T

3 $ 3 3 3 3 3 3 P P
J~
30 MVA
MILL 'A"
18 MVA
MILL"B"
'r 12 MVA
MILL"C"
F A

22 MVA
C

MI LL"D"
T O X

8 MVA
MILL"E"

500 MVA METALCLAD SWITCHGEAR AT A L L M I L L S

FIG. 10.25 Large power system with distribution v o l t a g e less t h a n 15 kv using rtotion-
type switchgear.
61 8 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

TABLE 10.8 Ratings of Equipment in Fig. 10.25

Item 13.8 kv 6.9 kv

Switchgem. slotion lype.. ..............................


Cable cirwih, eoch cable three-conductor, 500 M C M . ........
1 1500 mvm
4 per circuit
~ 2500 mvo
8 per ~ircuit

Cost difference in favor of 13.8 kv.. ................................... +$12.00 per kvo


Less cost diAerence of substotions and motors. ........................... - $ I.SO per kva
T o l d difference infavor of 13.8 k v . . ................................ 110.50 per kvo

trate the system components used to determine the difference in system


cost. While this may not represent any particular plant, it could be
typical of a steel-mill system of the order of 100,000-kva capacity. Table
10.8 gives the detailed ratings of the switchgear and circuits. These have
the same source and same load, the difference being in voltage only. For
the entire power system down to but not including the step-down sub-
stations and utilization equipment, the difference in favor of the 13.8-kv
system is $12 per kva. From this must he subtracted the extra cost of
the 13.8-kv step-down substations and large 13.2-kv motors. This will
be about $1.50 per system kva, leaving $10.50 per kva of total system
rapacity as a saving of the 13.8-kv system. Different system designs
could vary the relative cost of these systems$1.00 to $2.50 per kva. For
example, the cost of the 6.9-kv system may be reduced somewhat by the
use of a 1590-mva circuit breaker in all but the 50-mva generator position.
This, however, would require the use of synchronizing buses and the
added complication in system design and operating problems associated
with the synchronizing- bus arrangement.
This typical esample will shov that for mills with loads above 30,000
to 40,000 kva the 6.9-kv s3stems are considerably more expensive and
more complicated than 13.8-kv systems.
Where 6.9 K v Is Particularly Applicable. The 6.9-kv systems are
particularly applicable in certain large systems supplied with a primary
voltage above 15 kv and in some testing stations.
I n large mills, such as steel mills, where the basic transmission voltage
is ahove 15 kv, 6.9 kv may be used as the utilization voltage at eachload
center, such as at a hot-st,rip mill or a cold-strip mill, etc. In this case
the advant,ages of 13.8 kv may not he so great economically because
there is not the length of transmission involved to make the saving in the
distribution system to offset the increased cost of motors rated 13.2 kv
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 619

compared with those rated 6.6 kv. The suggested voltages for mills of
this type are outlined in Table 10.9.

TABLE 10.9 Large Mills-Transmission Voltage above 15 K v

Lo,ge-,ize motor
utili.otion Medium-size motor Smoll-size motor
G e n ~ r o t o r *.nd
YtiliZOtion "tiliZ.ti0"
trO".miSSiO" voltage
"Oltage "oltage "p to
"OltDge 2000 hp ond
(200-2000 hp) about 200 hp
1.rger

33 kv or 69 kv 6900 volts 2400 volts 480 mlh

USE OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES ABOVE 15 KV


I n many large plants and mills, transmission voltages above 15 kv are
used. Such voltages cannot be generated directly or used directly on
motors; hence a transformation up from generator voltage and down t o
suitable voltage for the motors is required. This will add one or two
extra steps of power transformation not required with the 13.8-kv system
shown in Fig. 10.25 a t an extra cost of $3 t o $6 per system kva for the
additional transformer capacity required because of the higher voltage.
This extra transformer cost must be offset by savings in switchgear and
circuits to justify the use of transmission voltages'above 13.8 kv. This,
however, can often be justified where long distances or very large loads are
involved or where part of the power is purchased from the utility a t some
voltage above 13.8 kv.
620 SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES

SELECTION OF TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE ABOVE 15 KV

There are, in general, four classes of voltages which have been used for
this service. These are 23 kv, 34.5 kv, 46 kv, and 69 kv. These voltages
can be subdivided into two classes, i.e., 34.5 and 69 kv, for the sake of dis-
cussion. The 34.5-kv distribution for very large systems enables the use
of compact indoor metal-enclosed 34.5-kv station-type cubicle switchgear
similar to that shown in Chap. 13. This occupies less space than open-
type outdoor switching structures and, since it is all metal enclosed, the
problems associated with cleaning the many exposed insulators that are
found in outdoor stations normally employed at this voltage are eliminated.
Where space for locating substations is no serious limitation and the
insulator cleaning problem is not considered a major obstacle, larger,
simpler systems can he built for lower cost a t 69 kv than a t 34.5 kv. The
higher voltage systems require fewer circuits where there is bulk trans-
mission of large amounts of power from one point to another. The
general criterion for the selection between 34.5 kv and 69 kv would hinge
on whether or not metal-enclosed indoor station-type cubicle switchgear
for this higher voltage is to be used. If it is, then 34.5 kv solidly grounded
Y is the upper limit because that is the maximum voltage for which such
switchgear is now available. There are, of course, other factors which will
enter into the selection of voltage in this class, such as utility supply volt-
ages, voltage already available in the mill, kva demand, etc.

FIG. 10.26 One-line diagram of (I large system using high-voltoge transmission (above
15 kv) and a high-voltage load center arrangement to step down to voltages below 15 kv.
SELECTION OF SYSTEM VOLTAGES 621

USE OF THE LOAD-CENTER PRINCIPLE

When higher primary voltages such as 34.5 or 69 kv are used, the load-
center principle may be employed t o reduce the cost of these systems.
This principle involves primarily t,aking power at the higher voltage t o
the load areas and there stepping i t down t o utilization voltage. I n this
case the step-down substations supplying iudividual load centers for mill
areas should have a maximum rating of about 30,000 t o 40,000 kva for the
6.9- or 13.8-kv utilization bus arid a maximum kva rating per single three-
phase transformer of ahout 15,000 t o 20,000 kva each t o limit the short-
circuit duty t o within the ability of 500-mva metal-clad switchgear.
These substations will be located at t.he various mill areas. For loads
larger thau 30,000 or 40,000 kva conrent,rated in one area, more than our
suhstation may he required at that load area. Figure 10.26 is a one-line
schematic diagram of such a load-center system. I t is well t o point out
that when the higher primary voltages are used the system voltages can
he either 13.8 or 6.9 kv for distribution in mill areas. See Chap. 13 f o r
more details on primary distributiou systems.
Chapter 11 by Donald Beeman

L oad-center Power Systems


and Circuit Arrangements
c

The technical system data and economic information on selection of


voltage discussed in Chaps. 1 t o 10 form the foundation for the design of
the industrial power distribution system. That information, together
with the necessary load dat.a and information oil power sources, enables
the po\~er-systemdesignert o lay out the plant power syst,cm. The funda-
mental principles upon which modern power distribution systcms rest are
based on the “load-center power distribution” principles.
The load-center power system is only a part of the over-all plant dis-
tribution system, as shown in Fig. 11.1. For discussion of the primary
distribution system, see Chap. 13, and for discussion of the secondary
distribution system, sce Chap. 12.

LOAD-CENTER POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS


600 VOLTS AND BELOW
As will be seen later, the& principles apply t o higher voltages too, but
for the sake of detailed explanat,ion, the load-center power distribution
system for serving loads 600 volts and below n.ill be used here. The load-
center power distribiition system has two distinctive features which set it
apart from other methods of delivering electric energy t o points of use
within a building or plant. They are as follows:
1. Power is distributed a t primary voltages of 2.4 t o 13.8 kv t o unit
substations located close to the centers of electrical load. Here it is
st,epped down t o utiliaat,iori voltage (600 volts or less) arid delivered by
short secondary feeders t o points of ose.
2. Where t,he total plant load cannot be met by a single small substation
of 750 t,o 1500 kva or less, two or more small load-center unit substations
622
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 623

are used rather than a single large suhstation a t the point of incoming
SUPPIY.
The advantages of the load-center power distribution system are
manifold. First, it costs less. For example, in a 250,000-sq f t single-

PRIMARY
SYSTEM

I
LOAD CENTER
POWER DlST
SYSTEM

BUS TIE

SECONDARY
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

E-----

BUSWAY

LOAD LIGHTS
MOTOR 120 VOLT
PANEL BOARD
FIG. 11.1 One-lme diagram showing primary system, load-center power dirtributiun
system, and recondory distribution system in on industrial plant.
614 LOAD.CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

floor factory the old method of power supply would have a large piecemeal
substation located outside the building and long lo\\~-voltagefeeders to
serve the load. This power system from the 13.2-kv incoming line to the
plug-in husway would cost installed about $143,000. A modern load-
center system for the same plant would cost about $121,300, a saving of
$21,700, or 15 per cent. The breakdowri of the costs is shown in Fig.
11.2. The load-center system has 3000 kva of substations to allow for
diversity; yet these substations cost about the same as the single 2500-
kva piecemeal substation. The significant factor in Fig. 11.2 is that the
major saving is made iu the cable. This stresses the importance of

150

FIG. 11.2 Comparative cost of complete old-style system and load-center power dir-
tribution system ond major components.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 625

always looking a t the over-all system, as a change in one part may have
a significant bearing on some other part.
While transformer costs are higher in the load-center system, the sec-
ondary switchgear cost is materially reduced because only 15,000-amp
interrupting-rating feeder circuit breakers (in cascade) are needed for the
small 750-kva load-center substations whereas 50,000-amp interrupting-
rating feeder circuit breakers (in cascade) are needed for the large 2500-
kva substation. Figure 11.3shows how the short-circuit current increases
with transformer-bank kva rating a t 480 volts.
The cable costs are reduced because the power is carried most of the

I-
z
w
LL
K
a
0

6
I-
0
t

FIG. 11.3 Chart showing how short-circuit current increaser 01 a function of transformer
size.

way in a small high-voltage cable instead of a multiplicity of heavy low-


voltage cables. This is shown graphically in Fig. 11.4.
There are other savings too. For example, losses are usually much
lower in the average l o a h e n t e r system than in the old large low-voltage
substation systems.
626 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

As the plant grows, extra savings are made because the load-center
power distribution system offers great flexibility in providing for new
loads in existing buildings or for evpansiou into new buildings.
Load-center power systems are less costly t o evpand than old-style sys-
tems where large substations are put in in anticipation of load growt,h. I n
the load-center systems the system capacity is built up in small units as

VOLTAGE 4160 2400 480

COST 13% 23 % 100 %

7
I I !
I
I
I
80"

I
I
I
I
I
I
I I 1 UUOLIIT. I ' LOAOARL. 1
L-
L.a*D.RC&
~ - --I L-----J L-----J
FIG. 11.4 Chart showing the cornparotive cost for circuiti to transmit power a t different
voltoger.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 627

the load grows. Growth of the power system is closely coordinated with
actual plant growth.
As shown by the upper part of Fig. 11.5, when the old-style system is
used a large initial investment is made iri a large substation. Secondary
feeders are added as required until the capacity of the substation is
reached. Then another substation is built a t great expense. If the load

ADDITIONAL LARGE SUBSTATION


INSTALLED

YLE POWER SYSTEM

MORE FEEDERS

>
k SYSTEM COSTS
0
2a
0
2
w
+
m
%
DITIONAL UNIT SUBSTATIONS
\
SEVERAL SMALL INSTAL LED
UNIT SUBSTATIONS
INSTlfLLED
I I
I YEARS*

LH-kk
LOAD-CENTER UNIT SUBSTATION

FIG. 11.5 The shaded part shows the accumulated rovingi for load-center power dir-
hibution as the plant expands, using a load-center system instead of Iorge substation
systems.
628 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

for the new substation does not materialize, a large investment is wasted.
As shown by the lower part of Fig. 11.5, the initial investment in the
load-center system is lower because onlv sufficientcapacity for the present
load plus a small reserve is installed. If load growth stops, there is no
large idle investment to carry during the years ahead. The shaded area
between the curves shows the over-all saving.
Lower voltage drop means less voltage spread. Proper voltage a t all
parts of the plant means better performance of the production equipment,
hence more production and less spoilage. This improves production
efficiency. Because secondary feeders are short in a modern load-center
system, normal load voltage drop from each load-center substation to the
end of the secondary feeder is held to around 2 per cent maximum, Fig.
11.6. In contrast in old-style systems with long low-voltage feeders, a
voltage drop along the length of the feeder of 10 to 20 per cent is not
uncommon. Indeed, it may be necessary to raise the voltage cousider-
ably above normal a t the substation bus to maintain enough voltage a t
the end of the long feeders to operate the utilization devices. See Chap. 4
for more data on the effect of voltage spread and how t o reduce it.
The load-center system provides greater flexibility. With small units
they may be added when and where needed to care for increased load as it
develops. Then, too, there are many types of systems or circuit arrange-
ments with varying degrees of service continuity and flexibility, as out-
lined later, which permit adoption of the type of system best suited to
various production processes.
Continuity of service can be greater because of a small number of
scattered substations instead of one concentrated large substation. A
substation failure affects a much smaller part of the total production area.
Duplicate circuits down to the load area can he employed with a minimum

LOAD CENTER
A
SYSTEM
tL
T T FEEDER

DROP

FEEDER

FIG. 11.6 Load-center pow;; distribution systems with short secondary feeders have far
less secondary-feeder voltage drop than old large substation systems with long secondary
feeders.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 629

of extra cost as, for example, in the secondary selective system descrihed
later.
The factory-assemhled and coordinated load-center unit substation is
the heart of the load-center power system. These substations are avail-
able in standard arrangements with catalogue numbers assigned. Hence,
it is easy to purchase them as only a catalogue number or, a t the very
most, a simple functional specification is necessary.
Engineering and planning are reduced as the substations are factory
designed; so the plant planner has only to provide a flat surface to mount
these on and t o bring the leads to and from the substation after installing
the two or three sections of the suhstation. Since the substations can be
located indoors almost anywhere or outdoors also, planning of the power
system can be simplified. This flexibility permits ordering Substations
before final production layouts are crystallized.
The substation components are coordinated by the manufacturer;
hence that burden is removed from the system planner.
Since the equipment is factory assembled and coordinated, it is only
necessary to bolt together the two or three sections of the substat,ion in the
field. It is shipped in sections for convenience in handling and shipping.
Should processes change and radically different power-system layouts
be required, the snhstations have high salvage value in that they may he
readily moved in a few sections from one location to another.
Factory-assembled equipment has established selling prices and also
requires a minimum of labor for installation in the field. These two fac-
tors permit far greater accuracy in estimating power-system costs than
with piecemeal assembled substations with many separate parts to order,
coordinate, and assemble in the field. The large design engineering and
purchasing work content and the large amount of field assemhly make
estimating of the cost of field-assembled piecemeal Substations far less
accurate.

LOAD-CENTER-SYSTEM CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

Because there are many small substations in load-center power dis-


tribution systems, there is the possibility of many circuit arrangements.
While a great number are possible, those commonly used can he resolved
into four basic arrangements or combinations of them. These basic
arrangements are:
1. Radial
2. Secondary selective
3. Primary selective
4. Secondary network
630 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

These may be compared on many bases, but some of the more impor-
tant characteristics are:
1. cost
2. Safety
3. Flexibility
4. Service reliability
5. Ease of expansion
6. Simplicity
7. Diversity
8. Voltage regulatioii
9. Short-circuit-current level
Comparisons of these arrangements do not require detailed discussion
of the primary-feeder system. In most cases the load-center unit sub-
stat,ions are supplied by radial primary feeders. Since looped primary
feeders are sometimes considered for serving load-center systems, a dis-
cussion of the looped primary feeder as it, specifically applies to load-center
systems will he given in this chapter.
This discussion is concerned mainly with the part of the power system
from the primary-feeder bus to and including the substation secondary
bus. Although radial secondary feeders are used in the majority of the
load-center power systems to feed the load supplied from the secondary
hus of the unit substation, certain variations are sometimes employed, and
these variations have a bearing on the over-all characteristics of the par-
ticular circuit arrangement that may be employed.
Transformer and Primary-cable Failure Rates. As a background to
the circuit-arrangement, discussion, the operating record of askarel trans-
formers is about one failure per 2500 transformer years and primary-cable
failures average about one failure per mile per 100 years. The trend
toward the use of rubberlike insulation on primary cables, which elimi-
nates the necessity of potheads, mill improve the service reliability of
primary-cable circuits even more. Service reliability depends as much
on using adequate modern equipment and itist,alling it properly and care-
fully as it does depend upon circuit arrangement. I t is misleading to try
to represent the variations in t,he characteristics of these circuit arrange-
ments by any numerical or alphabetical index because the difference
between these systems on many points is so very small.
Effect of Interrupter Switches on Safety and Overcurrent Protection.
While the application of interrupter switches on the primaries of load-
eent,er unit suhst,ations does not affect the hasic one-line diagram of the
circuit arrangement, it does have a serious bearing on the safety of the
over-all system and on the overcurrent protection requirements.
Many system engineers consider the use of interrupter switches in unit
substations as a partial compromise hetmeen an ideal solution from the
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 631

safety standpoint and a practical solution from the economic point of


view. The ideal solution would he t o have a power circuit breaker as the
incoming-line interrupting device in each unit substation, as illustrated in
Fig. 11.7. This is, of course, relatively evpensive and has resulted in the
use of incoming-line interrupter switches, as shown in Fig. 11.8, as the
practical compromise system in thousands of industrial plants t o provide
a disconnecting means without primary overcurrent protection at each
xubstation transformer.

I 1 I I
8
T P
T y T
9 T

&&&A
J J J 2
Y Y Y Y
J J J J
Y Y Y Y
1 3 2 2
Y Y Y Y
*)J 1 J
Y Y Y Y
FIG. 11.7 Ideal load-center power distribution system wilh individual protection for each
bod-center substation provided by an adequate power circuit breaker.

Function of Interrupter Switch on Unit Substation. By far the most


common function of the interrupter switch is t o provide simple isolation
of the unit substation from its incoming feeder, as indicated in Fig. 11.8.
Here t,he maximum intended duty of the switch is t o disconnect the trans-
former from the energized incoming line, breaking only the magrletizillg
current of the transformer. This is a reasonably safe operation, provided
that the interrupter switch is key-interlocked t o prevent making or break-
ing high currents caused by such mishaps as a lorn-voltage feeder circuit
breaker failing to clear a secondary-feeder short circuit or excessively high
inrush current from a group of large motors, etc.
Where only one primary feeder is brought t o each substation (Fig. 11.8).
this simple isolating function of the interrupter switch is all that is
required. It should be pointed out, however, that in reenergizing a
transformer the safest procedure is t o operate the switch with the primary
feeder dcenergized. Otherwise, should something have happened in the
transformer t o cause a fault, the switch would be subjected t o closing in
an energized primary feeder on a fault. I n t.he secondary selective SYS-
tem i t is easy t o drop the primary feeder long enough t o close the sjritch,
because the load can tie transferred t o another secondary bus during the
switching period.
632 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

t
750 KVA 300 KVA

480V
8
FIG. 11.8 Radial load-center dirtribulion system with interrupter switches ot primary of
each load-center unit substation. Short-circuit protection provided by primary-feeder
circuit breaker

Load-center System Overcurrent Protection. The National Electrical


Code, Paragraph 4512b, allows for omission of individual primary over-
current protection by the following rule:
“ A transformer having an overcurrent device in the secondary connec-
tion, rated or set a t not more than 250 per cent of the rated secondary
current of the transformer, or a transformer equipped with a coordinated
thermal overload protection by the manufacturer, is not required to have
a n individual overcurrent device in the primary connection provided the
primary feeder overcurrent device is rated or set t o open a t a current
value not more t.han six times the rated current of the transformer for
transformers having not more than six per cent impedanre and not more
than four times rated cufrent of thc transformers having more than sis
but not more than ten per cent impedance.”
Explaining that another way, overcurrent protection at each trans-
former (6 per cent Z maximum) can be omitted when the piimary circuit
breaker is set to trip when the current flowing through it, is six times t.he
primary current rating of the m~allesttransformer connected t o the feeder.
For example, if a feeder fed two 750-kva and one 300-kva load-center unit
substation transformers, Fig. 11.8A, and all were unprotected a t their
primaries, the feeder circuit breaker would have to be set t6 trip a t 1800
kva, i.e., 6 X 300 kva-the smallest transformer on the feeder. This
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 633

setting is equal t o the sum of the transformer kva connected to the feeder.
There may be sufficient diversity of loading of the substations that the
total load on the feeder would never reach 1800 kva, thus the 1800-kva
setting of the main primary-feeder circuit breaker would not result in a
trip-out on normal load conditions.
The maximum setting of the primary-feeder circuit breaker of six times
the transformer rating for 6 per cent impedance transformers without
individual transformer overcurrent protection has been selected to give
reasonable assurance that the primary circuit breaker will trip for auy
fault on the secondary of the transformers, poifits 1 to 4, Fig. 11.9.
Where individual transformer primary overcurrent protection is omitted,
the main secondary circuit breaker is required t o provide some degree of
overcurrent protection for the transformer in so far as overloads are con-

THIS BRElKER
MUST TRIP FOR
F4ULTS A T 1,2,3 OR 4

MUST
4ND

FIG. 11.9 One-line diegram of a load-center system showing overcurrent protection


required where individual overcurrent protection is omitted from the primary of the load-
center unit substation transformer.
634 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

cerned. The primary-feeder circuit breaker provides short-circuit pro-


tection for the transformer, and the main secondary circuit. breaker
provides protectiomagainst severe overloads. With the high set primary-
feeder circuit breaker the main secondary circuit breaker provides much
better backup protection for the secondary-feeder circuit breakers should
one fail to trip for a secondary-feeder fault, see Fig. 11.9. Also the main
circuit breaker permits a,ny radial arrangement to be easily expanded into
a secondary selective arrangement. I t also provides a means of quickly
deenergizing a substation secondary bus in case of emergency.
If all transformers have the same kva rating, then four to six or more
transformers may be connected t o the same primary feeder without
individual overcurrent protection. When as ma,ny as six or more trans-
formers are connected to one primary feeder, there must be substantial
diversity in the loads on the various substations; otherwise the primary-
feeder circuit breaker will trip out on normal overloads. I n the average
system such as that shown in Fig. 11.8B, about four unit substations of
equal kva rating can be connected to a given primary feeder with adequate
over-all short-circuit protection. If the kva size of one of the unit sub-
stations is less than about one-fourth to one-sixth the tot,al load of the
feeder, as indicated in Fig. 11.10, then a circuit breaker or an interrupter
switch and fuse combination should be used on this smaller unit t o provide
short.-circuit protection for that unit. The simple interrupter switch
without the complication and expense and coordination problems of fuses
is adequate for the other units on the same feeder, provided that the
setting of the primary-feeder circuit breaker is not more than six times the
kva rating of the smallest unprotected transformer.

COST COMPARISON

I n all the following cost -comparisons, primary switchgear is omitted


as i t is assumed that primary power will be availahle t o the site. The

FIG. 11.10 Load-center power system primary feeder serving both large and small load-
center unit substations. Small load-center unit substations fused on primary.
636 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

the equipment being maintained. Many engineers feel that the deener-
gieation during maintenance is far more of a handicap than forced outages.
Because forced outages would be so rare, they feel that temporary connec-
tions could be made to keep essential load going.
If sufficient substation capacity is used in the radial arrangement to
provide about 10 to 15 va per square foot of floor area, experience has
shown that it mill adequately care for almost any diversity that will be
encountered hecause of shifting of loads in most metal-fabricating plants
where machine tools are frequently moved to rearrange production lines.
This system appeals to plant engineers and maintenance men hecause

400 AMP PLUG IN BUS

---- --- 2 5 0 FT
UNIT SUB

I I I I

APPROXIMATE INSTALLED SYSTEM COST $39 KVA(O0 PERCENT)


(1951) (LESS PRIMARY SWITCHGEAR)
F!G. 11.1 1 Typical rodiol-circuit orrongement load-center power distribution system:
one-line diagram; (b), layout in plant.
(a),
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND ClRCUll ARRANGEMENTS 637

! I

FIG. 11.12 Stondard single-ended load-center unit substotion typic01 of t h e used in


mdid load-center power dmtribution systems.

with adequate equipment properly installed it is d e , simple, easy t o


@perateand easy to expand by merely extending a high-voltage feeder or
ddding a new one and installing the load-center unit substation, This in
no way afIeets substations or secondary circuits already in service. It
'des good voltage regulation because of its short secondary feeders,
d when moderate-size substations, i.e., 500 to 1500 kva, are nsed the
circuit levels are kept to limits which permit economical switching
ent to be used in the secondary system. The equipment required
ple and thus easy for the average electrician to care for properly.
re 11.12 shows a single-ended load-center unit substation for a radial
rcuit arrangement. The radial load-center system has been used in
every type of plant there is. It has met the service reqnirements
most exacting and critical processes. The excellent operating
of this system is proof of its ability t o satisfy almost any power
tion problem.

NDARY SELECTIVE CIRCUIT ARUANGEMENT (Fig. 11.131


ere greater flexibility and the ability to take a primary
naformer out of service and still maintain power on all second
essential load are desired, the simple radialsystem can bemodified with
630 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

a normally open tie between pairs of substations or double-ended suh-


stations used to form a secondary selective arrangement, Fig. 11.13. The
pairs of substations normally operate indepeudently of each other just a s
they would in a straight, radial load-center system. However, in case of a
forced or a scheduled outage of one primary feeder or transformer, the
main cirruit breaker of the deeuergized substation is opened and the tie
circuit breaker closed to supply power from the remaining energized sub-
station bus of the pair of substations operated as a secondary selective
pair. The secondary selective load-center system is in effect two radial
systems with a secondary tie between them and, therefore, has all the
appealing qualities of a radial system, i.e., low cost, safety, ease of opera-
tion, simplicity, good voltage regulation and can he cared for by the aver-
age electrician. Additional benefits are flexibility for operating purposes
and theoretically somewhat greater service reliability because of the nor-
mally open secondary tie between suhstations. Complication is increased
only very slightly hecause the ties are normally open. Short circuits are
not increased hecause the transformers are not paralleled. Cost is
increased about 10 to 31 per cent, depending largely upon the relative sub-
station sizes and locations, the amount of reserve transformer capacity
provided, and the exact form of the secondary selective arrangement used.
It should be noted that with the secondary selective circuit arrange-
ment, Fig. 11.13, the service reliability is a function of the system arrange-
ment in contrast with some circuit arrangements, notably the primary
selective, where the service reliability is largely dependent upon the type
of equipment used.
In popularity, the secondary selective load-center system ranks second
t o the radial load-center system and accounts for most of the other load-
center power distribution systems which are not radial. It has been
used in ahout every kind of manufacturing plant and has met the most
exacting requirements of the most critical processes in chemical plants,
paper mills, steel mills, petroleum refineries, drug-manufacturing plants,
etc.
Because there is a tie between pairs of substation secondary buses in
the secondary selective arrangement, there is a possibility of one trans-
former being connected t o two secondary buses to serve the loads nor-
mally supplied hy t,wo transformers. This may be t,rue when one of the
pair of transformers operated in a secondary selective arrangement is out
of service. Hence, the problem arises whether reserve transformer capac-
ity should he provided in the secondary selective load-center system to
allow one transformer to carry its own load plus its partner's load when
its partner is out of service.
Engineering judgment on the part of the power-system designer should
determine how much, if any, reserve transformer capacity is required in
any part'icular secondary selective load-center system. To help the sys-
LOAD-CENTER P O W E R SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 639
-

1
TWO
SINGLE TIE

2i"
3-

101
250 F T 250 FT

00 FT

L
600 F

iCOSTS 0 0 NOT INCi PRlM4RY SWlTCHGE4RI


APPROXIMATE INSTALLED 4PPROIlM4TE SYSTEM
SYSTEM COST 1 4 5 PER COST '143 PER K Y 4
KVA 1115%1 I l l 0 %I SUBSTITUTING
S U B S T I T U T I N G 2.1000 2-1000 L V 4 SUPST4110NS.
UVA SUBSTATIONS I N S T A L L E D COST ON 1500
INSTALLED C O S T . ON KVA T C T 4 L LCAD B 4 S l S -
1500 NVA TOTAL LOAD 1 4 8 5 0 PER K Y 4
B A S I S - I 5 1 PER XVA- 119511 1 1 2 4 % 1
( 1 1 1 XI-119511
Ibl I< I
FIG. 11.13 Typical secondary selective circuit arrangement load-center power' dirtribu-
tion system; (01, one-line diagram; Ibl and (<I, layouts in plant.
640 LOAD-CENTER P O W E R SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT A R R A N G E M E N T S

tem designer arrive at a sound decision on this problem, certain hasic facts
should be considered. Pirst, examine the need for reserve transformer
caparity over and above that needed for normal load growth.
Referring to operating records of the major components that may fail
and cause a forced outage, it is evident that a forced outage would be so
rare (one transformer outage for 2500 transformer years and one primary
cable outage per 100 circuit miles per year) as t o warrant little if any extra
investment just t o provide substantial reserve subsbation transformer
capacity. In most plants there is some vitally essential load like life
tests, lights, continuous processes, ovens, etc., which it is desirable to keep
going even though a primary feeder or a transformer serving this load may
be out of service because of a forced outage or for service and maintenance.
I n all except a very few cases, such as main water-supply pump motors or
boilerhouse auxiliary motors, the percentage of vitally essential load to
total load is small, of the order of 25 to 50 per cent of the total load. If
such load is even as much as 50 per cent of the total load, then one trans-
former can carry, in an emergency, the vitally essential load on two sub-
station buses without overloading the transformer remaining in service.
This of course requires dropping the nonessential load on both buses of the
pair of secondary selective load-center suhstat.ions. Even though this
vitally essential load should he as high as 60 to 75 per cent of the total
load, the one remaining transformer might still be able to carry all the
vitally essential load on two buses for short periods of time. This would
represent a n overload of 20 to 50 per cent on the remaining transformer
for the short duration of the emergency. I n such a n emergency, supple-
mental cooling may be applied to the transformers and secondary switch-
gear by means of portable fans, etc., to keep temperature rises from reach-
ing damaging levels. While it is true that large overloads do tend to
reduce the life of insulation at an accelerated rate, in general, the total
time in the life of the average suhstation during which it will he subjected
to such overloads in secondary selective load-center systems is so small as
t o he negligible. Therefore, it would seem that there can be little eco-
nomic justification when considering the problem of reserve transformer
capacity from a purely insurance viewpoint for spending much if any
money for reserve transformer capacity in a secondary selective load-
center system to take care of all load in the case of forced outages. In
the few cases where it is felt that some reserve transformer capacity is
necessary in a secondary selective load-center substation, it can be
obtained at low cost if it can be obtained on an incremental basis, i.e., by
using two 1000-kva substations instead of two 750-kva suhstations. I n
Fig. 11.136 it is shown that providing nearly 50 per cent reserve trans-
former capacity increased the cost from $45 t o $51 per kva, or about 13
per cent.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 641

A
t-I
L

4.0.
UORMALLY OPEN TIE1

LOAD CENTER
UNIT SUBSTATIONS

RADIAL SYSTEM
NO. I L

FIG. 11.14 Secondary selective load-center system made by placing normally open tie
between series of radial load-center unit substation secondary buses.
642 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

I n view of the foregoing, the most common way to design a secondary


selective load-center system is to approach it on the hasis of loading the
transformers just as in the case of a radial load-center system, providing
little if any reserve transformer capacity except that to care for normal
load growth. After that is done, normally open tie circuits are provided
between pairs of secondary buses, Fig. 11.14. This approach keeps the
system investment t o a minimum and yet provides the most basic and
important advantage of the secondary selective circuit arrangement, and
that is to have emergency power available a t every important secondary
bns from another substation bus through the normally open secondary tie.
In larger systems, where the secondary selective load-center system
finds its greatest application, there is generally more than one primary
feeder and many substations; so the advantage of the secondary selective
circuit arrangement can he obtained for only the cost of the normally open
secondary tie. I t further permits a complete division of the system from
source to secondary bus, as shown in Fig. 11.14. Hence, any part of the
system from the source through the load-center substation main secondary
circuit breaker can fail or he taken out of service for maintenance, inspec-
tion, adding new circuits, etc., and yet power can he available a t every
secondary bus by merely opening the proper substation main circuit
breaker A , Fig. 11.14, and closing the proper tie circuit breaker B .
Spot Secondary Selective Arrangement. The secondary selective
arrangement can be put together in several forms. A one-line diagram of
the spot arrangement is shown to the right in Fig. 11.13. Pairs of single-
ended substations located side
by side with a bus tie asinFig.
11.15 may also be used.
The spot secondary selective
arrangement is simple and
compact as all interconnec-
tions and switching are a t one
location for any pair of unit
substation transformers. It
is generally slightly lower in
cost (109 per cent compared
with 115 per cent or more
for the distributed secondary
FIG. 11.15 One-line diagram of a
spot secondary selective arrange-
ment using two single-ended load-
GOAHON
OPERATING center unit rubrtations connected
AISLE together through CI tie bur.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 643

selective arrangement) than other forms using distributed single-ended


substations. The two single-ended units provide the advantage that
extra secondary rircuits can be added easily. In the double-ended
arrangement, provision must be made in the beginning for the extra
secondary feeder positions that may be required in the future.
Distributed Secondary Selective Arrangement. Another form is the
distributed secondary selective arrangement shown to the left in Fig. 11.13
and in Fig. 11.20 under comparison of secondary selective and secondary
networks. In the distributed arrangement the substations serve smaller
load areas, thus reduce the secondary feeder cable required. This saving
is partially offset by the extra tie cable required. Many operators prefer
this form for a new plant with the idea that as load grows another trans-
former can be added a t each existing substation to form a spot secondary
selective arrangement to provide for a load growth of 100 per cent in a
given area. This arrangement will cost about 115 per cent.
In some cases a reduction in first cost of the distributed secondary
selective load-center system has been achieved by merely making pro-
visions for an emergency secondary tie circuit to be installed when the
need for the tie circuit arises. This is particularly applicable in mills
where complete periodic shutdowns are made for inspection and mainte-
nance of process equipment. At the same time, the maintenance of the
service facilities and the electric power system equipment is taken care of.
There is practically no load in such mills when shut down.
Such provision ran he easily made by merely having one drawout cir-
cuit-breaker compartment in each unit substation complete with all con-
nections but without the removable circuit.-breaker element, Fig. 11.16.
.I few (two a t least) spare circuit-breaker removable elements t o fit into
the empty emergency tie circuit-breaker compartments and enough cable
to make the emergency tie circuit must he kept on hand ready for
immediate use. When the need for the tie circuit does arise, then the
circuit-breaker elements are placed in the proper substation tie breaker
compartments and a temporary or permanent tie circuit cable is connected
between the outgoing terminals of these tiecircuit-breaker positions. The
time required t o do this of course depends upon proper preplanning for
such a contingency and upon having the proper circuit-breaker elements
and enough of the proper size and voltage-rating cable readily available
and accessible for immediate use.
Automatic-transfer Secondory Selective Arrangement. Automatic
transfer can be used to disconnect quickly a deenergized secondary bus
from its transformer and connect the bus t o its energized “partner” in the
secondary selective arrangement. The automatic transfer can be
designed t o reconnect the system t o normal when proper voltage is
644 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

TIE CIRCUIT

WHEN T I E BETWEEN SUBSTATIONS IS NEEDED


INSERT TIE BREAKERS IN POSITIONS TI AND
T 2 AND INSTALL TEMPORARY (OR PERMANENT)
TIE CABLE TC.
FIG. 11.16 Low-cost form of distributed secondary selective load-center ryrtem with the
tie circuit installed as needed.

restored t o the transformers that were out. The complication to do this


is generally not warranted, and manual restoration is used. There are
factors t o consider in connection with the automatic throwover secondary
selective arrangement. The system is complicated and costly. Where
the total load of one transformer is transferred to another transformer,
depending upon the sum of the two loads, this may overload the one trans-
former too greatly. It usually takes a t least 1 sec to make the transfer.
This will allow motors t o slow down or stop, and when they w e all reener-
gized a t once, there may he a very large inrnsh current which could cause
tripping of the feeder circuit breakers. This can he overcome by putting
enough time delay in the transfer means to allow all motor starters except
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS A45
those on very important motors t o drop out. The automatic transfer
will then quickly reestablish lights and esseutial service. This has two
advantages, the load transferred is less and the inrush current is materially
rednced. If there are only a few smaller motors that must be kept on,
their inrush current may not be heavy compared with the transformer
rating supplying the system.
A manual means of transferring for normal maintenance where both

LT cli
T'p
CJ-

I +>+ ; + .

CENTRAL EREAKERS A E ANO C M A N U A L L I


POWER -
CLOSED ELECTRICALLY ANO
m

-
TRANSFORMER MANUALLY TRIPPEO
XY

"A" AUXILIARY SWITCHES


ON CIRCUIT BREAKERS

A B C H R
+H H
SELECTOR
SWITCH
CONTACTS

EREAKER
T R I P COILS

H R = HESITATING RELAY TO AÇSURE PROPER ÇEOUENCE


OF OPERATION.
OPERATION: PLACE SELECTOR SWITCH TO BREAKER TO BE TRIPPED
( C I N THIS CASE). THEN MANUALLY GLOSE BREAKER WHICH IS OPEN
(E IN THIÇ CASE ).AS SOON AS E GLOSES A L L AUXILIARY SWITCHES
ARE CLOSED AND EREAKER C IS TRIPPED AFTER SOME TIME DELAY
INTRODUCED BY RELAY H R .
FIG. 11.17 Connectionr for manual tranrfer of load from m e recondory bur to the
othei in a secondary selective ryrtem to permit removingone tranrformer or primary feeder
without dropping the recondary service.
646 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

secondary buses are t o he kept energized is shown in Fig. 11.17. I n this


schemc the tie circuit breaker is closed first; and as soon as it closes,
the previously selected main secondary circuit breaker is opened. This
scheme does momentarily parallel t,he transformers, and should a heavy
feeder fault occur at the instant the transfer is being made, the short-
circuit,-current duty would be that. of two transformers instead of one.
To transfer when one hus has been deenergized because of a primary-
system fault requires that, t,he main secondary circuit breaker feeding the
deenergized bus be opened manually before the transfer is made. If this
circuit hreaker were not opened, both secondary buses may be deenergized
as soon as the tie circuit hreaker is closed as the dead bus would he directly
connected t o a fault on the primary feeder because the main secondary
r,ircuit, breaker on t,he dead bus mas closed.
There are many other forms of the secondary selective arrangement.
However, t,hose described cover the common usage.

SECONDARY N E T W O R K ARRANGEMENT (Fig. 11.18)

Serondary network systems were originally developed by central station


utilities for distributing electric power in the downtown or commercial
arcas of large cities. When electric systems and equipment specifically
developed for a given purpose in one field are heing adapted for use in
another field. it is logi(,al to review thoroughly the requirements of the
nrw field t o determine wherein the rcqnirements differ.
Serondary network arrangements, Fig. 11.18, differ from the radial,
secondary selertive, arid primary select,ive arrangements in two respects:
(1) the transformer secondaries are operated in parallel, and ( 2 ) in the
event, of a primmy feeder or transformer failure, the faulty circuit is
switched off aut,nrnatiidy by opening of t,he proper primary-feeder circuit
hreaker and the autornat,ic operation of the network protector in the
secondary circuit of !he transformer.
T h e operation of the industrial secondary network system is as follows:
The net~vorkprotertor, if it has a full complement of protective equip-
meut, consists hasically of an elertrirally operated air circuit breaker
automatirally ront,rolled hy a power directional tripping relay and reclos-
iug relays. In addition, overvurrent protection is afforded either by fuses
in serics with the network protector (for 208Y/120-volt systems) or
direct-acting trips on t,he air-circuit-breaker portion of the network pro-
trctor. \Vhen a primary feeder or transformer failure occurs, the direc-
tional relay closes it,s contacts on reverse pmver flow (i.e., power flow from
the secondary system t o the t,ransformer) and trips all net,\rork protectors
wniiertcd t,o the faulty feeder. This automatically isolates a primary
fan!t lvithout dropping load. Iluring the several cycles or so it takes the
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 647

600 F T

500FT

(b)
APPROXIMATE INSTALLED SYSTEM
COST $ 7 8 00 PER K V A ( 2 0 0 X ) (LESS
PRIMARY SWITCH GEAR) 1951

FIG. 11.18 Typical recondory network arrongement load-center power distribution


system; la), one-line diagram; (b), layout in plant.
648 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

primary-feeder breaker to open, the voltage on the network may go down


to almost zero. It will then rise to 50 per cent or more until a second or
so later when the proper network protectors open. When the fault is
repaired and proper voltage is restored, the power directional relaying
acting as a voltage relay in conjunrtiori with a phasing voltage relay
causes t,he protector to close automatically only when voltage conditions
are such that power will flow from the primary to the serondary system.
The above description of the operation of the network protector is very
abbreviated.
Complete Network Protector Controls Are Not Necessary in Industrial
Plants. The use of network protectors and all the associated relays as
developed for the utility network systems are not neressary for itidustrial
network systems. Since distances are not great and all power usually
comes from one source, the automatic reclosing feature can he eliminated
and manual closing used. Further simplification can he done by using
standard electrically operated air circuit. breakers in metal-enclosed switch-
gear with standard reverse-power relays instead of network protectors and
the highly sensitive network-type reverse-power relays.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Parallel Operation of Trans-
formers in laad-center Systems. Recause the transformers are operated
in parallel and automatic relaying is used, the secondary network arrange-
ment offers slightly greater service reliability than radial-type load-center
systems. The advantage is very slight because even the radial arrange-
ment has a service-reliability record of over 99.99 per cent plus.
Because power can be transferred over the secondary ties from one sub-
station to another in the network arrangement, this in some cases reduces
the amount of transformer capacity required compared with the capacity
required in the radial arrangements.
The parallelling of the secondaries of the transformers increases the
short-circuit-current duty and therehy necessitates higher interrupting
capacity and therefore mbre expensive secondary circuit hreakers than
the comparable radial system. It also requires considerable additional
secondary cable to interconnect the secondaries of all transformers t o form
a secondary network. These tivo factors generally more than offset the
saving in transformer capacity and as a result increase the first cost of the
secondary network arraugement up t o 50 per cent or more compared with
radial or secondary selective arrangements.
Parallel operation generally adds materially to the complexity of oper-
ation of the secondary network arrangement. There are tivo sources of
power on the tie circuits. Both ends must he opened to deenergize the
tie rirruits i:omplet,ely. More complicated relays are required on the
network protectors than on conventional air circuit hreakers used in radial
load-center systems. This arrangement rail be made as safe as any by
- LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS ANO CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

the use of unit substations consisting of adequate interrupting-rating


switchgear of modern metal-enclosed construction, properly installed.
Steady-state voltage drop is about the same in the secondary network
arrangement as in the other systems because transformers carry about the
same loading and secondary radial feeders are about the same length and
loading.
Because the transformers are in parallel and the short-circuit currents
are higher, there will be less voltage drop when starting motors or using
welders. This may be significant when motors of severa1 hundred horse-
power and larger welders are used ou low-voltage systems. Because all
transformers are in parallel, voltage variations will show up over a wide
portion or a11 over the system. I n the other arraugements the critical
loads can be put on one bus and noncritical loads on another bus (see
Chap. 10).
Secondary networks have two hasic forms, i.e., the distributed net-
work, Fig. 11.18, and the spot network, Fig. 11.19.

-- -CABLE
NO.OO
.-
I
ult

__ __ _ _ _ _ _
L

350MCM CABLE

- - - - L _ __ _ - - - $ J 1500KVA SPOTI

APPROXIMATE INSTALLEO SYSTEM COST


f

$48 PER KVA fi227,) (LESS PRIMARY SWITCH GEAR)


NETWOAK
2-750TRANS
250 FT
649

FIG. 11.19 Typical spot sccondary network arrangement lood-centsr powcr dirhibutim
ryrtem: (top), one-linc diagram; (bottom), IayOut in plant.
650 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

Spot Network (Fig. 11.19). The spot network, if limited to two 750-
kva 480-volt transformers per bus, keeps short-circuit currents within
50,000 amp and provides high service continuity for station auxiliaries,
etc. Larger trarisformers in t,he spot, network require 75,000-amp inter-
rupting-rating feeder circuit breakers, thus make this syst,em cost pro-
hibitive. A secondary bus failure drops all load, whereas in a secondary
sclect,ive arrangement it drops only half the load. The cost of the spot
network using two 750-kva t,ransformers per bus is 122 per cent compared
with 110 per cent for the spot secondary selective system. No reserve
transformer capacity is considered i n either case, and directional tripping
and manual reclosing are considered only in the spot network.

COMPARISON OF SECONDARY SELECTIVE AND SECONDARY NETWORK


LOAD-CENTER SYSTEM ARRANGEMENTS

A comparison of the secondary network and secondary selective arrange-


ments will he made on ot,hcr major points than those mentioned in the
preceding paragraphs.
Cost Comparison. While the cost of an industrial power distribution
system represents hut a few per cent of the total plant investment, the
cost of one system vs. another is still of prime significance if the systems
t o he compared give substantially the same operating characteristics and
meet the requirements of a particular plant.
A secondary network arrangement, Fig. 11.18, and a secondary selective
arrangement, Fig. 11.20, have been compared on a first-cost basis. The
secondary network load-center system consists of siu 500-kva substations
and serondary tie circuits. The load-center unit substation size is
limited to 500 kva to keep the short-circuit duty within 50,000 amp on the
feeder circuit breakers. Fewer larger network substations would have
made it difficult to keep the interrupting duty down t o 50,000 amp. The
secondary selective load-center system consists of six 750-kva substations
loaded to an average of 500 kva each. The cost of the secondary network
load-center system, Fig. 11.18, is $78 per kva (200 per cent on the hasis of
the radial system, Fig. 11.11). The cost of comparable equipment for the
secondary selective load-center system, Fig. 11.20, is $63 per kva (161 per
cent).
A word of explanation about the various system costs is in order. The
secondary selective arrangement of Fig. 11.20 is almost exactly like that
of Fig. 11.13. In Fig. 11.13 there was assumed no reserve transformer
capacity when 750-kva substations were used. The cost was $45 per kva
(115 per cent). Assuming full load on each transformer, i.e., 750 kva in
Fig. 11.20, the cost per kva would be almost the same. However, in
Fig. 11.20 the substations, for comparison with the secondary network
A 091b
IS9 S I N 3 W 3 3 N W W llll3813 a N V SW31SAS a3MOd 8 3 1 N 3 3 - a V 0 1
652 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

arrangement, are assumed to he loaded t o an average of only 500 kva


each; thus this automatically increases the system cost per kva of load
by nearly 50 per cent. The load areas are 500 kva each, whereas the
substation capacity is 750 kva per load area-50 per cent over the actual
average load. That accounts for the cost going up from $45 (115 per
cent) for Fig. 1 1 . 1 1 t o $63 (161 per cent) for Fig. 11.20 per kva for the
secondary selective arrangement. Even so, the secondary network load-
center system costs 25 per cent more than the secondary selective load-
center system. There is 50 per cent more transformer capacity in the
secondary selective arrangement, which will be far more than is required
in the average plant t o care for diversity. Could that he reduced to 25
per cent more transformer capacity, then the difference in cost would be
widened to where the network load-center system would cost about 50 per
cent more than the secondary selective load-center system. This has
been verified in several checks of actual system designs. The figure
would probably he between 25 and 50 per cent for the secondary network
load-center system in the average case and where the same quality and
adequate rating equipment was used throughout.
Caring for Load Shift. One of the inherent characteristics of the sec-
ondary network load-center system is that, if the load a t one transformer
substation increases beyond the rating of the transformer supplying that
bus, the adjacent substations will supply part of this load over the second-
ary tie circuits provided that the adjacent substation is not overloaded.
There is, however, a limit as t o how much load can be placed on one suh-
station bus. This is determined by tie-circuit impedance, transformer
impedance, and the nature of the load. To compensate for this load
shift, larger transformers (750-kva transformers with an average load of
500 kva) are required in a secondary selective load-center system. This
is taken into account as outlined under cost comparisons.
The ability of the secondary network load-center system to divide all
loads among all substations is desirahle from the standpoint of economics
where there are large shifts in the load a t any one location in the plant
from day to day or week to week. A dock or a pier for servicing ships is
a typical example of where such large load shifts may occur. A ship may
tie up a t one end of the dock and require power service somewhere in the
neighborhood of the total transformer capacity on the pier. The next
ship that requires service may tie up on an opposite corner of the pier.
I n the average manufacturing plant, such violent day-to-day or week-
to-week load shifts are not often encountered. Installations of secondary
selective load-center systems in hundreds of industrial plants of all types
have shown that this system can adequately care for the average shifting
of loads on a day-to-day or week-twweek basis. Therefore, the great
majority of industrial users have selected the simple secondary selective
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 653

load-center system in preference to the secondary network load-center


system because it will meet their requirements a t a saving in first cost of
about 25 to 50 per cent as compared with secondary network load-center
system.
Service Reliability. The secondary network arrangement offers a
somewhat higher degree of service reliability than does the secoudary
selective arrangement hecause a faulty primary feeder is removed auto-
matically by the network protectors, whereas in a secondary selective
arrangement it is necessary t o operate two or three feeder circuit breakers
to transfer the load at one substation to another. During this emergency
condition, the overload on a transformer in the secondary network
arrangement will be less than in the secondary selective arrangement
because the load dropped by one or two transformers in the network
arrangement can be absorbed by all the remaining transformers. In the
secondary selective arrangement,, the load is carried by the “pardner” of
the transformer that is out after switching the necessary secondary circuit
breakers. I t is not uncommon during such emergencies t o overload
transformers considerahly. This will generally enable full production to
be maintained. However, in some cases, this has necessitated dropping
some nonessential load where secondary selective load-center systems are
used.
The failure rate of transformers and primary cable is so low in the aver-
age industrial plant that most operators feel they cannot justify anything
except the lowest. cost radial load-center system or at the most the second-
ary selective load-center system. They reason, and justifiably so, that
most outages to service are caused by faults in the serondary branch cir-
cuits and the next worst offender is secondary feeders. There are many
more outages in these parts of the system than in the transformers or
primary cables. Since the secondary feeders and branch circuits are
radial in both the secondary network or secondary selective load-center
systems, neither will have any effect on reducing the secondary-feeder or
branch-circuit outages.
On the other hand, some operators feel that a major advantage of
duplication of sources down to the secondary buses is to enable power to
be maintained at all secondary buses when primary circuits are out for
test, maintenance, or expansion. While there are many more outa.ges
due to secondary-feeder faults than due to primary-cable or transformer
failure, there is not such a large block of power affected when a secondary
fault occurs as when a primary system fault occurs. Because of the
larger blocks of power affected and to allow for normal maintenance,
primary circuit testing, or expansion, many industries considered it
economically justifiable t o have some means of getting power during a
primary circuit emergency or during maintenarice t o all secondary buses.
654 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

The secondary selective arrangement provides this at minimum cost.


Only a few minutes outage is encountered on the rare occurrence of a
primary-circuit failure-just time enough t o make the transfer by oper-
ating two or three circuit breakers a t the affected substations. For nor-
mal maintenance the transfer can be made on the secondary selective
load-center system without dropping any load. The advantage of the
secondary network arrangement from a service-reliability standpoint is t o
automatically isolate a faulty primary circuit on the occurrence of a pri-
mary fault.
Ease of Operation. The secondary selective arrangement consists of
only the simplest type of eqnipment, that is, transformers and manually
operated drawout air circuit breakers. Operating personnel usually
require no special training for the operation and maintenance of this
equipment.
The secondary network arrangement, however, consists of many parallel
ties and secondary network protectors with complicated relay arrange-
ments. When servicing a part of the secondary network load-center
syst,em, at least. t,wo, and somet,imes as many as five, circuit breakers must
be operat,ed to deenergize any portion of the system. I n the secondary
selective load-center system, opening one circuit breaker will deenergize
completely any one part of the syst,em. Specially trained maintenance
persorinel are required t o care for the relays on the network protectors.
I n some plant,s where secondary network load-center systems are
employed, the network relays are cared for by the local utility mainte-
nancc personnel if t,he local utility happens t o have a secondary network
system and will agree to maintain industrial plant property.
Voltage Regulation. The normal voltage regulation in either type of
system is comparahlc. The network arrangement having a higher short-
circuit level on the secondary huses, therefore, being a “stiffer system,”
can accommodate the starting of larger motors for a given drop in voltage.
With the secondary selective system with transformers of the order of 500
t o 750 kva, motors as large as 50 t o 100 hp may be started across the line
without causing enough’ voltage drop t o produce objectionable light
flicker.
Secondary Tie Capacity. An important prohlem in the design of sec-
ondary network load-center systems is selecting the amount of tie capacity
required between suhstations. If no load is tapped off the ties, then it
is generally considered adequate from a system design standpoint t o
provide tie-?able capacity equivalent t o about two-thirds of the capa-
city of the largest substat,ion in the secondary network load-center
system. If load is tapped off the ties, then the tie capacity should be
increased t o 100 per cent, of the rating of the largest substation in the
system.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 655

PRIMARY SELECTIVE ARRANGEMENT (Fig. 11.21)

The primary selective arrangement differs from the radial and the
secondary selective arrangements in that two primary feeders are brought
to each substation (Fig. 11.21). Since two primary feeders are available,
a switching means is necessary to select the desired feeder t o connect to
the substation. The switching function is different also in that there is a
transfer furictivn to be performed arid not the mere disconnecting of a
primary feeder as in the other arrangements which have only one primary
feeder coming to each substation.
In discussing any engineering problem such as this, there are always
two things that are important: (1) what are the inherent engineering
aspects of the system as dictated by the one-line diagram, and (2) what
kind of equipment is necessary to enable these characteristics to be
obtained with safety? Safety, particularly in SO far as human life is con-
cerned, is of first importance. Reliability is important but is secondary
to safety t o human life.
The safe way to make the transfer is with adequate power circuit
breakers, as shown in Fig. 11.21. However, the cost of such an arrange-
ment may not be justified; particularly if used on a high-capacity 13.8-kv
system or if very small unit substations are used. Should the cost of
such a primary selective load-center system with power circuit breakers
for the transfer means he unreasonable, it is suggested that the secondary
selective arrangement be used which has many advantages over, and on
an average rosts less t,han, the primary selective arrangement with pri-
mary power circuit breakers (sce Fig. 11.22 for comparison).
In an attempt to reduce the cost of primary selective load-center sys-
tems, interrupter switches are often proposed as a substitute for power
circiiit breakers, Fig. 11.23.

T T
+, c

A
o , r . I p o
) I
+ + + + ) )
A
+ + , r e >

&
1 )
+
)
J +
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
FIG. 11.21 Primary selective circuit arrangement load-center power distribution system
with power circuit breakers for tronrferring from one p r i m ~ r yfeeder to the other.
656 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

A
s $:
A

f* ?*f +
' F *, ** , h* , *T ?+
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
SECONDARY SELECTIVE

SEC PR I
SYSTEM C O M P A R I S O N -
SEL SEL

I. C O S T - _ -_ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ -----_-_ - - $45KVA 845-655KVA


2. SERVICE RELIABILITY I I 15%) I I I 5 7 -140-/d
* O N E PRIMARY FEEDER OUT-
0. _ --- __
- _
- _SAME
CAPACITY ONE P R I M A R Y FEEDER OUT- __ __
75% loox
b * O N E TRANSFORMER O U T - - _ ______ - -. 75% 0%
c. 'MAIN BREAKER OUT _______________ 75% 0%
d. SECONDARY BUS OUT _______ ___ --___ 50% 0%
*OUT EITHER FOR MAINTENANCE OR DUE TO FAILURE
3. SAFETY ______________________________ SAME
4. SPACE _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ -
_ - -- - - - - - - - - - _ - -LESS _-
5. LOSSES ______--_--_____- ____
_______-SAME
6. VOLTAGE DROP I S T E A O Y STATE)--- ___- _ _--
- __ SAME
_.
7 VOLTAGE DROPIMOTOR S T A R T I N G ) _____________ - --I12
8. COMPLEXITY OF OPERATION _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ - _ _ ___
__- SAME

FIG.1 1.22 Comporiron of primary selective and secondary selective circuit arrongemenlr.

POTHEADS
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 657

Whether the service-reliability feature of having two primary feeders


available is or is riot realized when interrupter switches are used depends
upon the design arid arrangement of the interrupter transfer switrhes.
Two types of switches are available: ooc is the double-throw type; the
other consists of two separate single-throw switches.
Most double-throw switches necessitate bringing both feeders into the
same compartment, whereas two separate switches enable termination of
the feeder cables in separate compartments. This accounts for the real
difference in service reliability and a major portion of the difference in
safety obtained from the two different interrupter switch transfer means.
Both arrangements involve a real hazard should a transfer be made with
a fault on the load side of the transfer switch with the primary feeder
energized. These differenres are now to be considered in detail.
With both potheads adjacent t o each other, a failure in one will more
than likely involve both and shut down both feeders. Furthermore,
there is no possibility of isolating one feeder and its pothead through an
air break, so that it can he worked on in safety with the second feedcr
energized.
In any throw-over scheme with interrupter switches, there is always
the hazard of operating under fault conditions. To overcome this hazard
the operator should, after a tripout, shut down both feeders, make the
transfer, and then rerlose the good feeder. Although the transformer
failures are rare, when a primary feeder trips out, the operator may not
know whether the fault is in a transformer or the cable. If this failure
should happen to he in the transformer and if the operator attempts t o
restore service by throwing the double-throw primary switch t o the oppo-
site position without first deenergizing the good primary feeder, he will
connect the faulty transformer to a live feeder through the interrupter
switch. Operation of interrupter switches under such conditions may
result in fatalities and a complete shutdown of both feeders.
Contrasted with this, the interrupter switch on a radial or secondary
selective arrangement is for maintenance purposes only and not for oper-
ation or for switching of the system. The hazard of transferring a faulty
transformer is not present in these arrangements because there is no sec-
ond feeder available.
The cost of the radial arrangement and the primary selective arrange-
ment with double-throw interrupter switches cannot be compared
directly. The cost of a primary selective substation with double-throw
switches varies compared with radial substation from slightly more, per-
centagewise, for larger substation t o substantially more, percentagewise,
for very small substations (those of approximately 200 kva or less). The
real increase in cost of the primary selective arrangement compared with
658 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

the radial arrangement is in the duplicate primary feeder cable (at a cost
of $5 to $15 per ft) required for the primary selective arrangement. The
operation and safety characteristics of the primary selective arrangement
with double-throw switches and a straight radial arrangement are sum-
marized in Fig. 11.24.
Based on the foregoing, it is felt that either the radial or the secondary
selective arrangement should be used instead of the primary selective
arrangement with double-throw interrupter switches. The secondary
selective arrangement has better service reliability, and the radial arrange-
ment has,essentially as good service reliability. Neither arrangement has
the safety hazard of the primary selective arrangement with a double-
throw interrupter switch.
The sole reason for using a primary selective instead of a radial load-
center system is to provide service to the load-center substation primary
in the event of a primary-cable failure. As pointed out in the beginning
of this chapter, primary-cable failure rates are about one per 100 miles of
cable per year. This failure rate is low enough to question the extra
investment of the added primary cable of a primary selective load-center
system compared with a radial load-center system. The trend toward

__._._..-.---SLIGHTLY MORE
COMPLICATED

FIG. 11.24 Cornparimon of radial and primary selective circuit arrangements.


660 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N 0 CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

which permits, with proper precautions, the servicing of either feeder pot-
head with the other feeder energized.
T o be the more certain of getting this higher quality equipment, the

FIG. 11.26 Primary selective loed-center system with two single-throw interlocked pri-
mary switches of the type shown in Fig. 11.25.

PRIMARY
SELECTIVE
ARRANGEMENT

TWO SEPARATE SWITCHES ONE DOUBLE-THROW SWITCH

COMPARISON TWO ONE OT.


SWITCHES sWlrCH
I. COST ...................... ---__.SLIGHTLY MORE
E. SERVICE RELlABlLllY (TO MAKE
o.CABLE FAILURE OK OUT REPAIRS1
b. POTHEAD FAILURE _________________--___ OK OUT
c.SWlTCH FAILURE ___________-__________ OUT OUT
c. TRANSFORMER FAILURE OUT OUT
________-__-_____
f. MAINTENANCE OF SWITCH DUT OUT
3. SAFETY IN OPERATION POOR POOR
4. SPACE _____________________----- SLIGHTLY MORE
5. LOSSES AND VOLTAGE DROP SAME
____________________
6. COMPLEXITY OF OPERATION SAME

FIG. 11.27 Comporiron of primary selective load-center systems using two single-throw
interrupter switches VI. one double-throw interrupter switch.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 661

one-line diagram of the circuit should always be drawn as shown in Fig.


11.26 t o indicate clearly two single-throw switches. However, two single-
throw swit,ches st,ill involve the hazard of transferring a faulty transformer
t o an energized feeder by means of the interrupter switch. Although the
probability of this may be remote, iu the interest of safet,y the transfer
from one feeder t o another with any kind of interrupter switch should
always he made wit,h hoth feeders deenergized. As poiuted out previ-
ously, the highest degree of safety in the primary selective arrangement
can be realized only by using incoming-line power circuit breakers.
Therefore, the reduction in cost by using interrupter switches instead of
power circuit breakers may very likely be a t an undue sacrifice in safety.
However, if after a review of all facts it is felt that a primary selerhve
system with interrupter switches is required, then an arrangement as
shown in Figs. 11.25 and 11.26 with two interlocked single-throw switchcs
should be used in preference t o the arrangement with double-throw
switches, for the reason outlined previously and summarized in Fig. 11.27.

LOOPED PRIMARY FEEDER LOAD-CENTER SYSTEMS

The systems so far considered all have radial primary feeders. l n some
cases, looped primary feeders are proposed for load-center power systems
such as that illustrated in Fig. 11.28. See Chap. 13 for a more complete
discussion of looped primary systems. Sectionalieation of the loop
requires switching means a t the points indicated numerically. The only
really safe way t o sectionalize a n energized looped primary is with prop-
erly applied power circuit hreakers at these points as shown in Fig. 11.29.
As in the primary select,ive load-center system, the cost of power circuit
breakers for the switching furiction where small substations are used may
he prohibitive, and thus there is often the tendeucy t o cheapen the looped
primary system by using interrupter switches, as shown in Fig. 11.28,
instead of power circuit. breakers.
When this is done, practically all the advantages of the loop that seem
apparent in the one-line diagram are lost, so far as service reliability is
concerned, and safety is brought t o a very low order for the following
reasons:
I . A fault anywhere drops all load until the fault is found and isolated.
This may require several hours.
2. There is no practical way of interlocking the interrupter switches
to assure that they will not he operated under short-circuit conditions.
3. If certairi types of separately mounted oil-filled switches are used,
there is no visual means of being sure the circuits are cleared when it is
desired t o work on one piece of cable with the rest of the system energized.
Oil may darken and make sight glasses useless.
662 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

Most operators will not permit working on a cable isolated only by con-
tacts under oil because of the possibility of leakage through old carbonized
or wet oil.
The most serious disadvantage of this system is the hazard of operating
the interrupter switches under high overload or fault conditions. While
i t is easy t o consider academically what, an operator will do when a fault
occurs, the result is too apt t o work out differently in actual practice. I n
the first place, faults do not occur every day; so, no matter how good the
operating instruct,ions, t,here is little if any occasion t o practice operating
the systcm properly. Hence, in the rush t o restore service after a fault
has occurred, the operator can too easily make many possible mistakes.
First of all, when a one-line diagram is visible, the entire system is before
one's eyes arid it is easy t o scc what t o do. But when the oprrat,or leaves
the main substation t o operate a switch, he may have only a mental pic-

FIG. 11.28 Looped primary circuit bod-center system with rectionalizing switches for
supplying load-cenfer unit substations.

FIG. 1 1.29 Looped primary circuit bod-center ryrtem with rectionalizing power circuit
breakers for supplying load-center unit rubstotionr.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 663

ture of the system and may have t o rely eutirely on memory. Because
i t is easy t o become ronfused when under pressure, he may go t o the wrong
switch, or he may dose instead of open the switch.
For example, fallow through the case of isolating a cable fault, say a t X
in Fig. 11.28, assuming of course that the operator does uot know where
the fault is but only knows that hoth rircuit breakers tripped out. This
is 110 help i n lorating t,hc fault. It merely indicates the occurrence of a
fault somewhere. The first opcration may be t o open switches 1 and 6
and reclose both circuit breakers. Since the circuit breakers stay in, the
fault has not been found. So. the operator will start through the system
throwing switches and closing circuit breakers, hoping that the sequence
is correct: for, if it is not, the results may be a switch blowup and a
iseverely injured man. l f the operator is lucky and starts at the left side,
the fault will he isolated a t the third try because the second operatiori of
closing switch 1 and opening switch 2 will show that the fault is not in the
transformer. The third operatiori is t o close switch 2 and open switch 1.
This mill show where the fault is. 4 little study of Fig. 11.28 reveals how
many more times this process would have t o he repeated before the fault
is located, if the s\vitching operations had started at the right.
Essentially the power circuit breakers at the source should be opened
every time a w i t c h is thrown. If the circuit hreaker were not opened,
because of an error or misunderstood dircetions, and the S o . 2 switch in
this example was rlosed, then it would he closed on a fault. The opera-
tion is so romplicated that the probability of making a mistake is very
high and is fared over and over again.
Tho suggested alternative t o any kind of a loop primary feeder load-
center system is always either a straight, radial or a secondary selective
load-cent,er system. In some layouts where there are scattered small
huildings (such as nurses' or attendants' quarters a t a hospital) the
straight radial systcmshould serve well enough, because service continuity
in these is no more essential t,han in ordinary di~ellings,most of which are
fed by radial systcms. Howcvcr, some engineers may feel that, since the
feeders to these isolated huildings are underground, some primary-feeder
duplication is necessary.
If so, and the secondary selective arrangement does not tit, then the
primary selective arrangement (Fig. 11.26) may he employed, i n place of
the loop feeders ivith interrupter switches for scctionalization. The
primary s e l w t i v c tcm, ivhen using interrupt,er switches, has one haz-
ard, as pointed out earlier: hut that, hazard is far less than the hazard of
tem lvith int,errupter switches. \!'hen au outage occurs in the
primary selectirr arrangcmcnt, the operat,or knows on which feeder it is,
and orily one-half the load is dropped. I t is desirable t o drop both fceiiers
to make the transfer safely. If the fault is riot in a transformer, all service
664 LOAD-CENTER VOWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

is restored after one operation-which is much quicker than is probable


hy thr loop primary feeder load-center system with interrupter switches.
There is only one s\vitching seqnence for the primary selective arrange-
ment; hence t,he chanres are less for making a serious operating error with
the interrupter switches. However, when specifying the unit suhstations
for the primary sclert,ive load-renter system for these applications, it is
most importaiit,, as pointed out previously, t o specify two interlocked
single-t,hron. interrnpter sn.itrhes instead of one double-throw interrupter
switch. This type of primary selective load-center system compares
favorahly i n first, cost with loop primary feeder load-center system when
t,he same types of int,rrrnpter switches are used in both systems.

SELECTION A N D APPLICATION OF LOAD-CENTER


UNIT SUBSTATIONS
There are many factors t o cousider in selecting a load-center unit suh-
station, two of whirh are very important to the system design engineer.
These are (1) the kva rating of the substation and (2) the arraiigemcnt of
the snhstation romponents. Aft,er selei:ting the substation, it is impor-
tant, t o choose a good location for it.

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF SUBSTATION KVA RATING

For the sake of this discussion it is assumed that the substation voltage
ratings have heen determined as outlined in Chap. 10 and that t,he system
circuit arrangemcnt has heen agreed upon. The kva size of the load-
cent,er unit suhstat,ion is then largely a matter of economics in plants
where several small substations are w e d , the desire being t o select the
suhstation k v a rat,ing that \ d l effect the lowest over-all system cost.
,.
1hree major system romponents affecting the over-all system cost are the
primary cahle, unit substations, and secondary cable. These factors
~ v o r kconbrary t o one another; so t,hc most eronomical system as affected
I)y substation kva rat,ing ran be obtained only hy considering all three at
once.
A s the number of substations increascs in a given area, the length of
primaryfceder cahle required t o serve these substations increases. Con-
versely, as the nnmhcr of load-center unit substations in a given area
increases, the amount of secondary-feeder cable rcqiiired decreases. The
load-center unit substation cost per kva varies depending upon the size of
the substation.
If the= fact,ors are combined in their proper proportions for a typical
indnstrial plant, the result is shown i n Fig. 10.1. This curve shows very
definite minimiim system cost as a function of substation size for 208Y/
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 665

120-volt, 240-volt, 480-volt. and GOO-volt systems. For 208Y/120 volts


the most economical sizes are in the range of 300 to 750 kva, with the bot-
tom of the curve being a t 300 and 500 kva. For 480-volt systems the
most economical range is 500 to 1500 kva, with the bottom of the curve
being at 750 kva.
There are other factors which have an influence on substation rating,
too. For example, the higher the primary voltage, the larger the kva
rating unit substation should be so that a greater kva per primary feeder
can be handled without unduly complicating t,he load-center unit sub-
station overcnrreut protection problem. For example, when the primary
voltage is 13.8 kv, it is desirable t o have a loading of 4000 to 7500 kva per
primary feeder. With total primary feeder loadings of this magnitude
using 500-kva units, individual primary overcurrent protection would be
required for each substation. If 750-, 1000-, or 1500-kva units were
selected, then primary-fender loadings of the order of magnitude just
sperified could be obtained without individual primary overcurrent pro-
tection. Therefore, it would be expected that where primary voltages
are of the order of 13.8 kv the range of substation sizes would be in the
750- to 1500-kva bracket. With lower primary voltages of the order of
2.4 t o 4.16 kv, the most economical primmyfeeder loadings would be of
the order of 1000 to 3000 kva per feeder. Thus, for these primary volt-
ages, subst,ation kva ratings could be smaller and not require individual
primary overcurrent protection. I n any event,, substations larger than
1500 kva with 480 volts secondary are generally not used because of the
over-all increase in system cost for the larger substations.
Large spot loads can sometimes justify larger unit substations. For
example, a single furnace, a single large oven, a single large welder may
justify the use of substations of the order of 2000 to 2500 kva a t 480 volts
secondary because there is no secondary distribution. Therefore, there
is nothing t o be saved in that part of the system t o offset the lower cost
per kva of the larger substation with a very few secondary circuit breakers
attached t o it. Where these larger spot loads are encountered, it is well
to consider using two smaller unit substations rather than one larger unit
substation, particularly if the number of feeder circuit breakers for the
secondary exceeds three or four.
For general factory area load-center power supply, two 1000-kva load-
center substations will nearly always provide a lower over-all system cost
than one 2000-kva unit substation. Many times a load-center power
system using two 750-kva load-center substations per load area will be
less expensive over-all than a system using one 1500-kva unit substation
per load area.
The space available for substations sometimes dictates larger substation
kva ratings. For example, one 1500-kva substation instead of two 750-
LOAD-CENTER P O W E R SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 667

I I
FIG. 11.30 Typicol arrangements of load-center unit rubrtotianr.

INCOMING-LINE SECTION
/ >
I he primary incomiirg-line section may consist nf a metal-clad srvitch-
gear section with one or t n o readily removable rircuit hreakers as the cir-
cuit arrangement demands, Fig. 11.31A and 8. This gives the uliimate
668 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

in protection and safety for the incoming-line section. I n other cases the
incoming-line sivitchgear may be remote, in which rase thcre would be a
cable connection between the feeder circuit breaker and the load-center
unit suhstation because of the desire to get the load-center substation
closer to the load center. In this case only a pothead may he reyuircd,
Fig. 11.31C. The pothead is often mounted on a junction box.
I t is often desirable to place more than one small load-center unit sub-
station on a primary feeder. I n that rase many operators feel that there
should be a disconnecting means het,ween the feeder and the transformer
t o permit isolation of the transformer for maintenance or other reasons
without completely deenergizing the feeder. This, as pointed out previ-
ously, is done for the sake of economy at some slight sacrifice in safety.
There are numerous types of interrupter switches and interrupter switch
and fuse combinations.
.Classes of Interrupter Switches. The t,erm interrupter switch is defined
iu the Power Switching Equipment Standards of NEMA, Paragraph
SG50-658, as follows:
“An interrupter switch is a switch combining the functions of a discon-
nect.ing switch and a circuit interrupter for interrupting at rated voltage
currents not exceeding the continuous current rating of the switch.”
By t,his broad definition both the so-called “mag-i” and “load-break”
switches are classified as interrupter switches, but in applying such
switches the current-interrupting Capabilities of each class must be
factored.
There are three general classes of interrupter switches available for use

,a> (8, (C, I01 IF1

FIG. 11.31 One-line diagram illurtroting application of the more commonly used lood-
center unit rubitotion incoming-line sections.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 671

whioh alloivs the use of ilcse cutouts without being i ~ ~ s t a l l eirid a fireproof
vault.
For unit-sulist,ation applications t,hrre does not, x'rm i n lie any prartiml
requirmwnt for makiiig i t i t interrupter su-itclr ai:trially operate under any
more severe duty tliaii tire miigrietiziiig r i i r r w t of ilir trarisformcr. :is i i
matter of fact, thiart: aro vcry good ~CRYOIIS for interloi'king svitche.;
regardless of their ititrrmptiiig aliility. so tliat oidy triliisi'ormcr niag-
ri(:tizing ci1rri:iit is ii~t(;rrupteil. I t is vrry simplit t o s:ifoly koy-itlrc~rlor~k
the iiiterrupter sn-itvh ivith the main lon.-voltnge srcoii(lary circuit
breaker so that, this circuit I>reaker must lie oprn (and t,hcrefore all load
dropped) before the npcning or closing of tlir ititi>rrttptersnitrli. .is meii-
tioned earlier, tile u s e of thi. i i i i upiiLr sn-itch oii unit srtl~stationsis a t
liest a cornpromisc, aiid r v c i i w h coiistriii.trd as \vi:Il as ~iossil)lt~. it docs
riot h a w h i l t - i n iivrrlo:td or short-circuit protecti erefore, it is still
the weakest, part of the unit srihstntioii. Thrse f a der-elop tiro hasic
iiitf:rliii~kiiigintt~rriiptcrswitches: ety t o personuel
arid (2) protectioli to service corrtiiluit,y.

THE TRANSFORMER SECTION

Tht: trimsformer section of the liiail-r~~iiter iiiiit, sulistaiioii may ronsist


of an oil, askarcl, opeir-vetitilntrd dry-typr, or a scviltd dry-type trans-
former. The h s k compnrisoils of thesr four t,rnnsformers are givim i n
Talilc 11.1.
For iiidoor iiistallatioiis thr rhoicc is iisua11y tirtivrtw tlic iiskarel a1111
the operr-veirtilatrd dry-typi: Iiiiits. 'l'hr tinsic considerations of sclr
are ootliiicd i n Tatili. 11.2, a1111a pictorial comparison of tliese rrriits is
given in Fig. 11.31.

'
I
..

I a
r

\-
FIG, 11.34 Typical bod-center unit substation tronrformer sections and arkarel-filled
transformer, left; conventional dry-type transformer, center; and sealed dry-type trom-
former, right.
672 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

TABLE 11.1 Comparison of Load-center Unit Substation


Transformer Sections

I Liquid filled
~ ___
Type of Ironsformer
Open Sealed Sealed
Oil Atkars
ventiloted Clor, B Clas H

Impulse strenglh.. ....... 100% 100% 50%' SO%* 50% *


.......
Toto1 IDIS o t 75 C.. 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Insulation............... Class A Clots A Clor, B Ci.% B Cl0.S H
Temperature rating.:
Average rise.......... 55 C 55 c 80 c 120 c 120 c *
...
Hottest spot rise. , , , 65 C 65 C 110 c 140 C 140 C*
Audio sound level.. ...... X db X db : + 10 db'l :+10db* k'+lOdb*I
Weights. ............... 100% 125% 80% 125% 125%
Dimensions:
F .........
I space..
~ ~ ~ 1007~ 100% 100% 120% 120%
Height ............... 100% 100% 90% 110% 110%
Normally available for
.pplic.tion:
Indoor or Outdoor...... Outdoor All Indoor only Ail t All
Submersible.. ......... Submersible
Fire and exploiion resistant. No Ye, Yes Yes IPlUlI Yet (plurl
Maintenonce required:
Liquid.. .............. Normal freque, NOW NOW None
Intcmd cleaning,...... None None Frequent NOW None
Extcrnol cleaning ond
pointing expense.. ... Normal Normal Subnormol Minimvm Minimum
Special precoutionr before
energizing either initiolly
or after shutdown. ..... None None Yes None None

* S o t yrt covered by industry standards


t Applicahlc for all typrs of installation assuming no ~ r p o s u r et o lightning or assum-
ing ad-quate protcetion ageinst impulse voltages can be provided.

SECONDARY SWITCHING SECTION

There are three hasic types of secondary switching equipment availahle


for load-center unit substations. These are
1 . Drawout low-voltage switchgear with large-type air circuit breakers
2. Stationary-mounted molded-case circuit breakers for light-duty unit
substations
3. Centralized motor control
The drawout-t,ype switchgear and rentralieed motor coiit,rol are some-
times used in combination on the secondaries of the load-renter unit
substation.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 673

TABLE 11.2 Principal Points of Camparison* between Askarel and


Open-ventilated Dry-type Transformers

Type of
tronsformer
recommended

I Open
dry

Exposure lo Where transformers ore connected lo circuits exposed to lightning NO


lightning ond the usual protection i s provided
Where study has determined mat the amount of lighming expos~re Ye*
i s negligible. or the possible reivltont voltage stresses can be ade-
quately taken care of by lightning protection
Atmospheric Where atmospheric conditions are clean, such (IS in plants produc- Yes
conditions ing aircrah. instrumenh, precision parts and in certain types of
machine &hops, assembly plants, food-processing plmts, and in
&on. dry vovlb
Where dirt conditions m e severe, such (IS in foundries, steel mill%, NO
Row mills, cement mills, or other similar dusty or dirty lxations
Where moisture conditions are rovcre,ruch (IS in geographic Ioca-
lions of high humidity and where hansformers may be sub- NO
jected lo p o r t i d or total submersion
Where unih ore mbiected to acid, oil, or cormolive vopon NO
Where units me wbjcded to oil or inflammable vapors and locw NO
lion i s classifled (IS horardous or semihazardous. (See Article
500 of Notiond Electrical Code for Guidance)
Where Ironsformen arc located overhead on platforms or in roof YU
IW*S**
Future Where possible rearrongemont may ruse Ironsformers to be NO
applicatio moved outdoors at D l d e r dote
I

'Inaca ensed guide such as this, it is possible to cover only the more u81 types
of installa .- T I LL"-"c,.-" -L....I,l ".I -""""":-"A &L"& &I."-" "-~ 1"".. "..-"."I
674 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

cuit breaker may be taken out and another one put in its place and the
replaced circuit breaker taken to a clean dry location for maintenance
under favorable conditions. This switchgear offers a high degree of
safety hecause all parts are metal enclosed and interlocking is provided t,o
prevent drawing out or inserting a properly adjusted large air circuit
breaker with contacts in the closed position.
The molded-case circuit breakers are limited in interrupting rating to
25,000 amp a t 480 volts and 40,000 amp a t 240 volts and are therefore
limited as to the sizc of substations on which t,hey may bc employed.
Thcse circuit breakers, while adequate \Tithin their interrupting rating,
are not so sturdily constructed as the large circuit breakers and are
not drawout in construction; therefore they lack the flexibility and ease
of maintenance associated with the drawout switchgear. The molded-
case circuit breakers, however, being small in size, can be mounted as a
complete unit on the end of the transformer section of the light-duty load-
center unit substation. They are not employed on larger substations
used in industrial areas as it is very desirable from the maintenance and
operation standpoint t o have circuit breakers drawout, a feature not
incorporat,ed in the molded-case circuit-breaker switchgear. In sub-
stations for commercial buildings where light-duty unit substations with
molded-case circuit breakers find their widest application, the drawout
feature, while highly desirable, may not be so essential as in an industrial
plant where there are many more circuit changes and circuit-breaker
operations than there are in commercial buildings.
The third form of secondary switching is the centralized motor control
as shown in Fig. 11.35.
In many cases it is desirable to have a drawout switchgear section and a
centralized motor-control section both in the same secondary line-up to
provide feeders to other switching centers as well as to the centralized
motor-control units associated with the unit substation. In such cases
where there is more than one secondary feeder from the secondary of the
load-center unit substation, a centralized motor control section should be
connected to the switchgear bus section through a circuit breaker as
shown in Fig. 11.36.
The centralized control section on unit substations may be employed
where it is desired to centralize motor control in one location such as
might be the case in oil refineries where the substation and control are
placed in a ventilated room, free from explosive or corrosive atmosphere.
Always Use a Main Secondary Circuit Breaker. It is always pref-
erable to include a main secondary circuit breaker in every secondary
switchgear section regardless of t,he type of secondary switching equip-
ment, used whether it is drawout switchgear, centralized motor control, or
molded-case circuit breakers. The main secondary circuit breaker is
LOAD.CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 675

FIG. 11.35 Typic01 centralized motor-control section for secondary of load-center unit
substotion.

requird by tlie Satioiial I~iectricalC'o:le whrre there is no indiaidrlal


primary ov<'rcurrent protection of the unit siihstation transformer sertion.
Where thore is irrtlividunl oimvurrent primary proteetion provided hp
fuses, tire xsorrdary ?iri.nit breaker ofTcrs m1ir.h better protection to the
secoiidnry INIS a t i d other equipmciii in the secondary sivit,rhg:ear than do
the nsiial primary fiises w1iic.h hnvr t o he selected w i t h fairly high current

renit hw:iker permits poasihle future expansion

FEEDERS CENTRALIZED
MOTOR
CONTROL
USE B R E A K E R HERE

FIG. 11.36 One-line diogrom of application of circuit breoker to feed centralized motor-
control section to permit deenergiring of the control section for maintenance without
deenergizing feeders lo lights and other load.
67 6 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

of a radial load-center syst,eIn into a secondary selective load-center sys-


tem t o ohtain thc: advantages of the secondary selective system. Main
secotidary circuit breakers permit cascading of large drawout air cir-
cuit breakers t o obt,ain lower cost of secondary snitchgear equipment
where the slightly lower service reliahility offered by cascading is not
ohjectionablc. The main secondary circuit hreakers offer better backup
prot,ect,ion t o the feeder circuit hreakers, should a feeder cirnuit breaker
fail t o trip on a serondary feeder fault remote from the suhstation. The
main secondary circuit, breaker permits complete deenergization of the
Ilus quickly i n case of an emergency, and it, greatly simplifies the interlock-
ing prohlem where primary interrupter discounectirig switches with or
without, fuses are employed.
Where there is a power circuit breaker on the primary of each load-
center uuit substation, it will provide most of the features, in so far as
overcurrent protection is concerned, that t,he main secondary circuit
hteaker will provide. Even t,hough there is an individual primary circuit
breaker, if the maitt secnndary circuit breaker is omitted, it, nil1 not he
easy to i:onvert, a radial load-center system t,o a secondary selective load-
center system in the future. The primary rircuit breaker mdl not serve
as a backup I)rcdwr for cascade operation of the secondary feeder circuit
hreakers \!-here t.his t,ype of owration is desired.

FIG. 11.37 Double-ended load-center unit rubrtotion installed on the factory floor.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 677

FIG. 11.38 Single-ended lood-center unit substation instolled on grating in roof trusser.

SELECTION OF SUBSTATION LOCATION

To get the most orit of the I o i ~ d - ( ~ r i ipo\vi.rr


t ~ r distrihiition
load-center uiiit sntistation should lie at the ceiiter of the load a
sic pon.er may l i e coilsidered I i h r a n material, substntioiis a r c more
akin t o a mitchiiio tool t h u i tlic’y are t o a service: tlwefore, they s1ioi:ld
be givcii the same consideriitioii ii-heti laying out, the factory area arid
spa(’eprovided oil the floor if it is iiecrssary t o iiist,all t,he load-~,eiitcruiiit
substation on t,he factory floor. If they arc installed on t,lie favtory lloor.
they take n p less than one-tenth of 1 per cerit of t h e tot,al floor area.
There are many other locatioiis of load-center unit snbstations nhirh
do not owiipy floor s p x e and yet permit the load-center nnit substatioii
t o he close t o the miller of the load area. Some of these are iiloiig aisles,
over Tvashrooms, on balconies, 011 the roof, iii the roof trusses, jrist outside
the buildings, ctc. h pict,orial presentat,ion of some of tliesc locations is
given in Figs. 11.37 t,o L1.10.
678 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

FIG. 11.39 Lood-center unit r u b s t d o n instolled in penthoure on roof

FIG. 11.40 D-C load-centei unit substations instolled on plotform inounted on colurnnr
a b o v e factory floor.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 679

LOAD-CENTER POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS FOR LOADS


SERVED AT ABOVE 600 VOLTS
Some loads, particularly large motors above about 200 hp, can often be
served more economically a t voltages above 600 volts. Where the plant
primary voltage is suitable, these large loads may be served directly a t
primary voltage. For example, motors over about 200 hp may be served
directly from 2400-volt primary systems, motors over ahout 250 hp from
4160-volt systems, motors over about 1000 hp from 6900-volt systems,
aud motors over about 2000 hp from 13.8-kv (11.0 to 13.8 range) systems.
In cases where oue or two motors or severa1 scattered motors, whieh would
lend themselves to be supplied by a separate medium-voltage substation,
ine toa large for the low-voltage system and yet too small for the primary
voltage systcm, they may be served from the high-voltage primary feederp
through a transformer for each motor. For example, an 800-hp motor ir
a factory whose primary voltage may he 13.8 kv eould be served from th(

A LOAD CENTER
r - q n b SUBSTATION

INDIVIDUAL
TRANSFORMER
FOR ONE
LARGE MOTOR

6"
SMALLER
MOTORS

FIG. 11.41 One-line dicigram rhowing large motorr fed through individual tronrformen
and rmaller motor$fed from load-center unit rubrtationr.
680 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

13.8-kv system through a step-down transformer, Fig. 11.41. The most


economical motor voltage would be 2300 volts in this case.
I n many plants there are concentrated groups of large motors or other
loads such as arc furnaces which may be served directly from the primary
power system, and the primary voltage motor or are furnace rating is
compatible with that primary voltage. Such may be the rase in plants
with 4160 volts primary voltage or in mills with 6.9 or 13.8 kv primary
voltage, Fig. 11.42. However, many mills have 13.8 kv primary voltage,
which is too high to apply directly to the average large motor in the mill.
Other mills may have 34.5 or 69 kv primary voltage, which is too high to
apply directly to any motors. Some are-furnace transformers may he fed
a t 34.5 kv. Where the primary voltage is too high for the large motors
and where there are large groups of these motors, the load-center principle
may be used to supply the large loads or motors with the same advantages
as the load-center system supplying loads a t 600 volts or less. The mas-
ter load-center substations, Fig. 11.43, for the larger loads merely step
down to some voltage in the 2.4- to 13.8-kv range. A typieal case may he
a paper mil1 with 13.8 kv primary voltage, Fig. 11.44. The larger motors

LOAD CENTER
SYSTEM
MOTOR A 1
' PRIMARY
VOLTAGE

L
&
FIG. 11.42 Typicol one-lhe diagrrim showing Iarger motom operated directly a t primary
voltage and maller motorr fed from load-center unit rubrtotionr.
LOAO-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 68I

FIG. 11.43 Morter load-center vnit wbrtotion rtepping power down from 13.8 to 2.4 kv
for wpplying rl bonk of lorge 2300-volt motorr.

13.8 K V

SOURCE

MASTER LOAD
CENTER UNIT
d~, KVA
LOAD
SUBSTATION CENTER
UNIT
?j WBSTATION

*
fBBBf
2.4 K V
J.
Y

66A6A
RATEO 350
MOTORS
SMALLER
MOTORS

FIG. 11.44 Typical one-line diogram of a mil1 rhowing groups of larger motorr fed from a
m a t e r load-center uni1 rubrtaiion ond rmoller motori fed from a lood-center unit rub-
rtotion.
682 LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS AND CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

are supplied a t 2.4 kv through 13.8-2.4-kv substations and the smaller


motors a t 480 volts through 13,800-480-volt suhstatioos.
Another case would be a steel mill where the primary voltage is 69 kv
(see Fig. 11.45). The power is transmitted to load centers a t 69 kv and
there stepped down to 6.9 or 13.8 kv. I n each area larger motors operate
at 6.9 or 13.8 kv and intermediate motors from 2.4 kv through 13.8-2.4
(or 6.9-2.4) kv master unit substations and smaller motors a t 480 volts
through 13,800480 (or 6900-480) volt load-center substations.

1 I

13.8 KV BUS

Y
,d
1500 HP
MOTOR
RATED
13.2 KV 2,4,K:

MOTORS UP TO MOTORS 2 5 0
250 HP TO 2000 H P

SUBSTATION
I
I I I <;n;> , I, ;3.; KV
BUS

FIG. 11.45 Typical one-line diagram of a large mill showing large load orem fed by
load-center ryrtemr through packaged substations. The large motors are supplied
directly ot primary voltage, i.e., 13.8-kv ond medium-sized motors from o 2.4-lrv master
unit substation ond smaller motors from a 480-volt load-center unit substation.
LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEMS A N D CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS 603

The fundamental approach is to use a relatively high voltage for trans-


mitting of power to the load centers where it is stepped down to utilization
voltage. The primary voltage varies as the function of total plant load
and the secondary voltage as a function of motor size. See Chap. 13 for
more details on primary distribution systems.
Chapter 12 by Shelby C. Cooke, Jr.

Secondary Distribution Systems

The secondary distribution system discussed in this chapter is that part


6f the system beginning a t the load terminals of the secondary feeder
breakers and extending all the way t o the utilization equipment. This
secondary system is common to all sizes of plants that use voltages of 600
volts and below. For example, the small plant that buys power direct
from the utility a t this voltage level would have protective and switching
equipment, a t the service entrance point, as shown between dashed lines D
and E of Fig. 11.1. A small plant that buys primary power (higher volt-
age power) mould have several load-center substations as shown between
dashed lines C and E . Larger plants would have a primary system and
load-center units as shown between dashed lines A and E . In the larger
systems there may be various types of interconnections in the primary
circuits and between the load-center substations resulting in different
circuit arrangements as discussed in Chaps. 11 and 13, but each substation
would then have a secondary distribution system beyond the low-voltage
feeder breaker terminals. Therefore, the discussion in this chapter is
applicable to any size industrial plant from the very smallest to the very
largest.
The secondary distribution area of the over-all system is the area to
which the codes of various organizations principally apply. Therefore,
i t is essential that, in designing this portion of the system, particular
attention be given to the applicable codes. Mention will be made in this
chapter of the National Electrical Code where it imposes limitations on
the design of the secondary aystem.
The discussions in this chapter assnime that the low-voltage feeder
breakers have been properly selected to provide adequate secondary
feeder protection, both from the standpoint of overload protection and
short-circuit protection.
684
SECONDARY DlSTRlBUTlON SYSTEMS 685

FACTORS TO CONSIDER

The design of a secondary distribution system requires proper con-


sideration of several factors, the more important of which are as follows:
Short-circuit protection
Overload protection
Voltage drop
Safety

SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTION

The need for adequate short-circuit protection for primary industrial


power systems is widely recognized and readily accepted today. Conse-
quently there are very few, if any, new industrial plants built which do
not have adequate short-circuit protection in their primary systems.
The recognition of the necessity of adequate short-circuit protection has
spread during recent years from the primary system down to the load-
center unit substation secondary feeder breakers, and i t is relatively
uncommon to see new plants designed with inadequate short-circuit pro-
tection a t this point in the system. However, adequate short-circuit
protection is often entirely neglected beyond the secondary feeder breaker
terminals down through the branch-circuit part of the system.
A review of available accident reports indicates that considerably
safer electric power distribution systems could he made if the same degree
of engineering attention was given to the short-circuit-protection problem
in secondary distribution areas as is given to this problem in the primary
and load-center distribution areas. Secondary distribution systems with
complete adequate short-circuit protection are economically feasible when
using modern short-circuit protective equipments and observing proper
system design fundamentals.
The most important factor in obtaining adequate short-circuit protec-
tion in the secondary distribution area is that of proper design. When
the system is so designed, presently available shorkircuit protective
devices are adequate. Reference is made to Chap. 3, which outlines the
characteristics and ratings of the major devices used in secondary systems
and also to Chaps. 1 and 2, which describe the methods of making short-
circuit-current calculations.
Use the load-center System. Although this chapter is entitled and
deals with secondary distribution, i t will sometimes be necessary to refer
hack to the system ahead of the secondary system since the design of the
primary system will have considerable effect on the characteristics of the
area beyond the secondary feeder breakers. The use of the load-center
system of distribution as discussed in Chap. 11 will result in reasonable
686 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

values of short-circuit current on the secondary feeder bus so that stand-


ard types of equipment will be adequate and can he readily applied.
Table 12.1 shows thc maximum kva size of transformer for the short-
circuit-rating levels of standard short-rircnit protective equipment used
in secondary distribution systems.

TABLE 12.1 Maximum Kva Size of Transformer for Standard


Short-circuit-rating levels of Secondary
Protective Equipment

Tronsforrner size, Ina


Shoe-circuit
,1. " .1 omp
208 volts 480 volts

5,000 50 112.5
10.000 100 225
15.000 150 300
25,000 300 750
50,000 750 1500

One of the important factors in selecting short-circuit protective equip-


ment for the secondary distribution system is that such equipment usually
has t o he small in size. This is due t o the conditions that exist around
machine tools and other places where this equipment is located and the
fact that there are so many of these devices that it is essential from a
space-saving standpoint t o have them as small as possible consistent with
obtaining adequate performance. Reference to Chap. 3 will show that,
in order t o have small compact short-circuit protective devices in the
secondary system in the form of circuit breakers, the short-circuit level
must he kept helow 25,000 amp. This means that on a 480-volt system,
for example, the maximum size of transformer is limited t o 750 kva.
Many devices used in the secondary system require that the short-circuit
current he less than 15,000 amp, and in these cases the masimum size
traiisformer at 480 volts is 300 kva. As pointed u u l later i n this chapter,
however, a long run of cable may introduce sufficient impedance to per-
mit the application of these breakers t o systems supplied by larger kva
transformers.
Select Short-circuit Protective Devices with Established Short-circuit
Ratings. There are several t,ypes of short-circuit protertive devices com-
monly used in secondary distribution systems. They are (1) inagnetic
circuit breakers in individnally mounted cases, (2) molded-r,ase circuit
breakers, (3) fuscd safety switches, and (4) panel hoards of various types
with either fused switches or molded-case circuit breakers. Typical
examples of these devices are shown in Figs. 12.1 t o 12.4, respectively.
SECONDARY DlSTRlWTlON SYSTEMS 687

FIG. 12.1 Enclosed monuolly operoted large FIG. 12.2 Molded-care air circuit
air circuit breaker for individual mounting. breaker.

FIG. 12.3 Modern-type fusible rofety witch


688 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Proper attention should be given to the ratings of these devices to be sure


that their application is correct for the system under consideration.
Care must he exercised in the selection of cable, bus, and other parts of
the secondary distribution system in so far as short-circuit capabilities are
concerned as well as in the selection of the short-circuit protective device
itself. The principles discussed in Chap. 3 should be followed in the
application of these items to be sure that they can withstand the possible
short-circuit current during the interval required for the short-circuit
protective device to clear the circuit.
The foregoing comments show that i t is possible to design a system so
that available equipments can he readily applied within their short-circuit
ratings. However, some occasions may arise in which the load-center
system with its small transformers cannot be used, or in which the short-
circuit currents are not within the interrupting ratings of available equip
ment. In such cases some other means must be used to reduce the short-
circuit current t o a lower value. The addition of impedance in some form
or another to the system is necessary to reduce the amount of short-circuit
current.
Every circuit element has a certain amount of impedance and therefore
has some effect toward limiting the short-circuit current. Long cables
or bus bars can be particularly important components in this respect.

FIG. 12.4 Typical fusible-type diitribution p o d board.


SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 689

For example, even though the available short-circuit current on a load-


center substation bus is 25,000 amp, the feeder cable may have sufficient
impedance t o reduce the short-circuit current t o within the ability of a
15,000-amp interrupting capacity device a t the end of the cable. This
effect is particularly noticeable on the lower voltage circuits such as 208
and 240 volts. This characteristic was discussed in detail in Chap. 1.
Application of Reactors in Low-voltage Systems. In cases where the
circuit impedance is not high enough t o limit the fault current sufficiently,
reactors can be added to limit the current to the desired value. A typical
example of the use of such reactors would be between a load-center bus
with 50,000 amp short-circuit current available and a grouped motor-
control equipment with a 25,000-amp short-circuit-current rating.
Reactors are generally considered as undesirable in low-voltage dis-
tribution systems because of certain inherent disadvantages, namely, (1)
voltage drop, (2) power loss, (3) cost, and @) spsce.., Hourever, when
properly applied, they can be very usefd tools in system design. Proper
application cannot be overemphasized because a reactor improperly
applied can result in excessive cost, as well as poor system operation.
For example, assume a circuit with a 50,000-amp short-circuit level of
fault current. For such a system, a 15,000- or 25,000-amp interrupting-
capacity breaker, plus a reactor, is more expensive and requires more
space than a 50,000-amp interrupting-capacity breaker. I n addition,
such a reactor adds to the voltage drop of the system and increases the
system losses. I n general, reactors should not be applied for the sole
purpose of reducing the cost of switchgear equipment since such applica-
tions will prove t o he uneconomical in the final analysis.
Care should he given t o the location of the reactor for best over-all
operation. The location of the reactor in the system can have consider-
able effect on the principal disadvantages listed previously, that is, voltage
drop and power loss. For any given number of ohms, the voltage drop
varies directly with the current and the power loss varies directly with the
square of the current. Therefore, the reactor should he placed in as low a
current circuit as possible in order t o minimize the effects of voltage drop
and power loss. For example, refer t o Fig. 12.5, which shows two possible
arrangements of reactors to limit short-circuit current on feeder circuits.
Figure 12.5A shows the reactor in the main circuit where it must carry the
full output current of the source system. Figure 12.5B shows the reactors
in the individual feeder circuits where they are subjected only t o one-
fourth of the source system current. I n this particular case the voltage
drop would be one-fourth and the power loss would be one-sixteenth of
those experienced with the reactor in the main circuit.
For the example just studied, it was assumed that all the current flowing
to the short circuit was supplied from the power source. I n the more
690 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

SOURCE SOURCE
n n

Y Y
T11 I =I00PERCENT
T
FEEDERS TO LOADS FEEOERS TO LOADS

REACTOR VOLTAGE DROP = I REACTOR VOLTAGE DROP = b4


REACTOR POWER LOSS = I REACTOR POWER LOSS = t6
iA1 REACTOR IN MAlN CIRCUIT (E) REACTORS IN FEEDER CIRCUITS
FIG. 12.5 Alternote reocior locaiionr for limiting rhort-circuii ~urreni.

typical case, some of the cnrrent may be contributed from induetion or


synchronous motors connected to the feeder circuit. This makes the
feeder-reactor arrangement even more advantageous since a11 motor con-
tributions pass through the additional reactors.
There is one appiication where a reactor can be appiied effectively in a
large circuit and that is where the total short-circuit current in the low-
voltage system without reactors is over 100,000 amp. There is no stand-
ard a-c switchgear availahle to handle short-circuit currents in excess of
100,000amp. Modern systems properly designed do not encounter such
high levels of short-circiit current. However, where conditions do not
permit conventional designs and something must be done t o reduce the
short-circuit current, large reactors ran often he effeetively applied in a
synchronizing bns system similar to those outlined in Chap. i 3 on primary
distribution systems.
The calciilation t o determine the amount of reactance required for any
application should give dne consideration to the current contributed to
the short circuit directly from the load apparatus, which is not affected
by the reactor impedance. Figure 12.6 illustrates this point and shows
a sample calculation to determine the total fault current on the utilization
bus for the installation of a particular reactor. Similar applications
sbould be made using calculating procedures such as outlined in this
SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSiEMS 691

figure. In some cases the load is of a static nature and does not contribute
to the short-cireuit current. In these cases the same procedure can be
used, neglecting the load contribution.
The effect of the reactor on the system voltage regulation should not he
considered lightly. The effect of the voltage drop due to the reactor on
the system voltage conditions is, of course, a function of the power factor
of the load current (see Chap. 4). Therefore, in applying reactors, con-
sideration should be given to the circuit power factor and the resulting
effect of the steady-state voltage drop on the system voltage conditions.
In addition to steady-state voltage drop, reactors can have a very
serious effect ou the system voltage dip which occurs during the starting
of motors. A typical motor will draw about six times normal current a t
a power factor perhaps as low as 20 to 30 per cent. If this current is
drawn through reactors in the system, the resulting voltage may be so
low as to he intolerable. The low voltage might result in an ohjectionable
flicker or outage of lights and/or the undesirable drop-out of contaetors.
I t might even be so severe that motors requiring a high starting torque
would fail to start, since the motor torque developed is proportional to the
square of the voltage. For additional information on the effect of motor
starting on voltage conditions, refer to Chap. 4.
The discussion thus far ou short-circuit protection has been based

SAMPLE CALCULATDN
SYMMETRICAL FAULT IMPERES AT eus
=- loo'ooo i80,000 AMP
A AS:~~È?%?CAL
1.25
EOUIV 1MPEDANCE'- 480 X
q
- 0.00350HMS
I
80.0W
AMPERES
AVAILABLE IMPEDANCE PLUS REACTOR
+
'0.00354 0 . 0 2 ~ 5= 0.0320 OHMS
G 480 SYMMETRICAL FAULT CURRENT THROUGH REACTOR
+ =* x1 = e670 AMP

I
0.032
CONTRIBUTION FROM SOOAMP MOTOR LOAD
[ASSUME 4 TIMES NORMAL)=4X600;2400AMP
REACTOR TOTAL SYMMETRICAL FAULT CURRENT
0.02850HMS i2 4 0 0 A M P f 8 6 7 0 AMP : I 1 0 7 0 A M P
600 AMP
TOTAL ASYMMETRICAL FAULT CURRENT

FIG. 12.6 Sample calcvlation to determine effect of reactor on rhort-circuit current.


692 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

principally on major secondary feeders and branch circuits where magnetic


or molded-case breakers or larger fused switches may be employed.
Practically all panel boards for 208Y/120-volt or 120/240-volt circuits
have maximum interrupting ratings of 5000 amp. Where large 120-volt
systems are used, the application of panel boards within their interrupting
rating for branch-circuit protection will require extremely careful system
design, since it is impractical to attempt to reduce short-circuit currents
from values in the order of 50,000 or 25,000 amp down to the 5000-amp
level required.
Modern industrial plant power systems solve the problem of adequate
branch-circuit protection by limiting the size of transformers supplying
the 120-volt system to a maximum of 25 kva. Such transformers are
located as needed around the plant and connected into the 480-volt
system.
Based on the foregoing discussion it can he concluded that, if proper
attention is given to the design of t,he over-all power system, adequate
short-circuit protection can be provided for all parts of the secondary dis-
tribution system.

OVERLOAD PROTECTION

The provision of proper overload protection for secondary distribution


circuits is very important. These circuits are widespread throughout the
plant and generally are accessible to operating personnel. For this rea-
son, additional loads are often connected by personnel not familiar with
the charact.eristics of electrical systems. Such additions can easily cause
the overloading of circuits, which in turn results in overheating of circuit
elements and possibly can create fire hazards. Therefore, close overload
protection should be provided for these circuits.
The National Electrical Code specifically defines the degree of overload
protection required for various types of branch circuits. For example,
one section states that the fuse protecting a conductor should have a
rating equal to that of the conductor. However, where standard fuse
ratings and conductor ratings do not correspond, the next larger fuse may
be used, but in no case shall the fuse exceed 150 per cent of the allowable
current-carrying capacity of the conductor. Other sections of the
National Electrical Code outline the overload protection required for
motor branch circuits and state allowable limits for the overcurrent pro-
tective device ratings. Similarly, overload protection for transformers is
also outlined in the Code. The foregoing is not intended to cover all the
sections of the Code pertaining to overcurrent protection, but to point
out some of the limitations imposed by these standards. Even in cases
SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 693

where compliance with the NEC is not required, its requirements ran be
used as a good hasis for providing adequate overload protection.

VOLTAGE DROP

The amount of voltage drop which can be permit,t,edin any dist,rihution


system depends a great deal on the type of equipment being supplied and
the voltage variations which that equipment can tolerate without rnate-
rially affecting its operation. Chapter 4 discusses indetail the permissible
voltage spreads for typical power systems and the effect of other than
rated voltage on various types of utiliaation equipment. Before defining
the permissible voltage drop in the secondary distribution system, it is
necessary t o know what the voltage spread of the primary and the load-
center distribution systems are. The amount of voltage drop which can
be allowed in the secondary distribution system can he higher if the pri-
mary system spread is lower and must he limited if the primary system
has excessive spread. Typical figures, however, might be as folloivs:
Primary voltage variation could he in the order of 5 per-cent, load-cen-
ter transformer voltage drops in the order of 335 per cent, secondary
feeder drops approximately 156 per cent, and branch-feeder drops ahout
245 per cent. It is obvious that several of these factors could vary, giving
the same total voltage spread. For example, if the pover factor were
improved t o near unity, the transformer voltage drop would be less, per-
mitting the other items t o have higher voltage drops.
The foregoing values of IJ.5 per cent voltage drop for secondary feeders
and 255 per cent voltage drop for branch circuits would easily keep voltage
spreads within desirable limits in the average plant, assuming that the
primary voltage spread is not more than about 5 per cent.

SAFETY

Safety t o personnel in the secondary distribution system is perhaps the


most important consideration of all, sirire this systen: is so extensive and
so many operating people can come into contact with it. The safety of
an industrial plant is principally the responsibility of the operating and
maintenance personnel. However, the design engineer of the system also
has a n important place in the safety picture. It is the design engineer’s
responsibility t o provide types of equipment and system arrangements
which reduce the necessity of working on energized circuits. This will
promote safety in maintenance methods and also in normal operation.
Modern equipment is designed with safety as one of the principal fac-
tors. It is common practice today t o locate all live parts in grounded
694 SECONDARY DlSTRlWTlON SYSTEMS

metal enclosures and t o make circuit elements such that they can be
easily isolated or completely removed from the electrical system for main-
tenance operations. For example, low-voltage switchgear equipment is
equipped with readily removable breakers which can be completely
removed from the housing and taken to a remote location for mainte-
nance and repair work. Alternate power paths should be provided by the
design engineer for essential loads that cannot be deenergized so that
necessary parts of the circuit can be deenergized for maintenance work.
The most important part of safety in any system and particularly in
the secondary distribution system is that of properly grounding the equip-
ment. I n a secondary distribution system there are apt to be portable
equipments, motors, and various other types of utilization equipment
which are readily accessible to all personnel. It is extremely important
that all theseutilization devices have their metallic frames solidly grounded
to a good ground system in the plant in order to prevent any voltage
elevation of the equipment under any conditions. Chapter 7 discusses in
detail the methods of providing adequate equipment grounds, and there-
fore these methods need not be repeated here. Small portable tools,
which are moved from place t o place periodically, and which often have
no automatic means of grounding the tool frame when the tool is con-
nected t o an energized circuit, are probably the most difficult t o keep
properly grounded. Particular attention should be paid to this type of
load t o assure proper equipment grounding.
I n the secondary distribution system it is very common for machine
tools to be connected to a plug-in type of bus run, and it is essential that
proper grounding facilities be included to assure that the machine tool is
grounded whenever it is energized. Chapter 7 discusses this particular
point in some detail. However, it should be mentioned that both the
design engineer and the operating and maintenance personnel should
exercise extreme care to be sure that when plug-in devices and portable
devices are used they are adequately grounded.

THREE-PHASE FOUR-WIRE SYSTEMS

When three-phase four-mire systems are used, Consideration must he


given t o the size of neutral conductor required t o meet all possible oper-
ating conditions. The 208Y/120-volt systems are always four-wire sys-
tems and therefore include the fourth conductor. With the growing use
of higher voltage fluorescent lighting (see Chap. lo), there are more and
more four-wire feeders on 480Y/277-volt systems. There are two princi-
pal factors in thc determination of the size of the fourth conductor.
First, the fourth wire should be large enough to carry any current due t o
unbalanced line-to-neutral loads; and second, it should be able to carry
SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 695

any third (or multiple of the third) harmonic currents drawn by the load.
I n a modern plant, practically all loads are either three phase or single
phase connected line-to-line. Such loads do not cause any current to
flow in the fourth wire. I n the case of line-to-neutral loads, attempts are
generally made t o saitch the loads in balanced three-phase banks. When
such switching is not possible, however, an adequate fourth wire must he
provided t o carry any unbalanced neutral current.
The use of fluorescent lights on either the 208Y/120-volt system or the
480Y/277-volt system results in third-harmonic currents, which must add
u p and return to the source through the neutral conductor. A study of
this problem indicates that the third-harmonic current in any one phase
might amount t o as much as 30 to 35 per cent of the fundamental fre-
quency current, resulting in a neutral harmonic current in the order of 90
to 100 per cent of the phase fundamental current. Therefore, all branch
feeders and secondary feeders which supply only fluorescent lighting loads
should be provided with a 100 per cent capacity neutral conductor.
Practically, this means that any branch circuit with more than 50 per cent
of its connected load being fluorescent lighting should have a neutral wire
with 100 per cent capacity. For those circuits supplying only three-phase
power loads, no neutral conductor need be included with the phase con-
ductors since there mill not be any neutral current.
As the load is viewed from points closer and closer to the source of
power (load-center unit substation transformer), the line-to-neutral unbal-
anced load and the third-harmonic producing loads become smaller and
smaller percentagewise. As a result, the capacity of the neutral conduc-
tor can be smaller in comparison to the phase conduct,ors. For example,
consider a Y-connected .three-phase four-wire system. A feeder supply-
ing only fluorescent lighting load must have a 100 per cent rated neutral
conductor in order to carry the harmonic currents drawn. Another
feeder might be a single-phase feeder connected from line-to-neutral,
requiring a 100 per cent neutral conductor also. The remainder of the
feeders supply balanced three-phase loads and do not require any neutral
conductors. When this total load is viewed from the substation bus, the
total neutral currents become a smaller percentage of the total phase cur-
rents, thus permitting a smaller neutral conductor, perhaps 25 to 50 per
cent of full-load rating of the substation itself. This point should always
be checked to ensure an adequate neutral conductor all thc way hack to
the supply transformer.

SERVING PORTABLE T O O L S

There are two principal problems which arise in connection with serving
portable tools. The first is to make sure of an adequate ground connec-
696 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

tion. This was mentioned earlier in this section and is discussed in detail
in Chap. 7.
The second problem in connection with portable equipment is that of
providing adequate short-circuit protection and making the plngging and
unplugging of such equipment safe.
For small 110-volt circuits, 30 amp
and below, the fuse in the branch cir-
SAFETY SWITCH cuit should provide adequate. short-
AND FUSE OR
CIRCUIT BREAKER circuit protection. The plugging of
such circuits, without deenergizing
the plug, is conventional practice.

Qh
However, where larger machine
tools are involved with their larger
RECEPTACLE heavy-duty plugs, it is desirable from
a safety standpoint to provide a dis-
connect means with individual short-
~ ~ ~ ~circuit
A ~ protection
f E for the particu-
LOAD lar circuit similar t o that shown in
FIG. 12.7 Disconnect means with rhort-
Fig. 12.7. This arrangement permits
Circuit for heavy-duty plug. insertion of the plug while the circuit
is deenergized. If the circuit were
not deenergizcd and a fault were t o exist in the portable load ivhcn the
plug was inserted, the fault would he removed in a minimum of time with
the least chance of damage to the equipment if high-capacity current-
limiting silver-sand fuses werc used ahead. of the plug. For other types
of fuses and circuit breakers, however, a
OLUMN serious personnel hazard might exist.
Therefore, the safer way of making surh
480 VOLT CIRCUIT a connection is t o deenergize the circuit
SAFETY SWITCH hy opeuing the safety snitch before in-
AND FUSE OR serting the plug and reclosirig the safety
CIRCUIT BREAKER
switch after the portable load bas been
. connected.
480-120 VOLT
TRANSFORMER
In a modern industrial plant withprac-
tically all loads at 480 volts and higher,
one of the prohlems is to provide suffi-
-FUSE BLOCK
cicnt 120-volt power around the plant for
.,20 o,TLETS miscellaneous loads, such as portable
tools, inspection lights, etc. Onemethod
of providing this power is to place a small
480-120-volt transformer on each column

power. shown in Hg. 12.8. 'The transformer


SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 697

can he connected directly t o a 480- or 600-volt feeder circuit throllgh


a safety switch and fuse comhination or a small circuit breaker. 1Io~v-
ever, the device used should he checked t o he sure! of its short-circuit
adequacy for the system t o which it is heing connected. I n most cases a
trarisformer of $6 or I kva rat,ing will be sufficient t,o supply these miscel-
laneous loads.

SECONDARY FEEDER CIRCUITS

13asicaIly, there are four t,ypes of secondary feeder circuit,s which should
he mentioned. They arc (1) open wire, ( 2 ) mPta~-ericlosetibus, (3) CatJle
in conduit, and (4) intcrloaked-armor cable.
The open-wire type of feeder which has commonly been used in past
years i s rarely used in modern plants. First, such an open-wire installa-
tiou creates a safety hazard since the energized conductors are not
enalosed and are siitijcct to contact by opcrat,ing personnel. I3rcause of
the exposure of the open-wire installat,ion it,s relialrility i s c:oiisiderat>ly
reduced as it is much more subject t,o failure because of forrign objects
coming in contact with the conductors. Because of the lack of such
inst,allatioris in present-day plants, no further reference will he made t o
this type of circuit.
The metal-enclosed bus is gaining wide favor in industrial plant instal-
lations because of its safety arid reliability as contrasted t o that offered
by the open-wire system. There are two principal types of bus which are
used. These are the plug-in type and the feeder type. The feeder h u s
is often called a low-reactance hus hecause of the interleaved phasc-cori-
duct,or arrangement (see Fig. 12.9). This type of bus is gerierally used
for major circuits carrying large currents to specific pieces of equipment.
For example, this bus is often used t o feed large welding equipment.
Also, i t is sometimes used to supply power to the plug-in type oE bus.

FIG. 12.9 Cross-sectional view of low-reactance feeder bur rhowing interleoved bur-bar
arrangement.
698 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The plug-in bus coiisists of the necessary conductors enclosed in a suitable


housing designed to permit the insertion of tap-off circuit breakers or
fused-switch types of plug connectors. The tap-off points are located at
close intervals along the bus run to provide a high degree of flexibility.
This hits offers a safe reliable system for power distribution but still
retains the advarit,age of the open-wire installation with respect t o the
easr of tapping off for branch circuits. Figure 12.10 shows a typical
plug-in hus iustallation.
Cable in conduit i s wed widely for supplyiug all types of loads in the
secoudary dist,ribution area. I n past years braided-type cables with
either rubber or varnished-cambric insulation have been used for such
inst,allations. I n recent years, however, the development of synthetic
insulations has rrsulted in cables with improved characteristics. For
example, synthetic-ruhher cahle with a neoprene protective jacket is
commonly used today in conduit systems. Figure 12. I1 shows a typical
cable of this type. The neoprene jacket provides a very tough and

FIG. 12.10 Typicol installation of plug-in-type bur with flexible bur drop cables.
700 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

FIG. 12.13 Interlocked-ormor power cable instolled in overhead rocks

of the sa,me ' s i x in steel conduit. In addit,ion the cable installation is


extremely flexible, being out in the open for visual inspect,iori and easy
repair, and can be relocated in case of system changes. A typical iiiter-
locked-armor-cable installation in overhead racks is shown in Fig. 12.13.
The prececliiig types of secondary-feeder cirmits will bc discussed in
the next section with regard t o their application t o the design of the sec-
ondary feeder and branch circuits.

SECONDARY-FEEDER AND BRANCH-CIRCUIT DESIGN

The secondary-feeder and hranch-circuit design of a n industrial plant


vary t o a cert,ain degree, depending upon the type of plant involved.
Basically, there are two types of maehirie loads in industrial plants.
There are machines wiiich are not pemanent,ly located and machiiies
which are permariciitly located, Examples of plants with the first type
of load are mctal-fabricating plants, automohile plant,s, etc., which con-
sist principally of machine tools which are very suhjcct t o changes in
location. The second type of load is found in a process type of plant in
which all parts are more or less permanently installed. Typical examples
SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 701

of this type of plant would be steel-mill motor rooms, paper mills, oil
refineries, etc.
There are many industrial plants which cannot be classified either as
the metal-fabricating type or the process type but are sonic conihiiiation
of the two. The power distribution syst,cm for any plant, consisting of
such a combination can easily be designed if the fundamentals for t,he two
extreme types are understood.
Metal-fabricating Type of Plant. The plug-in h u m a y type of instal-
lation offers the most flexible system possible for distributing power in the
areas where the machine tools are Iocated. As production models and
designs change, these machine tools are often relocated, and it is essential
that the power system supplying them be sufficiently flexible t o permit
these changes with minimum disturbance. The plug-in busway is gener-
ally installed overhead, running completcly across the area at not more
than 40- t o 50-ft intervals. This means that the maximum horizontal
run t o reach a position over any machine tool will not exceed 25 ft.
The power feed dropping down t o the machine tool from' the bus can he
either by means of a flexible bus drop cable or by means of wire in rigid
conduit. The flexible types of bus drop ofkr a material advaritage in
flexibility in utilization-equipment movements.
The most economical may t o supply power to the plug-in bus in most
plaqts is hy means of interlocked-armor cahlc run overhead in racks or
trays. This cable begins a t the secondary-feeder breaker at the load-
center unit substation and terminates in the cable entrance box on the
run of plug-in busway.
Oftentimes cranes prohibit the use of an overhead bus system because
the busway and the bus drops would he in the may of the crane hook.
The flexibility of a plug-in bus installation can still he ohtaiiicd in these
cases by installing the bus in a different manner. The bus can he run
horizontally along each line of columns with the drop cables running down
the columns and, if necessary, under the floor t o the machines. Another
method would be t o run the cable feeder along the row of columns with
short lengths of plug-in busnay mounted vertirally on certain columns,
as shown in Fig. 12.14.
When deciding on a plug-in bus arrangement, it should be rcmemhered
that there is a very definite advantage to having the cable drop from over-
head. I n this manner the cables are free from the oil and grease on the
floor, and it is not necessary t o dig up the floor t o install or move any of
the machine tools.
Process Type of Plant. The other extreme in plant t,ype is that where
the utilization equipment consists of machinery which will be permanent,ly
located. For loads such as this, the type of syst,cmsmentioned under t,he
metal-fabricating plant can also be used even though the machines never
702 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

R U G IN BUSWP;

FIG. 12.14 Suggested arrangement of plug-in burway where overhead crones ore
prerent.

need to be moved. The use of plug-in busway fed by interlocked-armor


cable is a very economical method of supplying a number of relatively
small loads from a load-center unit substation. In many cases, however,
the loads are rather large spot loads and can best be served by an indi-
vidual feeder. This feeder can either consist of cable or of a metal-
enclosed feeder type of busway. The selection of the type of feeder
would be solely one of economics.
In many plants there are spot loads of relatively large size, which
require some voltage other than 480 volts. For example, there are many
ovens rated 240 volts used in industrial plants. For such loads i t is sug-
gested that they be connected to the 480-volt system through individual
transformers stepping the voltage down to the 240-volt level required.
Depending upon the size of these loads, they might either be connected
into the overhead plug-in busway or perhaps would warrant their own
individual feed from the load-center unit substation.
It is common in a process type of plant to find areas with large numbers
of motors permanently located. I n such cases it is common to install
grouped motor-control equipment with a number of motor starters in a
common housing. Such motor-control centers are generally supplied by
means of interlocked-armor cable from their own load-center unit sub-
station secondary feeder breakers. From the motor-control center to the
SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 703

individual motors, cable circuits are commonly used either in conduit or in


interlocked armor.
It is apparent from the foregoing discussion that there are many varia-
tions possible to supply the common types of loads in the secondary dis-
tribution system. Figure 12.15 illustrates severa1 of the methods which
have been discussed. It is not intended that what has been said should

I
a L
1-r480y’277
3 \1
CAELE

INTERLOCKED PLUG-IN BUSWAY :&


ARMOR CABLE

4 CONDUCTOR INTERLOCKED ‘ARMOR LICHTING FEEDER

FOR OVEN CONTROL

LARGE OVEN
DR MACHINE
TO WAD

FIG. 12.15 Severai methodr of supplying powei to loodr in the recondory dirtribution
ryrtem.
704 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

be a complete discussion of this suhject, but merely t o point out how


modern metal-enclosed bus or interlocked-armor rahle can be used in
various manners t o feed the loads safely and reliably in a modern indus-
trial plant.
Lighting Feeder Circuits. The foregoing discussion of secondary dis-
tribution feeder circuits has not included any mention of the method of
supplying the lighting circuits. When high-voltage fluerescent lighting
is used as discussed in Chap. 10, a four-conductor interlocked-armor
feeder cable is commonly used to feed a numher of the small combination
motor sbarters which control the lighting circuits. T h e lighting circuits
are switched in balanced three-phase banks, which is more advantageous
from a system standpoint. When small dry-t,ype transformers are used
t o step down t o 120 volts for the lighting load, thrcc-conductor cable
should he used t o feed several such transformers. The transformer sec-
ondary will then connect t o a lighting panel hoard. Panel hoards, which
normally have a n interrupting rating of 5000 amp, are suitable for this
service since the small step-down transformer sufficiently limits the short-
circuit current.
The lighting load either can be on separate feeder circuits or can be
taken from the power feeder circuits. Most engineers look more favor-
ably upon having the lighting circuit completely separate so that it is not
suhjert t o the outages and possible voltage fluctuations of the load cir-
cuits. Also, when using the fourth conductor in the plug-in busway as a
ground conductor, it becomes impractical. t o snpply line-to-neutral light-
ing loads from the busway.
Circuit Arrangements. The circuits associated with the secondary
distribution system are practically all radial circuits. A radial circuit i.s
one in which there is only one path through which the power can flow t o
reach the utilization equipment. It is the simplest form of circuit and
because of its simplicity is commonly used in these systems. Such an
arrangement is normally adequate for this type of service and offers a
sufficient degree of reliahility. Since there is a great deal of exposure t o
oil, grease, dirt, mechanical damage, etc., in the jvorkirig areas, the second-
ary circuits undoubtedly experience more fault,st,han do other parts of the
electrical distribution system. However, the amount of load affected by
the outage of a secondary feeder is relatively small, and therefore addi-
tional paths for power t o flow t o the utilizat,ion equipment cannot nor-
mally he justified. Therefore, it is extremely rare t o find anything except
radial circuits in the secondary distribution area.
Although practically all circuits are radial, there occasionally arises a
condit,ion where extra reliability is required because of the nature of cer-
tain process equipment. T o build reliability into the distrihution system
for such loads, it is necessary t o consider not only the secondary distrihu-
SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 705

tion system but the over-all poirer dist,ributioIi arrangement from the
source of power down t,o the load. Chapters 11 and 13 discuss various
circuit arrangements for the load-center system and the primary system
in order to assure higher degrees of reliability for such essential processes.
When an adequate primary and load-center system have been designed
t o ensure addkional reliability, then steps can be t,aken in t,he secondary
distribution system to carry this extra reliability down t o the utilization
equipment.
Chapter 13 by Norman L. Hadley

Primary Distribution Systems

The primary distribution system of an industrial plant is generally the


higher voltage portion of the system, starting with the purchased-power
service and including generators, switching equipment, circuits, and all
transformers with secondary voltages higher than 600. Figure 11.1 is a
simplified one-line diagram that illustrates the dividing line between the
primary distribution and the other portions of the system described in
Chaps. 11 and 12.
The material in this chapter is presented under several headings relating
t o different parts of the primary distribution system. While this is a
convenient method of presentation, i t may fail to emphasize the impor-
tance of planning the parts together. Coordinated planning guided by
over-all system characteristics is the only way desired objectives can be
achieved.
Such system characteristics as cost, safety, reliability, flexibility, and
simplicity should be viewed together because they will be interrelated in
varying ways. System arrangements tending to favor a particular
desirable characteristic will most often tend to produce compromises in
one or more other desirabl: characteristics.
System cost is the characteristic that receives the most planning atten-
tion. I n comparing alternative layouts it is very helpful t o hear in mind
that lower cost is by no means synonymous with better value. On the
other hand, a determination of values relies heavily on judgment because
it is very difficult to appraise recognized differences in such characteristics
as safety, reliability, and flexibility.
Service reliability is considered t o be improved when the arrangements
are modified in ways that promise to reduce outage time during mainte-
nance operations or in the event of trouble. The general attack is to
provide more than one power channel around system components that
need maintenance or might fail. Increased investment for such pro-
visions may be money wasted unless the system is well planned in some
706
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 707

other respects. The primary requirements for good service reliability


are that good-quality adequate equipment will be selected, that it will be
rarefully installed, and that it will be well maintained.
Industrial systems should be planned with good Hexibility as a charac-
teristic so that possible needed changes can be made readily. It is
particularly important t o he able t o expand the power system, because
industrial plants historically develop more and more load, even without
Hoar-space expansion. There are numerous ways in which growth possi-
bilities may be restricted. A common mistake has been the application
of circuit breakers with little or no margin in interrupting rating above
initial requirements. A good working rule is to anticipate the most
logical future steps in a possible expansion program for the purpose of
checking probable future interrupting duties. Conscious planning for
flexibility will avoid much future waste and many unnecessary barriers
to expansion, sometimes with little or no increase in initial investment.

PURCHASED-POWER ARRANGEMENTS

Whether an industrial plant generates power or not, i t is typical to


have a power connection t o a utility system. Certain characteristics and
requirements of the utility service must be understood. It is therefore
important t o investigate the purchased-power arrangement as early as
possible because the power company must first study the request with
relation to its own problems.
A number of matters should be settled with the power company before
even preliminary engineering of the primary distribution system can he
undertaken. Whether there will be a consumer-owned main substation
or not is an important matter. The service voltage that can be made
available must be known, and there will sometimes be a choice. It is
also desirable to know the maximum and minimum no-load supply volt-
ages, or the voltage spread.
Another characteristic always needed is the symmetrical rontribution
from the utility system to a three-phase short circuit. The system
engineer is better informed if he knows the actual present maximum and
minimum duties for checking voltage conditions, as well as the anticipated
maximum duty for selecting suitable switching equipment. Maximum
and minimum line-to-ground short-circuit-current contributions should
be known, but this information along with metering and line-protection
requirements may not be essential for preliminary system planning.
Particularly in plants with large purchased-power demands, hut also in
some relatively small plants that need extra power-supply reliability, two
power-company lines, and sometimes three, will be made available. It
is not enough t o know simply that there will be two lines; the various
708 PRIMARY DlSTRlBUTlON SYSTEMS

possible differences in two-line characteristics can require radically differ-


ent main-bus or substation arrangements. I t is necessary to be able t o
classify the service as one of the following kinds:
1. The two lines can be used one a t a time only-in some cases as
alternates, in other cases on a preferred-emergency basis.
2. The two lines can be used simultaneously and may be operated in
parallel.
3. The two lines can be used simultaneously but must not be operated
in parallel.
4. The two lines constitute a loop service with plant-owned normally
closed sectionalizing switching to permit a net power transfer past the
industrial substation.
If there are two supply lines, the power-company contribution to sub-
station short circuits should be inquired about with particular care. If
the symmetrical contribution to a three-phase short cirnuit, is known for
each line separately, nothing further is needed for nonparalleled lines.
But if the lines are to be connected in parallel by the user’s equipment,
then the total duty with the two or more lines simultaneously contributing
to the same three-phase short circuit should be known in addition. From
data in this form a suitable equivalent circuit can be derived for deter-
mining short-circuit duties a t various points and for checking voltage
drops.
Chaptcr 16 covers some further matters of mutual interest to the power
company and the industrial plant, if it is desired to operate plant gener-
ators in parallel with the utility system.

PRIMARY-SYSTEM BREAKERS

Three classes of circuit breakers are used in the primary distribution


system. These are outdoor oil circuit breakers in outdoor stations, air
circuit breakers in statioh-type cubicles, and oilless circuit breakers in
metal-clad switchgear.
Outdoor oil circuit breakers are typically used in outdoor stations where
there are overhead lines operating above the 14.4-kv level. Figure 13.1
shows a 115-kv circuit breaker a t the right in an outdoor substation used
by a large steel mill. Circuit breakers in this class have always become
available as larger power systems develop a need for them. Listed circuit
breakers include sizes up t o 330 kv with an interrupting rating of 25,000
mva.
Metal-clad switchgear is the most widely used class in the primary dis-
tribution system. Figure 13.2 shows an indoor installation of metal-clad
switchgear with one of the circuit-breaker units removed. This line of
switchgear includes circuit breakers up to the 13.8-kv 2000-amp size with
a maximum interrupting rating of 500 mva. Metal-clad switchgear is
PRlMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSiEMS 709

..

FIG. 13.1 Main substation rhowing 115-kv outdoor circuit breaker a t the right and power
tronrformerr throot-connected lo 13.8-kv metol-clod witchsear in the center.

FIG, 13.2 Indoor metol-clod rwitchgeor with one circuit-breaker unit removed.
710 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

well suited to haiidle the main-hus arid distribution switching problems in


the 2.4- t o 13.8-kv range for a11 hut a few unusually large plants.
It is technically and economically sound t o employ statioii-type cubicle
snitchgear, as illustrated by Fig. 13.3, in some parts of very large indus-
trial systems. This s\ritchgear is available at volt,age ratings of 14.4 and
31.5 kv. The higher voltage level is seldom needed, hut the 14.4-kv
eqnipineiit is risefill for main buses where the sources are large, especially
if they are higher than 2000 amp, and the short-circuit duty cannot be
limited to 500 niva. Even in such large systems, the major part of the
primary-syst,em switchgear w i l l still be of the metal-clad construction out
in the plant and on snhhuses. It, becomes t,oo costly to use station-type
s\i-iti,hgear for the many smaller circuits, and the problem may be solved
as shoii-ri in Fig. 10.25 of Chap. 10 hy the iise of ciirrerit-liinit,ing feeder
reactors. As mentioired in Chap. 10, the most p~ofit,aiileiise of statioii-
type sxvitchgrar is at the 1500-mva iiiterrupt,ing rating rat,her than 1000
mva a n d at 13.8 kv rather than 6.9 kv. At 14.4 kv, this class of smitch-
gear includes a 5000-amp k i w i t breaker wit,li a11 interrupting rating of
2.500 mva.
The circuit-breaker equipment in m y primary distribution syst,em has
an important ct'Eect, on over-all system cost as \re11 as on the performance.
In particular, t,he availability and costs of circuit breakers help t o tfeter-
ten1 voltage, the most practical sizes of soui
the liest bns and feeder arrangements.

FiG. i3.d inrtoiiviion o i i4.4-iv rtotion-type cubicle switchgear.


PRIMARY DISTRIBUllON SYSTEMS 71 1

A cost sense for circuit-breaker application is a little hard to develop.


because estimating data are not readily put in the familiar dollars-per-kva
form used for many apparatus items. Circuit voltage and interrupting
duty typically call for circuit breakers where only a small-but still
widely variable-fraction of the continuous-current ability will be
needed. For example, at 115 kv a single circuit breaker costs about the
same as a 5000-kva transformer. However, the same circuit breaker
with a current rating of 1200 amp is capable of handling a three-phase
load of 239,000 kva.
Some useful cost data on circuit breakers are included in Chaps. 10 and
17, and further reference to manufacturers’ schedules may be needed in
making cost comparisons.

TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS*

The transformers used in main substations and a t other points in


industrial primary distribution systems are typically three-phase two-
winding units with delta-connected primary windings and Y-connected
secondary windings. Two objectives are answered by the delta-Y con-
nection. First, the Y connection provides a neutral connection point for
system grounding purposes according t o the preferred practices covered
in Chap. 6. The transformer secondary winding is a power source for the
system it supplies, and the alternative of using a grounding transformer
in connection with a delta source would be more expensive and less
dependable. Second, the delta-connected primary winding is the sim-
plest and surest way of stabilizing the Y-secondary neutral.
Occasionally a Y-connected primary winding will be found desirable.
For these a Y-Y two-winding transformer should be generally avoided in
favor of adding a delta-connected tertiary winding. Among the reasons
given for wanting a Y-connected primary winding is one based on a very
common misunderstanding. When a four-wire service is available for
supplying a substation transformer, an assumption is often made that it
is compulsory t o use the neutral fourth wire, thus requiring a Y-connected
transformer winding. This is not true; in fact, it is generally preferable
not to use the fourth wire even though a Y-connected transformer primary
winding is used for some other reason.
A Y-connected autotransformer can be an unsatisfactory and dangerous
system component. This connection should not be employed unless the
possibilit,ies of trouble are thoroughly understood and will be guarded
against in the application.
Three-winding transformers may be used to interconnect parts of a
* See Blume, Boyajian, Carnilli, Lennox, Minneei, and Mantsinger, “Transformer
Engineering,” John Wilcy Q Sons, h e . , New York, 1951.
712 PRIMARY DlSTRlWTlON SYSTEMS

system a t two or three different voltages. These unit,s have the windings
on a single core mounted in a single tank. They are t,echnically sound
and will permit, a saving for an occasional applicat,ion, but they are not
used so oft,en as might be expected. The reactances hetweeo each pair
of windings and the loading relations are fixed by design, and t,here will
consequently be less opportunity for later system modifications than if
separate transformers are used.

MAIN SUBSTATIONS

Xot all plants will o m and operate a main substation for supplying the
primary dist,ribution system. A plant main bus serves the Same purpose
if the purrhased-power voltage is suitable vit,hout transformation for the
plant primary system.
The principal functions of a main substation are indicated in Fig. 13.4A,
which is a simple arrangement answering the requirements of a great
many Emaller plant,s. More complivated substation arrangements result
when there arc two or more incoming lines, two or more power trans-
formers, or one of a number of other bus arrangements: Also in plants
with power generation, the snbstation output may not supply a plant
main bus but may be connected t o a synchronizing bus, as described later
in this chapter. The substations in a few vary large plants with heavy
loads in widely separat,ed areas may require transmission-voltage feeders
connected t o the incoming-line bus, as mentioned in Chap. 10.
Figure 13.4B differs from Fig. 13.4A in using power fuses instead of a
circuit breaker in the incoming line. Circuit breakers are generally pref-
erable, but fnses will be useful in satisfying over-all objectives in some of
the smaller and simpler substations. When substat,iori primary fuses aTe
used, it is better t o employ solid neutral grounding of the transformer
secondary than t o limit the ground-fault current in the primary distribu-
tion system.
The remaining substation examples all show two supply lines. I n
these stations it will often be necessary t o accept some functional com-
promises in the high-voltage switching equipment for cost reasons. Inas-
much as smaller plants must sometimes be served from higher voltage
systems, the main substation high-voltage circuit-breaker equipment can
be disproportionately expensive among the other substation components.
Stated in another way, a given high-voltage breaker arrangement for a
given supply system will cost just about the same regardless of the sub-
station size. The discussion is intended simply t o indicate what the
several arrangements offer.
Figure 13.4C shows a two-line single-transformer substation using two
high-voltage circuit breakers. This arrangement might be used whether
PRIMARY DlSTRlWTlON SYSTEMS 713

the two lines are alternate, paralleled, or part of a loop. For a loop sup-
ply, the substitution of a circuit breaker for the transformer horn-gap
switch would avoid opening thc loop hy the transformer protection
scheme. T h e use of either two or three circuit breakers might he hard t o
justify in particular cases. For alternate-line or preferred-emergmry

IBI

I I

(El

FIG. 13.4 Some typical main substation orrangementr used by industrial plants.
714 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

supply, the single circuit breaker of Fig. 13.40 with interlocked incoming-
line switches has a minor deficiency in not permitting an aut,omatictrans-
fer between lines.
Either Fig. 13.4C or Fig. 13.40 permits expansion by adding one or
more transformers t,o the high-voltage bus. Figure 13.4E is simply an
extension of Fig. 13.4C for a two-transformer substation where the two
incoming lines are alternate, paralleled, or part of a loop. As illustrated
with four high-voltage breakers, this substation arrangement can provide
a n unusually high degree of service reliability except for a high-voltage
bus fault.
For the special case of two incoming lines that may be operated in
parallel hut are not a loop supply, the arrangement of Fig. 13.4F is often
a good solution. By omitting the high-voltage bus, and paralleling on the
low-voltage side of the transformers, a saving in high-voltage breakers and
structure is accomplished. The arrangement reduces the availability of
the total transformer capacity because each unit has a transmission line in
series. However, the station-cost reduction may be so significant for
smaller substations that load curtailment during an outage becomes an
acceptable risk. I t is moreover possible t o reinvest part of the circuit-
breaker saving in additional size of transformer units to achieve service
cont,innity for all t.he load or to reduce the amount of load curtailment
during half-capacity operation.
Referring again to Fig. 13.4E in connection with loop supplies only, the
high-voltage part of the substation employs almost all the circuit breakers
that can be fitted into a single-bus arrangement. However, a fifth circuit
breaker could be added in the bus. With appropriate relaying, it would
ensure continuity of service through one transformer under the condition
of a high-voltage bus fault. I t is perhaps more profitable t o observe how
reliability and flexibility are modified by removing circuit breakers one
a t a time, as illustrated in Figs. 13.W t o 13.45.
I n the three-breaker echeme of Fig. 13.4G the main functional com-
promise is that transformer protection requires opening the loop supply.
A utility would not ordinarily consider this as a serious shortcoming, but
it could Ee avoided in the alternative three-breaker scheme of Fig. 13.4H.
Either of these arrangements provides service continuity through one
transformer for any single fault, including a high-voltage hus fault.
I n the two-breaker scheme of Fig. 13.41, operation of the protective
relaying of either transformer not only opens the loop but drops the whole
subst,ation load. The loop can be reclosed and plant service can be
reestablished t,hrough the unfaulted transformer circuit by manual switch-
ing. A permanent high-voltage bus fault must, of course, be repaired
before either circuit breaker can be reclosed.
I n attempting to use a single breaker as shown in Fig. 13.4J, a problem
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 715

is encountered. Any high-voltage fault down to the transformers will be


cleared by the single circuit breaker and the utility as a single-line short
circuit, leaving uninterrupted plant service through one transformer,
However, there will he a level of transformer fault current below which
the utility cannot trip, and the faulty unit cannot be automatically dis-
connerted from the system a t such a level of overcurrent except by trans-
ferred tripping of a power-company circuit breaker using carrier or a
pilot wire.

BUS ARRANGEMENTS
A bus is a junction of three or more incoming and outgoing circuits.
The most common plant bus arrangement consists of one source or supply
circuit and two or more feeder circuits. The numerous other arrange-
ments and variations are mainly intended to improve the service relia-
bility through the bus t o all or part of the load during expected mainte-
nance, or in the event of equipment failure or source outage.
Some very complicated bus arrangements have been used in trying to
improve service reliability or continuity. Some of these arrangements
are technically unsound and will not provide actual benefits. Other
arrangements that do qualify from an engineering viewpoint are useful
in meeting the rather typical requirements in the heavy industries that
handle large amounts of power through main and subdistribution buses.
These same bus arrangements will seldom prove acceptable for cost rea-
sons in medium-size and small systems even when service continuity is
considered to he unusually important. The highest quality of service
reliability can often be obtained more economically for smaller plants,
particularly for those with load-center systems, by over-all system arrange-
ments that employ simpler and less costly bus arrangements.
The double-bus arrangement shown in Fig. 13.5A is an example of the
more complicated arrangements that is technically sound if good-quality
equipment is used, but it is very costly for the usual sizes of feeder circuits.
The arrangement is suitable for outdoor circuit breakers, station-type
cubicles, or metal-clad construction. I n metal-clad equipments, some
requirements can be met a t lower cost by employing two positions and one
circuit breaker per circuit plus one spare removable circuit-breaker ele-
ment, as illustrated for one of the several circuits. This variation still
allows transferring any circuit or maintaining any circuit breaker without
a feeder interruption.
Figure 13.5.4 was intended t o indicate a preferred physical arrangement
with companion circuit-breaker compartments in separate standard
equipments facing each other across an operating aisle. A cable canner-
tion would usually join the circuit breakers. Occasionally a special
716 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

metal-clad equipment has been built with both buses running the lemgth
of the equipment, placing companion circuit breakers in adjacent compart-
ments. This is an inferior construrtiori because i t provides a possibility
of involving both buses if there should he a serious switchgear failure.
Most of the more complicated arrangements have in common the gen-

A
9
I
7
5-e
T
$Y $Y 8Y
ICI

(Dl

FIG. 13.5 Some typical bur arrangements used by industrial plants.


PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 717

era1 charact,erist,icthat, individual lines can he connected to either of tivo


buses (often without service interruption) with good maintertarice aci'ess
t o most of the apparatus. Intermediat,e flexihility and reliability can be
more economically obtairied for multiple-source bus arrangcment,s hy
sectionalizing straight single buses. Figure 13.58 illustrates a typical
two-source sectionalized-bus arrangement with a single cirriiit breaker
per line.
Figure 13.5R or some variation places lines and hreakers on the same
basis of availability. Where metal-dad switchgear is used in the primary
system, a feeder outage for circuit-breaker maiut,enance can he reduced to
a matter of minutes with a spare removable circuit hreaker on hand. I n
extending reliahility from a main bus t o a subhus in an important load
area, parallel feeders may he used. In t,he load-center system as described
in Chap. 11, each load-renter transformer has the same availahility as its
primary feeder and supply breaker. Improvement in service reliability
is secured by intercoiinect,ion at secondary voltage.
When three or more sources are available at a main bus, Fig. 13.5f,"is
a natural extension of Fig. 13.5R. However, Fig. 13.5D is more flexible
and is usually preferred eveit when another circuit breaker is needed.
This arrangement may be referred t o as a star bus, but it also is somet,imes
called a synchronizing bus arrangement whether any of thc sources i s a
generator or not. Particularly if reactors are needed t o parallel the
sources, Fig. 13.5D will he preferable t o a straight bus (or a riug bus) with
the current-limiting reactors installed hetween each tie circuit breaker
and the common hus.
The need for tie circuit breakers nil1 be obvious in some straight buses,
but there will be other cases where the value may be in doubt. Experi-
ence shows they are too often omitted where a choire rail he made in t,he
planning stage. The following remarks are intended t,o summarize thc
various ways in which hus-tie circuit breakers may be useful initially and
later.
When two sources are used simultaneously hut must not he opcrat,ed in
parallel, a normally open bus-tie circuit hreaker interlocked with the
source rirruit breakers permits serving hot,h hus sections from one of the
sources mheri the other is not available. Reasons for not paralleling t h e
sources might he that they are not synchronized or h a r e a vokage phase
difference. .4nother reason could be t o reduce the bus short-cirruit duty
either initially or in t,he future if the duty might he increased beyond
desired limits through additions t o the source capacity.
For alternate (or preferred-emergency) or normally paralleled sources,
a single straight bus may bc used. It is preferable to use a normally
closed bus-tie circuit breaker so that one bus section can he kept availatile
718 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

when the other is out for maintenance or repair or t o permit additions


during a plant expansion. For paralleled sources, relaying of the tie cir-
cuit breaker may be employed to split the system so that service con-
tinuity is retained on one bus if the other bus should feil or i t became
necessary to back up a feeder circuit breaker on that bus.

FEEDER ARRANGEMENTS

A feeder carries energy to a substation or bus or to several loads. The


several feeder arrangements discussed below are illustrated together in
Fig. 13.6. The primary feeders that supply load-center unit substations,
as described in Chap. 11, are not included as further arrangements
because they are fundamentally radial feeders.
The main function of a tie feeder is t o connect two sources. It may
connect two substation buses in parallel t o provide stiffness or service
continuity for the load supplied from each bus. If either source has plant
generation, then the tie feeder maintains the two parts of the system in
synchronism and provides a circuit for transferring normal power and
kilovars in either direction between the sources.
A loop feeder also has its extremities connected to a source (usually a
single source), but its main function is to supply two or more load points
between. Each load point can be supplied from either direction; so it is
possible to remove any section of the loop from service without causing
an outage at any load point.
A radial feeder connects between a source and a load point, and it may
supply one or more additional load points between. If the connection to
an intermediate load point is an “in-and-out’’ or “loop” Connection
instead of a tap, the feeder does not, of course, assume loop characteristics
inasmuch as each load point can be supplied from one direction only.

FIG. 13.6 Four primary-system feeder arrangements.


PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTWS 719

Radial feeders are the most widely used because they are simple, easy
t o protect, and low in cost. They are simple because there is only one
path for current to any given load point. They are easily protected by
simple overcurrent relays a t the supply circuit breaker. The cost is low
because there is no duplication of equipment. These comments apply to
“single” radial feeders and not to “parallel” feeders which have charac-
teristics resembling those of loop feeders.
Parallel feeders consist of two or more feeders bused together both at
the sending aud receiving ends. I t is sometimes more economical to
design a heavy ctlhle circuit with two or more cables in parallel, but these
cables cannot he considered as parallel feeders when single-circuit switch-
ing equipment is used.
Parallel feeders as illustrated by Fig. 13.6 provide a high degree of
service reliability, or continuity, if one of several methods of protecting
parallel lines is employed. This protectiou is more complicated and
expensive than the simple overcurrent protection ordinarily installed in
single radial feeders. Separated circuits are desirable, and each will
typically have the ability to handle the normal load with the other circuit
out of service. Additional circuit breakers are needed; in general, four
circuit breakers are required for parallel feeders supplying one load point,
while only one circuit breaker is needed for a single radial feeder. There
are obviously some heavy cost penalties against the parallel-feeder
arrangement; so its excellent characterist,ias can he justified only for
serving large loads such as suhdistribution buses or smaller loads with
unusual service requirements.
Several variations intended to improve upon the performance of single
radial feeders have costs below those for parallel feeders. They all
sacrifice service continuity as a characteristic. For particular require-
ments, one or another of these variations may be a preferred solution; hut
t,hey teud in general to have questionable value.
One rariatiou is t,o m e a conventional parallel-feeder scheme, but to use
overcurrent protection only. This does not represent an important
saving, arid a short, circuit in either line interrupts service. Moreover,
the fault location is not indicated, and corisiderable time may be spent in
finding which lioe is in trouble unless it is considered acceptable to take
the chalice of closing again on t,he same fault.
.I second variation is like the one above, except that one of the two
circuits is operated normally open and is held as an alternate or reserve
feeder. The equipment is the same, and the only advantage is that the
fault location is indieated when service is interrupted.
A third variation makes a further saving by using a total of four metal-
clad circuit-breaker positions but only two circuit breakers. The per-
formance is similar to that of the second variation evcept that the outage
720 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

FIG. 13.7 Feeder-equipment compclriron for three alternative arrangements each rupply-
ing the same three loads.

will he longer t o allow extra time t o move the circuit-breaker elements.


Circuit-breaker maintenance rvit.hout service interruption requires that
two spare circuit-breaker elemerits be available.
Figure 13.7 is included in combination with Tahle 13.1 to lead into a
discussion of loop feeders. Three load point,s are arbitrarily selected for
compariug the number of cables and circuit breakers necessary for each
of the three feeder arrangements illustrated. Tahle 13.1 then indicates
how large the cost differencesmight he without considering any differences
in protection costs.
TABLE 13.1 Circuit Breakers and Typical Amounts of Cable Required for
Supplying N Load Points by the Three Feeder Arrangements
Shown in Fig. 13.7

......, .
Number of Circuit breakers.. 4N 2N +2
. . .........
Cable current rating.. . .
Cable footage.. .... ......, .....
.

Loop feeders perform much the same as parallel feeders, and the oper-
ating features can usually he ohtairied a t less cost for the two or more load
points. But this is still a high-cost feeder system that will prove eco-
nomically sound in about the same k i d s of situations where parallel
feeders can be justified.
Loop feeders look so attractive to many engineers that variations with
lower costs are often considered and sometimes adopted. Most of these
arrangements only resemble good loop systems and can he aualyzed into
positions of lower value than radial arrangements of still lower costs.
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 72 1

Before esamiriirig any of these arrangements, there should be an under-


standing of the kind of equipment needed in a loop feeder t o produce the
characteristics associated with it. h loop feeder is intended t,o provide
service cont,inuity. It must therefore be operated normally closed and
must have two sectiorializirig circuit, breakers at each load point. These
breakers must be adequate for interrupting system short circuits, aud
they must be a part of a complete protective system, including the source
circuit breakers, so that any faulty section of t,he loop can be automati-
cally removed from service mithout dropping any load. The preferred
loop relaying is wire-pilot ditferent,ial. Directional overcurrent is slower
but may be attempted t o reduce costs if there are only two or three load
points.
Figure 13.7 shows the switching equipment needed for the above per-
formance in a loop feeder. One variation is shown in Fig. 13.8.4 where
half the sectionalizing circuit breakers are omitted. Any feeder short
circuit causes an outage at one load point, and an acceptable protection
system is sometimes hard t o design, particularly for more than two or
three load points v i t h any considerable distance between them.
Figure 13.8B shows a further variation with no sectionalizing points.
Scarcely any of the loop-feeder benefits remain. The service reliability
is about the same as is provided by a single radial feeder, except that a
feeder circuit breaker can be maintained without interrupting any load.
Another variation of a good loop-feeder arrangement is the one illus-
trated by Fig. 13.8C. As a-ar true for Fig. 13.8B, a single fault drops all
load. Service continuity for half the load can be obtained by operating
the loop normally with a central sectionalizing switch open. Following

(A1 IEI

FIG. 13.8 Variations from the best


loop-feeder practice.

YY-Y (CI
722 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

a short circuit, service t o all the load can be reestablished by isolating the
faulted section. The arrangement can serve the same complement of
substations that can be served by a single radial feeder without needing
individual protection of the substation transformers. Without further
analysis this arrangement appears t o have attained fair service reliability
with a moderate cost increase. However, most operating engineers will
reject this system for cable circuits using metal-enclosed disconnects at
the sectionalizing points because there are serious hazards involved in the
switchingoperationslikely t o bc followed after a short circuit has occurred.
Whether t,he loop was open or closed when the fault occurred, the problem
remains t o find the section in trouble so that service can be restored to all
loadpoints. While it is not the best procedure, a common routine involves
energizing thc feeder from one end by repeated trial, after adding a section
at a time, until the faulty section is located by immediate tripping of the
source circuit breaker. These operations present repeated opportuuities
t o make swit,ching mistakes. Even if the operator appreciates the hazard,
there is still the temptation t o energize the sections one at a time by
means of the manual disconnects. These switches are also hazardous to
operate under normal conditions because every section of a closed loop
usually carries current.
A loop feeder carried on open overhead lines with structure or pole-
mounted disconnects for sectionalizing is much safer. One difference is
t h a t short circuits on overhead lines are more often temporary than
permanent. h more importaut difference is that any switch failure is
considerably less likely t o injure a n operator because of the remote
operation.
Several precautions should he observed in loop and parallel feeder lay-.
outs. It is well t o avoid compound loops-those with more than two
source circuit breakers or with more than one path from one of two source
circuit breakers back t o the other. Loop systems such as these may
develop in an attempt t o relieve overloaded circuit conductors. This is
seldom an efficient solution compared t o starting a new single loop. The
load division is difficult t o calculate, requiring close estimates of circuit
impedance and assumed iixed loads at each load point. Normal load
variations and load growth can cause unexpectedly wide changes in the
load division, and compound loops therefore tend t o give only temporary
relief at best. Other compound-loop systems simply grow without sound
planning. They tend t o be associated with poor load division, poor pro-
tection, and compromised service. Particularly where disconnects are
used instead of circuit breakers, operation is more complicated and there-
fore more hazardous.
It was implied earlier that tie feeders do not supply load points between
the two sources. This arrangement, combining the usual functions of
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 723

tie and loop feeders, is sometimes advantageous. At the same time, ccr-
tain complications and compromises of such a dual-purpose circuit should
be recognized and weighed before finally deciding in favor of it. Listed
beloiv are several possible shortcomings:
1. The metering of load transferred between sources is more complicated.
2. Additional protection at the load points may he needed to avoid
opening the tie circuit on load-tap fault.
3. If synchronism is maintairied by t,he tie circuit, suitable precautious
must he taken to prevent closing the tie by any sectionalizing circuit
breaker because it will not he feasible to install synchronizing provisions
at the several sectionalizing points.
Another precaution applies equally to parallel and loop feeders. These
arrangements may complete a closed circuit around a bus-tie circuit
breaker or a current-limiting reactor when the source circuit breakers are
connected t o different buses. Such connections are oftcu overlooked in
system design work. I t is obviously a mistake to short-circuit current-
limiting reactors by a feeder arrangement, and it is at least questionable
to have a bus-tie circuit breaker short-circuited by independent primary
switching operations a t one or more remote points in the system. A
review of the several reasons for using bus-tie circuit hreakers, as covered
in another part of this chapter, will indicate how seriously the over-all
system characteristics may be altered by au oversight of this kind.

FEEDER INSTALLATION

Power lines are installed in a number of ways to suit a variety of local


conditions. Even under similar conditions, practices vary according to
the experience arid preferences of users.
Outdoor Feeders. Outdoor circuit,s may he run overhead on poles
with open-mire construction. This is a low-cost method, and it cau be
credited with some further minor advantages for particular circumstances.
However, it is being used less and less in industrial plants hecause of its
disadvantages. The main objections to open-wire overhead construction
are the hazard and outage possibilities from weather, pole breakage, and
accidental contact with lines by mobile machinery such as cranes and
shovels. There have also been many cases of direct contact by maintc-
nance personnel working on building roofs or at other places close to
exposed lines. Open lines present further problems in contaminated
atmospheres. For example, in some steel mills the dust problems may
require overinsulatiou and insulator cleaning as often as once or twice a
year to prevent flashovers. There are other types of plants where con-
ducting dust or chemicals will similarly affect line insulation levels.
Overhead lines on poles may use aerial cable, and this alternative
724 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

method is finding increasing use. Aerial cable employs insulated conduc-


tors compactly bound t o a mcssenger Ti-ith one or more circuits on the
same poles. This construction cost,s more, but it offers better value for
many installations by modifying the disadvantages of open-wire circuits.
(1) The construction is compact and does not require the largc mechanical
and electrical clearances of open wiring. The chance of arcidental con-
tact is therefore reduced. (2) Thc hazard arid outage possibility from
accidental contact are greatly reduced. (3) There is no insulator cleaning
problem in adverse atmospheric conditions. I t is t,rue that insulation
failure of aerial cable will cause a longer outage time, but this disadvan-
tagc is usually an acceptable risk.
A second altcrnative for outdoor circuits in industrial plants is under-
ground cable. The excavation, duct vork, and perhaps manholes bring
the cost of this method above t,hat of aerial cable. It is certainly desirable
t o he able t,o eliminate overhead conductors and the supporting structures
from congested industrial areas, and underground cable work has been the
most popular between buildings and even t o outlying areas where the
distances are relatively short. Direct burial is the less eupefisive (:on-
struction even if it is slabbed for mechanical protection, and it is used t o a
small extcih for single circuits where extended outage in the event of
insulation failure can he tolerated. Outdoor underground construction
provides somewhat less protection than might be assumed. One of the
most common causes of failure is mechanical, from construction or main-
tenance work. It is also true that some soil condit,ions may at,tack a
cable sheath and that water, oil, or chemicals in ducts or manholes may
reach and deteriorate the insulation.
Indoor Feeders. There is a definite trend away from underground
conduit and duct work for the cable circuits inside buildings. Increasing
preference is being given t o the use of interlocked-armor cable installed
overhead for these reasons:
1 . The cost, is lower than for underfloor circuits.
2. Overhead circuits are accessible and can be more easily changed.
3. Their location will not interfere with the fnture installation of
machine foundations.
4. Overhead installation protects the cable from possible damage by
water, oil, or chemicals that may collect in underfloor conduits.
I n some places it Tvill be desirable for appearance reasons t o conceal the
primary-system wiring. Another objection t o the exposed circuits was
t h a t they might he mistaken for secondary circuits or that, conduit might
be mistaken for piping. Possible confusion of this kind is hardly a valid
argument against a generally desirable installation method, and it seems
t o have disappeared from the thinking of most plant engineers.
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 725

POWER GENERATING STATIONS

Chapter 16 should be consulted for general information about industrial


power generation. The following material deals mairily with the gener-
ating-station bus arrangement and some problems that may be cncoui1-
tered in meeting the general requirement of integrat,ing the whole primary
electric system, including any normally used tie with a utility.
Generators are integral parts of turbine-generator sets; so generator
details tend to be decided while dealing with the problems of prodnoing
heat energy at a planning stage when no thought may have been given to
the effect these characteristics can have on electrical problems. Coordi-
nated planning will produce the best over-all solutions and may prevent
unsatisfactory or costly compromises.
Generator voltage rating and winding conriection are examples of
characteristics that should be chosen entirely on the basis of what is best
in the electric system. Generator kva rating is closely related t o the
prime-mover size; so the selection of turbine-generator set size should
recognize both heat and electrical objectives. The important effects of
generator kva and voltage on the primary-syst,em smitchgcar mill be indi-
cated in the following discussion.
There mill he many eases vhere direct parallel connection of two or
more sources on a generator hus will answer all the requirements for the
initial inst,allation, but available switchgear will set a limit on the future
size of the system. Even the initial station may be too large to permit
direct parallel connection at generator voltage. The usual solution for
industrial systems is a synchronizing bus, as illustrated in Fig. 13.9,
which also s h o w the generally preferable method of connecting to pur-
chased power through the synchronizing bus.
Some curve data applying t o an elementary synchronizing bus pattern
will help to make clear a few points t.hat are worth remembering. Figure
13.10 shows several identical generator-bus sections interconnected hy a
synchronizing bus and identical reactors. The reactance values are

FIG. 13.9 Typicol generator synchronizing-bus arrangement with purchased-power tie.


716 P R M R Y DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

FIG. 13.10 Typical reactance values for CI generotor synchronizing-bus ponern.

reasonable and may be considered to be either those suitable for momen-


tary- or interrupting-duty calculations. All reactanczs are per-unit
values on the kva base of a single generator.
Figure 13.11 shows how the generator-bus duty is limited by the
synchronizing reactors. The total short-circuit duty includes a direct
contribution of fifteen times normal from one generator and the motors
supplied by one bus. The remaining cont,ribut,ion comes through one
synchronizing reactor and varies with the numher of generators. The
maximum contribution through a 10 per cent reactor is ten times normal
for an infinite number of machines, makiug the total maximum load-bus
duty equal to twenty-five times normal.
The dashed line shows the direct variation of load-bus duty with
machines directly paralleled and emphasizes how very effective 10 per
cent synchronizing reactors are in limiting the duty. A further point of
interest is the duty on the synchronizing bus. Even with reactance as
high as 10 per cent, the synchronizing-bus duty cxceeds the load-bus duty
for four or more machines. It is plain that the synchronizing bus may
have to he braced for highcr short-circuit currents than thc load buses.
It, is also apparent that the synchronizing bus should not be regarded as a
load bus because the short-circuit duty may later exceed the ability of
available or practical circuit-breaker equipment. The advisability of
installing eit,her circuit breakers or disconnects t o isolate a faulty reactor
from the synchronizing bus should also he questioned.
The most important matter illustrated by Fig. 13.11 is that an early
limit in size of system or numher of generators can be reached if the initial
machine sizes are too large. Using the reactance values of Fig. 13.10,
the load-bus duty for a single generator supplying an equal kva of motor
load is fift,een times normal and the maximum generator rat,ing for 250-
mva switchgear would then be 250,000 divided by 15, or 16,667 kva. For
an infinitely large system, the 250-mva ability mould be exceeded if the
generator ratings were higher than 250,000 divided by 25, or 10,000 kva.
In a similar way, the use of 5 per cent instead of 10 per cent synchronizing
reactors would require limiting the machinc size to 250,000 divided by 35,
or 7,140 kva, to he conserwhive in planning a large system using 250-mva
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 727

switchgear. I t is riot recommended that actual systems he planned using


these assomed reartatices; the closest estimates that can be made for the
particular apperet,us should be used instead.

6or
The proper valuc of synchronizing reactance is sometimes a perplexing
question. The least reactance that will meet short-circuit objectives is
desirable. The value of 10 per cent mentioned several times is actually

z
I-

2 50

W
z
c)
40

0
-
I 3 4

NO. O F GENERATORS ( O R LOAD BUSES)


__
FIG. 13.1 I Effect of synchronizing reoctori on short-circuit duties for the rynchroniring-
bur arrangement of Fig. 13.10.
728 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

fairly high, as \ \ i l l be shiiivti. First it should he remcmf,cred that the


ohnrir value of r r w h t l r e rontrols short-circuit crtrretlt \\-bile the per rent
reaibtwe 011 the amorlnt of load transferred is at1 iildex of voltage drop
for that load. I t should also he rioted that synchronizing reactors are
oftctl designed for handling only a f r a h o n of t,he generator kva and v i l l
thcti oftrii be referred t o it1 per cent oil their own base.
Figure 13.12 hclps to visiidizc the effect of varyitrg the amount, of syn-
chroirizitig rrnrtatlw f o r the same generator and motor feartatlccs risrd
beforc. .\I1 rra~~tatlres are again per-unit, values h s e d on the k v a rat,ing

FIG. 13.12 Decreoring effect of higher values of reactance in t h e synchronizing-bur


orrongement of Fig. 13.10.
PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 729

of a single generator. It is evident that the first few per cent of syn-
chronizing reactance are the most eRective in reducing short-circuit levels
and that relatively little further henefit results from increasing the react-
ance from, say, 5 t o 10 per cent or higher.
There are some minor objections t o larger reactors, such as higher costs,
higher losses, and finally system instahilit,y. However, the most practical
objection is the voltage drop accompanying load transfer, and this drop
varies directly with the amount of reactance. For example, a 10 per cent
reactor on a given base rauses twice the amount of voltage change caused
by a 5 per cent reactor on the same base when transferring the same load.
Figure 13.13 illustrates this point for three reactor values.
Figure 13.13 illustrates another matter of interest. Reactors typically
have relatively small values of resistance so that voltage drop a t a load
power factor of unity is very low, but it increases sharply as the power
factor departs from unity in the lagging direction. (The curves of Fig.
13.13 assume a reactor X / R of 50.) It is therefore important t o recognize
probable operating power factor in contemplating the use of larger values
of synchronizing reactance. Even where load power factor will be high,
it should he remembered that low-power-factor demands such as those
caused by starting motors may produce objectionably high temporary
voltage drops.
The curves of Fig. 13.13 show voltage drops from a point of constant
voltage in the system. This point will he at active generator buses for

LOAD P F ( L A G G I N G )
FIG, 13.13 Voltage drop ot load bur when CI load equal to generator rated h a is
transferred through synchronizing reactors.
730 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

actual systems and a t the synchronizing bus as well only if an infinite


number of generators supply the synchronizing bus. Estimates of actual
voltage drops therefore must use an “effective” value of synchronizing
reactance. For example, if normal generator kva is obtained through a
10 per cent reactor from two active generators of a three-generator scheme,
the total voltage drop includes the drop through one 10 per cent reactor to
the synchronizing bus plus the drop through two more reactors effectively
in parallel, and the total effective reactance is 15 per cent.
Two bus arrangements with interconnection reactors produce operating
results similar t o those from a synchronizing-bus scheme, but neither is
preferred from an over-all characteristic standpoint. Both arrangements
employ tie reactors between otherwise isolated generator buses, one in the
farm of a ring bus and the other in the form of a straight bus with one less
reactor. Both arrangements use more circuit breakers than a synchro-
nizing-bus scheme and are inferior with respect to voltage drop for several
machines. A minor advantage is that neither arrangement has a synchro-
nizing bus where a failure could force isolated generator operation.
A bus-tie reactor between two generator buses is basically the same as a
synchronizing-bus scheme. If only two generators are installed initially,
a single reactor should be used. At the time of installing the third
machine, two additional reactors would be installed in the familiar
synchronizing-bus configuration.
Several other arrangements have been used in generating stations either
t o limit short-circuit duty or to reduce the continuous-current require-
ment of generator switching equipment. Generator series reactors have
sometimes been used to assist in controlling short-circuit duty in modern-
izing or expanding existing systems, but they can be regarded as generally
undesirable. Duplex reactors offer a more efficient control of short-cir-
cuit level and also permit a reduction in continuous-current rating of the
two breakers per generator. Double-winding generators produce similar
results without needing external reactance. All these arrangements are
somewhat specialized solutions.
A very satisfactory arrangement is the unit system of directly trans-
forming the generator output in a step-up transformer to eliminate all
switching equipment a t generator voltage. An example of such an
arrangement is shown in Fig. 10.26. This scheme has not often been used
in industrial systems, which seldom have a transmission problem where
the higher transformer output voltage is more suitable than the generator
voltage level.
Chpter 14 by Donald S. Brereton

Power Systems for Commercial


Buildinqs c

The subject of power systems for commercial buildings involves both


the basic power-supply system consisting of the main switchboard or sub-
stations and principal secondary feeders and panel boards. I t also
involves the many details of installation of branch circuits, out,lets, wall
switches, lighting fixtures, and many other related types of equipment.
This chapter will deal primarily with the discussion of the basic power-
supply system and not with the details of installation of branch circuits
and associated equipment.
The range of commercial-building loads is from a few kva t o over
20,000-kva demand for a single building. Commercial buildings are con-
sidered to include office buildings, hospitals, schools, and practically any
type of building except those occupied by manufacturing plants. They
also include the officebuildings in industrial plants.
Small buildings having less than a few kva demand and located outside
the utility secondary network areas are almost invariably supplied second-
ary power by the utility, generally a t single phase, 120/240 volts. The
power systems in these buildings involve service-entrance equipment and
primary branch circuit equipment for their own use.
Larger buildings, particularly those located in secondary network areas
of the utilities, are generally supplied power a t three phase, 208Y/120
volts. The utilization equipment for larger buildings outside the network
area in which the power component is relatively low and the main load is
120 volts may be supplied by 208Y/120-volt unit substations. A typical
one-line diagram of a building supplied 208Y/123 volts by the utility is
shown in Fig. 14.1, and a building supplied a t high voltage but having its
own 208Y/120-volt substation may have a typical one-line diagram like
that shown in Fig. 14.2.
731
732 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

As buildings become larger, say 500 kva or more, there is an increasing


tendency t o use higher voltages than 208Y/120 volts. These types of
buildings have, in general, three kinds of distribution systems. The first
is the building with considerable power load which may have 480 volts
____--__
r-,---UTILITY I 1
supplied either by the utility or by its
own local substations for the power
II <A*-, L
,A
..;
,".p
d*, my"> I
L * ~ A ,
T\
I load and 208Y/120 volts supplied
1
,""V, I"

either by the local utility or by its own


II ?( ? 0: 0: I substations for the lighting load. A
I typical one-line diagram of such a build-
ing when power is supplied by its own
substation is shown in Fig. 14.3, and
one when power is supplied by theutil-
ity network systems is shown in Fig.
14.4.
I n other cases the entire building sup-
ply is 480 volts, either from a spot
network of the utility or from the
building's own substations. (This is
discussed in detail later in this chapter
FIG. 14.1 Typical one-line diagram of and is shown in Fig. 14.18.) The 480
CI commercial building supplied with volts is used directly in power-utiliza-
2 0 8 Y / 1 2 0 volts from the network system
tion equipment and then transformed
of the utility.
from 480 to 120 volts for local flooruti-
r----------- lization. Thistypeof distributionsys-
II -r -----_----_UTILITY
1 tem is particularly applicable in old
I
I buildings where riser conduit sizes, etc.,
I $ I are such that increased capacity can
be obtained economically only by using
higher voltage risers, i.e., 480-volt in-
stead of 208-volt risers through the
building. It is also applicable t o larger
buildings where thedistancesand loads
are such that the savings in switchgear
and circuit conductors are enough to
more than offset the cost of the 480-
120-volt transformers for supplying
the 120-volt load. Such a building
might he a large department store
where there is considerable incan-
FIG. 14.2 Typical one-line diagram of
descent lighting and where the outlet
commercial buildine. rupplied With load and showcase lighting load are
~

.~
medium voltage b y the utility. large
I ---
r-----------
UTILITY
1
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

-__ - I
I
733

FIG. 14.3 Typical one-line diagrom of o commercial building when power is supplied
by its own substation.

FIG. 14.4 Typical one-line diagram of a commercial building when power i s supplied
by the utility network.
734 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

Figure 14.5 illustrates a large modern commercial building receiving


power from the utility a t 13.8 kv and utilizing 480 and 208 volts for light-
ing, 2400 volts for air-conditioning motor loads, and 480 volts for auxilia-
ries and elevators. The reason 208Y/120-volt services are shown for use
in the lower floors of the building is to provide the services necessary for
the large quantity of showcase lighting on these floors. It should be
noted that additional 120-volt loads are required on other floors but that

$UTILITY SERVICE

7TH
FLOOR

FIG. 14.5 A typical one-line diagram of (I large commercial building receiving medium-
voltoge power from the utility and tranrforming to various utilization voltages.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 735

it will prove more economical to sci'vc those by a dry-type t.ransformer


stepping down from the 480-volt, system.
The newest system is applicable to large buildings of several hundred
kva or more demand xvhere there is not individual metering arid xhere t,he
general-area lighting is by means of fluorescent lamps. The 480Yj277-
volt higher voltage combined power and lighting system is finding wider
anti wider appliratiori lx!cause of its lower over-all cost for these t,ypes of
installat,ioiis.
I t is with this system that the rest of this chapter is particularly
concerned.

480Yj277-VOLT COMBINED LIGHT AND POWER SYSTEMS FOR


LARGE COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
This type of system is receiving increased reiognition because of the
increased power load in commercial buildings and because the need for
adequat,e lighting in commercial buildings has inarcased the light,ing load.
Further, the trend has been almost entirely toward the use of fluorescent
lighting for gcrieral-area light,irig, which can he readily adapted t o a higher
volt,age supply. This is shoxn ii Pig. 14.6.
Cntil the a d r c n t of the fluoresirnt, lamp, most distribution of p o w r for
lighting loads was at 120 volts for t,he most e f f i c i e n t operation of incan-

FIG. 14.6 General-oreo fluorescent lighting in a modern office building


736 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

descent lamps. Higher voltage incandescent lamps are fragile and gener-
ally not satisfactory.
Modern lighting practices, however, include more arid more the use of
fluorescent lamps either alone or in combination with other types. Since
the fluorescent lamp has a ballast in series with it, the 120-volt limitation
no longer applies. The required voltage at instant starting is always
above 120 volts and is supplied by a transformer built into the ballast.
Thus the use of fluoresccnt lamps has opened new possibilities for the use
of higher voltage circuits to reduce the cost of the power system.
Combined light and power systems have been used for a number of
years in industrial p l a n k Combined light and power systems using
480Y/277 volts have been in service over 10 years (see references 2 and 3).
The fluorescent-lamp ballasts are connected line-to-neutral and the motors
connected line-to-line in the 4XOY/277-volt system. This system has
resulted in a substantial reduction in cost of the power system for supply-
ing these plants compared with separate power and lighting distribution
systems. I n the industrial plants the control of these lamps has been
accomplished by the use of fused combination motor starters to serve
large blocks (up to 15 kva each) of fluorescent lamps, but this type of con-
trol is not suitable for office buildings. Examples of new large modern
commercial huildiugs using the 480-volt system for both air-conditioning
and lighting loads have been described in the tcchnical press (see refer-
ences 10 t.o 16). Examples of large arid small huildirigs are given in A I E E
papers (see references 4 to 9).
The economies of a 4x0-volt system for supplying fluorescent ceiling
lights and integral horsepower motors can be obtained in office buildings.
This is brought about by the development of a small control relay which
can be mounted in the higher voltage fluorescent lighting circuits for
controlling the 277-volt distribution circuit in the lighting fixture. This
relay is operated by coils whose nominal voltage rating is 24 volts. Since
only 24 volts has to be brought t o the wall switches, this obviates the
necessity for using 277 volts on standard 250-volt wall switches. Special
277-volt wall switches are available.

HOW COMPONENTS OF THE HIGHER VOLTAGE SYSTEM ARE APPLIED

A typical building is shown in Fig. 14.7 in a cutaway view. The


various components of the 480Y/277-volt system are shown. I n the
basement, the unit substation (or main 480-volt switchboard in cases
where secondary power is purchased) (1) steps the supply voltage down
to the required 480Y/277 volts for distribution within the building. The
busway risers (2) are used to distribute the 480Y/277-volt power to each
floor in the building. Fusible plugs at each floor are used to connect from
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 737

the husway to the panel boards (3). The panel boards supply 277 volts
line-to-neutral for the lights (4). The 24-volt remote-control switches
(5) control the lights through relays (6) and a transformer (7). A dry-
type transformer (8) rated 480:120 volts, single phase, supplies the panel
hoard (9) for the floor circuits (10). Elevator, fire-pump, and air-condi-
tioning motors (11) operate on 480 volts, line-to-line.
The application of these componcnts is also shown in the one-line dia-
gram, Fig. 14.8.

ECONOMIC COMPARISON OF THE 480Y/277- AND THE


208Y/120-V0LT SYSTEMS
Because of the 120-volt limitation imposed by incandescent lamps, the
208Y/120-volt three-phase four-wire system has heen commonly used in
the past. Motors are supplied with the line-to-line voltage of 208 volts.
The lighting load is distributed on the three phases, but connected from
one line to neutral a t 120 volts.
Similarly, the 480Y/277-volt system is a three-phase system with neu-
tral readily availeb!e, 480 volts line-to-line and 277 volts line-to-neutral.
738 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

INTERLOCKED
ARMOR CABLE
MOTOR FEEDER STbNDARD BUSWAY
3 CONDUCTOR CIRCUITS CONDUIT a CABLE

~
''<
T480-1zov
,...
^ _R
^^..r^
PANELBOARD

RELf
BRANCH
CIRCUIT
Lm - ~
LIGHTING FIXTURE
1 I

12QV PANEL BOARD


I REMOTE
CONTROL
WITCH
120- 240 V
-CONTROL TRANS
I REMOTE CGNTROL WIRE
I
FIG. 14.8 One-line diagram of equipment for higher voltage lighting.

It is quite customary to supply motors and control a t 480 volts. This has
been done in industrial plants for years to take advantage of the savings
inherent with a higher voltage system. By extending the neutral circuit
in the lighting feeders only, the fluorescent lighting load can be dis-
tributed between the threk phases and connected from one line to neutral
a t 277 volts. The power load is fed from three-conductor three-phase
circuits. It is not necessary to extend the neutral circuit in the feeders
supplying only power load.
A typical office building consisting of five floors and a basement is used
as an example in comparing 208Y/120- vs. 480Y/277-volt, systems. Each
floor, as shown in Fig. 14.9, has three wings each 75 by 160 ft divided into
24 areas, 20 by 25 ft. An illumination level of approximately 55 foot-
candles is assumed, representing a load of about 4 va per sq ft. In actual
practice the load depends on the type of light source used and the utiliza-
tion of the lighting equipment. With these figures as a basis, the total
installed cost of the lighting distribution system for the two voltages can
be compared. To get the over-all comparative costs, the necessary power
distribution system including motors and control for air conditioning,
elevators, and fire pumps must be included also.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 739

The comparisons are made on the hasis of installed cost for specific
equipments selected on the basis of sound system engineering. It should
be noted, however, that loral codes, type of building construction, and
other factors may alter either the engineering choice of equipment or the
total installed cost. Therefore the figures shown below should be recon-
sidered in the light of local codes, maintenance problems, construction
details, etc., for any specific building.
One floor of a single wing (75 by 160 ft) is considered as a unit area.
The entire building will include 15 such unit areas. The lighting load of
4 va per sq f t is equal to 48 kva per 75- by 160-ft area. I n addition,
approximately 1 va per sq ft (12 kva per floor) is assumed a t 120 volts t o
supply office machines, fans, etc. Higher 120-volt loads may result in
office areas using many electric typewriters, calculators, tabulating
machines, etc. Thus a total of 60 kva is required for each 75- by 160-ft
unit area. The cost-comparison figures for the lighting equipment shown
on the following pages are for a unit area. Total figures for the entire
building will be fifteen times as great.
The power load for such a building includes a large air-conditioning
compressor motor (300 hp), several small air-conditioning motors, four
50-hp elevator motors, and a 100-hp fire-pump motor.
With these assumptions as a basis, the two distribution systems, one
operating a t 480Y/277 volts and one a t 208Y/120 volts, are compared as
shown below. I t should he noted that it is difficult to divide the lighting
circuits on the two systems so that comparable circuits will carry the same
current. Therefore, multiplying factors have been applied to each sys-
tem so that comparable current-carrying capacities are represented by
each system.

75 z 75 I_'
FIG. 14.9 Floor plan of building-five floors and basement.
740 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

480Y/277-VOLT SYSTEM

lighting. If every piece of equipment used in the lighting system were


included, it would only confuse the main issue of distribution equipment.
Lighting fixtures, ballasts, and lamps do not vary too much in cost as a
function of distribution voltage. Fluorescent lamps of a given rating are
the same regardless of the primary voltage of the ballast. Therefore,
these items have heen omitted in this study.
The most forrnidablc barrier t o the use of 277-volt distribution for
lighting in officeshas been the 250-volt limit imposed on general-purpose
switches for lighting circuits by the Underwriters’ Laboratories Standards
for Snap Su,itches. The remote-control wiring system solves this prob-
lem by using small magnetic relays which, under UL Standards, are rated
a t 277 volts, 10 amp. This system offers outstanding advantages for
officebuildings since it is extremely flexible, convenient t o install, safe to
operate, and makes possible a substantial saving in over-all system cost.
Essentially this system includes a transformer, to supply control power
a t 24 volts for use on the control sivitches, and relays and small switches
for each circuit. Thus, only 24 volts is in reach of the building occggsnt,s.
The remote-control equipment for each 75- by 160-ft unit area, including
48 relays, 48 switches, one transformer, and the necessary conduit and
low-voltage wire, has an installed cost of $450. The total weight of copper
in these components is approximately 16 Ib. There are several possible
choices for branch-circuit wiring. Depending upon the construction of
the building, the type of figure used, local building codes, etc., conduit
15 KVA -480/l20 VOLT
PANELBOARD FOR LIGHT!?
\ I

D A S ~ DLINES INDICATE
120 VOLT FLOOR CIRCUITS
8 CIRCUITS - TOTAL OF
I6Oo FT mou’T AND 3500
-
FT NO.12 WIRE
l - LIGHTING CIRCUITS- I2 CIRCUITS
TOTAL.1700
FT NO.12 WIRE
CONDUIT AND 3550

PANELBOARD FOR FLOOR CIRCUITS

FIG. 14.10 480Y/277-volt system-bronch circuits for lights and 120-volt floor circuits
for one unit area.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 741

FIG, 14.1 1 Typical fused panel board designed for use with silver-rand cvrrent-limiting
fuses.

wiring or Q iloor may lie used.


arid wire, caiilc, plug-in typp ~~rarri,li-(,iri,irit
Each system has its nwri field of applitiiiion, and it, is iicyond tllc scope
of this section to compare the various trms. 'I'hcrefort~this s t u d y l i u s
included conduii and IT-ire for ihc braiirh circuits as shown iii Fig. 1-1.10.
The total iristnllcd cost for eavh floor of each \x-ing is $11185, and it iiicloi1i.s
73 111 of copper. For specific in llaiioiis, the plug-in type of brarich
circuit. may he more applicable for tho ficxiiiiliiy it iiif
quite compnratjlc i n m s t , rspc lly if many outlets ar
The l2O-volt branch wiring iern for offiw fails, oilice machines, etc.,
shown in Fig. 14.10 includes -kva transformcr to step ilie 480 volts
down t o 120 volts and cnndiiit and wire to distriljutc this power t o floor
outlets. The t,otaI installix1 cost of t,r:iiisrormer, nirc, aiid coiidiiit is
$2111. The copper represeirted Iiy t,his system xeighs approximately
164 Ih.
A single panel hoard (Fig. i . 1 1 ) is used t o supply the 277-volt circuits
arid the 48O-volt, c;ircuit to the transformer for 120-volt power. 'Yo pro-
vide adequate short-cirvirit protection, each circuit of thi: panel l ~ o a r dran-
sists of a discoirriect sn.it,r.h arid a silver-sand currcrit-Iimitiiig fuse.
Twelve 277-volt circuits and one 480-voIt circuit arc required. To a l l o i ~
some spare circuits, an 18-circuit patic1 h a r d is d with :ui iiist'alled
cost of 8'276 iricludirig fuses; ihis iiicliirles 15 11) of copper. The panel
742 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

board for the 120-volt floor circuits has eight circuits and costs $25
installed and has approximately 2 Ib of copper. The total cost of the two
pane1 boards is $301 installed, and they include 17 Ib of copper.
Power Source. The power for commercial buildings, hospitals, depart-
ment stores, and other buildings of the type t o a h i c h this discussion is
applicable may be served in a number of ways.
I n nonnetwork areas, separate transformers may be used for each build-
ing. I n other arcas, 480Y/277-volt network power may be available.
I n still others, only 208Y/120-volt network power is available. I n the
basic cost comparison, the building has been assumed t o be supplied by a
double-ended load-center uriit substation. This nill provide more accu-
rate comparisons, ivhich is the objective to be attained here. Other power
sources are discussed more fully later. For the building under consider-
ation, a capacity of 750 kva a t each end of the unit substatiou is required,
see Fig. 14.12. The installed cost of such a substation is approximately
$36,000, and it includes approximately 6500 Ib of copper.

SECONOARY FEEOERS

As in the case of the branch-circuit wiring there are severa1 possible


choices for the feeder circuits t h a t carry the lighting load t o each floor
iri each iving. Again depending upon such factors as local codes, type
I

l13.8KV

750 KVA

750KvA
L
7”
h
9
1200 AMP
Y

FIRE PUMP 350 MCM


100 HP IN
IIT

200- 3:iOMCM
CAELE IN C(INDUIT A 3 LIGHTING CIRCUITS
BUSWAY SEE FIG.4

E LFVATOR
MOTORS
/ c,,
CENTER

4-MHP 300 HP MOTORS


200F750 MCM
CABLE IN CONDUIT

FIG. 14.12 480Y/277-volt ryrtem-unit wbrtation. (lhe tronrformer recondory and tie
breokerr ore roted 50,000 omp. l h e feederr ore roted either 25,000 or 15,WO omp.)
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 743

400 AMP PANEL BOARDS


4 WIRE
3 PHASE
PLUG- IN
BUS WAY
TOTAL 404 100 AMP

P FUSIBLE PLUG

I
I I 5 T_T
FIG. 14.13 480Y/277-volt system-burway to each floor.

of building construction, etc., the logical choice might be conduit and


cable, armored cable, or plug-in busway. Because of the flexibility
offgred and the t,ype of building under consideration, plug-in busway has
been selected for the secondary feeders in this study. One busway is used
for each wing, as shown in Fig. 14.13. Fusible plug-in switches using
current-limiting fuses and properly selected switches are used a t each
floor to connect from the busway to the panel boards. Air circuit breakers
with au interrupting rating of 25,000 amp cau be used in many installations
aa long as their interrupting rating is not exceeded. On larger systems,
with short-circuit duties above 25,000 amp, the high interrupting-
duty switch and silver-sand fuses should he used. The total installed cost
of the busway system shown in Fig. 14.13 is $6200 for the entire building.
The system includes approximately 2200 Ib of copper. On specific instal-
lations a conduit aud cable system may prove less expensive and more
applicable.

POWER SYSTEM FOR SUPPLYING MOTORS

The estimate for the air-conditioning equipment for this building


includes one 300-hp motor and a group of smaller motors. The 300-hp
synchronous motor, reduced voltage starter, and 200 ft of conduit and
cable for this motor have an installed cost of about $11,550. The total
weight of copper in these components is roughly 2525 Ib.
The group of smaller air-conditioning motors are assumed to be broken
down as follows: two 50 hp, three 25 hp, one 15 hp, and one 10 hp. These
are all induction motors controlled from a motor-control center. The
744 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

total installed cost of motors, control, conduit, and cable (200 ft) is esti-
mated at $5900. The estimated weight of copper in these components is
945 lh. The total air-conditioning equipment costs $17,450 installed and
has 3470 Ib of copper.
In addition to the :tir-ronditioning load, this building will include
motors for the elevators and fire pumps. A total of four 50-hp elevator
motors and one 100-hp fire-pump motor is assumed. Comhiiiation mag-
netic starters fdr these motors arid cable and conduit lengths of 200 f t aie
used. The total estimated installed cost is $6470 for all this equipment
with an estimated 1145 Ih of copper.

208Y/120-VOLT SYSTEM

Lighting. Since the area chosen for the study does not change, the
remote-control system for the 208Y/120-volt system is the same as for
the 480Y/277-volt system. Although the remote-control system is not
essential on 120-volt circuits, it has many advantages over the conven-
tional wiring system, and the additional cost is insignificant in the over-all
cost.
The branch-circuit miring, however, is different because the 20SY/lZO-
volt system requires more circuits t o serve the same area. Again conduit-
and-wire type of branch-circuit distrihution is used, as shown in Fig.
14.14. Since more circuits are involved, the installed cost increases from
$1985 to $2830, and the weight of copper increases from 73 to 102 Ib.
The 120-volt circuits for office fans, business machines, and desk lights

PANELBOARO FOR LIGHTS AND


FLOOR CIRCUITS

75'

NOTE: 120 VOLT FLOOR CIRCUITS LIGHTING CIRCUITS - 2 4 CIRCUITS


NOT SHOWN-SAME AS TOTAL- 2420 FT CONDUIT A N D
SHOWN IN FIG. 2 5 0 0 0 L l NO.12WIRE

FIG. 14.14 208Y/12O-voll system-branch circuits for lights in one unit area.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 745

I 13.8KV I
150H
4D0 MCM
CABLE IN 7 5 0 KVA 75OKVA L
L
T
4
T
$3000 AMP
v
3000 AMP 'E)

200 fl
2-400 M C M CABLE
IN CONDUIT
ELEV MOTOR5
4-50HP
-
200 f l - 2 7 5 0 7 S M L L AlR W N D
MOTOR5
MCM CABLES IN
CONDUIT
FIG. 14.15 208Y/120-volt ryrtem-unit rub9tation. (The trandormer recondary and
lie breokerr ore roted 75,000 omp. The feederr ore rated 25,000 omp.)

are not shown in Fig. 14.14. Although the same number of circuits are
used for this load as ivhen the 480Y/277-volt system is used, the cost
decreases from $2111 t o $1875 and t,he rneighJ-of copmr fiamSi61 t o 72 lh
since the 480-120-volt transformer is no longer required.
A11 the circuits for the lights and for the floor plugs can he fed from.one
panel hoard. There are 24 circuits for lights and eight floor circuits. A
42-circuit panel board with spare circuits is selected ivith an installed cost
of 5330 and a total weight of copper of 10 lh.
Power Source. Again for cost-comparison purposes, a double-erided
unit substation is selected t o distribute power for all lighting and a11
motors. The substation shown in Fig. 14.15 has a n installed cost of
555,300 and includes 6700 lb of copper. This compares with $36,000 and
6500 lb of copper for the 480Y/277-volt system.

SECONDARY FEEDERS

The feeders t o carry the lighting load t o each wing are shown in Fig.
14.16. Again, one busway is used for each wing with t a p boxes a t each
floor t o carry the circuit t o each panel board. The panel board includes
the necessary feeder circuit breaker. The total installed cost of this sys-
tem for the entire biiiiding is $12,400 and includes roughly 5200 lh of cop-
per, compared with $6200 and 2200 lb of copper for the 480Y/277-volt
system.
746 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

POWER SYSTEM FOR SUPPLYING MOTORS


The 300-hp synchronous motor, reduced voltage starter, and 200 ft of
cable and conduit have an installed cost of $15,500 and include 4200 lb of
copper.
The group of smaller motors together with their control center and
cable have an installed cost of $9010 and include 2400 lb of copper, whereas
with the 480Y/277-volt system the same equipment costs $6470 and
includes 1145 lb of copper.

TABLE 14.1 Comparative Installation Costs for Systems -4 and B

480Y/277-voR system 208Y/120-volt system


~

Equipment
lnrtolled Weight of Instolled Noight of
COIt opper, Ib cost opper, Ib

-1
1. Remote control. ................... $6,750 240 $6.750 240
2. Bronch-circuit wiring for lights........ 29.800 1.100 42,450 1.530
3. Floor cirwits I120 volt). ............. 31,650 2,460 28,125 1.080
4. Panel boordr ...................... 4,515 255 4.950 I50
...................
~~

5. Unit substation., 36,000 6.500 55,300 6,700


6. Buswoy risers...................... 6,200 2,200 12,400 5,200
7. Air-conditioning equipment. .......... 17,450 3.470 23,370 5,855
8. Elevator and flre-pump equipment.. ... 6,470 1,145 9,010 2,400
Total.. ........................
~

$138,835 17,370 $182,355 23,155


Total per k v a . . ................. 92.55 11.58 121.57 15.44
-
Savings with 480-volt system: approximately $30 per kva, approximately 4 Ib per
kva of copper.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 747

COMPARATIVE COSTS OF 480Y/277- VS. 208Y/12O-VOLT SYSTEMS


Table 14.1 shows the total installed cost for all items used in both sys-
tems. It should be noted that the figures given in the foregoing text for
the lighting equipment are based on one unit area, that is, one floor of a
single wing. Since there are three wings, each with five floors, the totals
in Table 14.1 are fifteen times the figures given in the foregoing text.
As shown in Table 14.1 there is a substantial saving both in money and
in copper with the 480Y/277-volt system. As noted earlier, the fixtnres,
lamps, and ballasts cost about the same for the two systems. A total
saving of $30 per kva is shown in Table 14.1 for the 480Y/277-volt system
compared with the 208Y/120-volt system. The items which show the
greatest savings are the branch-circuit wiring, the unit substations, and
the busway risers. The savings shown for the air-conditioning, fire-pump,
and elevator eqnipments are also appreciable.

SAVINGS FROM SMALL OR LARGE BUILDINGS

Although the building chosen for this study is substantially large,


similar savings can be shown for smaller buildings. For example, if a
building is selected one-third the size (one wing) and it is assumed that
the air-conditioning and other loads drop in proportion, a distinct saving
can still be shown. Although the unit savings in dollars per kva would
he less, they are still large enough t o be worthy of consideration.
In general, the lighting portion (items 1 to 4, Table 14.1) will he less for
the 480Y/277-volt system since the saving in branch circuits usually
more than offsets the additional cost of the 120-volt floor circuits. And,
unit substations even in the smallest rating of 225 kva cost less for a
480Y/277-volt system than for a 208Y/120-volt system. Since the cable
or busway for the 480Y/277-volt power is smaller, there is an inherent
saving with this system, regardless of size, as long as the fluorescent lamp
load and power load combined are greater than the 120-volt load.

REASONABLY HIGHER PERCENTAGE O F 120-VOLT LOAD


HAS NO SERIOUS EFFECT

Some buildings such as department stores still use a considerable num-


ber of incandescent lamps, which must he operated on 120 volts. Other
offices use an abhormally large number of 120-volt office machines. How-
ever, even in such buildings, the 480Y/277-volt system can usually be
shown t o be advantageous as long as the total 120-volt load is not greater
than one-third to one-half of the total power load.
748 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

MODERNIZATION OF EXISTING BUILDINGS

The above study, of course, deals entirely with new construction and
quite definitely shows the advantages of the 480Y/277-voIt system for
new office buildings. The same type of cost study can he made for a
modification or expansion of an existing building. I n planning an expan-
sion of an old huilding, the 480Y/277-volt lighting system is worth con-
sideling, for the existing cables will be capable of carrying a good deal
more load a t 480 volts than they can a t 208 volts. The savings in cable
can he appreciable, and a better system results.

HOW TO APPLY 480/277-VOLT LIGHTING


WHERE DIFFERENT POWER SERVICES ARE AVAILABLE
A close examination of Table 14.1 shows that both the lighting system
(items 1 to 4) and the power system (items 5 to 8) show a saving if the
480Y/277-volt system is used. Therefore, even if no substation is
involved and power can be purchased a t either 480Y/277 volts or 280Y/120

-
7”
I NTER RUPTING SWlTC H

TRANSFORMER
I

ULU
T

FIG. 14.17 Combined light and power system illustrating one unit substation inside a
building.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 749

NETWORK
FIG. 14.1 8 Two typical types of 48OY/277-volt spot network distribution ryrtemr.

volts, a saving in the lighting system alone can be shown by choosing t,he
480Y/277-volt system.
Figures 14.17 t o 14.20 indicate four systems used t o supply power t,o
office buildings. Figure 14.17 is the system used in this study, that is,
with power supplied t o the building at a high voltage such as 13.8 kv.
This would be typical of nonnetwork areas, and the transformers may be
owned by the building ovner or the utility.
Figure 14.18 shows the 480Yj277-volt network system for distribiitirig
power t o buildings. With such a system, distinct sa\Tiiigs can still be
shown for the 277-volt lighting system since a 120-volt lighting scheme
would mean the addition of step-down transformers (at about $12 t o $15
per kva installed) for the entire lighting load. The savings represented
by the 480Y/277-volt system in such a rase would be about $15 per kva.
Figure 14.19 is a 208Y/120-volt network system v i t h autotransformers
used within the building t o produce the 480Yj277 volts. Even with such
a system, subst,antial savings can still be shown for the higher voltage
system. Since autotransformers are relatively inexpensive (ahout, $5 t o
$8 per kva inst,alled), the total savings shown by using such a 480Yj277-
volt system instead of the usual 208Yj120-volt system \r.ould he about
$22 t o $25 per kva instead of the $30 per kva shown in Table 14.1.
The possible savings of $30 per kva might be decreased by another sys-
tem problem. If the utility supplying power t o the commercial building
can provide only a 480-volt delta system, a means for establishing the
system neutral must be provided. An example of how this problem
750 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
7 - -
I
---I-----
I
aJ-1,
\AlAs ( h 1 I. k ;
-1 UTILITY
I W”Y\
TO STREET I

INCOMING BREAKER

Bus TIE 4 B O Y / 2 7 7 VOLTS

FIG. 14.19 Transforming from the 208Y/l2O-volt to the 480Y/277-volt system of the
utility by use of autotransformers.

is solved is given in reference 11. Jn this particular case the supply trans-
former mas connected Y-delta, and on the 480-volt delta secondary three
single-phase transformers were connected Y-delta t o obtain the neutral
of the 480-volt system. It must be remembered that the secondary of
such a grounding bank must be connected delta to result in a low zero-
phase-sequence reactance for the grounding bank and that the single-
phase transformers, when operating in this manner, are only a t 57.7 per
cent of their rated voltage. Anot,her method t o ohtaiuthissystemneutral
would be a grounding transformer. i n either case the fact that a system
neutral is not available subtracts from the possible savings of the 480-volt
lighting system. Of course, this problem is eliminated when a delta-Y
transformer is used.
One additiorial problem of the system that is grounded by a grounding
or a Y-delta t,ransformer is the resultiug zero-phase-sequence reactance.
Care must be taken to choose either an especially low reactance or a large
transformer for grounding, to maintain an X , / X , ratio of about 1. This
is done to prevent extreme overvoltages on the fluorescent lights during a
ground fault 011 the system. This problem is also eliminated when the
delta-Y transformer is used.
When power is supplied a t high voltage, there is an additional advan-
tage in using a romhioed light and power system. By using a douhle-
ended unit substat,ion, a certain amount of reserve capacity can be
realized quite simply; however, if a power substation at 480 volts is used
v i t h a lighting suhstation a t 120 volts, Fig. 14.20, the secondary selective
752 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

interrupting rating a t least equal to the short-circuit duty a t the point of


application of the fuse. Tests have shown that the 600-volt 20-amp fuse
mentioned above will adequately protect the relay up to an available
short-circuit current of 25,000 amp rms. This fuse has an interrupting
rating of 100,000 amp.
2 . A fuse is riot a complete protective device but requires a suitable
switch in series with it. Care should be taken in selecting this switch.
3. I t is therefore essential, to obtain adequate short-circuit protection.
of the 480Y/277-volt system branch-circuit lighting in office buildings,
that panel hoards with suitable switches and not larger than 20-amp
current-limiting fuses be used.
4. Circuit-breaker panel boards are not adequate because circuit
breakers are not current limiting, and in general the small panel-board-
type circuit breakers do not have high enough interrupting rating.
5. Standard NEC fuses are not in general adequate because they are
not as current limiting as the CLF fuses and do not have established inter-
rupting ratings arid have limited interrupting ability on a-c circuits.
The required reliability of apparatus and devices for use in commercial
buildings will eventually demand that all manufacturers of electrical
equipment adhere t o Section 11 15 of the National Electrical Code. This
section requires that the “devices intended to break current shall have an
interrupting capacity sufficient for the voltage employed and for the
current which must be interrupted.”

THE NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE PERMITS 480Y/277-VOLT LIGHTING


The 1953 Kational Electrical Code revised the 1951 Code to permit the
use of the 480Y/277-volt lighting system in commercial buildings. This
permission is given under Article 210 entitled “Branch Circuits,” and
specifically Section 2113 entitled “Voltage.” Section 2113 deals with
restrictions placed on Voltage for lighting “ ( 1 ) in industrial establish-
ments . . . ; ( 2 ) in railroad properties . . . ; (3) for infra-red industrial
heating appliances , . . ’ I and “dwelling occupancies.” Because this sec-
tion plays such an important part in the application of the higher voltage
lighting system, it is appropriate that that portion of the 1953 Code deal-
ing with lighting for commercial buildings be quoted in its entirety.
“Branch circuits supplying lampholders, fixtures, or receptacles of the
standard 15-ampere or less rating shall not exceed 150 volts to ground,
except ( 1 ) in industrial establishments, office buildings, large schools and
stores, the voltage of branch circuits vhich supply only the ballasts for
electric discharge lamps in permanently installed fixtures mounted not
less than eight feet from the floor, which do not have manual switch con-
trol as an integral part of the fixture, may exceed 150 volts t o ground, but
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 753

shall not exceed 300 volts to ground for branch circuits supplying lighting
fixtures only that are equipped either with mogul-base screwshell lamp-
holders or with lampholders of other types approved for the application,
mounted not less than 8 feet from the floor, which do not have switch
control as an integral part of the fixture . . . .”
This section of the Code first appeared in the Yational Fire Protection
Association report on the proposed Amendments to the 1951 Xational
Electrical Code, NFPA No. 70 PR1, in August, 1952. It contained a
“comment” concerning the revision of Section 2113 to permit higher
voltage lighting for commercial buildings and is also quoted.
“The proposed new wording extends the use of 277 volt to neutral sup-
ply, to additional occupancies only where the higher voltage circuits sup-
ply the ballasts of fluorescent lighting fixtures. Since power a t 480Y/277
volts is not generally available except from unit substations or transfor-
mation equipment installed a t the particular occupancy, the limitation to
‘office buildings’ and ‘large schools and stores’ seems to supply the
necessary assurance that this system will not be encountered in small
detached store buildings or in the ordinary primary school buildings.”

REMOTE-CONTROL LIGHTING IS FLEXIBLE


A large degree of flexibility is imparted t o our lighting system by the
24-volt remote-control system. Regardless of how well a lighting system
has been planned, especially in office buildings, a rearrangement often
becomes necessary or desirable. The low voltage of the remote-control
system simplifies moving the lighting switches t o suit the rearrangement.
Since conduit is seldom required, it is as easy t o rearrange control switches
as it is to install or relocate a telephone. Rewiring is done in a matter of
hours instead of weeks, as is often the case with conventional line systems.

TO PANELBOARD

OFF ON
COlL COlL

TO LIGHTING
FIXTURE

m IPO”

FIG. 14.21 Schematic diagram of the 24-volt remote-control circuit.


754 P O W E R SYSTEMS F O R C O M M E R C I A L BUILDINGS

In its simplest form, this control system consists of a 2Cvolt switching


circuit, that, energizes a relay mounted on or near t h e lighting fixture.
The relay i n turn controls the lighting circuit. A 120-24-volt transformer
orl ollc of the floor circuits supplies 21-volt poirer for a larger number of
switching circuits. Figure 14.21 shows such a Ion-voltage circuit.
Commerrial-1,uildirrg application of the 480Y/277-volt, system is possi-
ble berausc the use of remote-control equipment permits the location of
all higher voltage circuits at approved heights. These load circuits are
controlled by the low-voltage control system- the only portion of the dis-
trilrmtion syst,em nithin reach of t,lle building occupants.
Idow-voltage remote cont,rol. making possible the use of inexpensive

FIG. 14.22 Multirelector remote-control switches providing individual and grouped con.
trol of lighting and other facilities.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS 755

wire in the swit,ching circuits, permits a wide variety of special switching


circuits at low cost. A few of the possible arrangements are indicated
here. Many more will occur on reviewing specific conditions.
Any one or all of a number of fixtures can he coutrolled from a single
location by installing multiselertor switches. The same fixtures ran he
controlled from several different locations either individually or collec-
tively. In short, switching combinations are pract,ically unlimited.
Figure 14.22 shows a n example of multiselector switching.
Watchmen and cleaners can enter at one point, turn on the lights they
need t o perform their duties, and turn off the lights a t another location
when they leave.
Lights in storerooms, closets, vaults, stairwells, and halls can all bc con-
trolled from a central location, such as the huilding manager's office.
Time switches can easily he incorporated into the system. Arid
because of lower miring costs and the fact that each time switch can con-
trol more lowvoltage circuits, such installations are less expensive than
for 120-volt lighting.

REFERENCES
1. Lang, R. R., High-voltage Fluorcseent-lighting Power Systems for Office Build-
ings, General Electric Company Publication GET-2307A.
2. Krtufmann, R. I%.,and N. A. Kieh, Modern Electric Powrr Distribution Ideas
As Applied in a Large War Plant, AIEE Technical Paper 45-78.
3. Beeman, D. L., Combined Light and Power Systems for Industrial Plants, AIEE
Technical Paper 46-52.
4. Halberg, M. N., and D. L. Beeman, Power Supply for Air Conditioning Com-
pressor Motors in Commercial Buildings, AIEE Conference Paper, November,
1947.
5. Brereton, D. S., Distribution a t 480Y/277 Volts for Power and Lights in Indus-
trial Plants and Office Buildings, AIEE District Paper, April, 1852.
6. Saunders, C. C., The Philosophy of Electrical Design for the Office Building of
Tomorrow, AIEE Conference Paper, June, 1952.
7. Brereton. D. S.. Recent Pronress in 480Y/277 Volt Systems in Office Buildings,
AIEE District Paper April, 1953.
8. Kurt, H. D.. and D. L. Bceman. Pronrcss in Power System Engineering for Com-
mercial Buildings, AIEE Technical Paper, A Z E E Speczal Publicalion 3-66, Sep-
tember, 1954.
9. Brereton, I). S., and H. J. Donnelly, 480 Wye/277-voIt Power System in Tele-
phone Building a t Menands, N. Y., AIEE Technical Paper, A I E E Special Publi-
cation S-66, September, 1954.
10. Lang, R. R., Lighting for Modern Office Buildings, Load, December, 1951.
11. Sawyer, A. I., Voltage Up-Wiring Cost Down. Electrical West, December, 1952.
12. Beeman, D. L., and H. D. Kurt, Higher Network Voltages in Large Buildings,
Elec. Wodd, Mar. 8, 1954.
13. Beeman, D. L., and H. D. Kurt, 480-volt System Makes Strong Bid for Office
Buildings, Power, March, 1954.
7.56 POWER SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

14. Beernan, D. L., and H . D. Kurt, Commercial High-voltage Installations-Parts I


and 11, Eleelrical Consl~uetionand Mainlenance, April, 1951, and May, 1951.
15. Henderson, IT. IT., and H. S. Hiekok, Why 277/48O-v Building Distribution?
Elec. World, Oct. 18, 1954.
16. Kurt, H. D., Parameters Indicate Where 480Y/277 Volts Saves Wiring Dollars,
Elec. World, S o v . 29, 1951.
Chapter 15 by Donald Beeman and L. G. Levoy, Jr.

Modernization and Expansion


of Existing Power Systems

When modernizing or expanding a plant power distribution system, a


thorough review should be made of the entire system regarding present
and future requirements. A t this time it is possible t o obtain a more
economical, flexible, and reliable power system. The desired system
change can be then made easily and a t lower cost.
There are two phases t o this problem: (1) Modernization, i.e., when
some part of the system is t o be replaced because it has become unsafe or
obsolete. There is often little or no expansion of capacity in this phase.
(2) Plant expansion, i.e., where there is to be an increase in power-system
capacity t o serve new buildings or increased load in an existing building.
The principles used in modernization and expansion of existing power
systems are the same as those outlined in the previous chapters. The
technique of applying these principles is somewhat different for older
systems than when starting with no existing system or facilities.

HOW TO PLAN A MODERNIZATION OR AN EXPANSION PROGRAM

A modernization or expansion program can usually best be planned by


first laying out a complete, ideal power system of the type and voltage
desired. Plan it as if the entire plant were t o be new. The second step
is t o see what modifications of this plan are required to use existing equip-
ment that is in good condition, with a reasonable service life left. Every
step in modernization and expansion should he based on the ideal plail
rather than on the existing system. Too often, good intentions in modern-
izing power systems are spoiled by letting the existing setup influence too
greatly the plans for the future, particularly if the existing system is not
the correct one for the plant.
757
758 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

MODERNIZING OR EXPANDING WITH THE LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEM


AND HIGHER DISTRIBUTION VOLTAGE

The greatest savings can usually be made when changing to a higher


voltage and a load-center power distribution system, for example, in (1)
power systems of several thousand kva which now purchase or generate
and distribute power at 600 volts or less, and (2) large power systems of
several tens of thousands of kva which now purchase or generate and dis-
tribute power a t 2400 volts. A change in existing utilization-device volt-
age rating is not suggested, hut rather to purchase or generate and dis-
tribute power a t higher voltage with step-down substations a t the load
centers t o supply the motors with the same voltage as formerly used.
Looking a t this another way, the existing secondary and utilization
voltage system is left as is and a higher voltage grid or backbone is added
to the system merely for the purpose of transmitting power from the
source to load centers. This backbone or grid feeds the existing system
a t strategic points through step-down transformers. This approach of
superimposing the higher voltage grid permits a stiffer system to which
the source transformers and generators may be connected and permits far
greater growth than would otherwise be practical a t a lower voltage. This
approach has been widely used with many different voltage levels. For
example, existing 480- or 600-volt systems have had 4160-volt grids super-
imposed t o carry the power a t 4160 volts from the source to the load cen-
ters where it is stepped down to 480 or 600 volts and fed into the existing
480- or 600-volt distribution system. Similarly, large 2400-volt systems
have had 13.8-kv grids superimposed. I n this case transformation would
be to 2400 volts in some cases and directly to 480 volts in other cases. I n
any event, the existing 2400-volt and 480-volt distribution systems in the
load area need not be materially altered.
In larger plants such as steel mills 13.8-, 23-, 34.5-, or 69-kv grids have
been superimposed on 6.9-kv systems. When the grid voltage is above
15 kv, all power is stepped down from, say, 69 kv to some voltage below
15 kv for local area distri6ution. Again the local area distribution is not
materially altered.
The following are some examples of plants that have adopted higher
voltage when modernizing and expanding.
1. Plant A began operations at 480 volts and within a few years decided
to go to 2400 volts. Now the plant is generating and distributing a con-
siderable amonnt of power a t 13,800 volts.
2. Plant B, which began operations a t 600 volts, recently rewound the
supply units to 4160 volts, using this for distribution voltage.
3. Plant C began operations a t 600 volts. It has rewound some supply
units to 2400 volts and added new supply units a t 2400 volts.
MODERNlUITlON A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 759

4. Plant D (nine paper mills) originally had mills that were either 480
or 600 volts. However, the later mills have been 2400 volts, and a new
mill to be built will be 4160 volts. A study is now being made with
respect to raising the voltages in the older mills.
5. Plant E’s original plant distribution system was at 600 volts. Later
distribution was a t 11,OOO volts.
6. Plant F’s original installation was a t 2400 volts. Recently 13,800
volts was installed.
7. Plant G’s original installation was a t 480 volts. Later 2400 volts
was installed. Now 13,800 volts is being used.
8. Plant H’s original installation was a t 600 volts. Later it was a t
13,800 volts.
9. Plant 1’s initial generators were 2400 volts. Generators now are
installed a t 13,800 volts.

ADVANTAGE OF CHANGING TO HIGHER VOLTAGE


The advantages of higher voltage distribution and the load-center sys-
tem are aa follows:
1. Plant expansion can be made a t lower cost.
2. The bottleneck caused by excessive short-circuit currents in lower
voltage systems is removed.
3. The voltage drop is reduced.
4. Losses are reduced.
5. Modernization and expansion can be done on a step-by-step basis.
These advantages will be exemplified under the discussion of modern-
ization and expansion which follows. However, to set down some basic
principles, a few general cases are treated first.
Lower Cost Expansion. Assume that a load of 1500 kva is to be carried
1000 f t . If power is generated or is available a t 480 volts, the cost will be
about $42,500 for the circuit breakers and cable shown in Fig. 15.1A. If
power is generated or available a t 4.16 kv, the cost will be only ahout
$32,000 for the circuit breaker, cable, and the 1500-kva load-center unit
substation shown in Fig. 15.1B. This is the most difficult case to prove
at higher voltages because of the neressity of transformers in one case and
not the other. Nevertheless there is a substantial saving in just trans-
mitting power as far as possible a t high voltage as is done in the load-cen-
ter power distribution system instead of all the way at low voltage.
Removal of Short-circuit Bottlenecks. To illustrate the second advan-
tage of the load-center system with higher voltage distribution, which is
freedom from short-circuit-current bottlenecks, assume that a 3125-kva
generator is to be added to an existing bus.
The short-circuit current on the existing 480-volt bus is about 75,000
760 MODERNILATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

amp. The addition of the new souice either from the utility or a new
plant generator and new motor load associated with it will increase the
short-circuit current hy about 60,000 amp, or t o a total of 135,000 amp.
The latter value is 35,000 amp ahove the interrupting rating of the Iargest
availahle lom-voltage air circuit breaker. Therefore, when the new source
is added, some expensive step must be taken to remove the short-circuit
hottleneck by limiting the short-circuit current t o 100,000 amp or less.
This can he done by installing reactors, splitting up the system, etc.
After taking these steps ali new switchgear may he required hecause of the
increased short-circuit duty on the existing circuit breakers.
With a 4160-volt system of this size having 100 mva or higher inter-
rupting-rating circuit hreakers, the new source can he added without
exceeding the circuit-hreaker interrupting rating. Therefore, there are
no short-circuit-current hottleneeks in a system of this size a t 4160 volts.

-1s
-
:IRCUIl BRELKER
-4160
--
'OLTS

100.000 AMP t
A I.C. A 150 Y V I
CIRCUIT BREAKER

5- 3-CONOUCTOI
500 Y C M
pBLEs
E
1 FEET

-- TR4NSFORYER
1500 K V A

CIRCUIT
BREAKERS c
50.000 AHP. I.C.
'400 AMP FEEDERB
J
4 0 0 AMP FEEOERS

4 P P R O X . COST $42.500 APPROX. COST $32.000


$ 2 0 P E R KVA $ 2 1 PER K V 4

A E
LOW-VOLTAGE SYSTEM ~810-CENTER
SVSTEH

FIG. 15.1 Comparison of cost of tronrmitting power o? 600 volts or lerr VI. tronrmitting i t
o1 higher voltage 01 i i done in the lood-center power dirtribution ryrtem.
MODERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING P O W E R SYSTEMS 761

Reduction in Voltage Drop. The higher the voltage used t o carry


power to load renters, the less the voltage drop. With higher voltage
distribution the performance of the motors, heating devices, electronic
control, lamps, and other utilization equipment is improved. A typical
1 5 0 0 4 480-volt feeder (Fig. 15.2) to rarry a given load has a voltage drop
of about 9 per cent, \\-hereas a typical high-voltage feeder to carry the
same load consisting of 1400 f t a t 4160 volts and 100 f t at 480 volts has a
voltage drop of only about 0.83 per cent. Transformer voltage drop is
the same in either case, i.e., about 3 per cent. See Chap. 4 for a more
detailed discussion of voltage-spread problems.
Step-by-step Basis. When expanding and modernizing an existing
system using the load-center system and higher distrihution and/or
generation voltage, the entire existing system need not be changed all at
once. Sinre a load-renter system is made up of small unit suhstations-
i.e., building blocks-the system may be gradually modernized hy adding
a few units each year. This can be done with a minimum disturbance to
production schedules.
The application of the step-by-step procedure will he noted through the
examples. Idalmost every case the change to higher voltage can be made
when expanding the plant without expanding, scrapping, or even changing
the existing system. After the first step is completed, the old system can
be modernized by adding one or more load-center unit substations per
year. This eliminates the necessity for a large capital outlay a t any one
time.
The foregoing examples illustrate the disadvantages of large 600-volt
class systems. In many cases, even 2400 or 6900 volts are too low, par-
ticularly where loads of approximately tens of thousands of kva are
encountered. Here the 2400- or 6900-volt system brings about the same
problems and costly expansion as 480 or 600 volts for loads of approxi-
mately a few thousand kva. The examples will not he repeated for a
2400- or 6900-volt system because the hasic principles are the same as for
a 600-volt class system.

WHEN TO CHANGE TO A LOAD-CENTER POWER SYSTEM


WITH HIGHER VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION

The best time to change to a load-center power distribution system


using higher voltage distribution t o load-center substations is when
modernizing or expanding a power system, i.e., when
1. Installing new switchgear
2. Installing new subst.ation capacity
3. Installing new cable
4. Installing new turbine generators
5. Adding substantial load to the system
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 763

Do not just add another feeder or transformer, or generator, or new


switchgear to a low-voltage system. Look ahead to see if a change in
voltage will not pay real dividends.

MODERNIZING POWER SYSTEMS

Existing power systems are often modernized although there is no


expansion involved at the moment.
The switchgear may be obsolete, representing a real hazard to the
operating personnel and property. The circuit breakers may also have
inadequate interrupt,ing raparity. Substation equipment may he inade-
quate; transformcrs may be old and have high losses and weak insulation;
or cables may he old and their insulation hrittle and subject to increasing
frequenry of failure.
When modernizing the system by replacing switchgear, substations, or
cable, be sure to see (1) if the plant distribution voltage should be
increased, or (2) if a different circuit arrangement should he used, or (3)
if more provision should be made for future expansion, or (4) if the system
should be made more reliable. Such changes can very often be made at
this time for little or no more money than would be expended for just
replacing the obsolete part of t,he system.
Replacing Old Switchgear. When modernizing or replacing existing
obsolete switchgear, there may be cases where voltage is at the correct

-
NEW SWG-

FIG. 15.3 Diagram showing how new metal-clod switchgear con be installed on a
balcony above old switchgear to make transfer of circuits from old to new switchgear easy
and fast.
764 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

600 VOLTS 600 VOLTS 2 4 0 0 VOLTS


5000-KVA 2500- KVA 3133-KVA-
TJRBINE- TURBiNE-fl T U R E I N E - 0
GENERATOR GENERATOR GENERATOR

(600 VOLT BUS, /1 1

AUTOTRANSFORMERS 600 TO‘ 2400


VOLTS 1500-KVA
REDUCED-VOLTAGE STARTER TRANSFORMER

1 5 0 - K W MOTOR-GENERATOR

75 - K W MOTOR- G E N ER ATOR

o 66
FIG. 15.4
5 0 - K W MOTOR-GENERATOR E X C i T E R

One-iine diagram rhowing 600-voll ryrtem ar it exirted in <I iumber mill.

leve1 and all other components of the system are adequate for the plant.
I n this case, the modern, safe, compact metal-clad switchgear should be
used instead of open-type switchgear. There are many problems of a
detailed nature in replacing existing switchgear. One method, which
permits an orderly installation and change-over procedure with a mini-
mum of service outage, is t o place the new switchgear on a balcony above
the existing switchgear (Fig. 15.3). The new metal-clad switchgear may
be installed and then the feeder cables transferred from the old to the new
switchgear one a t a time.
When replacing switchgear, be sure t o check the system voltage and
layout. Perhaps you cab get a complete new system for the price of a
new switchboard. For example, a sawmill generated power a t 600 volts
(Fig. 15.4). The plant engineers were aware of the inadequacy of the
existing oil circuit breakers used on the 600-volt system. One alternative
was t o install new 600-volt switchgear, the cost of which was about
585,000. By rewinding one generator for 2400 volts and adopting a load-
center distribution system, a complete new power system (Fig. 15.5),
including new unit substations plus new windings in one generator, was
obtained for approximately 820,000 more than the cost of a new 600-volt
switchhoard.
Replacing Old Substations. Many old power systems already have
the most desirable primary and secondary voltages and may have rela-
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 765

tively modern primary switchgear. However, they may have old


obsolete substations for stepping power down from primary voltage to
utilization voltage. When modernizing such substations, find out what
system arrangement is best, and get more for the modernization dollar.
For example, the following system existed in a metal working factory in
the East. The primary voltage supplied by the utility mas 13.2 kv. The
13.2-kv metal-clad switchgear was less than 10 years old. Irtilization
voltage was 480 volts. However, the substations stepping down to 480
volts were very large-5000 to 10,000 kva each. They had inadequatc
switchgear and were in poor condition generally. The area around the
substations had become congested to such an extent t,hat the old oil-filled
transformers represented a real fire hazard should they fail and catch fire.
The voltage drop in the system was about 20 per cent mauimum, causing
many operating difficulties with utilization equipment-such as failure of
fluorescent lamps to light.

50- KW
7-EXClTE%

r 1
666 9
:&: 7 5 - K W MOTOR-
GENERATOR

1 5 0 - K W MOTOR'
GENERATOR
L--J

LOAD-CENTER SUBSTATION IN THE M I L L


FIG. 15.5 One-line diagram showing the modernized system in o lumber mill. The
original system is sho.:n in Fig. 15.4.
766 MODERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
These substations could have heen replaced a t the same loeation with
large unit substations of modern construction. Such large substations
are costly and inflexihle, however. A review of this system showed two
things: (i) there were many big motors which could hetter he served a t
2400 volts instead of 480 volts, and (2) small substations sround the
factory area would cost less than the Iarger substations. They would
improve voltage conditions and allow severa1 thousand feet of existing
secondary feeder cable t o be sold as scrap. This woulù further increase
the savings a i t h the load-center system. The system adopted (Fig. 15.6)
eost about 10 per cent less than just replacing existing substations. The
feeder voltage drop was decreased from 20 to about 2 per cent maximum.
By adopting some substations with 2400-volt seeondaries, the larger
motors (above 200 hp) which were purchased new were rated 2300 volts
instead of 440 volts, as would have heen necessary with the old system.

FROM U T I L I T V

TO OTHER
SUBSTATIONS

KVA KVA

CIRCUIT
SUBSTATION

66666666
2300 VOLT MOTORS AND STARTERS
FOUR SIMILAR LDhD CENTER
UNIT S U B S T A T I O N S A T
LOAO C E N T E R S IN P L A N T

FIG. 15.6 One-line diogrom of modernired load-center power distribulion ryrtern where
480-volt load-centei unit rubstotionr and 2400-volt moster uni1 rubrtationr replace old
Iarge low-voltage rubriotioni.
MODERNlZAllON AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 767

This change-over was made on a step-by-step basis, installing a few new


load-center unit substations each year. Thus, there was no large outlay
of money during any one year for modernization of the power system.
Replacing Old Cable. When cable insulation gets old, it usually gets
brittle and mechanically weak. Cable failures have become so frequent
in some old iristallations that something had to be done t o correct the
situation. One corrective approach might be to replace the existing old
cable. However, a better system might he obtained if a load-center
power system with higher voltage distribution were selected.
For example, one plant had a large (about 10,000 kva) 600-volt power
system fed from one substation bus. The 600-volt feeder cables were all
in underground ducts. Cable failures were reaching the point where
somethitig bad to be done. About 25,000 ft of cable had to be replaced.
I t was estimated that it mould cost $5.60 per f t , or $140,000, to replace
cable. This did not include the necessary cost of tearing out the old
cable. A modern load-center system (Fig. 15.7) cost about $190,000
installed. However, the cable copper losses were reduced in the load-
center system because the power is carried most of the way at high voltage
instead of all the way a t low voltage as with the old system. The
capitalized savings in losses were $15,000 ($1500 annual saving in power
bill capitalized at 10 per cent). This reduced the cost of the load-center
system to only $175,000 ($190,000 - $15,000). The old 2500-kva trans-
formers had a resale value of $17,500. The net extra cost of the load-
ceiiter system was only $17,500 more than just replacing the cable. The
load-center system had several advantages:
1. Reduction in feeder voltage drop (from 10 to 1.8 per cent)-which
improved performance of utilization equipment.
2. S e w secondary switchgear (600 volts) of adequate interrupting
capacity as obtained with the new load-center power system.
3. Lower cost future expansion of the system.
4. More flexible system.
A completely moderii system was obtained for only $17,.500, or $1.75
per kva, by rhangiiig to the load-center system inatead of just replacing
cable. Again this change over utilized the building-block characteristics
of a load-renter system. A few small substations have been added, and
a few more \vill be added each year until the job is complete.

EXPANDING A N EXISTING PLANT

When expanding an existing plant, there is an ideal opportunity to


start a modernizatiou program of the power distribution system at little
or no extra cost. Whenever a n expansion is planned, check the system
layout to see if a load-rrnter system would be better, but most, impor-
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 769

tant-check t o see if a higher distribution voltage would not be more


economical.
Often it is said, “This is the last expansion we’ll ever make.” Once in
a great while that may be true, but it. is not the history of the great
majority of industrial plants. Even if no new buildings are built, the
use of more electric power per unit of product plus greater utilizing of
existing floor space will increase power demand in a given factory. This
causes expansion of existing power systems. The most expensive single
error often made is to design a power-system expansion on the basis that
there will never be another expansion. Such a procedure makes it all the
more expensive when the next expansion does come. The time to set up
a proper power system is almost always a t the time of present expansion
of an old system and not the next expansion.
Here are several examples to illustrate the more important consider-
ations when expanding a plant power system.
Expanding a Small Plant. Supposing a plant (Fig. 15.8) wants to add
1500 kva of load in a new addition. The existing substation could he
expanded as shown in Fig. 15.9. This would cost about $26,000, the
voltage drop would be 9 per cent, and the cable copper losses would cost
about $280 per year. Making this expansion by a load-center method
(Fig. 15.10), high voltage would be taken t o a load-center unit substation
a t the load center. The cost of the expansion by the load-center method
would be about $26,000. The voltage drop would be less than 1 per cent,
13.2 KV LINES FROM UTILITY

EXISTING SUBSTATION
3000 KVA

I NEW

I ADDITION
ADDiT1oN
REQUIRING

I 1500 KVA

FIG. 15.8 Layout of plant requiring 1500 kvo additional substation capacity.
770 MOOERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTIdG POWER SYSTEMS

and feeder ropper losses xonld be negligible. Therefore, by expanding


this system on the load-center system basis, the user saved $280 per year
in losses at no increase in first cost. Also, the user started a system which
will fit into complete modernization of the plant (Fig. 15.11) which can be
done on a step-by-step basis and spread the expense over several years.
For small or large plants, the same savings can be obtained by using the
load-center system for plant expansion. In larger plants, several small
substations are used rather than a few large ones.
Use Higher Voltage and Eliminate Double Transformations. There
are plants where double transformation is used, for example, from 13.8-kv

THREE
I
II
I
4 13.2

Kv' h<OlL
I

I INCOMING LINE
CIRCUIT BREAKERS

I000 KVA 1
SINGLE U
PHASE I
TRANS-
FORMERS I
NSFORMEAS
I
I
I
I
L --_---___
EX IS T IN G
SUBSTATION

NEW BUlLOlNG

FIG. 15.9 One-line diagram for expanding electrical system for plant shown in Fig. 15.8,
using low-voltage distribution to supply power in new oddition.
MODERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING P O W E R SYSTEMS 771
1
I
I
I l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ v A

SINGLE PHASE
I TRANSFORMERS
I

1 2 0 0 F E E T OF
13.2 KV
CIRCUIT LEAD-COVERED
BREAKERS1 CABLE

L- -___--- A
E X I S T I N G SUBSTATION

1- - - - 1
I .
L-
I TRANS-
FORMER ' S
I
I
I :! CIRCUIT
\
BREAKER

NEW 1500 KVA


' I
LOAD CENTER I
I
I

I
-LI=.f I -

L _ _ _ _ _ L- _ _ _ J
I
I
=-' I/ I

NEW 0 U l L D l N G
FIG. 15.10 One-line diogram of expclnded electrical system for plmt shown in Fig. 15.8,
using load-center distribution to supply power in new addition.

class voltage (utility supply voltage) to the 2.4 kv and from 2.4 kv to 480
volts (Fig. 15.12). When expanding such a system, the double trans-
formation can be eliminated and power taken to the load centers a t utility
supply voltage and stepped down directly to 480 volts (Fig. 15.13). The
National Electrical Code permits voltages up to 15 kv in buildings.
Eliminating this double transformation will save about $4 to $15 per kva
772 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

13.2

ADDED DURING EXPANSION


EQUIPMENT SHOWN B Y
DASHED L I N E S

4L
6 I500 KVA
I
I

&
I
I
80 VOLTS [-OLD BUILDING

535 555
+ & & +++ I
Y Y Y Y Y Y
CONNECT TO
EXISTING 4 8 0 VOLT
FEEDER CABLES

i I IOOOKVA 1946

SOLID LINES snow NEW EQUIPMENT FOR MODERNIZATION OF OLD PLANT.


STEPS TAKEN
1 9 4 5 - NEW 1500 KVA SUBSTATION INSTALLED
1946- NEW DOUBLE ENDEO 2000 KVA SUBSTATION INSTALLED
1947- NEW 13.8 KV METAL CLAD INSTALLED
PLANT NOW EXPhNDED AND MODERNIZED WITH LOAD CENTER SYSTEM ON A
STEP BV STEP BASIS.

FIG. 15.11 One-line diagram of expanded and modernized electrical system for the
plant shown in Fig. 15.8, using load-center distribution system installed on the step-by-step
baris.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 773

in the cost of the power system. The double transformation may.be


necessary where the utility primary voltage is above 15 kv because volt-
ages above 15 kv should not in general be taken into the buildings. I n
some cases, such as a t pumping stations where a11 but a very small amount
of power is used a t 2400 volts, double transformation to 480 volts may be
justified.

EXPANDING PLANT POWER GENERATING SYSTEMS

There are many large plants in which considerable process steam is used
and which, therefore, generate much of their own pomer. Many such
plants have large low-voltage (600 volts) systems or very Iarge 2400-volt
systems. Expansion of such systems presents a real opportimity to
ehange to a load-center system and to higher voltage generation and thus

I 12.5 KV INCOMING
L I N E FROM U T I L I T Y

METERING

LI,
,T--

~ IA 1500 KVA E A C H

2 4 0 0 VOLTS

4 8 0 VOLT POWER 2 4 0 / 1 2 0 VOLTS


LIGHTING

T 8 0 V O L T POWER

FIG. 15.12 An exirting power dirtribution ryrtem with unnecerrriry double trmrformation
of aII power from 12.5 to 2.4 k.
774 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
I 12.5 K V INCOMING
! LINE FROM UTILITY

i ~ f 4 7 VOLT8 ,
I

I
I
3 9
+ . L
I Y - -Y_ - -Y_ I
L ___ _J

FIG. 15.13 b B d lines show expansion of Ihe system shown in Fig. 15.12, wing the k a d -
ceder power distribution ryrtem in which power i s stepped down directly from 12.5 kv to
480 volts.

to save money. Examples will be used to illustrate the points involved.


The following also applies where power sources are from transformers
instead of generators.
Methods of Expanding at Higher Voltage. Expanding a lon-voltage
system a t higher volt,age is a simple procedure. It merely requires the
addition of a bus-tie transformer bet,meen the buses. Then expansion
can he t o t,he higher voltage as if the lower voltage system did not exist.
MODERNIZATION ANO EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 77s
The old low-voltage and new high-voltage systems can be interconnected
in severa1 ways.
Figure 15.14 shows one method of employing a hus-tie transformer t o

EXISTING -
NEW

O00 -NEW M E T A L C L A D
SWITCHGEAR

OR
2 4 0 0 VOLTS
-/
$
1
I

BUS TIE T R A N S F O ~ M E R

4160 VOLTS
OR
13.8 KV

I
/

LOAD CENTER X TRANSFORMERS

--
UNIT
SUBSTATION
CIRCUIT
'-0RE AKERS
I
6 0 0 OR 2 4 0 0 VOLTS
EXISTING

EXISTING
SWITCHGEAR

REACTORS +
-NEW METAL CLAD
SWITCHGEAR

13.0 K V
BUS T I E TRANSFORMER
1,
"
0 T O LOAD

FIG. 15.14 One-line diagrom rhowing how <i power iystern con be exlended by adding
new power sources a t higher voltage and connecting in lhe higher voltage bur to the
exirting lower voltage bur through o tranrformer.
776 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

connect a new system a t higher voltage t o an old system operating a t


lower voltage. There may not he circuit breakers ou both sides of the
bus-tie transformer. In many cases the cireuit breaker is omitted from
the low-voltage side because of the Iarge currents involved but is included
on the high-voltage side. If so, it is assumed that the transformer is part
of the low-voltage bus, and proper relaying must be used to protect the
transformer. However, it is generally not desirahle to have it directly
connected to the high-voltage bus without an intervening circuit breaker.
Figure 15.14 also shows the application of the hus-tie transformer where
a synchronizing bus is used on the low-voltage system.
I n a few cases, where there has heen a very large expansion of a power
system that necessitates the addition of a synchronizing-bus arrangement
for the new high-voltage turbine-generators, the arrangement shown in
Fig. 15.15 has heen used. The existing 2400-volt bus is sectionalized.
One section of the 2400-volt bus is connected t o each of the new high-
voltage buses through a transformer. This saves iiistalling a synchro-

O NEW METAL CLAD


O
SWITCHQEAR

NEW i 13.8 K V SYNCHRONIZING BUS

EXIÇTING E 4 0 0 VOLT 8US


SPLIT HERE

FIG. 15.15 One-line diagrem of (I ryrtem in which the exirting 2400-volt bur ir rection-
alired and connected throuqh transformeri to a new 13.8-kv ryrtem. The 13.8-kv rystern
acts 01 a rynchroniring bur ior the 2.4-kr ryrtem.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 777
niaing bus on the existing lov-voltage system, and permits circuit breakers
to be employed on both the high- and lorn-voltage sides of the bus-tie
transformers. Hoivever, it might not be feasible to connect transformers
to the synchronizing buses through circuit breakers in surh large high-
voltage systems because the duty on the synchronizing buses may be
beyond the rating of available circuit breakers.
I n some cases it is desirable to establish a new higher voltage bus for
supplying new load before a new higher voltage generator is added. The
arrangement shown in Fig. 15.16 will enable this t o be done at minimum
cost. The new higher voltage feeders are fed through a step-up bus-tie
transformer from the existing low-voltage bus. A t a future date a new
generator may be added to the higher voltage bus. The load-center sys-
tem is employed for serving the new load.

OLD OIL
CIRCUIT
BREAKERS TRANSFORMER NEW BUS
4160 VOLTS

600 VOLTS
OLD BUS NEW
METAL CLAD
SWITCHGEAR

‘.-,,
GENERATORS
FEEDERS TO I
NEW LOAO
CENTER UNIT
SUBSTATIONS :“,‘,“,“6,,,
FIG. 15.16 Existing 600-volt bur extended a t higher voltage through bur-tie transformer
lo supply new load through load-center unit substations before new higher voltage
generator i s added.

LARGE 6OJ-VOLT CLASS SYSTEMS

Figure 15.17 shows the one-line diagram of a large existing system of


the 600-volt class. This particular plant happens to be operating a t 480
volts. The addition of a new 3500-kw 0.8-power factor 4375-kva turbo-
generator and 2000 kva of new load is planned. Also, dismantling the
(two) 500-kva turbogenerators is contemplated because they are old and
inefficient.
The short-circuit current in the existing plant, without the new turbine-
generator, is about 115,000 amp. This is three t o five times the inter-
rupting rating of the existing oil circuit breakers.
If the new turbine is added to the existing bus as shown to the left in
the one-line diagram of Fig. 15.17, the short-circuit current will be
increased t o about 165,000 amp. This further accentuates the unsafe
778 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

conditions of this switchgear and materially increases the hazard already


existing. Such a condition should not be tolerated in any plant.
If, however, the new generator is added at 480 volts, any switchgear
associated with this generator and the new feeder circuit breakers should
have adequate interrupting rating for the service. This would require
a switching arrangement such as shown in Fig. 15.18. While this arrauge-
ment provides for adequate switchgear for the new installation, the short-
circuit current on the existing switchgear will increase to some extent.
The increase will not be so great as if the generator were added as shown
in Fig. 15.17.
The cost of the new switchgear, new reactors, and the bus connection
between the generator and the switchgear shown t o the left in Fig. 15.18
is approximately $65,000. A significant part of this cost (about $8500)
is for the bus between the generator and the switchgear. About 50 ft of
6000-amp bus is required.
Distributing the power at 480 volts t o the new 2000-kva load will cost
about $28 per kva, or $56,000. This is based on the arrangement shown
in Fig. 15.1.4 and includes the feeder breakers at buses A and B , feeder
cable, and new switchgear a t the load (dashed lines, Fig. 15.18). This
makes a total cost of $121,000 ($65,000 plus $56,000) for the new switeh-
gear and for the distribution system to care for the 2000 kva of new load.
If the new generator were added at 4160 volts instead of 480 volts, the
arrangement would he as shown in Fig. 15.19. The new 4160-volt bus
would be connected to the existing 480-volt bus through two 1500/1875-
kva transformers. The two 1500-kva transformers are used rather than
one 3000-kva transformer since the 1500-kva transformers may later be
used as part of load-center unit substations. T h e interrupting duty on
the existing 480-volt switchgear is increased by about the same amount
for the arrangement shown in Fig. 15.19 as for the arrangement shown

KVA 2500 1075 500 500


KVA K VA YVA K VA

Y
2 0 FEEDERS

FIG. 15.17 A large existing low-voltage power system with excessive short-circuit
currents to which is to be added the new generator shown to the left.
4 3 7 5 KVA

r\
F E E T , 6000 AMP
BUS

DUPLEX

O L D OIL
[]+CIRCUIT d[]
BREAKERS

SYNCHONIZ ING 4 8 0 VOLTS

\ I i
I Y I
I NEW i
I I
I I
I I
I I 2 0 E X I S T I N G F E E D E R S AND SWITCHGEAR
-
FIG. 15.18 The lorge existing low-voltage system shown in Fig. ing a duplex reactor necessary to keep the short-circuit and load
15.17 with the new generator and the required rwitchgeor inciud- currents within the ratings of available air circuit breakers.
780 MODERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING P O W E R SYSTEMS

L-.
MODERNIUTION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 78 I

in Fig. 15.18. The cost of the new 4160-volt generator circuit breaker,
the connections between this circuit breaker and the generator, the two
1 W k v a transformers, and the 4160-volt breaker serving the two 1500-
kva transformers is about $43,000. 1nst.allation costs of this equipment
are assumed to be about the same.as for the equipment in Fig. 15.18.
However, the arrangement of Fig. 15.19 will probably require less space
in the powerhouse.
To care for the new 2000-kva load will necessitate two 4160-volt feeders
and a double-ended 2000-kva unit substation, shown by the dashed lines
in Fig. 15.19. The cost of this portion of the distribution system is about
$21 per kva (Fig. 15.1B). Therefore, this represents an investment in
a distribution system of approximately $42,000. The total cost of the
switchgear for the generator and connections to the 480-volt existing bus,
+
plus the new distribution system, is $85,000 ($43,000 $42,000), com-
pared with $121,000 for adding the new generator and serving the new
load directly a t 480 volts. This saving is approximately 28 per cent on
switchgear and distribution equipment cost.
If the new generator is added a t 480 volts, modernizing the rest of the
system a t 480 volts (Fig. 15.20) mould cost an additional $84,000 for
switchgear and reactors for the 2500-kva and 1875-kva generators and
twenty feeders. There would he no new distribution-system expense in
this case. This system would still have high voltage drop and high
feeder losses because of the long 480-volt feeders.
Modernizing this system a t 4160 volts could be done on a step-by-step
basis, as shown in Fig. 15.21. The first step would be to install new suh-
station capacity t o care for 2500 kva of load from the 4160-volt bus.
Load-center unit substations, up to 1500 kva each, could he used eeo-
nomieally. After these substations are installed, the second step (dashed
lines, Fig. 15.21) would be t o rewind the 2500-kva generator for 4160 volts
and connect it to the 4160-volt bus. The third step would be to install
new 480-volt sivitehgear for the 1875-kva generator, as shown to the right
in Fig. 15.21. Credit is given for one 1500-kva transformer which mas
formerly used for the bus tie between the low-voltage and high-voltage
buses. The cost of modernizing the existing 480-volt system a t 4160
volts would be about $100,000. Of this, $31,000 would be for new paver-
house switchgear and reminding the 2500-kva generator and $52,500 for
2500 kva of distribution system capacity a t $21 per kva (Fig. 15.1B).
This figure of $100,000 for modernization of the existing system at, 4160
volts compares with $84,000 for modernization of the existing system at
480 volts.
The total cost of the modernized and expanded 450-volt system (Fig.
15.20) would be $205,000 (5121,000 for the system associated with new
generator and $84,000 for modernization of the switchgear associated
with existing generators).
701 MODERNIZATION A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

-G

(L
w
0
0
a

0
v)
N

a
>
Y
n
I-
n
*

W 0-I

;5
2:
'5I-
3-
784 MODERNIZ4TION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

The complete cost for additions and modernization at 4160 volts (Fig.
15.21) would be $185,000 ($85,000 for the system associated with the
new generator and $100,000 for modernization of the evisting 480-volt
system a t 4160 volts). There is a saving of about $20,000 by using the
high-voltage method. The other advantages are less voltage drop,
therefore better performance of equipment, lower losses, and at the same
time a completely new system is obtained.
A big advantage of the 4160-volt system is that the next turbine-
generator may be added for an expenditure of about $12,500 for a circuit
breaker to connect the generator to the 4160-volt bus. The future addi-
tion of a turbine-generator to the arrangement shown in Fig. 15.20 would
require switchgear as shown for the 4375-kva turbine-generator (Fig:
15.20), which would cost approximately $49,000. This represents a
saving of $36,500 ($49,000 - $12,500) for 4160 volts, and, in addition,
there would be approximately $5.50 per kva saved in the distribution
system using the load-center system and 4160 volts generation.
limits of Sizes of 600-volt Sources. The limits of generator size for the
system shown in Fig. 15.20 are 3,125 kva when the synchronizing bus
reactor, as shown t o the right, is used and 6250 kva when the duplex
reactor is used for systems rated 600 volts. For systems rated 480 volts,
these figures are 2500 and 5000 kva, respectively.
I n many cases transformers as well as generators may be used to supply
a large part of the 600-volt system. The transformers may be treated
just like generators, and the circuit arrangements shown in Figs. 15.18 to
15.21 may be employed.
The limits given above for the system using one synchronizing bus
reactor and generator per bus section enable keeping the load current
helow 4000 amp per circuit breaker and the short-circuit currents below
100,000 amp. This will permit the use of 50,000-amp interrupting-rating
feeder circuit breakers in cascade. These limits are chosen because
4000-amp circuit breakers are generally the largest size available in draw-
out construction. They will also satisfactorily cascade with 50,000-amp
interrupting-capacity feeder circuit breakers. It is necessary t o limit the
total short-circuit current t o 100,000 amp, as 100,000 amp is the largest
air circuit breaker made. This also permits the use of the smaller and
lower cost 50,000-amp interrupting-capacity feeder circuit breakers in
cascade with 100,000-amp main circuit breakers.
The limit chosen for the duplex reactor arrangement enables keeping
the load current below 4000 amp per circuit breaker. Also, it will keep
the short-circuit currents within 100,000 amp and not use excessively high
reactance in the synchronizing bus reactors.
Balancing Reactors to Eliminate Unbalanced Currents in l a r g e 600-
volt Generators. There are other serious problems involved where large
low-voltage generators are used. Observations show that the three
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 705

phases of large generators may be carrying different currents, which can-


not be eliminated by shifting or removing all single-phase loads. These
unbalanced currents are the result of generator lead bus-bar unbalance,
which is particularly noticeable in plants where the main load consists of
motors operating directly from the generator bus without intermediate
transformers.
Unbalanced generator phase-current values of 5 to 10 per cent have
been observed in such plants. This is particularly objectionable where
non-salient-pole or wound-rotor turbine-driven units are used since cur-
rent unbalance causes additional field heating inside the machine. This
additional heating is usually less severe in salient-pole marhines.
When a turbine-generator is carrying a balanced three-phase load, the
magnetic flux in the rotor is constant except for minor ripples caused by
tooth-and-slot effects. However, when the stator current is unbalanced
in the three phases, the rotor flux tends to pulsate a t twice normal fre-
quency. This generates relatively severe eddy currents in the rotor
structure, causing added heating and, sometimes, burning of rotor
wedges. I n severe cases, the rotor may he badly damaged from over-
heating even though the generator is carrying less than rated load.
Generator loading must be reduced t o avoid excessive heating when this
unbalanced current flows.
In addition to the effect on the generator, the unbalanced current
causes similar overheating in motors. It also reduces their availab!e peak
torque and decreases their effirieucy. Consequently, in the interests of
good service and good system operation, it is desirable to keep the phase
currents as closely balanced as possible.
Several cases of phase-current unbalance were investigated, and each
revealed that trouble was caused by relatively long runs of bus bars
mounted side by side in one plane. This flat, equal bus-bar spacing
introduces a dissymmetry .in the circuit. The three phases of the bus do
not have equal inductance and impedance because space between the two
outer bus bars is twice that between the middle bar and either of the other
two. Although the difference in impedance may be small, it causes an
unbalance in voltage.
These unbalanced voltages are composed of two balanced symmetrical
components: (1) the ordinary positive-sequence voltage and (2) a sym-
metrical negative-sequence component, which is usually small compared
with the positive-sequence voltage. It happens, however, that motors
and generators have relatively low impedance to this negative-sequence
voltage; therefore a small negative-sequence component of voltage pro-
duces a relatively large negative-sequence current. Consequently, the
effect is magnified; so a small negative-sequence voltage appears as a
larger percentage of unbalanced current than the percentage of voltage
unbalance that exists. The effect is especially noticeable where motors
786 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

and generators are connected by unbalanced bus runs without intermedi-


ate transformers.
When transformers are used hetween motors and generators, both the
positive- and negative-sequence impedances of the circuit are increased by
equal amounts; so the unbalance is not so pronounced as described above.
I n static loads of heaters, for example, the positive- and negative-sequence
impedances are equal and the negative-sequence current is not amplified.
When severe unbalances of currents are found to exist because of long
low-voltage bus runs with flat equal spacing, they are usually corrected
most readily by adding some reactance in series with the middle leg of the
bus, thereby balancing the reactance in three legs. A simple way of
obtaining this reactance is by installing a set of laminated silicon-steel
punchings around the middle leg of the bus, as shown in Fig. 15.22, with
an air gap to prevent saturation.
This trouble was corrected in one plant with a 3750-kva three-phase
60-cycle 600-volt turbine-generator used to drive a group of induction
motors. The generator bus was 100 f t long, consisting of channel bus
bars with flat horizontal spacing on 11-in. centers, Fig. 15.23. Feeder
taps t o motors were made from a small cross bus run. The generator
could carry only about two-thirds of rated load without overheating.
PHASE A

9
1
COPPER BUS
REACTOR ON
CENTER BUS 1

SILICON - STEEL PUNCH~NGS/


AIR
GAP

tY=Y
4 LlJ
PHASE C

FIG. 15.22 Phase currents are balanced in large lowvoltage generator leads b y adding
sheet silicon-steel punchingr to increore reactance of center leg of generator leads.
MOTOR FEEDERS

FIG. 15.23 Instollation of large low-voltage generator in which a bur layout caused
unbalanced phase currents in the generator and system which increased the generator
heating. Load unbalance corrected by oddition of silicon-steel punchingr to increase
reactance of center lag of generator leads.

Currents in the three legs of the generator bus were checked and found to
be 2400, 2600, and 2500 amp, respectively. The middle leg was carrying
the highest current. A series reactor was added to the middle leg of the
generator-bus assembly. The reactance was adjusted by changing the
length of punching stack until currents in the three bus legs were equalized,
and the generator could then be operated a t full load without overheating.
Conductor spacing can be arranged during installation or design of low-
788 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

voltage systems to eliminate unbalanced reactance by one of four methods


shown in Fig. 15.24:
1. Use of multiple three-conductor cables
2. Paired-phase bus arrangement
3. Triangular spacing
4. Bus conductors transposed to cancel unbalanced reactance

LARGE 2400-VOLT SYSTEMS

The same principles apply to


large 2400-volt systems which
are t o be expanded as apply to
large 600-volt systems previ-
( a ) THREE- CONDUCTOR CABLES ously discussed. Whenever a
higher voltage is indicated for
A B C A expansion of an existing 2400-

II II volt system, the higher voltage


should be, in general, of the 13.8-
kv class, rather than of the 4160-
(b) PAIRED- PHASE SPACING
or 6900-volt class. However, in
some cases, like that shown in
Fig. 15.25, an existing2400-volt
system can he expanded more
economically a t 4160 volts than
a t 13.8 kv. I n this example, so
that these conditions will apply
to the general case, major tur-
B C bine-generators should he read-

(c)
I TRIANGLE SPACING
i ily reconnectiblefrom 2400 volts
delta to4160 volts Y. All cables
and lines should he insulated for
5 kv. The major portion of the
loadshould he fed through trans-
former banks consistingof either
single-phase transformers or re-
connectihle three-phase trans-
formers which can have the
primaries readily reconnected
from 2400 volts delta to 4160

- A FIG. 15.24 Conductor orrangemenh


to minimize or eliminate unbalanced
(d) TRANSPOSED SPACING reactance in three-phase bus runs.
790 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

volts Y. I n most of the practical large 2400-volt systems as is the case


with the one shown in Fig. 15.25, there may be some 2400-volt load such
as main pumphouse motors and power-station auxiliaries. This will
necessitate retaining some 2400-volt power or rewinding the motors for
4160 volts and possibly purchasing new starters. Rewinding motors for
higher voltage may cause some reduction in horsepower rating. There-
fore, it is desirable to maintain 2400 volts for these motors.
I n the example shown in Fig. 15.25, it is desired to add a 9375-kva
turbine-generator. The short-circuit duty on the existing bus is con-
siderably in excess of the interrupting rating of the existing circuit
breakers. Also, this switchgear is obsolete from the standpoint of safety
and operating convenience. Therefore, when the new turbine-generator
is added, all the powerhouse switchgear should be replaced.
This could be done a t 2400 volts, as shown in Fig. 15.26. The cost of
all new switchgear for the new 9375-kva generator and its feeders, and the
other generators and their feeders, is approximately $235,000. The reactors
and bus between the new generator and the switchgear are included.
Existing generators and the primaries of the existing stepdown trans-
formers, particularly banks of single-phase transformers, can generally be
reconnected for 4160 volts Y from 2400 volts delta without major con-
struction changes in the apparatus. Therefore, the system can be readily
expanded a t 4160 volts, as shown in Fig. 15.27. Since there is some 2400-
volt load, such as in the powerhouse auxiliaries and at the pump house,
the 2500-kva generator will be left a t 2400 volts and connected to the
4160-volt system through a 2500-kva transformer. New 50-mva switch-
gear ill be purchased for this bus and new 250-mva switchgear for all
4160-volt generators and feeder circuits. The approximate cost of
switchgear and reactors i n d 2500-kva transformers is $207,000. It is
assumed that reconnection of existing transformers will cost about
$14,000. Adding this to the cost of the new switchgear, the total cost
of the 4160-volt scheme (Fig. 15.27) is $221,000. This represents a
saving of about $14,000 compared with making the expansion and
modernization program a t 2400 volts.
Even if the existing 2400-volt switchgear was not replaced, and only
switchgear for the new 9375-kva generator plus synchronizing bus switch-
gear and reactors for the other generators were purchased, the cost would
be approximately $179,000. This would compare with $193,000 for
making the expansion and modernization program a t 4160 volts. This
contemplates using existing switchgear for the 2400-volt bus in Fig. 15.27.
There will be additional economic gains in the future because the next
9375-kva turbine-generator can be added a t 4160 volts, for about $50,500
(switchgear, synchronizing bus, reactors, etc.). The snitchgear, reactors,
etc., required to connect the future turbine-generator t o the bus a t 2400
M O M R N l Z A T l O N A N D EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 791

a
a I
4

I
0
U
w
Y
s
9 3 7 5 KVA 7 5 0 0 KVA 7500 KVA

3
0
M A I N GENERATOR zII
CiRCUiT BREAKERS 2 5 0 0 KVA -z
P
b
CIRCUIT z
0
m

I.C.
-REACTORS TRANSFORMER H
2500 KVA P
m
?!
N E W 4160 V O L T N E W 5 0 MVA 1.C.-
SECTION SWITCHGEAR 0
B
s
m
m
R E M A I NS IENCGT I 2
O4N0 0 VOLT
Y)
<
FIG. 15.27 One-line diagram of the system shown in Fig. 15.25 modernized and expanded a t 4160 Y
m
Volb with one generator remaining a t 2400 volts. Buses tied together through bur-tietronrforrner. z
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 793

volts would cost about $88,000 (same circuit as for 9375-kva generator,
Fig. 15.26).
There is also a saving in the distribution system because it costs less to
transmit power a t 4160 volts than a t 2400 volts.
Limits of Size of Sources in 2400-volt Systems. The limits of the size
of generators that can be used in the system shown in Fig. 15.26 are 7500
kva when the single synchronizing bus reactor is used and 15,000 kva
when the duplex reactor is used.
The limits of generator sizes are based upon two factors: (1) not requir-
ing circuit breakers larger than 2000 amp (the largest metal-clad circuit
breaker available) and (2) not exceeding the interrupting rating of
150-mva circuit breakers (the largest metal-clad circuit breakers for
2400-volt service).
In many cases, transformers as well as generators may be used to supply
power to a large 2400-volt system. The transformers may be treated just
like generators. The circuit arrangements of Figs. 15.26 and 15.27 may
he used, substituting the supply transformers for the generators. The
limits of transformer kva, in some cases, may be lower, because of lower
reactance than generators; therefore, they may produce more short-circuit
current per kva of rating.
While the addition of reactance in a system lowers the interrupting
duty on circuit breakers, it does not lower load currents. Therefore, the
kva limits of sizes of generators or transformers per bus given in the fore-
going are maximums primarily because of the load currents approaching
the largest ampere ratings of the circuit breakers available. However, if
more reactance is added to reduce the interrupting ratings, the cost of the
circuit breakers required is less. While additional reactance does have
a beneficial effect in reducing short-circuit currents, it also has a detrimen-
tal effect. It causes greater steady-state voltage drop, particularly under
operating conditions where one generator or transformer is out of service.
It causes greater voltage drop when starting large motors and may inter-
fere with the transfer of kvar from one generator bus to another. Particu-
larly where low power-factor loads (0.9 or lower) are encountered, careful
study should be made before adding reactance in a system in excess of the
following:
1 . Generator series reactance to increase generator circuit reactance
above about 12 per cent for generators having 10 per cent subtransient
reactance X y or less
2. Synchronizing bus reactance which limits the short-circuit current
contribution to a given bus to be less than about 75 per cent of the short-
circuit-current contribution of the largest generator on a given bus
It is beyond the scope of this book to outline in detail the reasons for
these general limits. They are based on experience as to stability, trans-
fer of kvar, and voltage drop during normalandemergency conditions, etc.
794 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

EXPANSION OF A 2400-VOLT SYSTEM AT 13.8 KV

Figure 15.28 shows an existing 2400-volt system typical of that which


might be found in a paper mill: A new 7500-kw 0.8-power factor 9375-kva
turbine-generator and 9000 kva of load are contemplated, 2000 f t from
the powerhouse.
The short-cirrriit current of the esisting system, without the new
generator, is i n escess of the 150-mva interrupting-rating switchgear
employed on the 2400-volt rircuits. The addition of the new generator
would merely exaggerate this condition.
To add the new generator a t 2400 volts and keep the short-circuit cur-
rent within the rating of the 1.50-mva switchgear will require a circuit like
that shown in Fig. 15.26. Regardless of voltage at which the generator is
added, the switchgear for the esisting generators will have to be rcar-
ranged as shown to the left in Fig. 15.20 to reduce short-circuit currents
to within the circuit-breaker interrupting rating. Therefore, the cost of
the rearrangement of this switchgear is omitted in the following discus-
sion. The switrhgear and reactors for adding the new generator and
2400-volt feeder cable will cost about $206,000. The unit substations
and 2300-volt motor starters are not included in the above comparison
because they are required for either generator voltage considered here.
If the gcnerator is added at 13.8 kv, the arrangement mould be as shown
in Fig. 15.29. This arrangement, including the 10,000-kva bus-tie trans-
former, new 13.8-kv switchgear, 13.8-kv cable, two 2000-kva transformers
for stepping down from 13.8 kv to 2400 volts for the 2300-volt motors,
costs approximately $140,000. This represents a saving of 30 per cent in
this case, compared with the expansion a l 2400 volts. Even if the load
had been only a few feet from the ponerhouse, it would still have been
1875 KVA 5000KVA 16250 K V A ) 17500 K V A ) 9375 KVA

LOAD f AT 2400 VOLTS

7
2 AT 4 8 0 VOLTS

FIG. 15.28 A large existing 2400-volt system in an industrial p l m t to which D new 9375-kvo
source unit i s to be added.
NEW
1875 KVA 5 0 0 0 KVA 6 2 5 0 KVA 7 5 0 0 KVA 9 3 7 5 UVA

OLD OIL
+CIRCUIT-
BREAKERS
Q 500,000KVA.1 C
0
I 3 8 KV
U
METAL CLAD
SWITCHGEAR

I I

10,000 KVA E A C H CA0.E

480 VOLTS 480 VOLTS


Ir :fhT:ERS
FIG. 15.29 One-line diagram of the system shown in Fig, 15.28 modernized and
expanded with n e w source added a t 13.8 kv and existing 2400-volt bur section. 6 6
alired and connected lo synchronizing bur to keep short-circuit currents within the 2 3 0 0 VOLT
ratings of the 2400-volt rwitchgeor. MOTORS
3000 K V A
796 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS
slightly less expensive to make the new addition a t 13.8 kv. Assuming
no saving, or even a slightly greater cost on the original 13.8-kv installa-
tion, because of the fact that on the first step of changing to 13.8 kv it is
necessary t o purchase a bus-tie transformer, the next 9375-kva generator
t o he added a t 13.8 kv will represent a real saving since it is merely neces-
sary t o buy a generator circuit breaker at about $21,000 to connect to the
existing 13.8-kv bus. If the next generator is added a t 2400 volts, a
complicated duplex reactor arrangement for the 9375-kva generator
shown to the left in Fig. 15.26 is required, costing about $88,000, or
$67,000 more than the 13.8-kv arrangement.
The advantages of the 13.8-kv system are (1) less costly expansion
and (2) greater kva can be carried per circuit. Therefore, fewer circuits
are required and the cost of transmitting power is reduced. There is no
change in utilization voltage when 13.8 kv is adopted as a generating volt-
age. Motors are still operated a t 2400 or 480 volts.

OLD NEW
FIG. 15.30 Addition lo existing primary substation made by sectionaliring 4.16-kv bur.
Short-circuit duty on bur A is 145 mva.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 797

EXPANSION O F MODERN SYSTEMS WITHOUT CHANGING VOLTAGE

Many systems now use the highest practical primary voltage and the
load-center system. Expansion is generally easy, i.e., more primary
feeders and more load-center substations are added t o care for the new
load in the plant. A problem may arise, however, in expanding the main
substation or generating station.

69 K V

I
I

!
EACH

NEW I
I
I

SPLIT 250 MVA


BUS HERE SWITCHGEAR /
/
150 MVA /
SWITCHGEAR /
/
f----+
FUTURE
EXTENSION

FIG. 15.31 One-line diagram showing the system of Fig. 15.30 expanded with all trons-
formerr in pclrdlel and using synchronizing-bur arrangement to keep short-circuit currents
within the ratings of the existing and new rwitchgeor.
798 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

9 9 10,000 K W
0.8 PF EACH

9 9 I38 KV

500 MVA
DUTY SWITCHGEAR

"I
415 MVA \
\ I

'N

õõTa fb
2 . 4 KV 2.4 KV

FIG. 15.32 Ona-line diogmm of rin exirting power ryrtam to which (I new 12,SW-lna
penerator ii to bc added at 13.8 kv.

Take, for example, the case of an airplane factory where power was
purchased a t 69 kv and stepped down in two 5000-kva transformer banks
to 4.16 kv. The 4.16-kv switchgear installed had an interrupting rating
of 150 mva. I t was desired to add 7500 kva t o the capacity of the pn-
mary substation supplying this plant. I t was a simple problem, all except
staying within the interrupting rating of the existing switchgear. New
250-mva switchgear was selected for the new substation capacity. Two
choices were possible. The first was to not parallel the new transformer
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 799

with the existing 5000-kva transformer banks, in other words, operate


with a split 4.16-kv hus. This led t o operating problems particularly in
respect t o balancing the loads on the two bus sections. Had that not been
a problem, the sectionalized hus shown in Fig. 15.30 would have been the
least expensive method.
The second method was to use a synchronizing bns, as shown in Fig.
15.31. This permits interchange of load between buses; however, there
are limitations to this arrangement as pointed out in Chaps. 10 and 13.
The reactors selected were of sufficient size to allow for future growth.
Another example illnstrating the use of the synchronizing bus for reduc-
ing short-circuit duty is the expansion of the system shown in Fig. 15.32
to that shown in Fig. 15.33.
12,500 KW 6 0 0 0 KW E A G

.
'
*---i-
TO FUTURE
UNITS
-- SYN EUS f

TRANSFERREO
FROM
BUS N0.I BUS N 0 . 2 TO U
BALANCE ÇYSTEM

FlG. 15.33 One-line diagrom of the ryrtem rhown in Fig. 15.32 with the new 12.500-kva
gwierator added on m e new 13.8-kv bur (No. 21. Only one rynchronizing-bur ieoctor
(No. 11 is added now. Provirion for rynchroniring-bur reactor (No. 21 i. made to allow for
fuhire expanrion. When reoctor (No. 2) is added, D breaker will replaice durnrny
breoker at A.
800 MODERNIUTION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

SUPERIMPOSING A HIGHER VOLTAGE “BACKBONE“ OR GRID

A s mentioned earlier in this chapter, it is sometimes desirable to super-


impose a higher voltage grid for distribution of power to load-center areas.
Some of the foregoing examples, such as those in Figs. 15.5, 15.7, and
15.11. show how higher voltage “backbone” distribution systems were
superimposed on a large 600-volt system. These are to be contrasted
with the examples of Figs. 15.15, 15.19, and 15.27, where an extension was
made at higher voltage but the old part of the power system was left sub-
stantially as is.
Following are three examples further to illustrate this principle and the
problems involved. In the first case, the plant was supplied a t 13.8 kv
and all power was stepped down to 2.4 kv a t one location. The total load
was 15,000 kva, and most of the power was used in segregated areas,
Fig. 15.34. Consideration was given to splitting the 2.4-kv bus. How-
ever, that would not reduce interrupting duty to within the interrupting
rating of the 2.4-kv circuit breakers. More load was to be added in the
various mill areas, which would still further aggravate the problem of
load balance on the three bus sections if the bus were split. More supply
transformer capacity would soon be needed. The 2.4-kv cables to the
mill areas were already overloaded. It was decided after considerable
study that the best solution would be to use 13.8-kv distribution as a
“backbone” system to supply the existing 2.4-kv distribution system in
the mill areas through transformers. The transformers belonged to the
power company, and they could use them elsewhere. The new power
distribution system is shown in Fig. 15.35.
The system change mas made on a step-by-step basis. Because of the
large number of large 2.3-kv motors, the power on the first step was all
transformed to2.4 kv a t themill areas. Inlateradditions thedouble trans-
formation will be eliminated; 480 volts mill be transformed directly from
13.8 kv for the 440-volt loads. The 2.4-kv distribution system in the
mill areas was practically unchanged. The 2.4-kv distribution center in
each mill area is now supplied by a local transformer instead of by long
2.4-kv feeders from the main substation. Had this plant been served a t
some voltage above 15 kv, say 69 kv, new transformers 69 kv to 13.8 kv
would have to have been added.
In another case, Fig. 15.36, a chemical plant had one area served a t
4160 volts stepped down from a 33-kv utility system. An expansion of
similar proportion was planned about 135 miles away. T o expand the
existing substation meant complicated arrangements of reactors and
switchgear to keep the short-circuit duty within the rating of the existing
4.16-kv switchgear. Furthermore, the cost of transmitting 7500 kva at
4.16 kv for 146 miles is high. Power was already purchased a t 33 kv, and
the substation belonged to the industrial plant.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 801

Study revealed that the most economical arrangement would be to use


33 kv as the “backbone” voltage for carrying power to the load areas of
this plant. Hence, the new area was served a t 4160 volts fed from a new

13.8 KV FROM UTILITY

UL 3- 5000 KVA
TTRA“B,NK,”MER

2.4 KV I/ T

s, MILL AREA
‘I 8”

I
MILL AREA
I‘ D
MILL AREA
“c
BUS

I_
1 1
MILL AREA

FIG. 15.34 Schsmotiç me-line diaaram of an exirting power ryrtem in


‘*E
BUS

0
‘I

Iarge mill.
802 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

$ 4 f
Y Y NEW 13.8 KV
METAL CLAD
sw ITCHGEAR
RATED SOOMVA

$ 2 . 4 KV

2 MILL AREA
"B"

I MILL AREtS
" 8 " a "c
2.4 KV CLOSE TOGETHER
MILL~EZT
12T;EKv
STATION v

$Y4
T T
MILL AREA"D" ILL AREA"E"
SUBSTATION SUBSTATION
FIG. 15.35 One-line diagram showing the power system of Fig. 15.34 with 13.8-kv
(backbone) distribution system used to feed existing 2.4-kv mill areas through local 13.8-
2.4-kv molter substations.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 803

FIG. 15.36 Chemical plant power system with widely segregated lood areas. New lood
area to be added 136 miles from existing load area.
804 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

33 K V FROM UTILITY

kvk l
4 4
EXISTING AREA

NEW AREA

FIG. 15.37 Power system of Fig. 15.36 exponded using 33 kv (IS Ibackbonel primary
voltage for carrying power to load areas.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS 805

substation a t the new area, as shown in Fig. 15.37. Future plans con-
template similar expansion using 33 kv as the primary or “backhone”
system voltage. This technique applies to strip mines or any area where
distances are great and sizable loads are used a t each location. Primary
or “baokbone” voltages as high as 220 kv have been used in this manner
for plants in this country.
A third case is typical of many of the large steel mills. Here primary
voltages are often 6.9 kv. As plants have grown and the areas expanded,
a point is reached where 6.9 kv becomes too low a voltage for economical

UTILITY

COLD M I L L

MERCHANT
MILL AREA

FIG. 15.38 Schematic one-line diagram of a large steel mill (IS originally operated wifh
6.9-kv generation and dirlribution.
006 MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING POWER SYSTEMS

and good practice in distributing such large blocks of power over such
wide areas. A typical case is that shown in Fig. 15.38. Here expansion
added considerably more power. Several voltages were studied, i.e.,

NEW69KVBUS
p1 I"yI
p 4, I
REGULATING
AUTO
TRANSFORMER

/ \
0

NEW BLAST
FURNACE AREA
SUBSTATIONS

NEW HOTMILL AREA


SUBSTATION
NEW COLD MILL
AREA SUBSTATION
FIG. 15.39 One-line diogrom of system of Fig. 15.38 with 69-kv [backbone) system used
for supplying 6.9-kv power at individual mill oreas.
MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION O f EXUTNG POWER SYSTEMS 807

expansion a t 6.9, 13.8, 33, and 69 kv. The latter three did not show a
wide divergence in over-all cost, but all three, i.e., 13.8,33, or 69 kv, were
materially less expensive than expanding the 6.9-kv system. Local
preferences and the fact that the utility line was 69 kv dictated 69 kv as
the main transmission voltage. At the main mill areas the power was
stepped down to 6.9 kv. The essentials of the new system with increased
generation and load are shown in Fig. 15.39. Theexistinggenerators Nos.
1 and 2 and the powerhouse switchgear were left as is to serve existing
6.9-kv local load near the powerhouse. The existing 69-6.9-kv trans-
former was left as is except that it was connected to the new 69-kv bus
instead of directly to the utility line. Existing generator No. 3 was
removed from the existing 6.9-kv bus to reduce short-circuit duty on the
6.9-kv switchgear. Number 3 and the new No. 4 generators were con-
nected directly to the new 69-kv bus through transformers. A 69-kv loop
was used t o transmit power from the new 69-kv powerhouse bus to the
new mill substations as shown in Fig. 15.39.
Chapter 16 by William B. Wilson

Steam and Power Generation

TRENDS IN THE USAGE AND SOURCE OF POWER FOR


INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
During the past 10 years, the total use of electric power in industry
almost doubled and the use per unit of industrial production increased
more than 25 per cent.
Except during a national emergency, such as World War 11, industrial
plants used 55 to 60 per cent of the total power used in the United States.
Both the industrial power plants and the utility plants utilize steam tur-
bine-generators, combustion-gas turbine-generators, water-wheel (hydro)
generators, and internal-combustion engines for electric power generation.
I n 1952, generation of the 463 (399.2 by utility and 63.8 by industrial
plants) billion kwhr of electric energy in the United States was divided as
shown in Table 16.1.
Installed capacity in 1952 for the different plants was divided as shown
in Table 16.2.
Based on information in Tables 16.1 and 16.2, the average “plant
factor” for both utility and industrial generating plants is approximately
50 per cent.
I n making economic studies, it is reasonable t o expect that the “plant
factor” for new plants will be appreciably higher than the over-all average
figures indicated in the tables. I t must he recognized that the figures
for installed generating capacity used in Table 16.2 include not only the
generating capacity in normal use but also obsolete equipment which is
retained for some very infrequent emergency operating condition. Much
of this obsolete equipment does not have sufficient service reliability or
operating efficiency to justify its use for normal operation.
808
................................ 4 p o d m
Bu!io~ouoB. polloisu! y n pi01
p (us, ,ad
....
s'v8
z.z8 ............................... ID101
SDB
"
L'Z
I ...................... s"!qrq "o!l.nquo,
p"IDlYl
b'OZ v.Oz ............................wgs"quO3
SiuDldoApAH
" " " ' '
.. .. f.. ..". 'IIuqd aY!qrq wDs#s
t' 19
I L'bS
-1-1-
0'001
.... .... Z'98 ....
....
5' 1
L'EC
8'VL
"O!I
I I
ID!4mp"l
I I I
608 N O U V M N 3 9 WMOd (INV WV31S
810 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

realizing economies in initial cost, maintenance and operating costs by


installing larger generating units. The average kw rating of turbine-
generator units being sold for industrial power plant applications today is
approximately 7500 t o 10,000 kw-just about twice the average rating of
units being sold 10 years ago.
I n many areas, “outdoor” power plants are being used to reduce the
initial power plant investment costs.
The trend to higher initial steam conditions has increased the “ by-prod-
uct” power which can be generated by plants supplying steam for process
use. A large number of industrial turbines are being sold for initial steam
pressures above 800 psig today, and many are utilizing initial pressures
higher than 1000 psig. Steam turbines operating in our utility plants are
designed for initial pressures up t o 2400 psig and initial temperatures up
to 1100 F. Units now on order are being designed for initial pressures up
t o 4500 psig and initial temperatures up to 1150 F.
The average initial steam conditions of industrial power plants as well
as utility power plants have increased rapidly in recent years, and it is
expected that this trend will continue.
A partial list of industrial turbines with high initial steam conditions
and of the larger units installed in industrial generating stations is given
in Table 16.3.
TABLE 16.3 Partial List of Industrial Turbine-Generators

Turbine
capability Steom conditions Steam conditions
roling, h

110,000 1200 lb-725 F 1 in.


110.000 1200 lb-900 F-1 in.

44.000 850 lb-900 F-155 in.


43,750 1250 lb-900 F-235 Ib
41,000 725 lb-725 F-165 Ib
31.250 1250 16-925 F-i 35 in.
18,750 1250 lb-925 F-150 I6

The requirements of each application where power is to be generated


must be carefully considered. Technical data included in this chapter
should assist the designer in the selection of the proper prime movers for
each industrial power plant application.
Electric power is very essential t o the economical operation of all
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 81 1

industrial plants. In many plants, a power interruption for only a few


minutes or even fractions of a second can cause many hours of lost produc-
tion in addition to possible damage to process equipment.
In many plants the question of purchased vs. privately generated power
must be considered. What then are the factors that determine whether
power should be generated or purchased? For larger plants, the avail-
ability of low-cost power from the utility or of low-cost fuel of suitable
quality for a local generating station are important factors that should be
considered prior to the purchase of the plant site.

PURCHASED VS. GENERATED POWER

Shall all electric energy be purchased, or shall generating facilities be


provided so that a part or all of the electric energy can be generated within
the plant? It is usually the use of process heat and not the magnitude of
the electric power load that is the most important factor favoring indus-
trial power generation. Reliability, provision for future plant expansion,
predictions of future changes in plant processes, personal preferences,
etc., all enter into making the decision, but like many such decisions, it
is usually a simple matter of economics.
Why Generate? There are many conditions where local power gener-
ation in the industrial plant is economically sound. These conditions
include the following:
1. Industries using large quantities of heat energy, usually process
steam, sometimes find it economical to generate their own by-product
electric power either by steam or gas-turbine-driven generators. These
facilities supply process steam and elcctric power simultaneously and a t
high plant cycle efficiency. It is important to note that in these cases
it is not the use of electric power but the use of heat energy, usually in the
form of process steam, that determines the economics of power generation
within the industrial plant. Typical of such industrial plants are paper
mills, petroleum refineries, chemical plants, etc.
Electric power generated by prime movers supplying heat for process
use is usually called “by-product” power. Over-all power-plant effi-
ciency of such plants can be as high as 70 to 80 per cent-this is two to
three times the efficiency obtainable in the average power plant operated
for the generation of electric power only where all steam must be con-
densed and heat is not required in plant processes.
2. Where large quantities of low-cost waste or by-product fuel are
available, the industrial plant can sometimes generate low-cost electric
power, particularly where large, modern, efficient prime movers are
selected. Typical of such industries are large integrated steel mills which
burn the excess blast-furnace gas for the generation of electric power.
812 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

3. Some plants such as mines and mine products processing plants are
often located in undeveloped isolated areas of the country. I n such areas
electric utility systems may not be developed t o care for such remote
loads, and it may be less expensive to install generating facilities a t the
mine or processing site than t o develop and extend for such long distances
the electric utility system t o care for such a load. Often there is a specu-
lative nature about such ventures or only limited quantities of raw mate-
rial are available which may not justify a large expenditure on the part of
the utility because such an investment may be lost should conditions
change or the venture not develop as planned.
4. I n some cases where loads are very large (50,000 k w or more), load
factors are high, and low-cost fuel of the proper type is available, power
generation has been employed by the industrial plants when power was
not readily available a t low cost from the electric utility. Typical of such
cases are the aluminum-reduction plants, chemical plants, steel mills, and
others requiring large quantities of electric power.
I n some industrial plants where the consequences of a power outage are
very serious and where electric power lines from an outside source are
subject to frequent disturbance by lightning or other causes, the indus-
trial customer may sometimes consider the generation of a part of the
electric power required. This might be done to minimize the possibility
of an interruption of power t o essential circuits even though the cost of
generating poxx-er was greater than would he the cost of purchased power.
In most areas, the reliability of power supplied by the utility company is
adequate for Any industrial requirement.
Where any of the above conditions exist, it is well t o study the cost of
generating a part or all of the power requirements within the industrial
plant. The most economical arrangement is often t o generate only such
power as can be made as by-product power from the process heat or as
can be generated from by-product fuel and to purchase the remainder.
Electric power utilitieshave been very progressive in their planning of
new generating facilities. They have installed large generating units of
modern design, keeping step with metallurgical developments which per-
mit higher steam temperatures and pressures resulting in improved cycle
efficiency. Many large steam-turbine generating units are designed for
steam reheat t o further improve cycle efficiency.
Some industrial plants are or can be located adjacent t o a utility power
station. I n such instances, it may be found that the requirements of the
industrial plant for both electric energy and steam can be supplied from
the utility plant most economically. If by-product or waste fuel is avail-
able from the industrial process, that fuel may be sold by the industrial t o
the utility for use in the nearby utility power and steam generating
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 813

facilities. There are a few cases where electric utilities are supplying
both process steam and electric energy t o industrial plants, and there will
undoubtedly be more. These combinations have been very successful
from the standpoint of both the industrial and the utility. I n effect, such
an arrangement makes it possible for the utility t o make some by-product
power to further improve its plant-cycle efficiency.
Because of the efficient operation of the electric utility systems, their
rates are usually very attractive. Small industrial plants having little
or no requirement for process steam usually find that the electric utility
can generate, transmit, and sell electric power for less than the cost of
generation in the industrial plant using steam turbines, gas turbines,
diesels, or similar types of prime movers generating electric power only.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN PURCHASING POWER


It is not intended t o discuss rates or the contractual phases of purchas-
ing power. Where power is t o be purchased from the localutility, there
are certain phases of an engineering nature which should be considered
before the plant site is bought and before cost estimates of the electrical
system are made for appropriation purposes.

SIZE OF LOAD VS. POWER AVAILABLE

Among the points to be considered with the utility are the amount of
power available or that can be made available. Is there enough available
power in the area to support the plant which is intended to be built?
Where only a few hundred or a few thousand kilowatts are required,
power supply is generally no problem in picking the plant site as such
quantities of power are readily available almost everywhere that indus-
trial plants of these small sizes are generally located. However, when
electrical demands are large, i.e., several thousands or tens of thousands
of kilowatts, the exact plant location may be influenced by availability of
electric power.
When plants have large electrical demands, extra facilities may often
have to be added to the electric utility system, and therefore there are
many problems of mutual interest between the industrial planner and the
local utility.

ALWAYS GIVE THE UTILITY THE FULL STORY EARLY

Particularly if the plant load is sizable, give the electric utility the full
story early in the consideration of a plant site. The primary objective of
814 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

the electric utility is to serve their customers and serve them well. They
all strive to do this, but they can do this only if given the fullest coopera-
tion, particularly in the early planning stages of selecting a plant location.
The local utility, t o serve the plant best and on time, should know what
the expected demands are, what the load swings are apt to be, and what
kind of load factor and what type of load the plant is going to impose upon
their system.
Modern electric utility power systems are so adequate and so flexible
and so thoroughly cover the country that they can meet most of the
demands of even the larger new plants. However, it is always well to
check with the electric utility first t o be sure that your plant loc&tion is
proper from an electric-power-supply standpoint.

POWER SUPPLY FOR CRITICAL PROCESSES

When considering the plant site for a critical continuous-process plant,


one should study the utility-system connections t o be sure that there is or
can he made a reliable source of power. Remote parts of some electric
utility systems are fed by single lines, which may not he reliable enough
for many manufacturing processes. Therefore, if the plant is t o be
located in such a remote part of the system, a check is in order. Also
eheck the substation and transmission interconnections in the immediate
area t o see that there is a reasonable degree of assurance of a continuous
supply of electric power to the plant during normal or emergency outages
of a part of the utility power-supply system.

VOLTAGE REGULATION

Sometimes starting large motors becomes a problem when a plant is


located a t the end of a very long light line. There may be so much volt-
age drop that the larger motors cannot be started. In other cases there
may be so much voltage drop associated with the starting of the larger
motors that other motors already running and the lighting of the plant
will not perform properly during the starting period of the larger motor.
Voltage regulation or spread due t o normal steady-state load can
usually be taken care of by feeder voltage regulators or load-ratio control
in the transformers. I n other cases the normal voltage regulation or
spread of the utility supply line may he, because of requirements for
efficient operation of the over-all utility system, such as to require voltage-
regulation facilities in the industrial plant. I n any event, a check should
be made of the voltage spread due t o normal load in the plant or due to
utility-system operating practices to see if it would be necessary to install
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 815

voltage-regulating facilities. If such facilities are required, be sure that


they are included in the equipment when electrical specifications are
drawn up. If there is any question as t o whether or not they are needed,
it is better that the voltage-regulating facilities be included as manufac-
turing processes are constantly requiring closer and closer voltage spread
t o perform the manufacturing functions effectively and efficiently.

MASTER-UNIT SUBSTATIONS

Check t o see what voltages are available from the utility. If the volt-
age at mhirh the plant will be served is above 15 kv, a master-unit suh-
station may be required. If the voltage availahle from the utility is 15 kv
or below, that voltage may be used directly for distribution of power
within the plant (see Chap. 10). The voltage at which a given plant will
be served in the average case depends upon the local practices of the elec-
tric utility and upon the size of the plant contemplated.
If power is served to the plant at volbages above 15 kv and a master-
unit substation is required, there is the problem of who should own the
mast,er-unit substation. I n some areas the utility policies are t o supply
such substations, or at least the transformer section of the substations.
In ot,her areas the supplying of the snhstations is optional, and in still
other areas it is required that the industrial plant supply the master sub-
station complete. If a master substation is to be installed for serving the
plant and no other circuits on the utility system, then it is generally
advantageous, from the standpoint of flexibility of operation of the indus-
trial plant, for the industrial plant t o own that master substation. The
plant operators then have control over its rating, design, and its operation
and can integrate it into the plant power distribution system more easily
than where substations may be owned by someone else.

SEPARATE UTILITY A N D INDUSTRIAL PLANT OPERATIONS

It is highly desirable t,hat rircuit breakers he employed between the


connertion t,o the utility system and the industrial power system and that
the circuit arrangements be such that the operation of the utility system
from a switching standpoint is independent of the operation of t,he indus-
trial plant. In this way there is a maximum of flexibilit,y obtained for the
utility and t,be industrial plant, as earh may operate their respective sys-
tems with the greatest degree of freedom without interfering with each
other from a circuit,-svitching standpoint. Typical one-line diagrams of
utility-industrial interconnections are shown in Fig. 16.1. See Chap. 13
for further details on primary-system design.
816 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

UTILITY SUPPLY
LINES ONE OR
MORE 1 1. OR FUSES

Y Y
x
$Y $Y
I
J
I
PLANT FEEDERS PLANTFEEDERS

,-$ 4
*
(0)
I UTlLiTY
SUPPLY
LINES 6 4 (b)
I UTILITY
SUPPLY
LINES

BREAKERS
OR FUSES

, ,
PLANT FEEDERS PLANT FEEDERS
(C ) (d 1
FIG. 16.1 Typical utility-indurtriol interconnections.

PARALLEL OPERATION OF GENERATING FACILITIES

When the industrial plant generates part of its own electric power and
purchases the rest from the utility system, it is always highly desirable to
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 817

operate the generating facilities in parallel t o obta.in the most flexible


operation for both the utility and the industrial plant.
When it is desired to generate only part of the power and purchase the
rest, it is important in the early stage of the negotiations to check to see
whether or not the utility will permit parallel operat,ion of the industrial
generating facilities nith the utility system. There are generally no
serious terhnical problems involved in such parallel operation. However,
there may be policy problems which are extremely important.
After it has been derided that there will be parallel operation of the
facilities, there are certain technical problems which should be considered
early in the negotiations and particularly early in the design stages of the
power system.
In areas of severe lightning outages, the reliability of the industrial
power system may be materially affected by outages on the utility supply
line because of lightning. I n such cases, particularly where continuous
processes are involved, methods of quick disconnection of the two systems
during such disturbances should he devised. I n any case, when the two
systems are separated, adequate facilities should be provided for resyn-
chroniaing, and these points of resynchronization should be limited to a
very minimum.
There are always problems of control of the division of kvar between
the local plant generators and the utility systems. There may he power-
contract clauses that would make it desirable t o limit the kvar imposed
on the ut,ility system by the industrial plant to a very minimum.
It is highly desirable t o permit the greatest degree of freedom of oper-
ation in so far as kvar control is concerned. To obtain the maximum
degree of freedom, always include voltage-regulating facilities iu the tie t o
the utility system. This may be in the form of load-ratio control in the
step-down transformers or in feeder voltage regulators in the utility supply
line. Such facilities are generally furnished by the industrial plant.
I n other cases power-limit clauses may stipulate a mavimum kw demand
that should he imposed on the utility system. I n such cases, turbine-load
regulating equipment is necessary.

RELAY COORDINATION

While not an essential for consideration in negotiation stages, it is cer-


tainly important in the early stages of system design to study any require-
ments of the utility with regard t o relaying. These requirements must
he coordinated with the relaying system in the industrial plant t o assure
selective operation and proper clearing of any faults that may occur in
the industrial system. For further discussion of the relaying problems,
refer to Chap. 9.
818 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

COMPARISON OF INDUSTRIAL POWER PLANT CYCLES


I n all thermal generating stations today, even including proposed elec-
tric generating plants using atomic energy, the cycles are similar.
I n the first step, the energy of the fuel is converted into heat energy by
a chemical process. I n the case of our more common fuels, this is the
process of combustion. In the case of atomic fuel, it is a reaction which
takes place in an “atomic pile.”
This heat energy may expand the gases in the cylinders of an internal-
combustion engine t o produce mechanical work direct. It may also be
transferred in boilers or combustion chambers t o fluids such as water
(steam) or air a t some elevated pressure. This energy can then be con-
verted into mechanical work by expansion t o a lower pressure through a
turbine, engine, or similar prime mover. The mechanical energy is then
converted into electrical energy by an electric generator.

PLANT THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Of primary concern is the over-all plant-cycle thermal efficiency.


There are definite limitations to the efficiency of different plant cycles.
T o consider the cost of electric energy or heat energy separately is not
sufficient-it is the over-all fuel and operating dollars that are important.
For plants using the same type of fuel and generating all heat and electric
energy requirements within the plant, fuel dollars are directly propor-
tional t o over-all plant thermal efficiency. Over-all plant thermal
efficiency is very useful for evaluating various plant cycles and is defined
as the
Total available and useful output
Total actual input
This concept of plant thermal efficiency clearly recognizes both heat
energy and electric energy; the useful electric energy can be converted
into an equivalent heat basis. High thermal efficiency is a very impor-
tant factor in over-all ope!ating costs.
Power-plant-cycle thermal efficiency for different types of power plants
is covered in more detail later in this chapter. It will be noted, in plants
requiring both heat energy and electric power, that each type of prime
mover can operate a t optimum power-plant-cycle efficiency if the ratio
between heat energy and electric power requirements matches the charac-
teristics of the prime mover. This ratio differs widely for different prime
movers as indicated by the curves in Fig. 16.2.
The requirements for heat energy and electric power vary widely in
different plants, and the different types of prime movers operate a t
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 819

optimum efficiency for different, definite ratios between plant require-


ments for beat energy and electric power. This being the case and
because of the importance of the particular plant requirements for both
heat energy and electric energy, application of the proper prime mover for
each job considered is of prime importance.
The curves of Fig. 16.2 show the by-product electric power which can
be generated by steam turbines and gas turbines when supplying 100,000
lb of steam per hour for process a t different process pressures. These
curves are based on the following:
1. Noncondensing or automatic extraction-type steam turbines extract-
ing and/or exhausting all steam to process.
2. Gas turbines which are used t o supply steam to process by exhaust-
heat recovery boilers utilizing heat from the gas-turbine exhaust gases.
3. For certain applications, such as drying heavy fiberboards or the
kiln drying of lumber, the gas-turbine exhaust gases may he used direct.
For these applications, temperature and humidity of the drying gas can

PRESSURE OF STEAM SUPPLIED TO PROCESS PSlG


FIG. 16.2 Electric power which can be generated by combustion gar turbines and steam
turbines when supplying 100,ooO Ib of steam per hour for process.
820 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

be controlled by t,he admission of atmospheric air and moisture as may be


required for the particular application.
These units all operate a t their maximum cycle efficiency when the
prime mover can supply all electric-energy requirements and a t the
same time supply the heat energy required for process and building
heating. The generation of power in this manner is often referred to as
“by-product” power, and the over-all power-plant-cycle efficiency ranges
as high as 70 to 80 per cent.
Based on generat,ion of “by-product” power, these curves show that
steam turbines or, as explained on page 867, gas turbines with supple-
mentary fired exhaust-heat recovery boilers may he considered when the
ratio of electric power to process steam is lorn-say, 2500 to 5000 km per
100,000 Ib per hour steam flow which is 20 to 40 Ib of process steam per
kilomatthour. Gas turbines with straight exhaust-heat recovery boilers
may be considered when 8000 to 10,000 km is required per 100,000 lb per
hr steam flow which is 10 t o 12 Ib of proress steam per kilomatthour.
I n the intermediate range of process-steam requirements, the con-
densing extraction turbine or the gas turbine utilizing exhaust-heat
Fecovery boilers with some supplementary fuel firing might be selected.
I n fact, some plant,s have found it desirable t o consider a combination of
types of prime movers to give the highest over-all plant-cycle efficiency
and greatest flexibility in operation.
This r h o of process steam per kilowatthour varies widely in different
plants, ranging from plants having no requirements for heat energy to
plants requiring an equivalent of 40 Ib or more of steam per kilowatthour.
Today, the average is perhaps no more than 20 or 25 Ib of steam per kilo-
watthour, and with the rapid increase in t,he use of electricity, the ratio is
likely to decrease still more in the future. In many new plants and par-
ticularly in.t,heexpansion of existing plants, the ratio of process steam to
electric power requirements may be quite low.
The trend in industrial power plants is to higher initial steam condi-
tions. This trend reduces the amount of steam per kilowatthour avail-
able when generating by-product power with steam turbines and tends to
match more nearly the changing power and process-steam requirements.

STEAM POWER PLANT CYCLES-STEAM TURBINES


First., consider the efficiencies, theoretical and actual, of a steam-
turbine power plant.

TURBINE-GENERATOR EFFICIENCIES

The over-all efficiency of steam turbine-generator units-that is, the


turbine-generator unit itself and not the turbine cycle-ranges from approxi-
FIG. 16.3 Mollier chart with methods of opproximating turbine expansion lines indicated.
I 1 I
822 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

L W i th o u t e W i t h 4
Pro'iiss steam Process Steam
Requirements Requirements
100
"m

FIG. 16.4 Relative power-plont thermal efficiencies for various steam-turbine power-
plant cycler.

mately 60 per cent for a 500-kw unit, 75 per cent for a 7500-kw unit, up to
80 per cent or more for units 15,000 kw and above. Steam conditions,
type of turbines (condensing, noncondensing, automatic-extraction), and
various other items also have minor effects on the efficiencies. For the
small units (up to 1500 kW) an efficiency of 65 per cent may be used for
preliminary estimating purposes. Except in isolated cases, the perform-
ance of turbine-generators in ratings 2500 to 15,000 km should have an
error of not more than 10 per cent if an over-all turbine-generator effi-
ciency of 75 per cent is assumed for preliminary estimating purposes.
This does not mean that the turbine can take steam having a heat
energy of, say, 1420.8 Btu per Ib (the enthalpy, beat energy, of steam a t
600 psig-825 F) and convert 60 to 80 per rent of this heat energy into
electric energy. Because of the limitations of the steam cycle, if the
above steam is expanded to 2 in. Hg abs (28 in. of mercury vacuum
referred to a 30-in. barometer), through a condensing-steam turbine or
any other steam-using prime mover, the energy available for use is only
1420.8 minus 916.5 (see points A and B , Fig. 16.3), or 504.3 Btu per Ib.
The theoretical expansion line of a prime mover having 100 per cent
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 823

efficiency and this available energy is shown as line .4B on the Mollier
chart, Fig. 16.3. This 504.3 Btu per Ib is only ahout 35.5 per cent of the
total energy in the steam supply. More will be said about the Mollier
chart later.
Actual relative power-plant-cycle efficiencies for different operating
requirements and various types of steam-turhine plants are shown in
Fig. 16.4.

THEORETICAL STEAM CYCLE

The cycle of a theoretically perfect turbine, using a surface condenser


to condense the steam to supply boiler feed water for reuse in the cycle, is
shown in Fig. 16.5. In this theoretical cycle, 847 Btu per Ib of steam con-
densed is rejected to tbe condenser circulating water a t a temperature
helow 101 F (saturation temperature of the steam condensed a t 2 in. Hg
abs). Only 69 Btu per Ib remains in the condensate ready to repeat its
path through the cycle. As can be seen in this diagram, 59.7 per cent of

TURBINE
600 PSIG-825F 100 %
EFFICIENT
1420.8 BTU PER L
100 % *
AVAILABLE

I
O!" rC"
35.5 % *LO

I2 IN HG ABS 101F
OJC , LI> I B
F -7,I DCO
_I.v._.
BOILER
100 7.
i 64.5 O/. X

I
!I
I

LtItNU:
-STEAM
-_-- WATER
NOTE:
1420.8-316.5
I - THEORETICAL CYCLE EFFICIENCY = 1420,8.69 = 37.2%
2 - THEORETICAL STEAM RATE R)R TUREINE GENERATOR =
3413 BTu PER KW HR = 6 . 7 6 LB STEAM PER KW HR
1420.8 - 916.5
X FIGURES ARE PERCENT OF ENERGY IN STEAM SUPPLIEO TO TURBINE

FIG. 16.5 A rchernatic diograrn rhowing theoretical cycle of stroight condensing steclrn-
turbine plant operoting with steorn conditionr Mx) prig, 825 F, 2 in. Hg abr.
824 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

the heat errergyin t,he steam supplied to the turbine is lost in the condenser
circulating vater.
Assuming that a theoretical steam plant with steam conditions of 600
psig-825 F-2 in. Hg could be built which had no auxiliary losses and
wit,h hoilers, turbines, and generators having 100 per cent efficiency to
convert all this available energy into useful output, the cycle efficiency
would be
Total available and useful output
Total a d u a l input
or, for this theoretical case (see Figs. 16.3 and 16.5),
The heat energy available in the cycle
The heat added in the boiler
which is
1420.8 - 916.5
- 504.3
1C20.8 - 69.0
_ _1331.8
_ or 37.2 per cent

For a theoret,ical plant operating hetween initial steam conditions of


600 psig- 825 F- 1 in. Hg abs, t,he theoret,ical cycle efficiency would be
39.2 per cent. For steam conditions of 2400 psig-1000 F-1 in. Hg abs,
the t,heoretical cycle efficiency mould be 45 per cent. For the same theo-
retical plant operating with initial steam conditions of 400 psig-750 F,
the theoretical rycle efficiency would be 37 per cent with turbine exhaust-
ing at, 1 in. IIg ahs and 35 per cent with turbine evhausting a t 2 in. Hg ahs.
These efficiencies are based on the assumption that the heat energy
(847 Btu per Ih for the GOO psig-825 F-2 in. Hg abs turbine) in the tur-
bine exhaust steam, rejected to the condenser circulating water a t the
relatively low t e m p e d u r e of 101 F, is not used. If only two-thirds of
this 847 Rtu could be used, then the theoretical cycle efficiency of the 600
psig-8825 F-2 in. Hg plant would be 79 per cent, or more than doubled.
If all this heat energy in the exhaust could be used, then, of course, the
effiriency of this theoretical plant would be 100 per cent.
The chart, Fig. 16.6, illustrates the ut,ilization of heat energy in steam
supplied t o the steam turbine for different cycle arrangements.

THE MOLLIER CHART (ALSO CALLED "STEAM' CHART)

Vsing the turbine-generator efficiencies given on page 820, the actual


performance (pounds of steam per kwhr) of different types of steam tur-
bines for various steam conditions can be estimated very easily. The
steam conditions a t the turbine exhaust or any selected extraction pres-
S T E M AND POWER GENERATION 825

nis s'ozw
TABLE 16.4 Condensed Table of Theoretical Steam Rates*
- -
1niti.l preuure. psig

150 1 200 1 250 1 250 1 400 1 400 1 500 I 600 1 600 1 600 I 850 1 850 1 850 1 1200 I 1200 I 2400
EX. Ex-
houd haw
pro,. Initial temperature, deg F
p,*,-
*we I",*

Initial superheal
~
____ - - ~

In. Hg In. Hg
a br 84.2 1112.2/ 94 I 194 115t.91 301.9 I 280 111.2 261.2 336.2 297.7 372.7 1422.7 331.2 1381.2 1 287
- ~~ - - ~
obs
0.5 6.872
1 6.254 5.98< 5.862 5.611 5.454 5.519 5.350 5.286 0.5
I .o 7.31 6.633 6.341 6.190 5.917 5.747 5.807 5.633 5.535 1.0
1.5 7.60 6.888 6.571 6.410 6.122 5.944 5.999 5.017 5.70C 1.5

2.0 9.98 9.32 9.07 8.52 8.09 7.37 7.20 7.83 7.09 6.7& 6.582 6.284 6.097 6.148 5.958 5.828 2.0
2.5 10.32 9.61 9.35 8.76 8.31 7.55 7.38 8.02 7.26 6.92: 6.728 6.419 6.223 6.274 6.078 5.933 2.5
3.0 10.62 9.87 9.59 8.98 8.50 7.71 7.53 8.19 7.40 7.05 6.849 6.532 6.332 6.380 6.179 6.023 3.0
!
3.5 10.8910.10 9.80 9.18 8.67 7.06 7.67 8.34 7.53 7.17 6.961 6.636 6.431 6.474 6.269 6.10i 3.5
4.0 11.14 10.31 10.00 9.36 8.82 7.99 7.79 8.48 7.65 7.28 7.06 6.726 6.520 6.560 6.350 6.17: 4.0
4.5 11.37 10.51 10.18 9.52 8.96 8.11 7.91 0.60 7.76 7.39 7.15 6.811 6.600 6.638 6.425 6.24C 4.5

5 11.59 10.70 10.35 9.68 9.10 8.23 8.01 8.72 7.86 7.48 7.24 6.981 6.676 6.709 6.493 6.30C 5
10 13.37 12.19 11.72 10.91 10.13 9.11 8.83 9.62 8.63 8.20 7.88 7.49 7.24 7.26 7.01 6.75C 10
I5 14.76 13.34 12.74 11.84 10.88 9.76 9.43 10.28 9.19 8.71 8.34 7.91 7.64 7.63 7.37 7.06 I5
20 15.99 14.33 13.63 12.63 11.53 10.30 9.92 9.13 8.71 8.25 1 7.97 7.95 1 1 7.67 7.31 20
25 17.13 15.24 14.42 13.35 12.09 10.77 10.35 11.29 I 10.04
9,64 9.49 9.03 8.55 0.25 8.21 7.92 7.52 25
~
- -
Pdg -
/-
I- Pig
~
- - ______ -
0 11.71 10.40 9.82 9.31 8.81 8.50 8.44 8.14 7.70 0
5 12.49 11.05 10.42 9.83 9.28 I 8.94 8.86 0.53 8.02 5
10 13.20 11.64 10.96' 0.29 9.71 9.34 9.23 8.87 8.30 10
- -
I5 !4.55 !0.81 9.18 7.56 15.24 13.38 12.68 13.85 10.71 10.08 9.69 9.56 9.18 8.55 I5
20 !6.69 !2.32 !0.45 8.65 16.02 14.02 13.24 14.46 11.10 10.43 10.02 9.86 9.46 8.77 20
25 !8.94 !3.86 !I .71 9.74 16.78 14.64 13.78 15.04 11.46 10.76 10.33 10.14 9.73 8.98 25

30 11.3 !5.42 !2.94 !0.81 17.52 15.23 14.29 15.60 13.62 12.75 11.80 11.07 10.62 10.40 9.98 9.18 30
35 13.8 !7.03 !4.20 !1 .PI 18.25 15.82 14.79 16.16 14.07 13.15 12.13 11.37 10.90 10.66 10.22 9.36 35
40 16.4 !8.70 !5.48 !3.03 18.96 16.41 15.29 16.70 14.51 13.54 12.45 11.66 11.17 10.90 10.44 9.54 40

45 19.3 10.5 !6.82 !4.17 19.69 16.98 15.78 17.23 14.94 13.93 12.77 11.94 11.43 11.14 10.66 9.71 45
50 12.4 12.3 !8.20 !5.35 20.42 17.57 16.26 17.76 15.36 14.31 13.07 12.21 11.69 11.37 10.88 9.87 50

60 19.4 16.2 11.1 !7.76 21.88 18.75 17.20 18.78 16.19 15.05 13.66 12.74 12.19 1 I .80 11.29 0.17 60
70 i7.9 10.5 14.1 10.4 23.35 19.96 18.15 19.80 17.00 15.79 14.22 13.25 12.68 12.22 11.68 0.45 70
80 i8.6 15.5 17.5 13.3 24.86 21.21 19.12 20.81 17.81 16.54 14.77 13.76 13.17 12.63 12.05 0.73 80

90 ,.... il . 3 II .2 16.5 26.44 22.51 20.11 21.84 18.62 17.29 15.32 14.27 13.65 13.02 12.41 0.99 90
I00 ,.... i8.1 15.3 10.0 28.08 23.86 21.12 22.88 19.44 18.05 15.87 14.77 14.13 13.40 12.78 1.24 00

125 ,.... ...... 25.51 21.56 20.02 17.22 16.03 15.34 14.33 13.66 1.83 125
18.60 17.31 16.57 15.24 14.53 2.39 150
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 26.75 28.31 23.83 22.12
I50 ..... ,.... ..... 17.9 37.5 31.9
175 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... 31.4 26.27 24.42 20.02 18.64 17.84 16.16 15.41 12.93 175

200 ..... ..... ..... ..... 51.1 43.5 33.9 34.7 28.99 26.94 21.52 20.03 19.17 17.09 16.30 13.45 100
250 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 62.3 43.5 42.4 35.3 32.9 24.77 23.04 22.06 19.03 18.13 14.44 250
300 ..... ..... ..... ..... 57.7 52.4 43.6 40.6 28.49 26.52 25.38 21.08 20.10 15.41 100

350 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... 66.1 55.0 51.2 32.8 30.5 29.23 23.32 22.21 16.36 150
400 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... I ::::: ...... ..... ...... 67.0 38.0 35.4 33.9 25.74 24.52 17.32 100
450 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ...... ..... 44.4 41.4 39.6 28.42 27.09 18.31 150

500 ..... ..... .... I ..... ..... .....


1 ...... ..... 52.6 49.0 47.0 31.5 29.99 19.31 100

550 ..... ...., ..... ...., ..... ..... ...... ...., ...... .... 63.4 59.0 56.5 35.0 33.3 10.34 150
600 ...., ...., ...., ...., ..... ..... ,
...... . ... ...... ..... ..... ..... 70.1 39.0 37.1 21.42 100
650 ...., ...., ...., ...., ..... ..... ,
.... . . .... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... 43.6 41.6 22.55 150
---- L- - - -
rom :enan and E yes, :heoretical S &rn Rate Tat
828 S T E M AND POWER GENERATION

sure can also be easily estimated. All that is needed is a Mollier chart,
which is reproduced in engineering handbooks available in most engi-
neering offices and schools. The use of theoretical steam rate tables as
published by the ASME makes it even easier to estimate turbine steam
rates. A condensed table of theoretical steam rates is included as Table
16.4. These theoretical steam rate tables are not normally so universally
available as the Mollier chart, and therefore a brief explanation of the use
of each will be given.
A part of a Mollier chart is included as Fig. 16.3. Mollier charts range
in size from a small sheet of paper to those used by designers, which may
be as long as your automobile, 15 to 20 ft. I n spite of the many lines on
such a chart, you will find it very simple to use.
T h e Mollier chart is divided into two sections by what is called the
saluration line. The saturation line is a point at which the water has all
been evaporated into a vapor and is a t a temperature corresponding t o
the boiling point of water a t the selected pressure. Along this saturation
line, the vapor is often referred to as “dry and saturated” steam. At all
points on the Mollier chart below this saturation line, the steam is mixed
with water, more often called moisture and is sometimes referred to as
“ n e t steam.” Lines parallel to, and below the saturation line, labeled
2, 4, 6, 8, etc., are lines of constant moisture in per cent. Above the
saturation line, no moisture exists in the steam, and it is normally referred
to as “superheated steam.” Lines parallel to and above the saturation
line, labeled 20, 40, 60, 80, etc., are lines of constant superheat in degrees
Fahrenheit.
I n addition to the lines of constant moisture and constant superheat,
there are also lines of constant pressure in pounds per square inch absolute
(not pounds per square inch gauge), which extend upward to the right
diagonally across the Mollier chart. Other lines starting a t the saturation
line, labeled 200, 240, 280, 320, etc., and curving upward to the right are
lines of constant temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
Horizontal lines on the chart show energy, normally called enthalpy,
in Btu per pound for steam at various conditions. Enthalpy is of interest
to the application engineer and the user, as well as t o the designer.
Vertical lines on the chart are lines of constant entropy. Except to
remember that steam would expand along a constant entropy line in a
perfect turbine, the term entropy has little practical use in the application
of steam turbines.
By use of the Mollier chart, i t is easy t o find the energy available for
power for any range of initial and exhaust steam conditions selected.
Furthermore, it is possible t o determine the conditions (degrees superheat,
temperature, enthalpy, per cent moisture, etc.) of steam exhausted or
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 829

extracted from a turbine a t any desired pressure for use in process or to


supply other turbines designed for the lower initial steam conditions.
Examples Explaining Use of the Mollier Chart. As will be noted from
the chart, the lines of constant pressure are in pounds per square inch
absolute (psia). Pressures normally quoted for steam turbines and steam
boilers are in pounds per square inch gauge (psig), and, a t sea-level condi-
tions pounds per square inch gauge are converted into pounds per square
inch absolute by simply adding 14.7 (normal atmospheric pressure). For
estimating purposes, 14.7 is usually rounded out t o 15 to simplify the
arithmetic.
Now t o check values used in Fig. 16.5 for the 60OpSig-825 F-2 in. Hg
abs steam-turbine plant. Initial steam conditions are 615 psia-825 F.
This is plotted as point A on the Mollier chart, Fig. 16.3.
As stated earlier, if the turbines were 100 per cent efficient, the steam
would expand down along a line of constant entropy on the Mollier chart.
For this particular example, then, steam would expand from the initial
conditions of 615 psia-825 F, as plotted a t point A , along a vertical line
until it intersects the 2-in. Hg abs line, which is located a t point B on the
chart.
These theoretical expansion lines are of importance. For instance,
data such as these, from the Mollier chart, were used in calculating the
theoretical steam rates shown in Table 16.4. These theoretical expansion
lines are also useful in estimating actual steam-turbine expansion lines,
which are used in determining the steam conditions (temperature, degrees
superheat, per cent moisture, etc.) a t any extract.ion or exhaust steam
pressure.
Now to establish an approximate turbine expansion line for the unit
operating a t 600 psig-825 F-2 in. Hg abs-first determine the available
energy between the points A and B ; a t point A on the Mollier chart, read
an enthalpy of 1420.8 Btu per Ib, and a t point B read an enthalpy of 916.5
Btu per Ib, or a difference of 504.3 Btu per lb. For an average value of
over-all turbine-generator efficiency, it was suggested that a value of 75
per cent be used. This was discussed earlier in this chapter. Neglecting
turbine-generator mechanical and electrical losses, this means that only
75 per cent of this 504.3 Btu, or 378.2 Btu, will actually be used by the
turbine. By subtracting this 378.2 Btu from the initial enthalpy of
1420.8 Rtu per Ib, the actual turbine exhaust enthalpy is 1042.6 Btu per
Ib. This now establishes the turbine exhaust enthalpy based on the
assumed efficiency and the selected exhaust pressure of 2 in. of Hg abs.
The approximate turbine exhaust conditions are now plotted a t the inter-
section of the horizontal 1042.6 Btu per Ib enthalpy line and the diagonal
2 in. Hg abs line; this is shown as point C on the Mollier chart, Fig. 16.3.
830 STEAM AND POWER GENEFATION

When considering full-load operation of this straight condensing turbine,


a straight line drawn between point A and point C on the Mollier chart
will give a turbine expansion line (sometimes called a “state line”) of
sufficient accuracy for most estimating purposes. Actually, the slightly
curved line drawn between point A and point C on Fig. 16.3 approsimates
the actual turbine expansion line a little more closely than a straight line
would.
Having determined the theoretical expansion line and, from this,
established an approximate actual turbine expansion line, what use can
be made of such an actual expansion line? As shown on Fig. 16.5, 59.7
per cent of the heat in the steam supplied t o the turbine is given up to the
condenser circulating water. I n industries such as the pulp and paper
industry, the chemical industry, the petroleum industry, the textile indus-
try and others, large quantities of heat energy are required for cooking,
washing, heating, drying, and for other process uses. From a practical
consideration, temperatures higher than 101 F (the temperature of satu-
rated steam a t 2 in. Hg abs) are required t o do this work. For that rea-
son, most of the turbines used in industrial plants are arranged to exhaust
and/or extract steam a t a higher pressure and temperature as required t o
satisfy these various process beat requirements. I n the esample, in the
section on Theoretical Steam Cycle, it was shown that the theoretical
steam-turbine-cycle efficiency could be more than doubled by recovering
only two-thirds of the heat in the exhaust steam.
More will be said about the type of turbines normally used in industry
later, but now for a look a t the turbine expansion line AC t o see what
information is readily available from such a line. Referring t o this
expansion line AC, it is seen that the turbine exhaust has 6 per cent
moisture and is a t a temperature of 101 F. I t is impossible to establish
that temperature, on this small incomplete chart, but it is found by follow-
ing the constaut-pressure line diagonally across to the right to the iuter-
section of the saturation line and then interpolating between lines of con-
stant temperature. Now, by assuming that steam is to be extracted from
this turbine a t 50 psig (65.psia), it is seen that this extracted steam will
have an euthalpy of 1260 Btu per lb and a total temperature of approui-
mately 455 F, which is 157 F superheat. Of course, depending upon the
usage of 50 psig steam, the turbine might be designed as a uoncondensing
turbine exhausting a t 50 psig or as an automatic-extraction condensing
turbine exhausting a t 2 in. Hg with automatic extraction a t 50 psig.
In the’case of a noncondensing turbine plant, with all heat in the exhaust
used for process, actual steam power-plant-cycle efficiency would approach
75 per cent.
Another example using the Mollier chart is included on page 837 under
Selection of Steam Pressures and Temperatures.
S T W AND POWER GENERATION 831

THEORETICAL STEAM RATE TABLES

Reference t o theoretical steam rate tables was made earlier in this sec-
tion, and in Table 16.4 theoretical steam rates are calculated with data
from the Mollier chart, Fig. 16.3. By drawing the theoretical (100 per
cent efficient) expansion line, the energy available between any selected
initial steam conditions and final exhaust pressure can be determined.
This is 504.3 Btu per Ib for the example shown on Fig. 16.3. Since there
are 3413 Btu per kwhr, then the theoretical steam rate (pounds steam per
kwhr) for a steam turbine-generator is simply 3413/theoretical energy
available. For the example shown on Fig. 16.3, the theoretical steam rate
was 6.766 Ib per kwhr.
For a quick check on the “by-product power” which can be generated
with a given total quantity of steam required for process, the actual steam
rate (pounds steam per kwhr) can be quickly estimated. It is only neces-
sary t o divide the theoretical steam rate by an assumed over-all turbine-
generator efficiency to get the actual steam rate.
I n the example of Fig. 16.3 for a straight condensing turbine, and an
assumed turbine-generator efficiency of 75 per cent (refer t o Turbine-
generator Efficiencies, page 820),the actual steam rate was 9.02 Ib steam
per kwhr. For a turbine steam flow of 100,000 lb per hr, the approximate
turbine-generator output would be 100,000 Ib per hr/9.02 Ib per kwhr, or
11,000 kw. The output of a noncondensing turbine generating “by-prod-
uct” power would be determined in the same way. The above methods
are based on the use of the Mollier chart or the theoretical steam rate
tables and an assumed efficiency. More accurate performance of straight
noncondensing and straight condensing turbine-generators can be readily
determined from Figs. 16.18 and 16.19 referred to under Performance of
Steam Turbines, page 857.

STEAM BOILERS
Modern fuel-fired power boilers are normally designed for efficiencies
ranging from 80 t o 88 per cent, depending to some extent on the type of
fuels used and the unit cost of fuel. As an estimating figure, for modern
power boilers, a value of 80 t o 85 per cent for boiler efficiency should be
satisfactory for most conditions.

AUXILIARIES

Powerhouse auxiliaries such as pumps, fans, coal pulverizers, etc.,


consume 4 t o 8 per cent of the power generated in steam-turbine power
plants. The amount of auxiliary power required depends upon the type
832 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

of fuel, boiler pressure, and boiler flow. Induced-draft fans, boiler feed
pumps, and coal pulverizers (when used) are the large users of auxiliary
power. An average value of 6 per cent should be sufficiently accurate for
estimating purposes. Figure 16.7 gives estimating data on boiler
auxiliaries.

ACTUAL EFFICIENCY OF STEAM PLANTS FOR GENERATION O F


ELECTRIC POWER ONLY
The theoretical cycle efficiency of straight condensing steam power
plants (plants for electric power generation only) depends upon the initial
steam conditions and the exhaust conditions, as was indicated by the
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 833

plants discussed earlier in this section. I n these plants, the theoretical


cycle efficiency ranged from 37 t o 45 per cent. If the various average
full-load efficiencies of the turbine (75 per cent), boilers (80 to 85 per cent),
and auxiliary losses (6 per cent) are factored in, actual full-load efficiencies
are 75 per cent X 82 per cent X 94 per cent = 57.8 per cent of the theo-
retical cycle efficiency.
The actual over-all cycle efficiency of straight condensing steam turbine
plants without reheat and/or regenerative feedwater heating is then 57.8
per cent X theoretical cycle efficiency, or 21.4 t o 26 per cent.
Regenerative feedwater heating, reheat cycles, and other cycle refine-
nieuts can be used t,o improve the condensing steam-turbine cycle effi-
ciency. A few modern utility plants of large capacity have an actual
power-plant cycle efficiency of about 37 per cent. The greatest gain
comes from reducing exhaust flow t o the condenser, and all these refine-
ments are “directed t o reducing the flow to the condenser.

ACTUAL EFFICIENCY OF STEAM PLANTS TO SUPPLY BOTH


ELECTRIC POWER AND PROCESS HEAT
For steam power plants supplying both electric power and process heat,
such as process steam (the common arrangement in industrial plants), the
actual over-all power-plant-cycle efficiency can be as high as 70 to 8Oper
cent compared with the 20 to 35 or 40 per cent now attainable with a
steam plant used for power generation only (see efficiency of typical plants
in Fig. 16.4).
This higher efficiency is realized because heat in the exhaust steam is
required for process work. With a perfect “heat balance” there would
be zero flow to the condenser and all heat energy (enthalpy) in the turbine
exhaust or extraction steam would be used in process.
Now f o r ~ brief
a explanation of the 70 to 80 per cent over-all power-plant-
cycle efficiency-since all heat in the turbine exhaust or extraction steam
is utilized, internal (steam-path) efficiency of the turbine is not of impor-
tance as long as all electric power requirements can be generated with the
steam required in process. Actually, in most plants, high turbine effi-
ciency is important because all electric power requirements cannot he
generated with the steam required in process. I n any event, with a per-
fect “heat balance” (all power generated from steam required in process),
it is necessary t o consider only the mechanical and electrical losses of the
turbine-generator, whereas steam-path losses also had t o be included when
heat energy in the exhaust was not used. Mechanical and electrical
losses for turbine-generators used in industrial plants are approximately
4 or 5 per cent. Factoring in the various full-load efficiencies for the
steam turbine plant supplying heat to process, say, 95 per cent for the
034 S T U M AND POWER GENERATION

Percent of Boiler Flow to Main Condensers


FIG. 16.8 Per cent over-all steam-power-plont efficiency VI. per cent flow to main
condensers.

tnrbine-generator (mechanical and electrical efficiency), 82 per cent for


the boilers, and 94 per cent for auxiliaries (6 per cent auxiliary loss) gives
an actual over-all full-load steam-power-plant efficiency of 95 per cent X
82 per cent X 94 per cent = 73.3 per cent. This is equivalent to an
actual net heat rate of 3413/73.3 per cent, or 4650 Btu per kwhr.
The actual full-load efficiency of industrial steam turbine plants then
ranges from 15 to 35 per cent (22,700 to 9750 Btu per kwhr) for straight
condensing plants up as high as 75 t o 80 per cent (4550 to 4260 Btu per
kwhr) for noncondensing plants supplying steam t o process. The e 8 -
ciency of condensing extraction or a combination of condensing and non-
condensing turbine plantsgenerating electric power and supplying steam
for process will range from 15 to 35 per cent to as high as 75 per cent.
The actual efficiency will depend upon the per cent of boiler flow passed
to the condenser, assuming that the remaining boiler flow is exhausted or
extracted from the turbines for use in process. This variation in approxi-
mate power-plant efficiency is shown on Fig. 16.8.
Much useful information of interest t o engineers concerned with the
specification, selection, application, and operation of steam turbines can
be found in other texts.*
* L. E. Newman, “Modern Turbines,” John Wiley & Sons, h e . , New York, 194%
Gustaf A. Gsffert, “Steam Power Stations,” 4th ed., McGraw-HiU Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1952; J. Kenneth Salisbury, “Steam Turbines and Their Cycles,”
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New.York, 1950.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 835

SELECTION OF STEAM PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES

Steam turbines in the utility stations today are being designed for
initial pressures up t o 2400 psig and initial temperatures up to 1100 F.
Operating steam conditions of 4500 psig and 1150 F should be a reality
by 1956. The levels of pressure and temperature in industrial plants are
increasing, as they are in utility plants. The average steam conditions of
industrial turbines designed today are approximately 600 psig-750 F.
I n 1930, this average was approximately 250 psig--500 F. There are
several industrial plants today utilizing initial pressures higher than 1000
psig. See the partial list of industrial generating units in Table 16.3 on
page 810.
As discussed under Theoretical Steam Cycle, page 823, the theoretical
cycle efficiency of a straight condensing steam turbine plant increases
from 37 per cent to 45 per cent when the initial steam conditions are
increased from 400 psig-750 F to 2400 psig-1000 F. If all heat in the
exhaust steam can be utilized in process, the theoretical cycle efficiency
would of course be 100 per cent for either case.
Those factors indicate three ways of increasing the cycle efficiency of
the steam-turbine cycle: (1) increased initial steam conditions, (2)
decreased steam flow t o the condenser, and (3) maximum utilization of
heat in the turbine exhaust steam.

OPTIMUM INITIAL STEAM CONDITIONS

What is the optimum initial steam pressure and temperature? Obvi-


ously there is no single answer to that question.
Within the practical limitations of first cost, operating and maintenance
problems, etc., the initial pressure and temperahre selected for an indus-
trial turbine will depend upon the requirements of the system. These
would be the requirements for exhaust and/or extraction steam and elec-
tric energy in the case of noncondensing and automatic-extraction type
turbines and the requirements for electric energy in the case of straight
condensing steam turbines.
The first step then is to establish daily load curves for electric power
and for process and beating steam. These curves should cover both
winter and summer operation.
Having established t,hese load curves, the ratio of process steam flow
and electric power, as well as the process steam pressure (or pressures),
will be important factors in establishing the initial steam conditions for
turbine-generators. There are many other factors, such as fuel costs and
the probability of plant expa.nsion or a change in process, t o be considered
836 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

in the selection of initial steam conditions. Engineers familiar with


turbine-generator applications can assist in selecting the proper steam
conditions and apparatus to meet each particular plant requirement.
The exhaust or extraction pressures can be designed to meet the require-
ments for process heat or even high enough to supply other steam turbines
in the system.
One characteristic of steam which makes it such a desirable source of
process heat is the fact that heat is given up a t constant temperature,
except in the superheated region, and is dependent upon the pressure.
For instance, if a paper mill desires a steam temperature of 300 F a t the
rolls, process steam pressure selected would he 68 psia (53 psig) a t the
rolls. If steam a t 366 F is desired for cooking pulp, then 165 psia (150
p i g ) would he selected as the process steam pressure.
These pressures are easily determined by referring to a Mollier chart
surh as illustrated in Fig. 16.3. The required pressnre can he read at the
intersection of the saturation line and the line of desired constant tem-
perature. For most processes it is desirable that saturated steam be sup-
plied t o the process. I n plants where the distance from the power plant
t o the process area is great, it is usually desirable to supply steam from
the powerhouse with some superheat to compensate for radiation losses
in the lines to process.

EFFECT OF INITIAL STEAM CONDITIONS ON PLANT FUEL CONSUMPTION

The example shown in Table 16.5 indicates the importance of initial


steam conditions on the fuel consumption of a power plant. For this
example, power-plant requirements were assumed to be 7500 kw of elec-
tric power and 125,000 lb per hr of process steam a t 50 psig-variations in
superheat of the process steam were not considered. This tabulation
shows that the plant f u d consumption increases almost 30 per cent as
initial steam conditions are reduced from 1200 psig-825 F t o 200 psig-
600 F.
With the higher initial steam conditions, a straight noncondensing
turbine can generate the required electric power without any “condensing”
kilowatts. At the lower initial pressure, more than half the electric power
had t o be generated by steam flow to the condenser with the attendant
losses t o the condenser circulating water.
For a case of this kind, initial plant cost, quality of available feedwater,
expected maintenance, and other factors must he weighed against the
savings in fuel cost to determine the optimum initial steam conditions.
It would he desirable to have complete turbine-performance data for
the various types of turbines and for the various steam c3nditions for each
method of supplying the plant process steam and electric power require
ments. However, from a practical standpoint, that is too laborious when
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 837

many alternatives are considered. Although the data referred t o in the


following examples are for full-load machine rating only, they are applica-
ble for the various types of turbines. From these data, the most attrac-
tive operating cycles can be quickly determined; the final selection can be
arrived a t by using more complete performance data and making calcula-
tions for the few alternates remaining.
To illustrate the use of the data, several examples are worked out in
detail. A summary of various methods of providing process steam and
electric power is shown in Table 16.5.
The comparison of the over-all plant thermal efficiency and relative fuel
consumption for the various methods indicates the importance of such
studies t o establish the optimum cycle. Although these data pertain
only to the over-all fuel usage, due allowance should be made for the
initial and operating costs and existing mill pressures; the most efficient
cycle may not necessarily be the most economical one.

TABLE 16.5 Comporison of Efficiency and Fuel Consumption of


Different Plants
Power-plant requirement.: 7500 kw electric energy; 125,000 Ib per hr of &ccss itemn at 50 p i g ;
superheat of eitrocted steam not Critical

Turbine- Power eroted


generator* in kilo t, by
Per cent
oYer-.ll
.~ power-
Turbine d e i g n steam conditions
plant
'On-
Number Rating, thermal
lensing
required kw effid*"<y
,team
~~ ~~

1 7500 1200 1b-825 F-50 Ib 7500 0 75 1 .oo


1 7500 600 lb-750 F-2 in. Hg AE'ot 50 Ib 5820 1680 69 1.09
1 6000 600 lb-750 F-50 Ib I 6000 1500 68 1.10
I I500 600 lb-750 F-2 in. Hg I
I 7500 400 lb-650 F-2 in. Hg AE at 50 Ib 4700 2800 64 1.17
I 7500 200 lb-600 F-2 in. Hg AE (It 50 Ib 3070 4430 58 1.29

* AE = automatic extraction.

EXAMPLES INDICATING EFFECT OF INITIAL STEAM CONDITIONS

Example 1. Now to use a Mollier chart such as illustrated in Fig. 16.3


for the approximate solution of some specific problems. Assume that a
power plant is operated to supply electric power and process steam for an
industrial plant. The existing turbines are 6000-kw double automatic-
extraction condensing units designed for steam conditions of 600 psig-
750 F--2 in. Hg with automatic extraction a t 140 psig and a t 70 psig.
838 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

A t rated operating conditions, it has been found that the enthalpy of


steam extracted from the 6000-kw turbines is 1223 Btu (70 FS degrees
superheat Fahrenheit) a t the 70-psig opening and 1262 Btu (117 FS) at
the 140-psig opening. This is a turbine steam-path efficiency of 78 per
cent down to the extraction openings.
The owner is contemplating installation of new 10,000-kw double auto-
matic-extraction condensing turbines and has arbitrarily selected an
initial steam temperature of 825 F. Steam-path efficiency for the new
10,000-kw turbines a t rated operating conditions is 80 per cent down to
the extraction openings.
What initial steam pressure should be selected (assuming 825 F initial
temperature) so that the enthalpy and superheat of the extracted steam
from the proposed 10,000-kw turbines will be approximately the same as
the steam extracted from the existing 6000-kw units (assume initial
pressures in steps of 50 Ib, i.e., 800, 850, 900, etc.)?
This is a trial-and-error solution. As a first start it would be well t o
plot the enthalpy of extraction points for the 6000-kw units and also the
initial steam conditions on the Mollier diagram. These are all given in
the general data preceding the problem.
The problem also stated that steam-path efficiency for the proposed
10,000-kw units would be slightly higher (80 per cent vs. 78 per cent) than
for the existing 6000-kw units. Therefore the expansion line on the
Mollier diagram will be slightly steeper for the more efficient 10,000-kw
unit. To assist in selecting the initial pressure, this estimated expansion
line can be sketched in t o give approximately the same steam conditions
a t the extraction pressures.
1. As a first assumption, assume an initial pressure of 800 psig-from
the Mollier chart:
At 800 psig-825 F, the-enthalpy is.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1412.0 Btu per lb
Theoretical extraction a t 140 psig, the enthalpy is. . 1228.0 Btu per lb
Theoretical energy available.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.0 Btu per Ib
Energy used a t 80% eff. = 80% X 184 = . . . . . . . . 147.0 Btu per Ib
:.Actual enthalpy a t 140-psig extraction opening is:
1412 - 147 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12G5.0 Btu per lb
Using the Mollier chart, the extraction temperature
is 484 F or 123 FS.
Using 800 psig-825 F init,ial pressure, now check steam conditions at
the 70-psig extraction opening:
At 800 psig-825 F the enthalpy is . . . 1412.0 Btu per Ib
Theoretical extraction a t 70 psig, the enthalpy is. . 1176.5 Btu per Ib
Theoretical energy available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235.5 Btu per Ib
Energy used a t 80% eff. = 80% X 235.5 = . . . . . . . 188.0 Btu per lb
STEAM AND POWER GE?4ERATION a39

:.Actual enthalpy a t 70-psig extraction opening is


1412 - 188 = _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1224.0 Btu per Ib
Using the Mollier chart, the extraction temperature
is 387 F or 71 FS.
2. As a second assumption, assume an initial pressure of 850 psig:
A t 850 psig-825 F, the enthalpy is.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1410.8 Btu per Ib
Theoretical extraction a t 140 p i g , the enthalpy is. . 1222.0 Btu per lb
Theoretical energy availahl 188.8 Btu per Ih
Energy used a t 80% eff. = 151.0 Btu per Ib
:.Actual enthalpy a t 140-psig extraction opening is
1410.8 - 151 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1259.8 Btu per Ih
Using the Mollier chart, the extraction temperature
is 475 F or 114 FS.
Using 850 pig-825 F initial pressure, now check steam conditions at
the 70-psig extraction opening.
At 850 pig-825 F, the enthalpy is . . . . . 1410.8 Rtu per Ib
Theoretical extraction a t 70 p i g , the enthalpy is. . 1170.0 Btu per Ib
Theoretical energy availabl . . . . . 240.8 Btu per lb
Energy used a t 80% eff. = 192.0 Btu per lb
:.Actual enthalpy a t 70-psig extraction opening is
1410.8 - 192 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1218.8 Btu per lh
Using the Mollier chart, the extraction temperature
is 380 F or 64 FS.

For this particular ease, either 800- or 850-psig initial pressure should
be satisfactory from the standpoint of temperature of extraction steam.
From the above trial-and-error solution, you will note that initial steam
conditions can be estimated quite accurately by simply extending the
expansion line of the existing turbine upward to the left. Any initial
steam condition selected along the extension of this line will give the
desired extraction conditions. For turbines having the same efficiency,
linci drawn parallel t o expansion line for the existing turbine can he used
in selecting initial steam conditions required t o supply different extraction
or exhaust steam requirements.
Example 2. Based on the information in Example 1 and neglecting
mechanical and electrical efficiency of the turbine-generator (which is
about 95 per cent), what by-product power will be generated with the new
10,000-kw units for each 100,000 Ib per hr steam extracted from
a. The 140-psig opening?
b. The 70-psig opening?
Neglecting mechanical and electrical efficiency,the kwhr of " by-prod-
uct" power are equal to
840 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

The Btu used


-
3413
or
Steam flow in Ih per hr X Btu used per Ib of steam
3413 Btu per kwhr
For the 850 psig-825 F initial steam conditions assumed as part 2,
Example 1:

For the 140-psig extraction,

For the 70 psig extraction,

or
4430 + 5630 = 10,060 kwhr total
For the assumed efficiencies for double automatic-extraction condensing
turbine units and with assumed extraction flows of 100,000 Ib per hr from
each opening (140 psig and 70 psig), note the small variation in tempera-
ture of the extracted steam for all the assumed initial steam conditions.
Also note the great difference in by-product power as shown in Table 16.6.
TABLE 16.6 Variation in Temperature of Process Steam and By-product
Power from Steam Turbines with Different Initial Steam Conditions
(Based on 100,000 Ib per hr of steam Row to each process pressure)

Temporawre of
extracted rteom
lnitiai deem By-product
conditions

600 prig-750 F 478 F 386 F 8.000


800 psig-825 F 484 F 387 F 9,830
850 pdg-825 F 475 F 380 F 10,060
1200 pdg-900 F 467 F 375 F 1 1,930

Example 3. This example is based on a plant requiring 125,000 lb per


hr process steam at 50 psig and 7500 kw of electric power. Results of
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 84 1

several examples to determine efficiency and relative fuel consumption of


various plants to meet the process steam and electric power requirements
of the plant are given in Table 16.5.
For the second plant listed in Table 16.5, assume that the mill require-
ments are to be supplied by a 7500-kw condensing-extraction turbine
designed for steam conditions of 600 psig-750 F (261 FS)-2 in. Hg ahs
with automatic extraction a t 50 psig.
A condensing-extraction turbine is in effect a combined noncondensing
turbine and condensing turbine which has the extraction steam flowing in
parallel with additional steam that passes through the turbine and
exhausts t o the condenser.
The approximate performance of an extraction-type machine can be
determined for estimating purposes from data included herein:
1. Determine the output from the extraction steam flow by finding the
actual steam rate (ASR) of a straight noncondensing turbine having an
exhaust pressure equal to the extraction pressure. Then correct the out-
put, (kilowatts) so obtained by the multiplying factor 0.97.*
2. Find the deficit of kilowatts that must be produced by the condensing
power by subtracting the corrected output found in 1 above from the total
required electric output.
3. Find the r.team rate (ASR) for a straight condensing turbine corre-
sponding to the initial pressure and temperature and the exhaust vacuum.
Correct for a condensing-extraction unit by using the multiplying factor
of 1.03.*
Now to continue with this example and to find the required boiler out-
put, the steam flow t o the condenser, and the over-all power-plant thermal
efficiency.
Step 1. Power generated by 125,000 Ih per hr extraction steam flow:
Noncondensing steam rate for a 7500-kw unit (Fig. 16.18) a t 600 psig-
750 F-50 psig is 20.8 lh per kwhr.
Noncondensing output:

125,000 lh per hr extraction flow


= 6000 kw
20.8 Ib per kwhr steam rate

* The actual efficiency of automatic-extraction-type steam turbines is slightly lower


than for straight condensing or noncondensing turbines having equal rating. This is
due to additional control valves, longer turbine span, etc. These multiplying factors
have been arbitrarily chosen because the actual decrease in efficiency will vary for
different design conditions. This slight decrease in turbine efficiency is insignificant
when the improvements in plant cycle efficiency made possible by the use of automatic
extraction turbines are considered. Flow to the condenser will then be the corrected
steam rate multiplied by the kildwstts generated by condensing power.
842 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

Corrected output from extraction flow for a 7500-kw automatic-


extraction unit:
6000 kw X 0.97 (factor from 1 above) = 5820 kw

Step 2. Power to be generated by condensing steam flow:


7500 kw - 5820 kw = 1680 kw
S k p 3. Over-all (inlet-to-exhaust) steam rate:
Actual steam rate of a 7500-kw condensing unit from Fig. 16.19 is
9.4 lb per kwhr.
Corrected steam rate for 7500-kw automatic-extraction condensing unit:
9.4 Ib per kwhr X 1.03 (factor from 3 above) = 9.7 lb per kwhr
Steam flow t o the condenser:
1680 kw (step 2) X 9.7 Ib per kwhr = 16,300 Ib per hr
Total boiler or throttle flow:
Slrom Conditions 0, Turbine Throllle

N ~ l ~ - F l ~ On
u * Curr.1
l Denom Exhaust Prsssurc ,PSIG
400PSIG-650F 400PSIG-ll)OF 800PSIG-650F 600 PSIG-750F
SO0

400

300

200

100

w n r o t o r ovtpvtin ~ h o u s a n d sof Kilowollr


FIG. 16.9 Exhaust-steam conditions for 5000-kw 36CQ-rpm noncondenring fvrbine-
generator units operating at various initial and exhaust steam conditions.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 843

125,000 + 16,300 = 141,300 Ib per hr


Per cent of boiler output passed to main condenser:
16,300 Ih per hr condenser flow = 0,115 = 11,5%
141,300 Ib per hr boiler flow
Over-all power-plant thermal efficiency:69% as read from Fig. 16.8.
Approximate exhaust or extraction temperature and enthalpy of steam
from noncondensing or automatic extraction turbine-generator units:
Neglecting difference in efficiencybetween 7500-kw and 5000-kw units.
Read from Fig. 16.9 a t full load (5000 kw) for the 5000-kw unit with
steam conditions 600 psig-750 F-50 psig.
Temperature, 325 F; enthalpy, 1200 Btu per Ih
Turbine-generator required :
One 7500-kw automatic-extraction condensing unit designed for 600
psig-750 F-2 in. Hg abs with automatic extraction a t 50 psig.
Sl.om Gondilionr 01 Turbine T h r o t t l e

600

Exhaust 600
Tamp -
F 400

200
25

FIG. 16.10 Exhaust-steam conditions for 54XQ-h 3MX)-rpm noncondenring hlrbine-


generator unih operating a t various initial and exhaust steam conditions.
844 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

SELECTION OF STEAM TURBINES-TYPE, GOVERNING,


AND RATING
The various types of steam turbines can all have approximately the
same turbine efficiency, This being the case, the important considera-
tion is to select the proper type of turbine and the proper initial and
exhaust steam conditions for each particular application.
The important thing is to pick a turbine or combination of turbines
which can supply all plant requirements for process and heating steam
and electric power with a minimum flow of steam to the condenser. Once
the requirements of the plant are established, the Mollier diagram can he
used t o select the optimum initial steam conditions from the standpoint
of power-plant-cycle efficiency. Whether a combination of condensing
and noncondensing turbines is selected or automatic-extraction turbines
are selected will depend upon the ratings involved and the balance
between electric power and process and heating steam.

TYPES OF TURBINES

Steam turbines are normally classified as:


1. Straight condensing
2. Straight noncondensing
3. Autoextraction condensing
4. Autoextraction noncondensing
5. Autoextraction-admission Condensing or noncondensing
The actual engine efficiency (used energy + theoretical energy avail-
able for the actual steam conditions) of these different types of turbines
used for power generation in industrial plants is about the same regardless
of type, hut the power-plantcycle efficiency varies widely, depending upon
the type of turbine and'the use of heat in the extraction and exhaust
steam.
These various types of steam turbines are indicated schemahically on
Fig. 16.11. Using this schematic diagram as a reference, the various
types of steam turbines will be briefly described below:
Straight condensing turbines are designed to take steam a t boiler
pressure and exhaust t o a steam condenser operating below atmospheric
pressure. Normal exhaust pressures for a condensing turbine used in
industrial plants range from 1% t o 3 in. Hg abs (27 to 28% in. Hg vacuum
referred to a 30-in. Hg barometer), with 2 in. Hg being most often selected.
Straight condensing turbines are widely used in our utility plants hut
account for less than 10 per cent of the steam turbines being sold for power
generation in the industrial plants.
846 STEAM AND POWER GENERATIOM

Straight noncondensing turbines are designed t o take steam at boiler


pressure and exhaust a t atmospheric pressure or above. For equal power
outputs, noncondensing turbines may require two to five times the steam
flow required by the condensing turbine. Even so, when properly
applied, the noncondensing turbine power-plant-cycle efficiency is usually
two to three times that of the condensing turbine plant.
Straight noncondensing turbines are widely used in industrial plants
and account for approximately 30 per cent of the steam turbines being
sold for power generation in industrial plants. When noncondensing
turbines are applied, heat energy in the exhaust steam is usually used for
heating, drying, cooking, and various other process uses. Many non-
condensing turbines are also used, in both industrial and utility plants,
as “topping” turbines, with the exhaust steam being utilized t o drive
other turbines, which are designed for lower initial steam pressures. Non-
condensing-turbine exhaust pressures may range up t o 600 psig or more
and exhaust temperatures up to 600 F.
Automatic-extraction condensing turbines are similar to straight con-
densing turbines except that necessary valves and controls are provided
so that steam may be automatically extracted (taken out) a t one or more*
automatically controlled pressures lower than the turbine initial pressure
but higher than the turbine exhaust pressure.
The autoextraction turbine can supply varying demands for extracted
steam and electric energy, whether these demands vary individually or
there is a variation in all demands simultaneously.
The pressure of extracted steam is automatically controlled by the
turbine governing mechanism and can be used for the same purposes as
the exhaust steam from the noncondensing type of turbine described
above.
A cross-sectioned diagram showing the relation between various sec-
tions of a double automatic-extraction steam turbine with the location
of control valves indicated is shown in Fig. 16.12.
Autoextraction condensing turbines are almost exclusively used in
industry. Of all the types of automatic-extraction turbines, these find
the widest field of application. Because of their great flexibility in sup-
plying variable demands for process steam and kilowatts, they account
for approximately 45 per cent of the steam turbines being sold for power
generation in industrial plants.
* Turbines having one controlled extraction opening are called single autamatie-
extraction turbines, those having two controlled extraction openings are called double
automatic-extraction turbines, etc. Single and double autamatie-ertraction turbines
are extensively used in industry. The first triple automatic-extraction turbine is
installed in a. paper mill of the Union Bag Company in Savannah, Ga. In mast
plants, more than one or two automatic extraction openings &renot warranted for a
single turbine.
FIG. 16.12 Cross-sectional drawing showing the variow sections and control ~(IIYBIof (I double
automatic-extraction steam turbine.
848 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

Automatic-extraction noncondensing turbines are similar to auto-


e x t r a h o n condensing turbines except that the noncondensing turbine
exhausts to a pressure equal to or greater than atmospheric and the con-
densing turbine exhausts to a pressure below atmospheric.
The same number of controlled extraction openings can be provided.
Like autoextraction condensing, autoextraction noncondensing turbines
are almost exclusively used in industry and account for approximately 15
per cent of the steam turbines being sold for power generation in indus-
trial plants.
Automatic-extraction-odmission condensing turbines are similar to
automatic-extraction condensing turbines except that control valves are
arranged so that steam can enter, as well as leave, the turbine at the auto-
matically controlled extraction-admission opening.
Such turbines, acting as autoextraction units, supply steam to the
process line vhen the use of this process steam exceeds the supply from
other sources. When the supply of steam to this same process line, from
other sources, exreeds the use of steam for process, then the Lurbiue
governing mechanism acts, automatically, to admit t,he excess steam
through the extractioti-admission opening of the turbine, so that it csn
expand to exhaust pressure, or to a lower pressure extraction opening.
During admission operation, the excess steam in the process line is used to
generate power hy expansion in the turbine instead of possibly being
blown to the at,mosphere t,hrough a relief valve.
In some applirations, this type of turbine may he applied to fully
utilize the capability of boiler plants which supply steam at two different
pressures. For instance, it may sometimes be desirable t o purchase a
turbine-generator designed for an initial steam pressure of 1200 psig and
an extraction-admission pressure of 600 psig. Such a unit might he
designcd t,o utilize 1200 psig steam from a new boiler plant plus 600 psig
steam from an existing boiler plant. Depending upon the application
requirements and expected normal operating conditions, this turbine unit
could be designed to drive the generator at any per cent of rated output
when supplied with 1200 psig steam only, when supplied with 600 psig
steam only, or when supplied with 1200 psig steam only and extracting
steam at 600 psig.
A unit of this type might he installed for initial operation with 600 psig
stcam before the 1200-psig boilers are in service, for instance, in a plant
where management recognized the economics of an industrial power plant
designed for higher initial steam conditions and was planning for this in
the near future. With a turbine of this type, it mould not be necessary
to shut the turbine-generator down during a forced or planned outage of
either the GOO- or 1200-psig boiler plant.
Automat,ic-extraction-admission turbines are usually applied in indus
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 849

try. They account for perhaps less than 5 per cent of the units sold to
industry for power generation.

SPEED GOVERNING

I n addition to these various types of steam turbines, there are many


refinements and variat,ions which can be incorporated into the governing
and control mechanisms. Take, for instance, t,he st,raight condensing
turbine-this type of turbine is usually used for straight paver generation
and as such is speed and load governed. Its normal speed governor
regulation mould be sot for about 4 per rent for rated load change. In
other words, if it were operating as an isolated unit, the speed and fre-
quency would increase 4 per cent (2.4 cycles on a 60-cycle system) if full
load were gradually taken off the unit without any change in position of
the synchronizing device. If closer control of the frequency is desired,
the turbine could be equipped with what is called a “speed corrector.”
On turbines equipped with a speed corrector, the settled speed change to
go through 4/4 gradual load change would be 0.1 per cent, or less than
one-tenth cycle. The instantaneous variation from 60-cycle frequency
would be greater than this 0.1 per cent, depending primarily upon the
rate of load change and the system inertia.

LOAD REGULATORS

If instead of having other turbines which can take the swingsin kilowatt
load, it is desired t o take all load swings on one turbine, special turbine-
governing mechanisms can be furnished or the proper setting of standard
governors may provide the necessary control for many applications.
As one simple example of what can be done with the standard turbine-
governing mechanism, consider a typical plant, utilizing a “ topping”
turbine, with steam-power diagram as shown in Fig. 16.13.
The total electric load is 45,000 kw, with a 250-psig process steam load
of 580,000 Ib per hr.
Note that steam exhausted from the new topping turbine (unit No. 3)
amounts t o 550,000 lb per hr. This is the entire steam flow required by
the two existing condensing steam turbines plus 210,000 Ib per hr u,hich
passes through the pressure-reducing valve (PRV) into the 250-psig
header to help supply the steam required for general plant uses.
Turbine-governing mechanisms are so arranged that, during periods
of reduced plant electric load, the load on the existing condensing turbine
generators will be reduced before the load on the topping unit is reduced.
The curves of Fig. 16.14 show a division of steady-state plant load
between the existing turbine-generators and the new topping tnrbine-
9 5 0 PSlG -900 F 550,000 250PSIG-550F
LB/HR

PR V
ir
+c7 OLD
I
2 NEW --A LOW PRESS
80 ILE RS BOILERS
- 0 LB/HR
If
370,000
LB/HR
y
lf
i-1 PRV
I 50
280 PSlG 210.000 - 2 5 0 PSlG
r
LB/HR B
170,000
LB/HR 170,000 580,000 5m
LB/HR LWHR
ez
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 851

generators. This division of load is accomplished automatically by the


turbine-governing mechanisms without attention from the operator. By
adjustment of the turbine-governing mechanism on the various turbine-
generator units the division of load between units can be varied over a
wide range.
The method of operation shown in Fig. 16.14 is desirable because fuel
consumption, in Btu per kwhr, for the topping turbine (when credited
with heat in its exhaust steam) is less than one-third the fuel consumption
of the low-pressure condensing turbine cycle.
In other cases, the contract with the utility may make it very desirable
to keep purchased-power (kw) demand constant. Purchased-power
demand can be held within the required limits by varying the power
generation in the industrial plant. Depending upon the type of indus-
trial load, it may be necessary to modify the action of the normal turbine
(or other prime mover) governor with load-regulating equipment. Load
regulators are wailable which act on the turbine-governing system

LOAD ON EACH TURBINE GENERATOR


THOUSANDS OF K W
FIG. 16.14 Diagram showing the division of load between topping and condensing
units under turbine-governor control.
852 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

(usually the synchronizing motor), changing turbine-generator output to


follow load changes within the industrial plant and minimize the load
swings on the utility.
“High-speed” load regulators are available which can act to change the
load on the regulated turbine (or turbines) a t the rate of 4/4 load in, say,
4 see. “1,owspeed” regulators can act to change the load on the regu-
lated turbine a t the ra.te of 4/4 load in 20 to 40 see or a t any slower rate
desired. For most applications where manual load adjustment is not
sat,isfactory, the lowspccd rcgulat,ors are adequate. There are applica-
tions, such as in the steel industry, where the high-speed regulator is
desired, in an attempt to follow the rapidly fluctuating mill load.
The controls discussed above for the straight condensing turbine can
likewise he applied on the other types of turbines described earlier.

INITIAL-PRESSURE GOVERNING

If a turbine is operating in parallel with other units which can supply


variations in kiloivatt load, the turbine can be equipped with an initial-
pressure governor, The initial-pressure governor is used in cases where
waste fuel, in varying quantities, is available for use in the steam boilers.
This governor acts to close turbine valves (reduce steam flow and gener-
ator load) t o maintain constant boiler pressure.

EXHAUST-PRESSURE GOVERNING

Noncondensing turbines are often supplied with exhaust- or back-


pressure governors. When operating on exhaust-pressure governor con-
trol, the noncondensing t,urbine must be t,ied in electrically with a system
xrhich will maintain system frequency. The kilowatt load of the exhaust-
pressure governed t,urbine will then vary with the demand for steam in
the exhaust line.

EXTRACTION-PRESSURE GOVERNING

I n automatic-extraction turbines, the steam pressure in the extraction


line is also cotitrolled by an extraction-pressure governor. The normal
speed governor can control the load and frequency of these units by vary-
ing the flow to the exhaust, even though the extraction-pressure governor
is act.iog t o supply varying amounts of steam to the extraction steam
system.
As mentioned earlier, extraction-admission turbines are very similar
t o the autoextraction turbines except that the governor is so arranged
that steam will be extracted frcm thc turbine to supply sieam to the
process line when there is a deficit of steam in this line and will take steam
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 853

i
854 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

a t the admission opening for generation of power when there is an excess


of steam in the process line which may be supplied by waste fuel-fired
boilers, waste-heat boilers, or some other apparatus.

GOVERNING PERFORMANCE CHARTS

The charts which are reproduced in Fig. 16.15 indicate how the turbine-
governing mechanism can control extraction pressures when the demand
(flow) for process steam supplied by the turbine varies widely.
The charts, Fig. 16.16, show how the turbinegoverning mechanism
controls frequency with varying kilowatt load. These charts are typical
for General Electric Company double automatic-extraction steam turbines.

FIG. 16.16 Typicol turbine kw load VI. time and plant system frequency VS. time On
10,000-kw double automatic-extraction General Electric Company turbine with extraction-
pressure governors and speed corrector in service.

TURBINE SIZE
NONEXTRACTION TURBINES

The physical size of steam turbines depends more on steam conditions


and the various requirements for process steam than it does on the rated
power output. For example, the relative physical size of a “topping”
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 855

or noncondensing steam turbine may be 20 t o 30 per cent of the size of a


condensing steam turbine having the same rated output. I n spite of the
relatively small physical size of the topping turbine, the steam flow, in
pounds per hour, may be two t o five or more times the flow required for
equal output from the condensing turbine.

AUTOMATIC-EXTRACTION AND/OR ADMISSION TURBINES

Automatic-extraction and admission turbines are in effect two or more


turbines operating in tandem, with the proper governing and control, and
physically located in a single turbine casing. The size of the various sec-
tions of the turbine will depend upon the application requirements and
the different steam pressures.
I n the application of automatic-extraction turbines, i t is important t o
visualize the turbine as a series of turbines or turbine sections and realize
that the total turbine output is the summation of the outputs of the
various sections. Each section will have a specific flowoutput curve.
I n selecting the proper turbine for the application, the application engi-
neer must be very careful t o select a turbine with sufficient flexibility t o
meet the range of operating conditions likely t o he encountered in normal
operation. On the other band, i t must be remembered that each section
of the turbine operates at maximum efficiency for a relatively narrow
range of steam flows.
I n Fig. 16.17, the division of load between the high-pressure and Ion-
pressure sections of a single automatic-extraction turbine is indicated for
various load conditions. Note that flow-output curves for the two sec-
tions of the turbine are shown a t the left, and the flow capacity of the two
sections of the turbine is indicated at the right. As can he seen, the
turbine used for illustration xvas designed t o deliver rated output with
extraction steam alone, and both sections of the turbine are never used t o
capacity simultaneously.

TURBINE-GENERATOR RATINGS
Manufacturers have standard turbine-generator ratings ranging from
200 km to more than 200,000 kw. The manufacturers are thus able t o
meet the needs of industry.
Turbine-generators rat,ed 500 t o 15,000 kw account for the greatest,
percentage of turbine-gcncrators applied in industry. I n 1940, the avcr-
age rating of turbine-generators used in industry was about 4000 kw. I n
1954, that average rat,ing approached 10,000 kw.
Some of the automobile steel, aluminum, and chemical plants have
units rated up t o 100,000 k w or more.
856 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

g3
t2 100 PERCENT LOAD WITH NO EXTRACTION
INLET FLOW
1300 1100)

:b 200 SECTION

LOW PRESS. SECT OUTPUT EXTRACTION EXHAUST


HIGH PRESS. SECT OUTPIJT
IN % O F TURBINE RATING IN % O F TURBINE RATING FLOW (0) FLOW (1001

50 PERCENT LOAD WITH NO EXTRACTION

(01

100 PERCENT LOAC WITH MAX EXTRACTION


(250)

50 PERCENT LOAD WITH MAX EXTRACTION


(150)

FIG. 16.17 Section flow output curves rhowing division of load between high-pressure
and low-pressure sections of the same single wtomotic-extroclion turbine operating
under different conditions.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 857

PERFORMANCE OF STEAM TURBINES

NONEXTRACTION TURBINES

The data plotted on Fig. 16.18 show the steam consumed by noncon-
densing steam turbines rated 2000 to 15,000 km a t various load conditions.
Figure 16.19 gives similar data for condensing steam turbines.
Approximate data on the condition of steam exhausted from steam
turbines a t different pressures are shown in Figs. 16.9 and 16.10.
Average figures, for estimating purposes, on the efficiency of different
turbine-generators are given under Turbine-generator Efficiencies on
page 820.
These average values of efficiency (65 per cent for ratings to 1500 kw
and 75 per cent for units rated 2000 to 15,000 kw) are very useful for
estimating performance of different types of steam turbines operating
with different steam conditions. I t is only necessary t o divide the
theoretical steam rate, normally ralled TSR, by the efficiency. Theo-
retical steam rate tables are published in booklet form by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers. A condensed table is shown in Table
16.4.

AUTOMATIC EXTRACTION TURBINES

Example 3 in the section on Selection of Steam Pressures and Tempera-


tures, page 840, is a step-by-step procedure for estimating the performance
of automatic-extraction-type turbine-generators.
It is estimated that performance calculated by the above methods will
be accurate within 5 t o 10 per cent-adequate for most preliminary esti-
mates. These data on the steam consumption and output of turbine-
generators do not indicate possible gains from any special conditions of
operation that exist in most industries.
When checking performance of a specific unit, such as an automatic-
extraction unit, a t various operating conditions, turbine-performance
curves, such as indicated in Fig. 16.20 and based on detailed efficiency
data, will he found very helpful.

COMBUSTION-GAS-TURBINE POWER-PLANT CYCLES

STATUS OF COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES FOR POWER GENERATION

The combustion gas turbine has now taken its place as EL prime mover,
like the steam turbine and other prime movers, to generate electric power
and supply heat energy simultaneously at high cycle efficiency.
858 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

0
z

.
EXHAUST PRESSURE
IN.HG A B S
11.52 3 4

THROTTLE PRESSURE, I N P S l G

D4SH-LINE ILLUSTRPTION
FOR THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS
4000KW
310 P S l G ~ 7 5 O P F T T - 2 " H G4 B S
3 / 4 LOAD

2 0 0 0 K W RlTlNG

HERE STEAM RATE , IN LBS PER KW HR


STEAM RATE:IO.l
'LBSAPPROX~MAT;
PER K W HR
FIG. 16.19 Approximate steam rates of condensing steam turbine-generator units.
860 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

*Ii
I
I
I
4
I
I
I
I
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 861

The first commercial, nonmilitary application of a combustion gas


turbine-generator in the United States was in 1949 in the Belle Isle station
of the Oklahoma Gas and Electric Company. Many other units have
been placed in service since. The combustion gas turbines for commercial
land application are designed with safety factors and stresses compara-
ble to those used in steam-turbine design, to attain long life and low
maintenance.

WHAT IS A COMBUSTION GAS TURBINE?

The combustion gas turbine is a very simple self-contained prime


mover. A simple open-cycle gas turbine is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 16.21. It includes the compressor, combustion equipment for the
burning of fuel, and the turbine. Atmospheric air is compressed and
passes into the combustion chambers. Fuel is burned with air required
for combustion and mixed with excess air t o maintain required gas
temperatures.
These combustion gases are expanded through a turbine and are
exhausted to atmosphere either directly or through various types of
exhaust-heat recovery apparatus.
Cooling-water requirements are relatively low-approximately 300 to
350 gpm for 5000-kw simple and regenerative cycle units.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES


DEVELOPED FOR POWER GENERATION

The efficiency of present-day combustion-gas-turbine-generator power


plants a t full load ranges from approximately 18 per cent for the simple
cycle unit, without intercoolers or regenerators, up to 25 per cent or more
for the regenerat,ive cycle units utiliziug regenerators.
When used in an industrial plant requiring both electric energy and
process heat, heat energy in the gas-turbine exhaust gases can be recov-

p-1- The hot gases expand


and comes Fuel goes En here. and through the turbine
ere is burned to heat the air +
1 1 1 LOR0

Air goes
U and exhaust
L.)to the stack
FIG. 16.21 Schematic diagram of a simple-cycle gar-turbine unit.
0b2 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

ered. When heat in the exhaust gases can be utilized in process, either
directly or to generate steam in exhaust-heat recovery boilers, actual gas-
turbine power-plant-cycle efficiency can run as high as 70 per cent-com-
parable to the high efficiency obtainable in other types of industrial power
plants.
One interesting characteristic of the gas turbine is the effect of ambient
temperature on its output; the lower the temperature, the greater the
output. For a decrease in ambient temperature of 40 to 50 F, the turbine
output is increased approximately 25 per cent. On the other hand,
temperatures above 80 F decrease the output. Much can be gained by
surface or evaporative cooling t o 80 F or below.

GAS-TURBINE POWER-PLANT-CYCLE EFFICIENCY

Heat in the exhaust gases, such as heat in the exhaust from a steam
turbine, represents a great loss unless it can be recovered and used in the
plant cycle. Efficiency of the simple-cycle turbine-generator unit alone,
operating without heat-recovery equipment, is approximately 17 per cent.
The gas-turhine power-plant-cycle efficiency ranges as high as 60 to 80
per cent when heat is recovered from the turbine exhaust gases for various
process or power uses.
The basic cycle efficiency was improved t o about 65 per cent plane
cycle efficiency in one installation, where heat recovered from the exhaust
gases was utilized to heat feed water for an existing steam plant.
To illustrate use of the term plant-cycle thermal efiiency, the actual gas-
turbine plant-cycle thermal efficiency for this installation will he calcu-
lated, based on the following information:
Fuel fired: 80,400,000 Btu per hr (higher heating value)
Generator output: 3500 kw
Feedwater heater flow: 350,000 Ib water per hr
Feedwater in: 185 F (154 Btu per lb)
Feedwater out: 295 F (264.5 Btu per Ib)
Available and useful output
a. Electric energy: 3500 kw X 3413 Btu per kwhr = 11,940,000 Btu
per br
b. Heat added to feedwater: 350,000 Ib per hr X (264.5 - 153) Btu
per Ib = 39,025,000 Btu per hr
Total available and useful output = a +
b, or 50,965,000 Btu per hr
Input
Fuel: 80,400,000 Btu per hr
Air: Considered free and hence no charge for Btu
Total actual input: 80,400,000 Btu per hr
Thermal efficiency of gas turbine and its heat-recovery equipment =
50,965,000/80,400,000 = 63.4 per cent
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 863

u
4
0
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n
c
864 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

Average actual operat,ing experience for the first four years has been
better than original calculat,ions on which the instalhtion was based.
Heat recovery from the exhaust gases of a 5000-kw unit of this type, in
reasonably sized feedwater heaters or exhaust-heat recovery boilers, is
approximately 45 million Btu per hr. When using an exhaust-heat
recovery boiler, this is equivalent to 35,000 to 45,000 Ib of steam per hour
a t pressures u p to 200 psig.
Gas-turbine Cycles. Many different cycle arrangements have been
considered for the gas turbine. There is the open cycle, in which atmos-
pheric air is used once in its passage through the compressor and turbine,
the closed cycle where the same atmospheric air is used over and over and
is heated from an external source, and combinations of the two in varying
degrees. The efficiency of any of these cycles will depend upon the extent
t o which intercooling, regeneration, and other refinements are employed.
When all factors are considered, the open-cycle arrangement has many
very desirable features.
The Simple Cycle. Figure 16.22 is a cross section of the simple open-
cycle unit indicated schematically in Fig. 16.21.
The simple-cycle gas turbine is suitable for applications where a unit
is reouired for stand-by service, such as to supplement a hydro system or
to take peak loads, There fuel costs are low, or where there is a use for
heat energy which can he recovered from the exhaust gases.
The Regenerative Cycle. As can be seen in Fig. 16.23, a regenerator is
an int,egral part of this gas-turbine cycle, recovering a portion of the heat
in the exhaust gases and resulting in a gas turbinogenerator efficiency of
approximately 22.5 per cent compared to 17 per cent without the regener-
ator. A cross section of this unit is shown in Fig. 16.24.
When used xvith a regenerator, temperature of the exhaust stack gases
is 566 F. The heat which can be recovered for feedwater heating or pro-
during steam in exhaust-heat recovery boilers is somewhat lower than for
the simplocycle unit. On the other hand, if an application requires

_.
...
CHAMBER
I. r

COMPRESSOR
TURBINE

3500 K Y

FIG. 16.23 Schematic diogrom of regenerotive-cycle gar-turbine unit.


866 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
greater quantities of exhaust heat, the regenerator can be omitted and the
low-pressure-turbine exhaust gases can be supplied directly t o exhaust-
heat recovery boilers or other exhaust-heat recovery equipment.

APPLICATIONS

Where continuous-process operations are a must, the gas turbine with


its quick-starting characteristics can be used for emergency or for peak
load service in plants where the normal daily plant load is supplied from
other sources.
Now for a brief summary of some of the ways these gas-turbine units
can be applied t o help supply the normal requirements of industrial plants
for steam and electric power.
Exhaust-heat Recovery Boilers-No Supplementary Firing. Figure
16.2 shows the relation between the gas turbine-generator kilowatt output
and the steam output from the exhaust-heat recovery boilers and immedi-
ately suggests an application for steam generation.
The arrangement for one mill requiring both process steam and electric
power is shown in Fig. 16.25. Heat in the gasturbine exhaust gases can
be recovered for the generation of steam in two boilers a t two different
pressures-175 and 40 psig. From the last boiler, the exhaust gases pass
through an economizer t o heat feed water for the boilers before exhausting
to the stack. This arrangement would provide a total of 39,000 lb of
steam per hour in addition to 3500 kw of electric energy. This is a ratio
of approximstely 11 Ib of process steam for each kilowatthour. Over-all
gas-turbine plant-cycle efficiency for this steam and power generation is
approximately 60 per cent.
These requirements could also be supplied by a double automatic-
extraction condensing steam-turbine plant. Over-all plant thermal
efficiency of the steam-turbine cycle would be approximately 52 per cent.

lurbim
o d m l

FIG. 16.25 Schematic diagram of a simple-cycle gar-turbine unit with exhaust-heal


recovery boilers and economizer to recover heat from turbine exhaust gases.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 867

This is lower than the gas-turbine-plant efficiency for this particular


appliration because the ratio of process steam to electric power is low and
a high percentage of the electric energy must be produced by the con-
densing section of the steam turbine. If the process-steam requirements
were appreciably greater, then the efficiencies of the two cycles n.ould be
comparable.

FUEL

3500 K W

STACK

t
STEAM TO PROCESS

t
I
I

r
~ BOILER

SUPPLEMENTARY
FUEL NOZZLE
t 80 F

FIG. 16.26 Gas turbine and exhouit-heat recovery boiler with supplementary fuel firing.

Exhaust-heat Recovery Boilers with Supplementary Fuel Firing. When


required, steam flow from the exhaust-heat recovery boilers can be
increased by supplementary fuel firing.
I n this case of supplementary firing, heat recovered from the gas-
turbine exhaust gases is supplemented by heat from additional fuel burned
in the turbine exhaust gases between the turbine and the exhaust-heat
recovery boiler. The additional cost of providing for this supplementary
fuel firing is low compared with the greatly increased flexibility of opera-
tion it affords. A schematic diagram for such an arrangement is shown
in Fig. 16.26. This shows the exhaust-heat recovery boiler with the fuel
nozzles for supplementary firing located just ahead of the boiler. Because
of the large amount of excess air (approximately 500 per cent) used in the
gas-turbine cycle, no additional air is required for combustion of this
supplementary fuel. This further simplifies the installation and opera-
tion because forced draft fans and their attendent controls are not
required.
Depending on the balance between electric power and steam require-
ments, supplementary firing might be used continuously t o increase the
OD
D
m
STACK

WbSTE
AIR I N _ LXHAUST &45.,880E 3620 KW HEAT STEAM
60 F BOILER 410
550' F

COMPRESSOR
TURBINE GENERATOR

AIR IN
8OF EXHAUST G A S W E 3610 KW
FEEDWATER.

STEAM TURBINE
GENERATOR

Ill
7260 KW
1
-
FIG. 16.27 Schematic diagram showing gas turbine with exhaust-heat recovery boiler
to "top" steam-turbine plant.
$TEAM AND POWER GENERATION 869

output of the exhaust-heat recovery boilers t o relieve the demand on con-


ventional fuel-fired boilers. Supplementary firing might be used only t o
supply occasional peaks in steam load.
I n still other applications, supplementary firing might he used during
an outage of conventional fuel-fired boilers. The output of the simple,
lorn-cost exhaust-heat recovery boilers can easily be doubled or tripled-
say, from 40,000 to 80,000 or 120,000 lh per hr steam flow-by supple-
mentary firing. This being the case, the capacity of fuel-fired boilers
normally maintained as stand-by can he materially reduced, with a corre-
sponding reduction in first cost and fixed charges.
Exhaust-heat Recovery Boilers Supplying Steom for “Topping” a
Steam-turbine Plant. I n plants requiring additional power generation,
the gas turbine, with exhaust-heat recovery boilers, can be used to top
low-pressure steam turbines. In plants where it is necessary to generate
electric power but where there are no requirements for process steam, a
plant-cycle arrangement such as shown in Fig. 16.27 will operate at an
efficiency which is apprecia.hly higher than could be realized with a
straight 400-psig steam-turbine plant. This is in effect a “binary ”-cycle
power plant.
Such a “topping” arrangement might he particularly attractive in
plants where additional electric power is required, where the existing
steam turbines are in good condition hut where the existing boiler plant
must be supplemented or replaced.
Turbine Exhaust Gases Con Be Used a s Combustion Air for Fuel-fired
Boilers. High gas-turbine-cycle efficiencies can also be realized in plants
where the combustion-gas-turbine exhaust gases can be used as comhus-
tion air for fuel-fired boilers. Because of the large amount of excess air
used in the gas-turbine cycle to limit temperatures, the turhine exhaust
contains approximately 17 per cent oxygen compared with 21 per cent for
free air. Since so much oxygen is left in the exhaust gases, they can be
used as preheated combustion air for fuel-fired hoilers which are not
equipped with air heaters. One 5000-kw gas turbine can supply the com-
bustion air required for a fuel-fired boiler having an output of approxi-
mately 250,000 Ib of steam per hour. This cycle arrangement is shown
in Fig. 16.28.
When the gas-turbine exhaust gases can be utilized as combustion air
for fuel-fired boilers equipped with economizers, the gas-turbine plant-
cycle efficiency can be as high as 80 per cent when credited with heat in
the exhaust gases. For the same percentage excess air in the fuel-fired
boilers, boiler stack losses will be slightly higher when gas-turbine exhaust
gases are used for combustion air.
Exhaust Heat To Heat Feedwater for a Steam Plant. I n the first
installat,ion for power generation, Fig. 16.29, additional heating of feed
070 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

water for an existing steam plant was required. Gas-turbine power-


plant-cycle efficiency for this installation is approximately 65 per cent
when credited with heat recovered from the exhaust gases (see Gas-tur-
bine Power-plant-cycle Efficiency, page 862). Heat recovery from the
exhaust gases of a 5000-kw unit of this type, in reasonably sized feedwater
heaters or exhaust-heat recovery boilers, is approximately 40 million to
45 million Btu per hr.
Exhaust Heat for Direct Drying of Various Materials. Still another
application is the use of the gas-turbine exhaust gases for drying fiher-
board, gypsum board, the kiln drying of lumber and other such material.
Because of the high efficiency of fuel combustion in the gas turbine,
turbine exhaust gases can he used for the direct drying of many products
without danger of contamination.
Although exhaust-gas temperature, as it leaves the turbine, may he too
high for most of these applications, the proper drying temperature can be

FIG. 16.28 Schematic diagram showing (I g a r turbine supplying combustion air for
fuel-fired steom boilers.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 87 I

FIG. 16.29 Two 4000-kw gas-tvrbine units installed for power generation, with heat in
exhourt being utilized for feedwoter heating.

automatically maintained by mixing atmospheric air wit,h t,he t,urbine


exhaust gases for temperature control as required. Humic1it.y of the dry-
ing air can also be easily controlled by spraying water into the hot exhaust
gases when required.
Ikpending upon the physical arrangement of the equipment, within llle
plant, the gases leaving the exhaust-heat recovery boilers could also be
used for drying.

FUELS

Much effort is being espended at the present time to develop means of


using a wide variety of fuels for the combustion gas turbine. Based on
experience t o date, natural gas or distillate oils are excellent, fuels. With
some mirior design changes, the gas-turbine units now in production can
be adapted to burn 500 Btu per cu f t of gas or even blast-furnace gas
having a heating value of approximately 90 Btu per cu it of gas.
872 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

At the present time, the steam-turbine plarit can utilize a much wider
variety of fuels. This is a handicap for the gas turbine i n areas where the
cost of suitable fuel is higher thaii that of fuels for other power plants,
This handicap is partially overcome by the expected greater simplicity
and lower installed cost for the gas-turbine plant or the low requirements
of the gas-turbine plant for cooling water and high-quality boiler feed
water.

SELECTION OF PROPER TURBINE- STEAM OR G A S


When the gas turbine is credited with the heat in it,s eshaust gases
which cau bc recovered for various uses throughout the plant, its cycle
i as high as 70 per cent or more. This is comparable to
efficiency c a ~ he
the cycle efficiency of a good noiicondensing steam-turbine plarit exhaust-
ing steam for process use and generating by-product electric power.
How then can we select the proper cycle:’
Refer again t o Fig. 1G.2. These curves show that steam turbines
or gas turbines with supplemeutary fired exhaust-heat recovery boilers
may be considered when the ratio of electric power to process steam is
lon- say, 2500 to 5000 k w per 100,000 Ib per hr steam flow, which is 20
t o 40 Ih of process steam per kvhr. Gas turhines should be consi-lered
when thc ratio of electric power to process steam is high^-. say, 8000 to
10,000 kiv per 100,000 lb per hr steam flow, which is 10 to 12 Ib of process
steam per kwhr
I n the intermediate range of process-steam requirements, the con-
densing-extract,ion turbine, or the gas turbine ut,ilizirig erhaust-heat
recovery boilers with supplementary firing, or a combination of the two
may be sclected.
The requirement,s of process steam per kilowatthour vary n-idely in
differcut mills. The over-all average is perhaps no more t,han 25 Ih per
kwhr, and 11-ith the rapid increase in the use of elcctric power, the ratio
is likely t o decrease still more in the future. In some new mills, and par-
t.icularly in the expansion oC misting mills, the ratio of process-steam t o
electric-power requiremeiits may be quite low A Ion. ratio favors the
gas t,urbine.

GAS TURBINE VS. STEAM TURBINE

Let us make a few comparisons between the gas-turbine and the steam-
turbine plant.
Initial Cost. From available data, it, is estimated t,hat the cost of a
nev gas-turbine plant compares favorably with steam-turbine plants
utilizing units of comparable kiv rating.
STEAM AN0 POWER GENERATION 073

However, each case should be carefully studied by competent engineers


so that accurate and complete installation and operating costs are estab-
lished. Wit,h such information the proper selection of the source of
power can he made whether this is purchased power or local generation or
a combination of the two.
Control. The gas-turbine plant has one simple control panel. The
simplicity of this plant makes complete automatic control possible.
Efficiency. When properly applied, both steam and gas turbines oper-
ate with high cycle efficiencies.
Reliability and Maintenance. A total of over 500,000 hr of operation
has been accumulated on the gas turbines now in service Even though
this is equivalent to more than 50 years of operation, it is realized that an
accurate prediction of reliability and maintenance cannot be based on this
relatively short period of operation. However, the designers are confi-
dent that the gas-turbine plant will compare favorably with the steam-
turbine plant. It might be well to point out here that the combustion
gas turbines for commercial laud applications are designed with safety
factors comparable t o those used in steam-turbine design so far as long
life and low maintenance are concerned.

DIESEL-ENGINE POWER-PLANT CYCLE

FOR STRAIGHT POWER GENERATION

The cycle efficiency for diesel-engine plants varies with such things as
the compression ratio, the weight of air used per pound of fuel, etc.
Quoted full-load efficienciesfor power plants designed for the generation
of electric power only range from perhaps 25 up to 35 or 40 per cent. An
efficiency of 35 or 40 per cent is very good for small power-plant units and
is higher than realized in small steam power plants used for the generation
of electric power only.
Even though the diesel plant may have higher efficiency, the cost (per
million Rtu) of fuel suitable for the diesel plant may be two or more times
the cost of fuels suitable for the steam plant. This is one of several fac-
tors which minimizes the use of diesel plants. However, the diesel plant
is often selected for very small generating stations.

TO SUPPLY HEAT FOR PROCESS

Heat recoverable, for normal process use, is relatively low in the diesel
power plant. This is true because, in addition to the exhaust loss, the
loss to jacket water is high, percentagewise, in diesel engines. The tem-
074 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

perature of jacket water is so low that this heat energy cannot often be
utilized and hence is lost as was the case of condenser losses with a con-
densing steam turbine.
Because of the jacket-water loss, maximum practical cycle efficiency
for a diesel plant with exhaust-heat recovery will usually be lower than
for steam- or gas-turbine power plants used to supply both electric power
and process heat. This, coupled with the high cost of diesel fuels, usually
means high over-all fuel costs for the diesel plant.
Internal-combustion engines generate only about 5 per cent of the total
industrial power generation. For that reason their application will not
be discussed in detail here.

PLANT CONSTRUCTION, INVESTMENT, A N D


OPERATING COST DETAILS
If straight condensing turbines, gas turbines without exhaust-heat
recovery apparatus, or diesel engines must be used (when plant requires
little, if any, process steam or other forms of heat energy), the cost of
generating small blocks of electric power in an industrial plant is usually
higher than the cost of power purchased from the utility, except in isolated
cases. For this reason, information in this section will be limited pri-

20 40 60 80
CENTS PER MILLION BTU
FIG. 16.30 Comparative costs per million Bhr for various fuels.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 075

marily to a discussion of the cost of power generation in conjunction with


process heat requirements.
Power-plant-cycle efficiency is a direct measure of over-all fuel usage
for plants generating all their power. I n an industrial plant where heat
energy in the gas-turbine exhaust gases or in the exhaust and/or extrac-
tion steam from steam turbines is required in process, the fuel required
(per kilowatthour) for generating electric power ranges as low as one-third
the fuel used by straight condensing power plants used for power gener-
ation only.
Comparative costs, in cents per million Btu, for the more common
industrial power plant fuels are plotted on Fig. 16.30.

POWER-GENERATION COSTS-STEAM PLANTS


Estimated costs of generating electric power in plants ranging from
1000 to 10,000 kw are shown in Fig. 16.31. These curves show the cost
of power generation when condensing steam turbines are used (no steam
required for process) and when noncondensing or automatic-extraction-
type steam turbines exhausting and/or extracting steam for use in process
are used.
Even though over-all power-plant-cycle efficiencies are high (fuel cost
low) when generating “by-product” electric power, the actual total cost
of by-product power may be higher than purchased power.
For small plants, labor costs (mils per kilowatthour) are high and some-
times raise the cost of by-product power above the cost of purchased
power. Where enough by-product generation is involved to keep labor
costs down and where the plant factor is high enough to minimize fixed
charges (mils per kilowatthour), by-product power generation within the
industrial plant is usually economical.
The curves of Fig. 16.31 show the effect of rating and plant factor on
the cost of power generation and indicate relative costs of by-product and
“condensing” power generation. It can he seen that fixed charges, fuel,
and labor are the large items of cost. Fixed charges and labor increase
very rapidly as the installed generating capacity and the plant factor
decrease. This emphasizes the importance of a careful study of the
present and predicted future steam and electric-power requirements.
By-product power costs shown in Fig. 16.31 are based on the incremen-
tal cost of installing and operating power boilers and noncondensing
steam turbines t o generate electric power when exhausting the steam
required for process vs. the cost of installing and operating low-pressure
boilers t o supply process steam when electric power is purchased from the
utility. I n other words, low-pressure boilers would he required and their
initial cost (fixed charges) would be chargeable t o process requirements
even though no power-generating equipment is installed in the industrial
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION
878 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

plant. The cost chargeable to power generatipn would then be the added
cost of pon-er boilers over low-pressure process steam boilers plus the cost
of installing the turbine-generator equipment. Labor charged to power
gennration would likewise he the additional boiler-room labor (if any) and
the turbine-room labor required to operate the turbine generator. Fuel
costs charged to power generation are based on the generating unit being
credited with all heat in the turbine exhaust steam.
“Condensing” power costs shown in Fig. 16.31 are based on straight
condensing steam-turhine plants such as would he used to generate electric
power in plank where process steam is not required. I n these costs, fixed
charges are based on t,he total initial cost of the power plant, including full
cost of the boiler plant. Other costs, likewise, are total power-plant
operating rosts.
E ~ e though
n t,he cost of “condensing” kilowatts is appreciably higher
than by-product kilowatts, an industrial plant which supplements power
purchased from the utility with by-product gencration within the plant
sometimes finds it economical to install automatic-extraction condensing
turbines. With this type of t,nrhine, normal operation can be to generate
by-product power only with minimum steam flow t o the exhaust (steam

PLANT FACTOR - PERCENT PLANT FACTOR-PERCENT


CONDENSING NWCONDENSING ‘‘BY PRODUCT’’

FIG. 16.32 Ertirnated total cost of generating electric power. Curves show the effect
of rating, plant factor, and labor on over-all costs.
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 879

GENERATOR RAT1NG - K W
I ASSUMED SAME AS PLANT RATING)
FIG. 16.33 Estimated component costs of power generation in plonh operating a t 50 per
cent plant fac1or.

condenser), The turbine can he controlled, automatically or manually,


to generate “condensing” kilowatts only during short peaks in plant load
t o eliminate or minimize short peaks on the power company. Depending
upon the nature of the load and the rate structure of the power rompittry,
the savirrg in power costs due t o reduced demand charges may more than
offset the added cost of “condetrsirrg” power generation required for this
purpose.
The total (.osts of “condensing” and by-product power for steam-
turbine units are shown in Fig. 16.32. As you i d note, this is a summary
880 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

of costs taken from Fig. 16.31 for steam-turbine units rated 1000 to
10,000 kw.
The bar charts on Fig. 16.33 are based on operation at 50 par cent plant
factor and show the various elements of generating costs. This ix also a
summary from Fig. 16.31 for steam-turbine units rated 1000 to 10,000 kw.
Typical values for labor, heat rates, maintenance and investment costs
for steam-turbine plants as assumed for plotting the curves of Fig. 16.31
are given in Tables 16.7 to 16.9.
The following labor costs are chargeable to power generation:

TABLE 16.7 Typical Steam-turbine Power-plant Heat Rates'

Plant-unit r d n g , kw.. ................. 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000

Steam conditions. .................... 400 pig-750 F-2 in. H(

Number of faedxder h e d o n . . ........


At full b d i
Plant heat mte.. ................. 21.300 18.200 14,900 13.900
Plant efficiency.. ................. 16% 18.7% 22.9% 24.6%
At three-quarter lood:
Plant hsot rote.. ................. 22,100 18,800 15.300 14.300
Plant efliciemy.. ................. 15.4% 18.1% 22.3% 23.8%
At half load:
Plod h o d rate.. ................. 24,800 21.200 16,900 15.700
Plant efficiency ................... 13.7% 16.1% 20.20/, 21.70/,

Plant-unit rating, kw.. ................. I 1,000 2.000 5,000 10.000

At full load:
Plant heat rote.. ................. 5500 5200 4700 4500
Plant sffirlency.. ................. 62% 65.6% 72.6% 76%
At three-quarter load:
Plant heat mte.. ................. 5560 5260 4750 4550
Plont efficiency.. ................. 61.4% 65% 71.9% 75 %
At holf lood:
Plant heat rote.. ................. 5850 5600 5000 4800
Plant efficiency.. ................. 58.5% 61% 68.2% 71 %
I
* Btu per net kwhr.
S T E M AND POWER GENERAllON 881

Condensing plant: Four operators total per shift, or a total of sixteen on


the payroll.
Noncondensing "by-product" plent: Two operators per shift, or a
total of eight on the payroll.
An average cost of $5000 per operator w&s used.
The dashed line on each curve indicates total cost if half the number of
operators listed above are required so that labor costs can be easily inter-
polated for any number of operators desired.
The typical heat rates shown in Table 16.7 were used as a basis for fuel
costs.
The fixed charges tabulated in Table 16.8 are generally applicable.

1
TABLE 16.8 Total Investment Chargeable to Power Generation

Plant-unit rding, kw.. ................. 1000 2000 5000 10.000


Condensing, dollars per kw.. ........... $360 $320 $280 $260
Noncondaring, dollars per k w . . ........ $220 $200 $175 $160

The maintenance charges.listed in Table 16.9 were included as typical


values chargeable to power generation.

TABLE 16.9 Maintenance and Miscellaneous Costs Choraeable -


to Power Generotion
-
1 1 1
~~~ ~ _ _

AontYnitroting. Im ....................... 1.000 2,000 5,000 10.000

I
!
Condeluing Dollan per yeor $20,000 $30,000 $45,000 $55,000
Per cent of inilia1 in"~lm.nt 5.5% 4.7% 3.2% 2.1%
Mils per kwhr 01 100% plont 2.3 mils 1.7 mils 1 .o mils 0.6 mils
focmr
Noncon- Dollon per yeor $8.000 $1 2,000 $1 8.000 $22,000
denring* Per cent of initial invntmant 3.6% 3% 2.1% 1.4%
Mils per kwhr at 100% p l m l 0.P mill 0.7 mils 0.4 mils 0.25 mils
focmr

Assumed 40 per cent of the total for B condensing plant would be chargeable to
the power-generation portion of a noncondensing plant.

STEAM-POWER-PLANT INVESTMENT COSTS


How much does a power-generating station cost?
The cost of installing a new industrial power plant or of expanding an
existing power plant varies widely. No attempt will be made to cover
detailed investment costs here a t this time, but a few general comments
will be given as a guide.
882 STEAM AND POWER GENERATION

Dollars per kilowatt of installed capacity is a figure commonly used in


discussing power-plant costs. I n utility plants, producing kilowatts as
their only salable product, the relation of initial cost t o kilowatts installed
is perhaps a reasonable yardstick for comparing costs. This same yard-
stick is often used in discussing industrial power plant costs even though
t.he size, and henre the cost, of an industrial power plant may bear little
relation to its kilowatt rating.
For instance, a utility power plant and an industrial plant, each having
the same kilowatt rating, might have wide variations in the requirements
for various power-plant apparatus as indicated in Table 16.10.
TABLE 16.10 Approximate Range of Ratings for Typical
Power-plant Apparatus for a 10,000-kw Plant

Plant opparohm Utility plant Industrial power plant

Turbine generator, kw 10.000 10.000


Powor boilerlrl, Ib per hr 100-1 25,000 200-500.000
Feed-water make-up and treolmont, gpm 4-10 400-1000
Boiler feed-water pumps. gpm 200-250 400-1000

Boiler fans, steam piping, and other apparatus vary widely as well as
the boilers, water treatment, feed-water pumps, etc., included in Table
16.10. The boiler plant is a large item in power-plant costs. With the
wide variation in steam flows and other industrial power-plant require-
ments, the difficulty of using a value of “dollars per kilowatt installed”
in estimating or even comparing the costs of industrial power plants is
apparent unless the plant is described in detail.
Now for the actual cost of power plants-utility plants range in cost
from perhaps as low as $150 per kw t o well over $200 per kw installed.
Industrial plants, keeping in mind the above warning on the use of dollars
per kw, range in cost from something less than $200 per kw t o more than
$300 per kw installed.
Pouer-plant costs vary widely, not only because of different industrial
power-plant requirements hut also because of the power-plant facilities,
buildings, etc., that may already be available in the case of plant eupan-
sion, and foundation and building requirements, etc., in the case of new
plants. Because of these many variables, it is difficult t o estimate costs
without carefully analyzing each plant requirement and then adding
various component costs t o arrive a t total cost. This total cost can be
converted to dollars per kilowatt of course.
As thp rate of return on initial investment (per cent. fixed charges) is
increased, initial cost becomes of increasing importance. For instance,
STEAM AND POWER GENERATION 883

with gross fixed charges of 15 per cent, $50 per kw installed cost represents
1 mil per kwhr in power cost if the turbinegenerator is operated 85 per
cent of the time (7500 hr per year) a t full load. Other rates of fixed
charges mould of course change the cost per kwhr proportionally. Cost
per kwhr would likewise go up as plant factor goes down. For a plant
having an average annual load of 10,000 kw, 1 mil per kwhr reduction in
power costs means almost $100,000 per year.
Chapto- 17 by Donald S. Brereton

Load- and Cost-estimating Data


~ ~~~~ ~ . -
This chapter is divided into two parts, one dealing with load-estimatin
- ~-
~~~~~~~~

data and the other with cost-estimating data. These two sections are
coupled together to assist the power-system engineer to determine more
easily the power requirements of new or additional facilities in his plant
and then determine the most economical arrangement and selection of the
apparatus in accordance with the sound and safe principles of power-
system design as given in the preceding chapters.
It is realized that some risk is taken when information concerning the
cost of electrical apparatus is published. It is hoped that when these
data are used it will always be recognized that they are for estimating
purposes and not for firm pricing. It is believed that the fluctuations in
the prices of the apparatus listed that will occur after the publication of
this handbook will not materially reduce the usefulness of this chapter.
Therefore, i t is not the intention here to give an exact price of a trans-
former or a motor with its control but to illustrate the relative costs of
the various components that make up the power system.

LOAD-ESTIMATING DATA*
A close estimate of the location and demands of the electric load in an
industrial plant is a major prerequisite for the proper design of the plant
electric power system, for the success or failure of the power system lies
in its ability t o meet the load requirements. Unfortunately, load esti-
mating is seldom easy, especially in new installations, since the power
system is usually being designed while the utilization equipment is also in
the planning stage. Certainly, in the initial stages of planning, the exact
machine ratings will seldom be known and very little can be predicted as
to their probable operating schedules. The problem is one of making an
* R. M. Wilson, General Electric Company, formerly of the Industrial Engmeering
Section, made a substantial contribution to the material on pagee 884 to 892.
884
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMTING DATA 885

estimate of the loads from what little information is available on the pro-
posed plant and of supplementing these general data with load data on
similar existing plants. Discussions with the plant engineers and
operating personnel of the proposed plant are essential to obtain as much
information as possible. General data on similar plants can be obtained
from discussions with plant engineers and operating personnel of those
plants. In addition to discussions with the industrial engineers, it may
be helpful to consult the utility power engineers for their estimates of the
load of similar industrial plants on their system.
In estimating the load demand it is usually best to consider lighting
and power loads separately and to combine these later to determine the
demand in any one area, for in present practice light and power loads are
most often taken from the same load-center substation. The load in a
manufacturing plant is commonly expressed in terms of load density
(volt-amperes per square foot). Different sections of the plant must
nearly always he considered a t different load densities, for there will be
separate areas for offices, machine shops, storage, etc.

LIGHTING-LOAD ESTIMATES

Lighting loads are easier to estimate than power loads, but will repre-
sent only a small portion of the total power requirements. The load
density for lighting may be estimated by considering three factors: inten-
sity of illumination, type of lighting (mercury, fluorescent, or incan-
descent), and height of fixtures. Table 17.1 shows the effect of these fac-
tors on power requirements for factory lighting. For office lighting the
factors should be increased by about 30 per cent. The intensity of
illumination multiplied by the lighting-demand factor given in the table
gives the power demand in volt-amperes per square foot of floor area.
TABLE 17.1 Power Requirements for lighting*

Lighting-demand fmh-rt

fixture height, f l

Incondorcent Fluorexent

I*lOW 14 0.12 0.060


14-35 0.13 0.065
35-50 0.15 0.070
886 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA

For example, for a maintained illumination of 50 foot-candles in a factory


area using fluorescent lighting. which is an illumination level found in
general use, the lighting requires about 3 va per sq f t (50 X 0.06 = 3).
Mercury lamps are the most efficient and are most often applied in high
bays of manufacturing buildings where the fixtures can be mounted quite
a distance above the eye level and the intensity of the source will not be
unpleasant to the eyes. Fluorescent lamps are finding general use in all
areas, with the exception of areas where close color definition is required.
A combination of mercury and incandescent lamps is often used t o provide
better color discrimination than can be provided with mercury lamps
alone. In general, the lighting-load density will vary from 1 t o 8 va per
sq ft, the lowest illumination being in storage areas, the highest in areas
of precision manufacturing or assembly of small parts. Plant security
may place emphasis on outdoor lighting; however, all outdoor lighting
seldom amounts to more than about 10 per cent of the total lighting load,
and unless otherwise indicated, an allowance of this additional percentage
t o indoor lighting will be more than sufficient to take care of outdoor
lighting.
Lighting requirements will vary by industry, and Table 17.2 may he
helpful in determining what some of these variations may be. The
diversity factor of the lighting load mill be low, and the demand of the
lighting connecting to any one load-center substation should he con-
sidered a t 100 per cent. I n terms of total plant connected lighting load,
a combined demand and diversity factor of 80 per cent or higher should
be used for lighting.
TABLE 17.2 lighting Requirements in Various Industries
Lighting in Per Cent of
Industry Total Connected Load
Steel foundries.. ................................... 1-3
.......................
Steel rolling mills; oil refining.. 3-5
H e m e~ k t r i ~ a eqvipment;
l ............. 5-8
wire drawing..
Avtomobilc equipmcntj baking.. ...................... 8-10
Mochinc parts. .................................... 10-1 5
Automobile osembly and p o r h . ...................... 15-25

POWER ESTIMATES
Estimating the power load is considerably more difficult than esti-
mating the lighting load. One way of starting on this is first to consider
the major components of the power load, such as large synchronous motors
and furnaces. Such loads exert the maximum influence on the power
demand and are often decided early in preliminary planning since their
rating and schedule of operation can be more closely predicted than can
that of the smaller loads. Many of these loads will be applied a t the
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 887

plant primary voltage (above 600 volts), although some may be applied
a t lower voltages.
For large induction and 0.8-power factor synchronous motors the kva
demand may be assumed t o equal the motor horsepower rating, but for
1.0-power factor synchronous motors the kva demand should he taken as
0.8 times the horsepower rating. Often the larger machines will operate
alternately, and it is important to consider a diversity factor t o prevent
overdesigning the system. The use of these factors is discussed in later
paragraphs.
A thorough knowledge of the type of manufacturing activity will aid
considerably in estimating the demand of the smaller machines on a load-
density basis since existing plants may be surveyed to obtain a suitable
estimate of the load of those manufacturing operations which are similar
to those planned in the new plant. These load-density estimates are
especially useful for equipment operated a t 600 volts or below. In any
one plant the density may vary from zero in storage areas to 35 or more
va per sq ft in some machine-tool areas, spinning rooms, etc., or similar
areas of concentrated loads. Table 17.3 gives representative load densi-
ties for different types of industrial plants. The table should be used for
preliminary estimating only since the sine of the plant and its processes
will vary considerably within a given industry category.

TABLE 17.3 Estimated Load Densi:ies in Representative Industries


Volt-ampere Demand-
Light ond Power,
Typo of Plant Va per Sq Ft
Best-wgor factory and reflncry.. ..................... 19
Papor mills........................................ 14
.........................
Textile mills; engine builders. I2
Cigarette manufacturing............................. I1
General manufactwing; chemicals; electronic equipment. ... 10
Small-appliance monufacfuring; machine repair l o p . . .... 755
Lamp monufaauring.. .............................. 5
Smd-device manufacturing.. ......................... 3>5

When used with good judgment, Table 17.4 can also be used to estimate
the power requirements of a new industrial plant. This table shows the
number of kilowatthours required per unit of output and is a general
average of many industrial plants making the same type of product.
When applied to any particular plant, the information, therefore, may
not nearly represent artual conditions, for the degree of electrification in
the plant will have a considerable bearing on the number of kilowatthours
used. In order to translate these figures into terms of system capacity,
it mill be necessary to know the output of the plant and the number of
hours in which manufacturing processes are in operation.
888 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA

TABLE 17.4 Approximate Power Consumption of Industry

Industry I Kwhr I Unit

Automobiles. ............................... 1050 Each


Butte...................................... 136 1000 Ib
Corpets and rugs (wool).. .................... 1480 1000 rq yd
Cernmt .................................... 22 Bard
Food,horen ................................ 144 1WO Ib
Pope
Wood pulp .............................. 384 TOn
Poper ond board ......................... 474 Ton
Iron (pig). ................................. 25 TO"
Shon ..................................... 472 1000 pairs
Steel ...................................... 217 TO"
Sugar;
Beet .................................... 26 Ton of beets
Beet .................................... 154 Ton of reflned sugar
Cone (011 elechic).. ....................... 220 Ton of m w wgar
Cone (dlelectric with ,teem mill drives). ....... 125 T a of raw sugar
cone, refinery.. .......................... 23 Ton of melt
Tobocw
Cigarettes. .............................. 200 1,000,000 (cigarettes)
I70 Ton of tobacco
Ciao rs ................................... 8100 1,000,000

TOTAL LOAD ESTIMATES

After the loads of the individual machines or areas of a plant have been
determined, it is necessary to combine these t o obtain a total demand.
This kva demand determines the system capacity which must be pro-
vided and is obtained by the use of demand and diversity factors. It is
not difficult to apply these factors in a load-center system of power dis-
tribution, for each load center serves a relatively small area. For exam-
ple, on a branch feeder the connected load is multiplied by a demand fac-
tor to obtain feeder demand, and the sum of feeder demands is divided
by a diversity factor to obtain the combined feeder or load-center sub-
station demand. The selection of demand and diversity factors, like
load density, is based on known conditions, experience, or similar opera-
tions in existing plants. Table 17.5 shows factors for the more commonly
encountered types of manufacturing loads. As the table shows, the
demand factor will vary considerably with different types of loads. For
example, the demand factor of a group of motors driving a conveyer belt
will approach 100 per cent, while the demand factor of a group of hand
tools in a small furniture factory or machine shop might he only 30 per
cent. A diversity factor of unity is often used t o provide ample system
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 889

capacity, since the margin provided in this way is soon used by load
growth; and, although the sum of the maximum demands of the individual
load centers and of the equipment applied a t the distribution voltage can
be divided by the diversity factor to obtain the maximum demand on the
distribution system, the usual practice is to provide a system adequate
for a maximum demand obtained with a diversity factor of unity or to
provide even more than 100 per cent capacity in the main system to take
care of load centers which would be added in the future.
TABLE 17.5 Demand Factors
btimoting Demand
Load Factor, Per Cent.
MOIOW
1. General pvrp~se; m d h s 1-1; crone elwoton; v a n t i l o t i ~ ~compreuona
j
..........................................
pYmp,, rolling mill., atc 30
........
2. Semicontinuous p m n s n ; popsr mill*i refineries; rubber mills; elc. 60
3. Continuous operationii textile mills.. ................................ 90
....................................
Electric ovenii h e d e n ond fvrnoces 80
lndudionfum.cn ................................................... 80
Arcfurn.c.. ........................................................ 100
Lighthg............................................................ 80
........................................................
Arc w e l d H I 30
Rerirl.ncewo1d.r ................................................... 20

* Multiply connected load by this factor to obtain total plant dernsnd, rtssuming
diveraity factor is unity.
Another term which is commonly used is load factor. Once in a while
i t may be possible to take advantage of a low load factor and select a
smaller transformer with smaller cables than could be applied based on
the peak load alone. However, the transformer and cables must be of
adequate size to provide a satisfactory voltage under the peak load condi-
tions. Selection of a safe load factor requires detailed knowledge of
operating characteristics of the load and of the thermal capacity of the
distribution equipment. Only in rare cases should a load factor be
applied.
For a further explanation of these factors refer to Fig. 17.1. The
feeders on load center A operate as shown in the accompanying table.
The actual demand measured on the load center is 800 kva, thus the
diversity factor is 1000 + 800 = 1.25. In practice the load-center rating
would usually be selected at lo00 kva, which provides for future load by
using a diversity factor of unity. Assuming that load centers B, C , and D
are the same as A, the demand on the main substation, also assuming no
diversity between load centers, is 4 X 800 = 3200 kva. The main sub-
station would likely he rated 3750 kva, or even larger if future plans seem
to dictate this, for the main substation is not so easily or economically
expanded as is the additional kva available in the load-center area which
can be obtained by adding a relatively small load-center substation.
890 LOAD- A N D COST-ESTIMTING DATA

MAIN
SUBSTATION DEMAND
METER
13.8 K V

I
CENTER

'gjJJ
CONNECTED LOAD

Feeder
NO.

1 125 100 a0
2 I25 100 80
3 500 300 60
4 600 500 84

Combined 1350 1000 lorsumn M)


diversity)

FIG. 17.1 Typical distribution-rprem arrangement.

Actual load data as recorded for groups of plants in various industries


are given in Table 17.6. The comparison of group averages with the
range of readings necessary to include all plants of each,group indicates
the wide variation found even in similar plants and the desirability of
obtaining specific data rather than relying on general estimates.
Examples. Assume that a two-kiln cement plant is t o he constructed
which will produce approximately 4000 barrels of standard portland
I
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 891

TABLE 17.6 Recorded Load Data for ;roup of Plant! jurnrnary)

Demand, Annual kwhr Annual kwhr


"a per rq ff per *q ff per vm demond
Type of plant ~ __
Average Range veroge Range Range
~

Chcmicol ..................... 10.0 613 33.7 14-54 3.3 2-4


Electronics. ................... 10.3 3-20 25.8 11-67 2.4 1-4
Foundry ..................... 9.9 .... 32.4 ..... 3.3
Lamp:
General.. ................. 4.8 2-12 19.5 5-53 4.2 2-6
Wire works.. .............. 8.7 6-13 30.0 13-64 2.8 2-5
Boreworks ................. 4.0 .... 25.0 ..... 6.0
Glass works.. .............. 4.5 2-7 24.2 13-37 5.4 4 4
Porcelain. ................... 2.0 .... 10.9 ..... 5.4
Printing.. .................... 3.0 .... 8.0 ..... 3.0
Small appliance. .............. 7.4 2-1 3 20.5 4-46 2.9 1-7
Small devise .................. 3.6 2-7 9.5 3-27 2.4 1-5
General:
L a r g c o v e r 5000 k w . . ..... 10.0 5-17 70.0 8-1 95 7.0 1-19
S m o l h n d e r 5000 k w ....... 9.8 3-1 8 31 .O 5-50 5.2 1-27
- - - -
cement per 24-hr day. From Table 17.4 the average cement plant used
22 kwhr per barrel of cement. Since a cement plant generally operated
24 hr per day, the system capacity must be at least (22 t 24) X 4000, or
about 3700 kw. Assuming that the power factor is 95 per cent or better,
the plant would require a system which will furnish continuously 3900
kva. Actually with an average use of 3900 kva, the system must require
kva peaks somewhat greater; however, this type of operation is very
steady, and the peak load may be only 10 or 20 per cent higher than the
average. Thus the designer should consider a main substation rated
4500 kva or more t o take care of additional expansion.
In another instance, suppose that a manufacturer proposes t o build
small aircraft engines and wishes t o determine the power requirements in
a new factory which will be approximately 500,000 sq ft in area, only a
small portion of this being devoted t o office space. From Table 17.3 the
kva demand for both light and power will be approximately 6000 kva,
that is, 500,000 sq f t a t 12 va per sq ft. Because of the low demand and
diversity factors in this type of operation, it is probable that the connected
load-center-substation capacity will considerably exceed the main trans-
former capacity.
First, a plant layout should be obtained on which can he spotted the
major components of load. Some of these will be individual machine
ratings, while others will be purely designations of load area and the type
892 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA

of manufacturing in t,hat area. These loads can then be grouped into


areas with a load of 500 to 1500 kva, taking into account the demand
factors. From these groupings the load-center arrangement and ratings
may be determined.

SUMMARY

The load-estimating data contained herein is for general preliminary


estimating only and shonld not be used when information on the specific
plant for which a power system is being designed is available. However,
these general data may be helpful in preliminary stages, and the applica-
tion of such general principles and procedures as are given in the references
listed may facilitate the design of a power system for a specific plant.

COST-ESTIMATING DATA
Economics is one of the most important factors in power-Bystem engi-
neering. There is often more than one way to satisfy a given set of
requirements from a technical standpoint. The choice of the method
used in such cases is largely determined by economics.
The following data are presented solely for the purpose of making com-
parative system economic studies. Such data, under no circumstances
should be used for the obtaining of appropriations, as market changes,
product changes, etc., all affect the exact pricing of any particular
equipment.
To make proper economic comparisons requires the consideration of
the installed cost of the power-system apparatus necessary to bring power
from the source to the load. Problems of selection of voltage require the
consideration of motors and control, particularly for the higher voltage
motors and control which can operate directly at plant primary voltage.
However, these approximate data are sufficiently accurate for nearly
all general system comparison economic studies.

INSTALLATION C O S T S

The data given in this section, except for the information on cable, do
not include installation costs. These may vary widely,, depending upon
working conditions, foundations required, whether the installation is new
or old, whether production must be kept going while the change is made,
upon labor rates, and many other factors. However, some installation
figure must be assumed to get a proper over-all economic comparison
between two systems. Where information known to be more accurate is
not available, the following procedures have been used to obtain a reason-
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 893

able approximation for comparative purposes only. The following para-


graphs describe accepted practices of estimating the cost of installation
for different apparatus.
Field-assembled Switching Equipment. Equipment that is assembled
piecemeal in the field, such as standardized open switching stations,
piecemeal substations, piecemeal switching equipment, should have 50 to
100 per cent added to the equipment cost to cover installation cost. This
would not include foundations.
Factory-assembled Switching Equipment. Factory-assembled equip-
ment, such as load-center unit substations, metal-clad switchgear, motor-
control centers, should have approximately 25 per cent of the cost of the
equipment added for installation. This again does not cover foundations
or special mounting platforms but merely the placing of the electrical
equipment on an already available foundation, bolting it together, and
making the electrical connections.
Transformers. The installation of three-phase transformers involves
the moving of the transformer into place and the making of the connec-
tions. To perform this installation function, approximately 10 per cent
should be added to the cost of the three-phase transformer.
Single-phase transformers require greater installation expense because
there are three units to move and three units to interconnect on both the
primary and secondary, as well as making the connections to the incoming
and outgoing lines. The cost of the buses for the primary and secondary
connections for making the delta or Y connection of the single-phase units
may be included in the switchgear. However, there are still additional
connections to be made. Therefore, the cost of a single-phase bank of
transformers should be increased by 25 per cent to cover installation and
making the connections between the transformers and lines or switchgear
buses. If it is necessary to make a separate structure or if cable inter-
connections are necessary to form the Y or delta connection of the trans-
former hank, then the installation cost may he greater than 25 per cent.
Motors and Control. For the purpose of system comparisons it should
not, in general, be necessary to consider installation expenses in connec-
tion with motors and control to get an accurate picture of how motors and
control affect the economics of a power system. For example, the differ-
ence between the installation cost of a 2300-volt motor and its control and
a 4000-volt motor and its control would be nil. There may, however, be
some difference between the installation cost when 440-volt motors and
control are involved and it is compared with the cost of 2300-volt or 4000-
volt motors and control. In this case the installation cost of the motor
would be essentially the same, but for smaller motors there may be an
installation-cost advantage of installing the motor control in favor of 440
volts. On the other hand, for very large motors there may be an instal-
894 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA

lation-cost advantage in installing the higher voltage motor starters.


These factors may be considered. However, it is felt that they are not
important enough, in general, to complicate the picture by considering
them as they are of third- or fourth-order importance.
Metal-enclosed Bus. The installation costs of metal-enclosed bus may
vary widely, depending upon installation conditions. For estimating
purposes the installation cost may he assumed to be in the range of 25 t o
50 per cent of the cost of the bus, including terminations, tapoffs, or
bends. As an average estimating figure, one-third may be used for com-
parative purposes.

PIECEMEAL-EQUIPMENT COSTS

Piecemeal-equipment costs are not given here because it would take too
much space to list each item separately and would be too difficult to inter-
pret. Furthermore, the purpose of this chapter is to cover the more
general cases, i.e., those systems using modern factory-assembled equip-
ment. Factory-assembled equipment is now almost universally employed
in industrial plant power systems.
The complication of presenting a simple economic story on piecemeal
equipment is one of the major disadvantages of this type of equipment
compared with factory-assembled switchgear, substations, or motor con-
trol. The real disadvantage is evident when the installed costs of each
system are compared. The problem of piecemeal-equipment costs is
further complicated by the very involved engineering and ordering and
detailed expediting required, which are difficult to estimate accurately.
Prices of factory-assembled equipment are published by the manufac-
turers, and the engineering and ordering costs are only a small percentage
of the over-all cost and, therefore, are not nearly so significant as they are
with piecemeal equipment.
For roughly estimating the cost of a piecemeal substation or switchgear
station equipment, it is necessary to include not only the large items like
circuit breakers and transformers hut also all the dozens of miscellaneous
items such as disconnecting switches, steel structures, insulators, buses,
connectors, current transformers, potential transformers, fuses, fuse
holders, etc. To obtain an accurate cost would require, first of all, a
complete design for the substation. However, in estimating stages such
design work is generally not feasible. As a guide in estimating the cost
of a piecemeal switchgear equipment, take the cost of power circuit
breakers rated 500 mva and up and increase that by 50 per cent and take
the cost of power circuit breakers rated less than 500 mva and increase
that by 100 per cent. This will generally be enough to include the costs
of miscellaneous items mentioned previously. After taking the breaker
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 895

cost and increasing it 50 per cent, this total figure should be increased 50
to 100 per cent again t,o allow for installation. These substations vary
so much that rules of thumb can be very misleading. Therefore, the only
way to get an accurate cost is to determine each item required and its
cost. One of t.he major problems in doing this under the pressure of esti-
mating is to be sure that all items are included. With factory-assembled
equipment those items are automatically included in the price, and thus
the chances of error are reduced when using factory-assembled equipment
as well as the engineering time required to design and estimate the job.
Example 1 on page 896 is included t o elaborate some of these points for
background information only.

STANDARDIZED OPEN SWITCHING STATIONS

Standardized open-type switching stations or components of packaged


substations are sometimes priced and sold as a unit. In such eases the
manufacturer supplies all the equipment necessary for the functions to he
performed by the station. To these no additions need be made to CDVCP
structures, bus, disconnecting switches, etc., as is required for piecemeal
substations when the parts are all purchased individually.

ESTIMATING COST OF EQUIPMENT

In all estimating work it is desirable to increase the equipment cost, if


net, about 10 per cent to obtain an “estimating” figure. This will then
freely permit the addition of equipment already specified a t “estimating
prires” with those given a t “net prices” in the various sections of appa-
ratus handbooks. It is also sound practice t o use estimating figures
which provide some degree of contingency. This percentage should be
added to all parts of a piecemeal substation, since the prices of this equip-
ment appear as net. A similar percentage figure is added in all cost data
shown in this chapter.

EXAMPLES OF SYSTEM ECONOMIC COMPARISONS

The following examples are principally based on using the data included
on pages 906 to 924. I t is significant to point out that, when comparing
piecemeal installations with factory-assembled equipment, all equipment
components must be included in the piecemeal equipment. This will be
home out in the first example where, if interconnect,ing buses, disconnect-
ing switches, insulators, etc., were omitted, an entirely erroneous couclu-
sion would be reached.
896 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA

EXAMPLE 1

This example will compare an old-style piecemeal installation, Fig. 17.2,


with a modern load-center installation, Fig. 17.3. The following pro-
cedure is used t o estimate the cost of the old-style system.
Old-style Piecemeal System. The old-style piecemeal system, Fig.
17.2, has the following approximate cost.
Switching Slructure. This portion of the system inchdes the three
13.8-kv power circuit breakers and the switching structure. The cost of
one breaker is approximately $4200. To this should be added 10 per cent
for estimating, making the estimated cost $4620 per breaker. To cover
miscellaneous items such as the structure and switches, the estimated cost,
of the breaker is increased by 100 per cent (breakers rated less than 500
mva), which brings a total estimated cost per breaker position of eqnip-
ment for the switching station to $9240. If that figure is increased by 50
per cent to cover installation, the total cost per breaker installed in the
station is $13,860. For the three breakers that would be approximately
$41,580.
Transformers. The 833-kva transformers of standard single-phase rat-
ing and design cost $4815 each. This includes the 10 per cent for esti-
mating. The total estimated cost for three single-phase transformers
would be $14,445. Adding 25 per cent for installation, the total installed
cost of the 2500-kva banks would be approximately $18,060.
Low-voltage Bus between Transformers and Switchgear. The estimated
cost of 3000-amp low-voltage bus for outdoor installation is approxi-
mately $165 per ft. The total length of bus is assumed to be 24 ft, making
the estimated cost $3960. The termination a t the indoor switchgear and
the termination with bushings a t the transformers are assumed t o cost
$495 each, making the total estimated cost of the bus and terminations
$4950. To this is added an average installation figure of 3355 per cent,
making the total installed cost of the bus $6600.
Low-uollage Switchgear. The low-voltage switchgear consists of an
incoming line breaker rated 100,000 amp interrupting rating, 4000 amp
continuous, and from Table 17.9 the estimated cost of this breaker is
$7800. The twenty 50,000-amp interrupting-capacity feeder breakers
cost about $1600 apiece, making the total estimated cost of the low-
voltage switchgear $39,800, t o which should be added 25 per cent for
installation, making the total installed cost of the secondary switchgear
approximately $49,750.
The total approximate cost of the transformers and secondary switch-
gear and interconnecting bus is $74,410.
Cable. I n computing the total length of the secondary cables it is
assumed that there is a 15-ft vertical rise in each cable from the switchgear
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA BP7

4 - a -

4-W-
&*
*-ti-

-+
898 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA
2-13.2KV
INCOMING LINES

PLUG-IN
?$$ /’ 2 5 0
METAL CLAD SWITCHGEAR
MVA
7 5 0 KVA UNIT
BUS WAY f SUBSTATION
/ \

f
I

b-
L L
0

FIG. 17.3 Load-center system for cost comparison.

to the ceiling and that the cables are then run out t o the center of each row
of busway. This requires a total of 7300 ft with an installed cost of $3.70
per f t , or a total installed cable cost of $27,010.
Total Cost. Adding the above costs, the total installed cost of the old-
style piecemeal system shown in Fig. 17.2 is $143,000.
load-center System. The load-center system, Fig. 17.3, has the fol-
lowing approximate costs.
Primary Switchgear. Referring to Table 17.8, the approximate cost of
a 13.8-kv 250-mva interrupting capacity metal-clad feeder position at
1200-amp continuous rating is $7100 for either feeder or incoming line.
Since there are four breakers, the total cost of the switchgear equipment
is $28,400 t o which is added 25 per cent for installation, making the total
approximate installed cost $35,500.
Subslatiom. The four 750-kva substations have an estimated cost of
approximately $23 per kva, as determined from Fig. 17.13. This cost
includes six 25,000-amp interrupting-rating breakers per substation.
Only five breakers per substation are required, and they are to be 15,000-
amp breakers instead of 25,000-amp breakers.
F
A t $23 per kva the total cost of the 3000-kva substations would be
269,000, including six 25,000-amp feeder breakers. Deducting one feeder
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 899

breaker per substation a t $900 each will reduce the total estimated cost
t.o approximately $65,400. Changing the remaining five 25,000-amp t o
15,000-amp breakers will reduce the cost of the 20 feeder breakers approxi-
mately $300 each or will reduce the total cost of the substations t o approxi-
mately $59,400. Adding 25 per cent for installation brings the approxi-
mate total installed cost to $74,250.
Cable. The primary feeder cable total length, allowing 15 f t for
vertical runs in each cable, would be 1020 f t of type ACV, No. 1/0 Awg,
at $5 per foot installed (Table 17.12), or a total installed cost of $5100.
The secondary cable total length is 1740 ft of type ACT’, 250 MCM, with
an installed cost of $3.70 per f t (Table 17.13), making a total of $6438.

FIG. 17.4 Comparative cost of old-style and load-center systems and components.
900 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA

Total Cost. Adding the component costs, the approximate total


installed cost of this system is $121,288.
For comparative purposes the costs of the various elements and the
total costs are shown in bar chart form in Fig. 17.4.

EXAMPLE 2

This example compares the cost of a radial, secondary selective, and


secondary network system for a 3000-kva plant having an average load
density of 10 va per sq ft.
Radial System. The radial system shown in Fig. 17.5 has the following
costs. The primary switchgear costs approximately $14,100 (from Table
17.8) plus installation cost of 25 per cent, making a total installed cost of
$17,625. The primary switchgear is assumed t o be located about 400 ft
from the edge of the building, thus the total length of primary cable is
2175 ft, and this 5-kv cable, 350 MCM interlocked armor, has an installed
cost of $5.30 per ft (from Table 17.12), making a total of $11,530 for
primary cable.
The radial unit substations are assumed t o be 750 kva each. This is
larger than is used in the network but is t o allow for diversity in loading
in the various load areas. These substations in their basic form, shown
on Fig. 17.13, cost about $21.50 per kva. The total cost of these suh-
stations, including six feeder breakers, is $96,750. However, only four
feeder breakers are required. Therefore, deducting two feeder breakers
per substation reduces the cost of the six units by $10,800, making a total
cost of $85,950. When the 25 per cent is added for installation, the
installed cost is $107,440.
The secondary cable is assumed to he 250 MCM and runs from the sub-
station up 25 f t and across t o the center of the busway. This involves
2100 f t of cable a t $3.70 per ft (from Table 17.13), or a total of $7770.
The busway is assumed t o be 400-amp type FVK and has a total
installed cost of about $9.50 per ft (this includes 25 per cent for installa-
tion). There is a total of 4800 f t , making the total installed cost for
busway of $45,600.
Adding all the above figures gives a total installed cost of the radial
system of $189,965 or a total of approximately $63.30 per kva (on the
3000-kva base).
Secondary Selective System. This system, Fig. 17.6, is similar to the
radial system except for the normally open ties between pairs of load-
center substations. This system has the same primary switchgear cost,
?e., $17,625; same primary cable cost, i.e., $11,530; same secondary feeder
cable cost, i.e., $7770; and the same busway cost, i.e., $45,600.
The unit substations will each have an additional 800-amp, 50,000-
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 901

3 5 0 MCM
INTERLOCKED
ARMOR
5 KV CAELE

AX-1-25
FEEDER
\
z BREAKERS
PER SUB #
'
4

T LI

500 FT

FIG. 17.5 Radial recondory selective load-center system for cost comparison.
902 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA

350 MCM
INTERLOCKED
4160 V 4RMOR
5 KV CAELE

t'
4-300A $
AK-1- 25
FEEDER
BREAKERS

I
t.

500 FT

600 FT

Ib l
- FIG. 17.6 Secondary selective load-center system for cost comparison.
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 903
amp breaker for the tie circuit. These additional six breakers will
increase the cost of the Substations approximately $9600 (from Table
17.9) or will increase the installed cost from $107,410 to $119,440
+
(107,440 9600 X 1.25 = $119,440). In addition there will be approxi-
mately 1800 ft of 350 MCM interlocked-armor tie cable a t an installed
cost of $4.40 per ft (from Table 17.13). This is an additional $7920.
The total installed cost of the secondary selective system is $209,885,
or about $70 per kva. (Primary switchgear, primary cable, secondary
cable, and busway are the same as for radial system.)
Secondary Network System. The secondary network system, Fig.
17.7, has all transformers operating in parallel, and therefore diversity of
loading in the various load areas can be taken care of by transferring load
from one Substation to another. The example was chosen to use standard
sizes of Substations to get a comparison that would be most favorable
t o the network system. The network employs six 500-kva unit sub-
stations instead of six 750-kva unit substations as did the radial and
secondary selective system. The primary switchgear, primary cable,
secondary feeder, and plug-in bus costs are the same for all systems.
The unit substations for this system cost about $26 per kva (total
$78,000), in their basic form, from Fig. 17.13. To this must be added
approximately $1500 per Substation to cover electrical operation of the
main 50,000-amp circuit breaker and the relays (not covered in this
chapter) necessary to enable it to provide the functions of a network pro-
+
tector (total of $78,000 $9000 = $87,000). I n addition, since all
transformers are in parallel, the short-circuit current is over 25,000 amp,
requiring 50,000-amp interrupting-capacity feeder and circuit breakers.
Therefore, all feeder and tie breakers will have to be increased in cost
by the difference between the 15,000-amp electrically operated breaker
and the 50,000-amp manually operated breaker ($1600 - $800 = $800;
$800 X 36 = $28,800). The total cost with above additions is $115,800.
Furthermore, there are a total of eight breakers per substation, four
feeder breakers and four tie breakers. The two additional breakers per
substation (12 X $1600 = $19,200) in the larger interrupting ratings
increase the total cost of the substation up to $135,000. Addin? 25 per
cent for installation makes their approvimate installed cost $165,750,
The tie cable for this system to tie all units together requires 3200 ft of
No. 4/0-Awg cable. This allows a 25-ft vertical run for each cable plus
the horizontal runs, as indicated in the diagram. This has an installed
cost of $3.40 per f t (from Table 17.13), making a total cost of the tie
cables of $10,880.
The total installed cost of the secondary network system is $262,155 or
approximately $87.40 per kva. Primary switchgear, primary cable,
secondary cable, and busway are the same as for radial system.
904 LOAD- AND COSFESTIMATING DATA

350 MCM
4160 VOLTS
25OMVA $Y 6
Y
INTERLOCKED
ARMDR 5 K V CABLE

500 KVA (EACH) s: s:


"7;:1200 AMP N W P

EAGH TI& CIRCUIT


AK-1-50 TIE 1-410 3-CONO
FEEDER BREAKERÇ
PER SUBÇTATION
I

(0)

I I1

500FT

I----

_-___-
I - - - - L - A 400 AMP PLUG-IN EUS
600 F T
tb)
FIG. 17.7 Secondary neiwork load-center ryrtern for cost cornpariron.
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 905

Conclusion. Summing up these system costs, the radial system costs


$63.30 per kva, the secondary selective system $70.00, and the secondary
network system $87.40 per kva. I n this particular case the network sys-
tem costs 38 per cent more than the radial system, whereas the secondary
selective system costs only 11 per cent more than the radial system.
It may seem that an unusually large amount of transformer capacity was
placed in the secondary selective and radial systems compared with that
in the network systems, but this was done to provide for diversity of load-
ing. This would favor the network in the comparison, although the
example shows t,hat even under the assumed conditions the network sys-
tem is considerably more costly.

REFERENCES
1. “Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants,” AIEE Committee on Indus-
trial Power Applications, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, New York,
1955.
2. Umanskv..,L. A,. Trends in Electrification of American Steel Industrv. “ , AIEE
Technical Paper 48141.
3. “How to Estimate Electrical U’ork,” Eleclrical Conslruction and Maintenance, 1950.
906 LOAD. AND cOST.ESTIMATING DATA

COST-ESTIMATING DATA FOR USE IN COMPARATIVE SYSTEM


STUDIES
The following tables and curves of cost-estimating data were compiled
from prices in effect a t the time of writing; however, it must be nnder-
stood that all prices are subject to change. For this reason the informa-
tion found hereiu is not t o be used for competitive purposes, but simply
for comparing costs a t different types of power system arrangements,
These costs vary considerably, possibly 20 or 40 or 100 per cent (as illus-
trated by the preceding examples), thus a small percentage change in the
net selling price of apparatus will not materially affect the power system
comparisons.

INDEX OF FIGURES AND TABLES


Three-phase power transformers, 5000 to 50,000 kva, 13.8 t o 132 k v . . . Fig. 17.8
Three-nhase ~ o w e rtransformers. 1WO to 5000 kva,. 13.800-2400Y/1386 .
volts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fig. 17.9
Turbine-eenerators. 2500 to 20,000 kw. 4.16 or 13.8 k v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fie. 17.10
Mmter unit substations, 2500 to 25,000 kva, 13.8 kv secondary.. . . . . . . Fig. 17.11
Master unit substations, 1500 to 10,000 kva, 4.16 kv secondary.. . . . . . . Fig. 17.12
Load-center unit substations, 225 to 2000 kva, 480Y/277 or 208Y/l20
volts secondary.. . . . . . . . . . ......... ............. Fig, 17.13
Primary switching for radial substation including steel structure and
componPnts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Medium-voltage metalklad switchgear, ........ Table 17.8
Low-voltage metal-enclosed switchgear, 600 volts maximum.. . . . . . . . . . Table 17.9
Indoor metaknelosed buswsy, 4.16 or 13.8 k v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 17.10
First cost and installed cost of 15-kv cable.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... Table 17.11
First coat and installed cost of 5-kv cable.. .................... Table 17.12
First cost and installed cost of 600-volt cable.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 17.13
Squirrel-cage and wound-rotor induction motors, 500 t o 5000 h p . . . . . . . Fig. 17.14
Synchronous motors. 500 to 5000 h p . . . . . . . . . . .
Squirrel-cage induction motors and control, 20 t p .............. Fig. 17.16
Wound-rotor induction motors-and control, 20 to 500 h p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fig. 17.17
Synchronous motors and control, 20 to 500 h p . . . . . . ......... Fig. 17.18
D -132,000- 13,800Y17960

W I T H AND WITHOUT LOAD RATIO

2 I I

TRANSFORMER KVA (FORCED - A I R COOLED RATING)


12,500 26,667 40,000 50,000 66,667
0
STANDARD KVA RATING
K ) IS00 2500 3750 51
I
I1

FIG. 17.9 Three-phase power transformers, 1000 lo 5000 h a , 13,800-24WY/1386 volts.


APPROXIMATE DATA
FOR USE IN
COMPARATIVE SYSTEM STUDIES
DATA: T U R B I N E GENERATORS,
3 P H - 6 0 CY-0.8 PF
600 PSI - 7 M F - 2 ’ HG

MACHINE RATING K W

FIG. 17.10 Turbine-generators, 2500 to 20,ooO kw, 4.16 or 13.8 kv.


I- AM- 13.8- 150; $8100
2-AM- 13.8 - 250: 8300
3-AM- 13.8- 500; 8500

.13.8- 500
~. .
' I ' STANOARO UNIT SU~STATION R 1
!700 3750 5000 75 lQo00 12,000 I 15,000 20.+00 25,000
10 4000 6000 8000 lQo00 12000 14.000 16 10 2 O . m 22.000 24000 26
UNIT SUBSTATION KVA
FIG. 17.1 1 Master unit substations, 2500 to 25,000 h a , 13.8-kv secondary.
2:

TRANS PRI VOLTAGE-l2BKV TO 6 7 K V

2C
a
>
x
a
Y
P
ln I 5
a
a
2
2
0
0
Y
$ IC
z
X
0
a
0
P
a
I I
5

- AM-2.414.16- 150/250 *
NIT SUBSTATION RATINGS
I
5000 7500I 10000
C
1 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
UNIT SUBSTATION K V A
FIG. 17.12 Mar& unit substations, 1500 to 10,oOO kva. 4.16-ln secondary.
6C

5c

2
Y

4c
L
m
K
a
5 30
0
a
W
5
20
rg
a
n.
L
a

IC

FIG. 17.13 Load-center unit substations, 225 to 2000 h a . 480Y/277 or 208Y/120volts secondary.
TABLE 17.7 Primary Switching for Radial Substations Including
Steel Structure and Components
IApproximde Dato for Use in Comparative Syslom Studies)

Without Primary Breaker


Low-capacity (use* High-capacity fuses
System
-
.< rollage lnterrvpting
Max Interrupting
dou, rating ~ p p r o , sy,. rating APPW
cur-
kv ~- data data
rent rent
Amp I Mva Amp Mva
- --__ -_____ P
13.8 2OOE 10,000 150 $3100 2OOE 20,000 300 $3200
*5
400E 30.000 448 3400 -
23 200E 10,000 240 3400

34.5 2OOE 8.000 285 4100

46 2OOE 6,000 285 5000


69 200E 4,000 285 6800
-

System High-volrage ail circuit breaker


YOltoge interrupting rating

I500 mva

13.8 1 $12.800 $14,600 120.700


23 13,100 15,600 i 7,000
34.5 1 13,700 16.100 17,500
46 19,100 19,100
69 I :%I 21.200 23,200
0
- w
0
TABLE 17.8 Medium-volta Metal-clad Swih ear. 2.4 to 13.8 Kv .
ipproxi 'e Dato us0 in Comp ti"* S) m Studied
- - - -
jpchronoi
Spchronow Induction Induction
Suggested
motort motort motort motort
hooker A-t ?ax. turbine- :ceder
f"ll."oltage lUt,Dl reoc full-voltage eutr.1 reocto,
cYlre"t *"er.tO# gensrator or
unloaded unloaded unloodod unloaded
rating, and rating, kw cornins
,tart start start start
amp exciter 110.8 pf and line
less than less than less lhon less lhon
60 wycle, 1500 hp I500 hp
~ __ -~ - ~
1500 hp 1500 hp
2.4 $10,400 3,500 b3.700 16,200 $9,700 T $4,500 $7,9001
AM-4.16-50.. I200
4.16 10,600 3,500 3,700 6.300 9?00 4,600 8,000
.................1
2.4 11.000 3.500 4,400 7.000 10,900 5,300 9.100 $
AM.2.4/4.I 6-1 OO/l50.. 1200
4.16 11,200 6,000 4,400 7,000 10,900 5,300 9,200 p
.........{
2.4 14.200 6,000 7,400
AM-2.4/4.16-100/150.. .........{ 2000
4.16 14.350 10.000 7,400
n
2.4 11,200 3,500 4,700 7,200 11,300 5,500 9,600 0,
AM-2.4/4.1&150/250.. 1200
4.16 11,400 6,000 4,700 7,300 11.400 5.600 9,600 2
.........{
2
2.4 14,400 6,000 7,600 T
AM-2.4/4.16-I 50/250...........{ 2000
4.16 14,600 10.000 7,600 2
t
AM-7.2-1 50. ................... 7.2 I200 14.800 10,000 6,900 9,600 15.800 7,900 14,000
AM-7.2-250.. .................. 7.2 I200 15.500 l0,000 7,600 10.400 17.300 8,700 15,600 p
AM.7.2-250 .................... 7.2 2000 18.800 15,000 0,500
AM-7.2-500. ................... 7.2 I200 15,700 10,000 7,900 10,600 17,800 8,900 16,000 '
AM.7.2-500 .................... 7.2 2000 I9.000 15,000 0,700
AM.13.8-150 ................... 13.8 1200 15.000 10,000 6,900 9,900 16.000 8.200 14.300
AM-13.8-250.. ................. 13.8 1200 15,200 15,000 7.100 10.100 16,500 8,400 14,700
AM-13.8-250. .................. 13.8 2000 18.500 15,000 91900
AM-13.8400 ................... 13.8 1200 15.500 20,000 7,300 10,300 16,900 8.600 15,200
AM-13.8-530.. ................. 13.8 - 2000 18,800 30,000 0,200
- -
* A switchgear equipment will require a source of contr mwer, met :lad breaker testing accessories, and potentia
which total aooroximatelv 52500.
t 1500 hp'and above-add approximately $2600 for motor differential protection.
$Line resotor instead of neutral reactor.
TABLE 17.9 low-voltage Metal-enclosed Switchgear, 600 Volts Maximum
,rimate Datn for Use in tomparolive System Studies)

I I I
Breaker ratings, omp Synchronow Synchronou:
Incoming line motor motor Induction
Type of Method of - transformer 'eodcr motor
A-C hrll-roltoge line reactor
breaker operotion 'ull-rolt.age
secondary bur tie unloaded unlooded
nterrvpting Continuow ,l.Tt
,t.rt start

--
Manual $600 $3300 $3400 $600
AK-1-15 15.000 25-225
Elechisol 800 1 3500 1 3600 I i;& 800

Manual 900 4300 3800 ..... 1000


AK-1-25 25.000 50600
Electrirol I200 4500 4000 5600 1200

100 amp 1600amp

Manuol
~-
$2100 $2300 1600 5300 4600 ..... 1700
AK-1-50 50,000 200-1600
Electrical 2600 2800 2100 5800 5100 7500 2200

AK- 1-72 Electrical 75,000 2000 4200 8300


3000 5100 9500

AK-I-i OC Electrical 100.000 4000 6400 11.100


--
LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA 917

The vertical “L”, e, can be applied as a “T”section by removing the end


cover of the “L” and adding the necessary additional conductor length
required.
The sizes and arrangements available allow for a simple and flexible
installation, which should satisfy most requirements.

TABLE 17.11 Economics of Installed 1500-volt Cable


(Dollon per Foot1

Type VCL Type RH Type ACV


varnished-cambric leaded corono1* g*oprene interlocked ormm
shielded shielded shielded
Cable [three conductor) [three single conductors] lthre. conductor1
size,
- - - - - ~ -
A w
or -g i
-: - $ -- - 5P
MCM
=
-a
LE
0 0
E
L

- 0
LI
-
i: s -
-”
P
0,

-
D
0
f E
8 0 >
u

2 5 L E
-“ * -
* -_
0 0
S
:--? -8 n -0a , -2 a=.8
” -2 2- a;
-
O

0
.-
+ E
$ 0

LI
- - - - E
- u --
8
6 60 3.2 $5.9 $9.1
4 79 3.6 6.3 8.C 88 2.4 15. I5.t 97 L2.8 14.1 $4.2
2 101 4.1 7.6 7.: I12 2.7 5. 4.f 126 3.1 4.i 3.5
1 115 4.3 7.8 6.1 I29 3.0 6. 5.c 149 3.3 4.7 3.1
0 129 4.6 8.2 6.3 I48 3.4 6. 4.7 I65 3.5 5.c 3.0
00 147 5.0 8.6 5.1 171 3.6 7. 4.: 192 3.8 5 . : 2.7
000 167 5.5 9.1 5.4 I97 4.0 8. 4.: 220 4.1 5.t 2.5
0000 190 6.1 10.3 5.4 227 4.4 8. 3.f 251 4.6 6.c 2.4
250 210 6.5 10.8 5.1 251 4.8 9. 3.t 277 4.9 6.1 2.3
350 252 7.6 11.9 4.7 304 5.8 11. 3.t 337 6.0 7.1 2.2
500 300 8.8 15.4 5.1 368 7.1 13. 3.7 414 7.6 9.: 2.2
... ...........
I 1
750 454 9.3 18. 4.c
1000
- - - - - - --
* Registered trade-mark of General lect Comoanv
Rated ammms: Three-conductor or Tree igle-eonductor cables in steel conduit
or interlocked armor cable a t 40 C am ent.
Cable c o d : Includes 10 per cent to .ow for shrinkage, waste, and for making u p
terminations.
.Znstalled
. . . . .cost: . . and
. Includes materials . direct
aaairion tor insurance, ovemeaa, ana prom.
”.
labor a t $2.50 per hr with 38 per cent

Znstalled cost, dollars per ampere: These estimated data show the economic aavan-
tage of interlocked-armor cable.
P18 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA

TABLE 17.12 Economics of Installed 5000-volt Cable


I D o I I ~ r sper Foot1
-
Type RH
Type VCL Type ACV
corono1* geoprene
vornlrhod-cambric leaded interlockad armor
shielded
(three-conductor) (three conductor)
Cable [three single conductors)
sire. - ~ ~

A w
or - - -g
MCM
: : -e -$
._
._
-
3
v n D

< - -
- 0 a 0
- n o

~
~~
c
8 , 8 -
L?:
- ~
P
2
-
0
;:
-

8 . . . . . . ... .... .... 2 49 iO.8 $2.2 $4.5


6 2 58 ,I.1 t2.5 14.3 2 69 0.9 2.3 3.3
4 2 76 1 .? 2.8 3.6 2 90 1.1 2.5 2.8 91 $1.4 $2.6 $2.8
2 2>; 102 I .7 3.7 3.6 236 118 1.3 3.4 2.9 121 1.6 2.8 2.3
1
0
00
000
2>$
23s
2);
2)s
I18
134
I54
175
i .a
2.1
2.4
2.7
3.9
4.2
4.4
4.8
3.3
3.1
2.9
2.8
I -1256
255
3
3
135
I54
175
198
226
2.5 5.2
5.6
2.7
2.5
I39
161
185
213
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.5
3.0

3.5
3.8
2.2
3 . 3 2.0
1.9
1.8
0000 3 199 3.1 5.9 3.0 3 2.9 244 2.9 4.2 1.7
250 3 218 3.: 6.3 2.9 3 249 3.8 6.5 2.6 270 3.2 4.6 1.7
350 316 264 4.c 7.6 2.9 3% 305 4.7 8.3 2.7 334 3.9 5.3 1.6
500 3); 361 5.t 9.3 417 4.8 6.3 1.5
750 . . . . . . ... .... 7.9 13.2 529 7.2 8.8 1.7
1000 . . . . . . ... .... .... 520 0.1 16.8
--- - I 1 - I I
*Ii General Elect Commnv.
M',! ampere [actor or threc ngle-conductor cables in stccl conduit
or ipterlocked-armor cable at 40 C ambient
Cabls~~osl: Includes 10 per e m t to allow for shrinkage, waste, and far making up
terminations.
Inslalled eosl: Includes materials and direct labor at $2.50 per hr with 38 per cent
addition far insurance, overhead, and profit.
Inslalled cost, dollars p e r ampere: These estimated data show thc economic advan-
tage of interlocked-armor cable.
Type RH Type VCL Type TW
Type ACV
Conduit Venatol* gwprene varnished-combric Flornenol*
interlocked armor
,ize (lhree single leaded lthrse (lhree single
lthreo conductor1
Coble Conductor1 conductor1
sire, .__
*w n n n n

-g x : E
E E = g
- u-B .z, .g. : -?i
or
MCM i

i f + + E = - E + E
b ;
c
9 9 0
-:" O4
0 O , g L . . - s o
O
-s 0, O : ? :
2 = O Bu p= p= z rns
2 0,
u = O a P O 8
2 2 -
-
0
: - L a 2 2 b L X 2 e t , a 2 i 2 a p - :
z 3 2 :: 5 5 - 2 :: ~
< z p_ : <2
" , " :_ ~Q S- :: ~+ +..a_
<

8 l/a l!i 4510.310.811.9 5010.511.412.8 4010.250.711.7


6 1 134 65 0.4 1.0 1.6 70 0.7 1.7 2.5 55 0.3 0.9 1.7
4 l?/al>1 85 0.5 1.4 1.6 90 0.9 1.9 2.2 70 0.4 1.3 1.8101 1 0 . 8 1 2 . 0 1 l . 9
2 I ) i l > $ l l 5 0.7 1.6 1.4120 1 . 2 2.2 2.5 95 0.6 1.4 1.5134 1 . 1 2.2 1.6
I l > 6 2 130 0.9 1.9 1.5140 1.4 2.8 2.0110 0.7 1.8 1.6154 1.2 2.3 1.5
0 2 2 I 5 0 1.0 2.4 1.6155 1.6 3.0 1.9125 0.9 2.3 1.8179 1.4 2.6 1.4
00 2 2 175 I . ? 2.6 1.5185 1.9 3 . 3 1.8145 1.0 2.4 1.7205 1.6 2.8 1.3
000 2 235 200 1.4 2.9 1.4210 2.2 4.3 2.0165 1.2 2.6 1.6237 1.8 3.0 1.3
0000 2)62)$230 1.8 3.8 1.7235 2.6 1.7 2.0195 1.5 3.6 1.8271 2.1 3.4 1.3
250 2'13 255 2.3 4.4 1.7270 2.9 5.7 2.1215 1.8 3.9 1.8300 2.3 3.7 1.2
350 3 3 310 3.0 5.8 1.9325 3.6 6.4 2.0260 2.4 5.1 2.0371 3.0 4.4 1.2
500 3 3'6380 4.0 6.8 1.8405 4.7 8.3 2.1320 3.3 6.1 1.9462 3.9 5.3 1.1
750 3 3 5 4 475 5.9 9.5 2.0500 6.511.0 2.2 _...... _._.
....
587 5.7 7.3 1.2
1000 4 5 545 7.411.9 2.2535 7.914.7 2.7
28

COMPARATIVE SYSTEM STUDIES


DATA : MOTORS, 500 TO 5000 HP
22 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR l.OPF.IZ00 RPM

K
g
0
n
3 18
g
S
K
W
P
u) 14
K
9J
0
n
w 10
2
z
x
0
K
0
n 6
U

2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5oGQ
MOTOR HORSEPOWER
FIG. 17.15 Synchronous motors, 500 to 5oM) hp.
922 LOAD- AND COST-ESTIMATING DATA

tt 0
0 M3MOd3SMOH
0
n
I I
::
M3d S M V l l O O 31VRIXOMddW
9
0
u
FIG. 17.17 Wound-rotor induction motors and control, 20 to 500 hp.
- -~
FIG. 17.18 Synchronous motors and conlrol, x ) to 500 hp
Appendix Compiled by D. B. Armstrong

CONVERSION FACTORS
Mulliply BY To Oblain
Acres 43,560 Square feet
Acres 1.562 X 10-5 Square miles
Acre-feet 43,560 Cuhic feet
Amperes per square centimeter 6.452 Amperes per square inch
Amperes per square inch 0.1550 Amperes per square centimetei
Ampere-turns 1.257 Gilberts
Ampere-turns per centimeter 2.540 Ampere-turns per inch
Ampere-turns per inch 0.3937 Ampere-turns per centimeter
Atmospheres 76.0 Centimeters of mercury
Atmospheres 29.92 Inches of mercury
Atmospheres 33.90 Feet of water
Atmospheres 14.70 Pounds per square inch

British thermal units 0.2520 Kilogram-calories


British thermal units 778.2 Foot-pounds
British thermal units 3.931 X lo-' Horsepower-hours
Britiah thermal units 2.930 X lo-' Kilowatthours

Ccntimcters 0.3937 Inches


Circular mils 5.067 X 10-6 Square centimeters
Circular mils 7.853 X 10-' Square inches
Circular mils 0.7854 Square mils

Degrees (angle) 0.01745 Radians


Dynes 2.248 X Pounds

Ergs 7.378 x 10-8 Foot-pounds

Farads 108 Microfarads


Foot-pounds 1.285 x 10-3 British thermal units
Foot-pounds 5.050 X lo-' Horsepower-hours
Foot-pounds 0.1383 Kilogram-meters
Foot-pounds 3.766 X lo-' Kilowatthours

Gallons per minute 2.228 x 10-8 Cubic feet per second


Gallons of water a t 62 F 8.345 Pounds
Gallons of water per minute 500.7 Pounds per hour
925
926 APPENDIX

Multiply BY To Obtain
Gausses 6.452 Lines per square inch
Gilherts 0.7958 Ampere-turns

Henrys 108 Millihenrys


Horsepower 42.44 Btu per minute
Horsepower 33,000 Foot-pounds per minute
Horsepower 1.014 Horsepower (metric)
Horsepower 10.68 Kilogram-calories per minute
Horsepower 0.7457 Kilowatts
Horsepower (boiler) 33,475 Btu per hour
Horsepower-hours 2544 British thermal units
Horsepower-hours 1.98 x 106 Foot-pounds

Inches 2.540 Centimeters


Inches of mercury 1.133 Feet of water
Inches of mercury 0.4912 Pounds per square inch
Inches of water 25.40 Kilograms per square meter
Inches of water 0.5781 Ounces per square inch
Inches of water 0.0361 Pounds per square inch

Joules 9.480 x 10-4 British thermal units


Joules 0.7377 Foot-pounds

Kilograms 2.205 Pounds


Kilogram-calories 3.968 British thermal units
Kilolines 108 Maxwells
Kilometers 3,281 Feet
yonreters 0.6214 Miles
Kilowatts 56.88 Btu per minute
Kilowatts 737.8 Foot-pounds per second
Kilowatts 1.341 Horsepower
Kilowatthours 3,413 British thermal units
Kilowatthours 2.656 X lo6 Foot-pounds

1og.N or In N 0.4343 l0gi.N


Log,,N 2.303 1og.N or In N
Lumens per square foot 1 Foot-candles

Maxwells 10-2 Kilolines


Megalines 10' Maxwells
MPgohms 108 Ohms
Meters 39.37 Inches
Meter-kilograms 7.233 Pound-feet
Microfarads 10-6 Farads
Microhms 10-6 Ohms
Microhms per centimeter cube 0.3937 Microhms per inch cube
Microhms per centimeter cube 6.015 Ohms per mil foot
Miles 5,280 Feet
Miles 1.609 Kilometers
APPENDIX P17
Multiply BY To Obtain

Ohms lo-' Megohms


Ohms 106 Microhms
Ohms per mil foot 0. I662 Microhms per centimeter cube
Ohms per mil loot 0.06524 Microhms per inch cube

Radians 57.30 Degrees

Square centimetors 1.973 X 10' Circular mils


Square feet 2.296 X 1 0 F AWW
Square fcet 0.09290 Square meters
Square inches 1.273 X lo6 Circular mils
Square inches 6.452 Square centimeters
Square kilometen 0.3861 Square milcs
Square meters 10.76 Squarz fcet
Square miles 640 Acres
Square miles 2.590 Square kilometers
Square millimeters 1.973 x 108 Circular mils
Square mils 1.273 Circular mils

Temperature (C + 273%) 1 Ahsolute temperature C


Tcmperature (C + 17.8) 1.8 Temperature F
Temperature (F + 460) 1 Ahsolute temperature F
Temperature (F - 32) 5/9 Temperature C
Tons (long) 2240 Pounds
Tons (metric) 2205 Pounds
Tons (short) 2000 Pounds

EQUIVALENT VALUES OF ELECTRICAL AND HEAT UNITS


limt Eyuioalrnt Value in Othei l i i t s
1.341 horsepower-hour
1 kilowatthour
3413 British thermal units
0.7457 kilowatt-hour
1 horsepower-hour
={ 2541.1 British thermal units
11.341 horsepower
1 kilowatt
=I 44,254 footIponnds per minute
737.56 foot-pounds per second
3413 British thermal units D W hour
0.7457 kilowatt
33,000 foot-pounds per minut?
1 horsepower
550 loot-pounds per second
2544.1 British thermal units Der houi
1 j0"k = 1 watt-second

1 British thermal unit' = {


778.26 foot-pounds
.
1054.8 j o u l ~ sor wattbeconds
* T h e British thermal unit (Btu) is defined as of t h e quantity of heat rpquired
to raise t h e temperature of 1 Ib of water from 32 F t o 212 F at 1 atmosphere (14.696
psi).
928 APPENDIX

Unit Equivalent Value i n Other Units


Degrees absolute (Kelvin) = Degrees centigrade + 273
Dcgrees absolute (Rankine) = Degrees Fahrenheit + 460
Degrees centigrade = 56 (deg F - 32)
Degrees Fahrenheit = 1.8 (deg C ) 32+
NOMENCLATURE
The following tables, compiled from ASA Standsrds, represent the letter symbols
and abbreviations most commonly used in power system engineering. For a com-
plete listing of letter symbols and abbreviations, refer to ASA Standards 210.5-1949,
210.4-1943, and 210.1-1941.

The Greek Alphabet


Large Smell Quantities Cmnmonly Designated by
Letter Letter Name the Small Gmek Letter
A n alpha Resistance- temperature coefficient
B B beta Phase constant
r Y gamma Conductivity
A 6 delta Increment *
E epsilon Dielectric constant
2 r zeta
H 7l eta Efficiency
e e theta Angular phase displacement
I iota
K x kappa. Magnetic susceptibility
A x lambda Wavelength
M I” mu Permeability
N nu Reluctivity
.j
I € xi
0 0 omicron
n r pi 3.1416
P P rho Resistivity
z m Sigma Summation.
T 7 tau Time constant
T ” upsilon
9 phi Magnetic flux’
9 phi Angular phase displacement
X x.
. chi
Y + psi Flux of displacement*
n w omega Angular velocity
* These items are commonly designated by the large Greek letter.

letter Symbols Used in Electrical Formulas


Quantily Symbol Zllvstratiue Unit
Admittance Y Mho
Angular phase displacement (8, 9) (theta, phi) Radian
APPENDIX 929
Quantity Symbol Illusttotiue Unit
Capacitance c Farad
Charge, or quantity of electricity Q Coulomb
Conductance G Mho
Current I Ampere
Dielectric constant Farad per inch
Efficiency
Electromotive force Volt
Energy Joule
Flux density Lines per square inch
Frequency Cycle per second
Frequency, angular velocity Radian per second
Frequency, rotational Revolution per second
Impedance Ohm
Inductance Henry
Magnetic flux Line
Magnetizing force Ampere-turn per inch
Magnetomotive force Ampere-turn
Number of conductors or turns
Number of poles
Permeability Line per ampere-turn per inch
Permeanee Line per ampere-turn
Power Watt
ReactancQ,capacitive Ohm
Reactance, inductive Ohm
Reactance, subtransient Ohms
Reactance, transient Ohms
Reluctance Ampere-turn per line
Resistance Ohm
Resistsnee-temperature coefficient (a)(alpha) Decimal parts per degree C
Resistivity (P) (rho) Ohm-in
Rotative operator, 90’ i
Rotative operator, 120’ a
Temperature t Degree C
T Degree K (Kelvin)
Dearee
Time Second
Wavelength- Meter
Work W Joule
NOTE: When distinctions between maximum, instantaneous, and r m s values are
necessary, Emand I, are recommended for maximum values, e and i for instantaneous
values, and E and I for rms values.
* In the “Industrial Power Systems Handbook,” X without the subscript L is used
to denote inductive reactance.

Letter Symbols Used in H e a t and Thermodynamic Formulas


Quonlity Symbol lllvslralive Unit
Efficiency (7) (eta) Per cent
Enthalpy Hi h Btu per pound
Entropy 8, 8 , 9 Btu per degree F per pound
Volume flow Q Cubic feet per second
930 APPEN~JIX

Quantity Symbol Illustrative Unit


Heat flow Q Btu per hour
Theoretical steam rate TSR Pounds per kilowatthour
Actual steam rate SR Pounds per kilowatthour
Temperature, Fahrmheit 1 , FTT Degree F
Superheat FS Degrcc F
Terminal difference td Degree F
Velocity V Feet per second
Specific volume " Cubic Feet per pound
Pressure, gauge psig Pounds per square inch gauge
Pressure, ahsolute psia Pounds per square inch absolute
Gas constant R
Specific heat c
Energy U Btu per pound

Abbreviations Used in Electrical Formulas


pf = power factor kv = line-to-line voltage in kilovolts
hp = horsepower var = reactive volt-ampere
r = 3.1416 kvar = kilovars, reactive kilovolt-ampere
va = volt-ampere w = watt
kva = kilovolt-ampere kw = kilowatt
mva = megavolt-ampere mw = megawatt

DEVICE NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS FOR SWITCHGEAR


The devices used in switching equipment are referred to by standarddevicenumbem.
These numbers are used on diagrams, in instruction books, and in specifications to
permit ready understanding of the function and operation of switching equipment.
The following list of device numbers and functions &retaken from American Stand-
ard C37.2-1945.
~~

,, Detrice No. Function and Definition


1 Master element
' .. 2 Time-delay starting or closing relay
3 (Reserved for future application)
4 Master cantactor or relay
5 Stopping device
6 Starting circuit breaker, contactor, or switch
7 Anode circuit breaker
8 Control power switch
9 Reversing device
10 Unit sequence switch
11 Control power transformer
12 Overspeed device
13 Synehronous-speed device
14 Underspeed device
15 Speed-regulating device
16 Battery-charging control device
17 Series-field shunting circuit breaker or contactor
APPENDIX 931

Deuiee No. Function and Definition


18 Accelcrating or decelerating eontactor, circuit breaker, or relay
19 Starting to running transition eontactor or relay
20 Electrically operated valve
21 Impedance relay
22 Equalizer circuit breaker or contactor
23 Tcmpeetture-rPgulating device
24 Bus-tic circuit breaker, contactor, or switch
25 Synchronizing or paralleling device
26 Apparatus thermal device
27 A-C undervoltage relay
28 Resistor thermal device
29 Isolating circuit breaker, contactor, or switch
30 Annunciator relay
31 Separate excitation device
32 D-C reverse-power relay
33 Position switch
34 Motor-operated sequence switch
35 Brush-operating or slip-ring short-circuiting device
36 Polarity device
37 Undercurrent or underpower relay
38 Eearing thermal device
39 Field reducing contactor
40 Field relay
41 Field circuit breaker, contactor, or switch
42 Running circuit breaker, contactor, or snitch
43 Transfer device
44 Unit sequence starting contactor or relay
45 D-C overvoltage rday
46 Reverse-phase, phase-balance current, or power-rectifier misfire- relay
47 Single- or reverse-phase voltage relay
48 Incomplete-sequence relay
49 A-C thermal relay
50* A-C instantaneous overcurrent relay
51 * A-C time-delay avercurrent relay
52 A-C circuit breaker or contactor
53 Exciter or generator relay
54 High-speed circuit breaker
55 Power-factor relay
56 Field application relay or device
57 (Reserved for future application)
58 (Reserved for future application)
59 A-C overvoltage relay
60 Voltage balance relay
61 Current balance relay
62 Time-delay stopping or opening relay
63' Fluid pressure, level, or flow relay
64 Ground protection relay
65 Governor
66 Notching relay
Shows change from, or addition to, ASA-C37.21945.
932 APPENDIX

Device N o Function and Definition


67. A-C power directional or a-c directional overcurrent relay
68 D-C thermal relay
69 Permissive control device
70 Electrically operated rheostat
71 D-C line emergency circuit breaker or contactor
72 D-C line circuit hresker or contactor
73 Load resistor circuit breaker or contactor
74 Alarm relay
75 Positian-changing mechanism
76 D-C overcurrent relay
77 Impulse transmitter
78 Phase-angle measuring relay
79 A-C rcclosing relay
80 D-C undervoltage relay
81 Frequency device
82 D-C reclosing relay
83 Selective control, or transfer, contactor or relay
84* Operating mechanism
85 Carrier or pilot-wire receiver relay
86 Locking-out relay
87 DiEerential current relay
88 Auxiliary motor or motor generator
89 Line switch
90 Rpgulating device
91 D-C voltage directional relay
92 D-C voltage and current directional relay
93 Field-changing contactor or relay
94 Tripping or trip-free relay or contactor

(Reserved for special application)


98
99
Shows change from, or addition to, ASA-Cj7.2-1945.

GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS FOR POWER-SYSTEM ONE-LINE


DIAGRAMS
One-line diagrams are very useful in showing, by means of graphical symbols and
conventional nomenclature, an over-all power system arrangement. These symbols,
when used consistently and in conformance with general practice, provide a valuable
tool.
The following table, compiled from ASA Standards, represents the graphical sym-
bols most commonly used in power-system one-line diagrams. For a complete list of
graphical symbols for one-line diagrams, refer to ASA Standards Y32.1.1-1951and
232.3-1946.
APPENDIX 933

Variations
Equipment
Definition

Arresters Arrester plus ground


lightning (mrge arrester)

Valve-type arrester

Cable Single-conductor tern na-


terminations ticin

Three+onductor termina-
tion

Capacitor Capacitor plus ground


(surge capacitor)

Capacitor Capacitor hushing paten-


hushing tial device

Coupling capacitor poten-


tial device

Circuit breakers Breaker with drawout fea-


air ture

Breaker with drawout fea-


ture, and operating coil

power
Breaker with drawout fca-
ture

Breaker with diseonnect-


ing switches
934 APPENDIX

Variations
Equipment Basic symbol
Symbol Definition

Contact I L
T T Vormally open (NO)

\Tormally closed (NC)

Coil
operating
k.
T :ontact with blowout coil

Fuse Drswout mounting

High-voltage primary fuse


cutout, dry type; or fuse
disconnecting switch

lamc as above

High-voltage primary fuse


cutout, oil type

Gap :ap plus ground (surge


protective -DQ+ gap)

Generator Synchronous generato,

3epamtcly excited d-c gen-


erator'

D-C shunt two-wire gener-


ator'

* T h e broken - - - indicates where line connection symbol is made snd is not


a part of the sy
APPENDIX 935

*
Variations
Equipmeni Basic symbol
Symbol Definition
I
Generator (Cr

D-C compound two-wire


generator*
I

D-C three-wire shunt gen-


erator'

Ground I
-

Mechanical
connection
____
ihort dashes c
necting equipme

Meters and
instruments 0
(etteror letters shall he placed within the circle t o indicate the type
of instrument:

AAmmeter R H Varhour meter


DDemand meter S Synehroseope
FFrequency meter T Temperature
GDGround detector V Voltmeter
MAMilliammeter VA Voleammeter
PF Power-factor meter VAR Varmeter
R D Recording demand meter \I' Wattmeter
R E D Recording WH Watthour meter

* T h e broke e - - - indicates where line connection to symbol is made and is not


a part of the s 01.
936 APPENDIX

triations
Equipment Basic symbol
Symbol Definition

Motor Induction

Synchronous

+
Reactor (non-
magnetic core

ac

pawer

Q
Relay 0
'be relay device
function number
ihould be placed
within the circle
APPENDIX P37

Variations
Equipment Basic symbol
Symbol Definition

Relay protective
functions
The following symbols arm
used to indicate protective func
tions and r be placed adja
cent to th, .sic relay symbol

Over

Under

Directional (directional
over)

Balance

Differential

- cc
Pilot wire

Carrier current

Actuating quantity:
The actuating quantity is indicated by the following letters, placed either on
or above the relay protective function symbol shown above:

C Current' + Phase
Z Distance T Temperature
V Voltage GP Gas pressure
W Power S Synchronism
F Frequency
*Generally accepted practice ia to omit any designation for currentactuated
devices.
938 APPENDIX
~

riations
Equipment Basic symbol
Definition

Relsy protectivi
Ivereurrent
functions
(Cont'd)
bvervoltage

Xreetional overcurrent

)irectional residual over-


current

Jndervoltage

'ower directional

3slanee current

Differential current

Distance

Directional distance

Over frequency

Under frequency

Ovcr temperature

Phase balance

Phase rotation
APPENDIX P39

Variations
Equipment Basic symbol
Definition

Relay proteeti,
functions Pilot wire, differential cur-
(Cont'd) ent

Pilot wire, directional eom-


parison

Carrier pilot

Positive phase sequence


undervoltage

Negative phase sequence


overcurrent

Gas-pressure relay

-
o u t of step

Resistor Grounded

Switch 2-
air break Double throw

-
Switch with horn gap

Thermal elemen
940 APPEHDLX

Variations
Equipment Basic symbol
Definition

Transformer Two-winding transformer


with taps

Adjustable mutual induc-


tor. constant-current
transformer

Threewinding trans-
former

Autotransformer

Potential transformer

Current transformer

Bushing-type current
transformer

step-voltage regulator or
load-ratio-control auto-
transformer

Load-ratio-contml trans-
former with taps
APPNDIX 941

Variations
Equipment Basic symbol
Symbol Definition

Trsnsformer (Cont’d)
@ Single-phase induction
voltage regulator

Three-phase induction
voltage regulator

Transformer
winding
connections
rhe following symbols are used to indicate
transformer winding connections and may

symbol:

Three-phw three-wire
A delta

P
- Three-phase three-wire
delta grounded

f
- Three-phase four-wire
delta grounded

A Three-phase Y

$ Three-phase Y grounded
neutral
942 APPENDIX

riatibns
Equipment Basic symbol
Definition

Transformer
winding rhree-phase zigzag
connections
(Cont’d)
rhree-phase zigzag
grounded

six-phase star (or dia-


metrical)

Six-phase Star with


grounded neutral

Three-phase open delta

Three-phase open delta


grounded at common
point
SIMPLIFIED SELECTION O F CONDUCTOR SIZE
Current-carrying Capsoitis in Amperes for Cable in Conduit. in Underarovnd Ducta, and in Intarlooked Armor

I N CONDUIT
Three single-oonductor cables or one three-conduotor cable per
Conduit, 104 F (40 C) ambient air temperature

Siie. Awa 01
MCM Butyi synthetic
rubber or varnished Synthetic rubber. Synthetic
I) ::& Synthetic rubber.
Rubber 01 Synthetic cambric. tsmp 85 c.
thermoplasti rubber, rubger or "81- temp 80 c.
nished-cambrio rubber. 0-8000 volt.
temp 60 C. temp 75 c. &
::$
:$
; tamp 75 c. 8.W15,WO
0-6wvolts' 0-600volta* temp 77 C. )-Bw "Oilof Volts
15.0W volts - ahieldedt
Shielded?
shzgdt shielded3 ihialded
~

8 33 40 46 52 46 46 49 51 ... 52
6 45 57 58 68 60 60 64 67 66 68 %
4 57 75 76 87 79 77 83 86 83 81
2 78 101 114 101 99 108 111 107 121
1 90 114 118 130 115 111 119 125 121 138 3P
161
x
0 103 125 I34 141 136
00 119 141 151 159 154 I85
000 135 161 172 180 174 213
0000 160 181 194 203 185 244
250 176 224 218 241 210 199 213 221 213
350 213 252 236 253 261 251
500 262 i
! % % 300 281 301 313 297
418 408 355
750 328
I 1 I .440 371 a42 367 378
1OW 373 480 , __
Correction Factor8 foi Varioua Am1 t Temperature

1.04 1.04 1.04 1.25


1.w
0.95
0.90 1.11
1.12 1.06 1.05 1.07 0.85 0.88 0.87 1.05
1.00 l.w 1.00 0.80 0.83
0.93 0.84 0.92 .... ....
122 0.71 0.85 0.88
1 0.83 ,... .... 0.84
National Electrical Code ratiom (eorreoted for 40 C).
t R a t i n 0 not $Overed by induatry stand*rds: d u e s liated are t h w e used by the General Electrio Company. f
"
r Inavlated Power Cable Eoglnears ALYIODIB~~OO (IPCEA) ratings.
v44 APPENDIX

NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC TABLES

Natural Triaonornetric Functions. 0.0-15.9"


- -
Nam Value of function for esoh tenth of 8 degree
And< ot
de- ~ ~

meea tune.
tion 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
__ ~
~ ~

sin n.0105 0.0122 o.0140 0.0157


n COS 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
tan u.0105 0.0122 n.oi40 0.0157
sin 0.0279 n ,0297 0.0314 n ,0332
1 CDS 0.9996 n ,9996 4.9995 0.9995
tan 0.0279 0.0297 0.0314 0.0332
sin 0.0454 0.0471 0.0488 0.0506
2 eos 0.9990 0.9989 0.9988 0.9987
tan 0.0454 0.0472 0.0489 0.0507
sin 0.0628 0.0645 0.0663 O.OBSO
3 C"3 n.o9nn 0.9979 0.9978 0.9977
tan 0.06zg 0.0647 0.0664 0.0682
sin 0.0802 0.0819 0.0817 0.0854
4 COQ 0.9968 0.096~ 0.0965 0.9963
tan 0.0805 0.0822 0.0840 0.0857
sin 0.0076 0.0993 0.1011 0 . 1028
5 COS 0.~952 0.~951 0.9949 0.9947
tan o.o981 0.0998 0.1016 0.1033
sin 0,1149 0.1167 0.1184 0.1201
6 em 0.9934 n . 9932 0.9930 0.9928
tan 0.1157 0.1175 0.1192 0.1210
xin 0.1323 0.1340 0.1357 0.1374
7 COB 0.9912 0.9910 n.g907 o.om
tan 0.1334 0.1352 0.1370 0.1388
sin 0.1495 0.1513 0.1530 0.1547
8 COQ 0 . ~ 8 8 8 0.0885 0.9882 n.oss0
tan 0.1512 0.1530 0.1548 n. 1566
sin 0.1663 0.1685 0.1702 n.1719
9 (.US 0.9860 0.9857 0.9854 0.9851
tan 0.1691 0.17m 0.1727 0.1745
sin 0.1840 0.1857 0.1874 0.1891
10 C08 0.9829 0.9826 0.9923 0.~820
tan 0 . 1 8 7 ~ 0.1890 0.1908 0.1926
sin n.zoi1 0.2028 0.2045 3.2062
11 em 0.9796 0.9792 n.9789 3.9785
tan u 2u53 n.2071 0.2089 1.2107
sin 0.2181 0.2198 0.2215 1.2232
12 em 0.9759 n.97s5 0.9751 1.9748
tan 0.2235 0.2254 0.2272 1.2290
li" 0.2351 0.2368 0.2385 1.2402
13 COS 0.9720 0.9715 0.9711 1.9707
tan 0.2419 0.2438 0.2456 1.2475
li" U.2521 0.2538 0.2554 1.2571
14 em 0.9677 0.8673 0.8668 3.9664
tan 0.2606 0.2623 0.2642 3.2661
sin 0.2688 0.2706 0.2723 3.2740
15 COQ 0.9632 11.9627 0.9622 0.9617
- -
R% ited
tan 0.2792
----
0.2811

11 E n ~ i ' :rs' Har


0 ,2830

800L".
0.2849

rpyright
1936, ho U
APPENDIX 945

Natural Trigonometric Functions, 16.0-35.9"


- i&fT
And game Value of function far each I ~ __
de-
gree
Of
'une-1 0.0 I 0.1 1 0.2 I 0.3 I 0.4 1 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
- ~ ~~ ~

0.2857 0.2874 0.289C 0.29w


16 0.9583 0.9578 0.9572 0.9568
0.2881 0.3000 0.301f 0.3038
0.3024 0.3040 0.3051 0.3074
17 0.9532 0.9527 0.9521 0.9516
0.3172 0.3191 0.3211 0.3230
0.3190 0.3206 0.3222 0.3239
18 0,9478 0.9472 0.946f 0.9461
0.3365 0.3385 0.3404 0.3424
sin 0.3256 0.3272 0.3289 0.3305 0.3322 0.3338 0.3355 0.3371 0.3387 0.3404
19 00s 0.9455 0.9449 0.9444 0.9438 0.9432 0.9426 0.9421 0.9415 0.940G 0.9403
tan 0.3443 0.3483 0.3482 0.3502 0.3522 0.3541 0.3561 0.3581 0.360C 0.3620
sin 0.3420 0.3437 0.3453 0.3469 0.3486 0.3502 0.3518 0.3535 0.3551 0.3567
20 em 0.9397 0.9391 0.9385 0.9379 0.9373 0.9367 0.9361 0.9354 0.9341 0.9342
tan 0.3640 0.3659 0.3679 0.3699 0.3719 0.3739 0.3759 0.3779 0.37% 0.3819
sin 0.3584 0.3600 0.3616 0.3633 0.3649 0.3665 0.3681 0.3697 0.3714 0.3730
21 DOS 0.9336 0.9330 0.9823 0.9317 0.9311 0.9304 0.9298 0.9291 0.9285 0,9278
tan 0.3839 0.3859 0.3879 0.3899 0.3919 0.3939 0.3959 0.3979 0.400C 0,4020
*in 0.3746 0.3762 0.3778 0.3795 0.3811 0.3827 0.3843 0.3859 0.387: 0.3891
22 am 0.9272 0.9265 0.9259 0.9252 0.9245 0.9239 0.9232 0.9225 0.921s 0.9212
tan 0.4040 0.4061 0.4081 0.4101 0.4122 0.4142 0.4183 0.4183 0.4204 0.4224
ain 0,3907 0.3923 0.3939 0.3955 0,3971 0,3987 0.4003 0.4019 0.4036 0.4051
23 00s 0.9205 0.9198 0.9191 0.9184 0.9178 0.9171 0.9164 0.9157 0.915C 0.9143
tan 0.4245 0.4265 0.4286 0.4307 0.4327 0.4348 0.4369 0.4390 0.4411 0.4431
sin 0.4067 0.4083 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4163 0.4179 0.4195 0.4210
24 cos 0.9135 0.9128 0.9121 0.9114 0.9107 0.9100 0.9092 0.9OaS 0.9076 0.9070
tan 0.4452 0.4473 0.4494 0.4515 0.4538 0.4557 o.ma 0.4599 0.4621 0.4642
sin 0.4226 0.4242 0,4258 0,4274 0.4289 0.4305 0.4321 0.4337 0.4352 0.4368
25 008 0.9083 n . 9 0 ~ 6 0.9048 0 . 9 ~ 10.8033 0.0026 0.9018 0.9011 0,9003 0.8996
tan 0.4663 0.4684 0.4706 0.4727 0.4748 0.4770 0.4791 0.4813 0.4834 0.4856
sin 0.4384 0.4399 0.4415 0.4431 0.4446 0.4462 0.4478 0.4493 0.4509 0.4524
26 008 0.8988 0.8980 0.8973 0.8965 0.8957 0.8949 0.8942 0.8934 0.8928 0.8918
tan 0.4877 0.4899 0.4921 0.4942 0.4964 0.4986 0.5008 0.5029 0.5051 0.5073
sin 0.4540 0.4555 0,4571 0.4586 0,4602 0.4617 0.4633 0.4648 0.4664 0,4679
27 Eo8 0.8910 0.8902 0.8894 0.8886 0,8878 0,8870 0.8882 0.8854 0.8846 0,8838
tan 0.5095 0.5117 0.5139 0.5161 0.5184 0.5206 0.5228 0.5250 0.5272 0.5295
sin 0.4695 0.4710 0.4726 0.4741 0,4756 0.47TP 0.4787 0.4802 0.4818 0.4833
28 co8 0.8829 0,8821 0.8813 0.8805 0.8796 0.8788 0.8780 0.8771 0.8763 0.8755
tan 0.5317 0.5340 0.5362 0.5384 0.5407 0.5430 0.5452 0.5475 0.5498 0.5520
ain 0.4848 0.4863 0.4879 0.4894 0,4909 0.4924 0.4939 0.4955 0.4970 0.4955
29 em 0.8746 0.8738 0.8729 0.8721 0.8712 0.8704 0.8695 0.8886 0.8678 0.8669
tan 0.5543 0.5566 0.5589 0.5612 0.5635 0.5658 0.5681 0.5704 0.5727 0,5750
sin 0.5000 0.5015 0.5030 0.5045 o.soeo 0 . 5 ~ 5 0.5wo 3.5105 0.5120 0.5135
30 COB 0.8860 0.8652 0.8643 0.8634 0.8625 0.8616 0 .86m 3.8599 0.8590 0.8581
tan 0.5774 0.5797 0.5820 0.5844 0.5867 0.5890 0.5914 3.5938 0.5961 0.5985
ain 0.5150 0.5165 0.5180 0.5195 0.5210 0.5225 0.5240 1.5255 0.5270 0.5284
31 008 0.8572 0.8563 0.8554 0.8545 0.8536 0.8526 0.8517 1.8508 0.8499 0.8490
tan 0.6009 0.6032 0.6056 0.M180 0.8104 0.6128 0.6152 1.6176 0.6200 0.6224
sin 0.5299 0.5314 0.5329 0.5344 0,5358 0.5373 0.5388 1.5402 0.5417 0.5432
32 008 0.8480 0.8471 0.8462 0.8453 0.8443 0.8434 0.8425 1.8415 0.8406 0.8196
tan 0.6249 0.6273 0.6297 0.6322'0.6346 0.6371 0.6395 1.6420 0.6445 0.6469
sin 0.5446 0.5461 0.5478 0.5480 0.5505 0.5518 0.5534 1.5548 0.5563 0.5577
33 COI 0.8387 0.8377 0.8368 0.8358 0.8348 0.8339 0.8328 1.8320 0.8310 0.83M)
tan 0.6494 0.6519 0.8544 0.6568 0.6594 0.6619 0.6644 1.6669 0.6694 0.6720
sin 0.5592 0,5606 0.5621 0,5635 0.5650 0,5664 0.5678 1.5693 0.5707 0.5721
34 OOLI 0.8290 0.8281 0.8271 0.8261 0,8251 0.8241 0.8231 1.8221 0,8211 0.8202
tan 0.6745 0.0771 0.6796 0.6822 0.8847 0.6873 D.6899 1.6824 0.6950 0.6976
bin 0 573C U S750 0 5764 0 7778 0 5703 U 5807 0.5821 1.5816 0.5850 0.5884
35 ws n RIQZ 11 w,i 19 h i 7 1 o 8161 o u i i i n ni41 0.8131 1.8121 0.8100
- 18" 0 7W1 0 7028 U 70>4 U 7ud0 11 7107 0 7133 0.1158 1.7186
0.8111
0.7212 - 0.7239
946

Natural Trigonometric Function 36.C55.9'


- IbmB Value of function or each tr
Angle
de- of
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Ere-
-
!no-
.lo"
gin
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

0.5878 0.5892 0.5906 0.5120 0,5934 0.5948 15962 1.5918


_-
'.5990
~

0.8004
38 OM 0.8090 0.8080 0.8070 0.8059 0.8049 0.8039 1.8028 1.8018 ,.8007 0.7997
tan 0.7265 0.7292 0,7319 0.7346 0.7373 0.7400 1.7427 1.7454 8,7481 0.7508
iin 0.6018 0.6032 0,6046 0.606@ 0.6074 0.6083 1.6101 1.6115 8,6129 0.6143
37 om 0.7986 0.7976 0.7985 0.7950 0.1944 0.7934 1.7923 1.7912 1 . l W 2 0.7881
tan 0.7536 0.7563 0.7590 0.7618 0.7646 0.7673 1.7701 1.7729 1.7757 0.7785
ain 0.6157 0.6170 0.6184 0,6198 0.6211 0.6225 1.6239 1.6252 1.6266 0.6280
38 coa 0.7880 0.7869 0.7859 0.7848 0.7837 0.7826 1.7815 1.7804 1.7793 0.7782
tan 0.7813 0.7841 0.7869 0.7898 0.7926 0.7954 1.7983 1.8012 1.8040 0.80B9
sin 0.6283 0.63W 0.6320 0,6334 0.6347 0.6361 1.6374 1.6388 1.6401 0.6414
39 COQ 0.7771 0.7760 0.7749 0,7738 0.7727 0.7716 1.7705 1.7894 1.7683 0.7672
tan 0.8098 0.8127 0.8156 0,8185 0.8214 0.8243 I. 8373 I.8302 1.8332 0.8361
aio 0.6428 0.6441 0.6455 0,6468 0.6481 0.6494 1.6508 1.6521 1.6534 0.6547
40 DOS 0.1660 0.7648 0.7638 0.7627 0.7615 0.7604 1.7593 1.7581 1.7570 0.7559
tan 0.8391 0.8421 0.8451 0.8481 0.8511 0.8541 ).8571 j.8601 1.8832 0.8862
sin 0.6561 0,6574 0,6587 0.6600 0.6613 0.6626 1.6638 j.6653 1.6665 0.8678
41 008 0,7574 0.7536 0,7524 0.7513 0.7501 0.7490 1.7478 ).7466 1.7455 0.7443
tan 0.8893 0.8724 0.8754 0.8785 0.8816 0.8847 1.8878 1.8910 1.8911 0.8972
sin 0.6681 0.6704 0.6717 0.6730 0.6741 0.6756 1.6769 1.6782 l.6794 0.6807
42 om 0.7431 0.7420 0.7408 0.7398 0.7385 0.7373 1.7361 1.7349 1.7337 0.7325
tan 0.9W4 0.8036 0.9067 0.9089 0.9131 0.9163 1.9195 ).9228 ).9260 0.9293

sin 0.6820 0.6833 0.6845 0,6858 0.6871 0.6884 3.6896 ).6909 1.6921 0.6934
43 cm 0.7314 0.7302 0.7290 0.7278 0.7266 0.7254 3.1242 ).7230 1.7218 0.7206
tan 0.9325 0.9358 0.9391 0.9424 0.9457 0.9490 3.9523 1.9556 1.9590 0.9623
ain 0.6947 0.6958 0.6912 0.6984 0,6897 0.7008 1.7022 1.7034 1.7046 0.7059
44 cm 0.1193 0.7181 0.7169 0.7151 0.7145 0.7133 1.7120 1.7108 1.7086 0.7083
tan 0.9657 0.9691 0.9725 0.9759 0.9793 0.9827 D.9881 3.9896 ).8930 0.8865
ain 0.7071 0.7083 0.7096 0.7108 0.7120 0.7133 0.7145 0.7157 1.7169 0.7181
45 om 0.7071 0.7059 0.7046 0.7034 0.7022 0.7008 0.6997 0.6984 1.6972 0.6959
tam 1.wOO 1 . m 5 1.0070 1,0105 1.0141 1.0176 1.0212 1.0247 1.0283 1.0319
ain 0.7193 0.7206 0.7218 0.7230 0.7242 0.7254 0.7266 0.7278 1.7290 0.7302
46 em 0.6947 0.6934 0.6921 0.6908 0,6896 0.6884 0.6871 D.6858 1.6845 0.6833
tan 1.0355 1.0392 1.0428 1,0464 1.0501 1.0538 1.0575 1.0612 1.0649 1.0686
sin 0.7314 0.7325 0.7337 0.7349 0.7361 0.7373 0.7385 0.7396 0.7408 0.7420
47 OM 0.6820 0.6861 0.6794 0.6782 0.6769 0.6756 0.6743 0.6730 0.6717 0.6704
tan 1.0724 1.0761 1.0799 1.0837 1.0875 1.0813 1.0851 1.0890 1.1028 1.1067
sin 0.7431 0.7443 0.7455 0.7466 0.7478 0.7464 0.7501 0.7513 0.7524 0.7536
48 cm 0.6691 0.6678 0.6685 0.6652 0.6639 0.6626 0.6613 0.66W 0.6587 0.6574
tan 1.1106 1.1145 1.1184-1.1224 1.1263 1.1303 1.1343 1.1383 1.1423 1.1463
ain 0.7547 0.7559 0.1570 0.7581 0.7593 0.7604 0.7615 0.7627 0.7638 0.7649
49 cm 0.6581 0.6547 0.6534 0.6521 0.6508 0.- 0.6481 0.6468 0.6455 0.6441
tan 1.1504 1.1544 1.1585 1.1626 1.1667 1.1708 1.1750 1.1792 1.1833 1.1875
sin 0.7660 0.7672 0.7683 0.7694 0.7705 0.7716 0.7727 0.7738 0.7749 0.7760
50 em 0.6428 0.6414 0.6401 0.6388 0.6374 0.6361 0.6347 0,6334 0.6320 0.63G7
tan 1.1918 1.1960 1.2002 1.2045 1.2088 1.2131 1.2174 1.2218 1.2261 1.2305
ain 0.7771 0,7782 0.7783 0.7804 0,7815 0.7826 0.7837 0.784s 0.7858 0.7869
51 CM 0.6283 0.6280 0.6266 0.6252 0.6239 0.6225 0.6211 0.6198 (1.6184 0.6170
tan 1.2348 1.2393 1.2437 1.2482 1.2527 1.2572 1.2617 1.2662 1.2708 1.2753
ah 0.7880 0.7891 0.1902 0.7912 0.7923 0.7934 0,7944 0.7955 0.7965 0.7976
52 cm 0.6157 0.6143 0.6129 0.6115 0.6101 0.6088 0.6074 0.6OBo 0.6046 0.6032
tan 1.2799 1.2846 1.2892 1.2938 1.2985 1.3032 1.3079 1.3127 1.3175 1.3222
ain 0.7986 0.7991 0.8001 0.8018 0.8028 0.8039 0.8049 0.8059 0,8010 0.8080
53 ooe 0.6018 0,6004 0.5980 0.5976 0.5962 0.5948 0.5934 05920 0.5646 0.6892
tan 1.3270 1.3319 1.3367 1.3416 1.3465 113514 1.3564 1.3613 1.3663 1.3713
aia 0.8080 0.81W 0.8111 0.8121 0.8131 0.8141 0.8151 0.8161 0.8171 0.8181
54 00s 0.5878 0.5884 0.5850 0.5835 0.5821 0.5801 0.5793 0.5779 0.5764 0.5750
tan 1.3764 1.3814 1.3885 1.3916 1.3968 1.4019 1.4071 1.4124 1.4176 1.4229
sin 0.8192 0,8202 0.8211 0.8321 0.8231 0.8241 0.8251 0.8261 0.8271 0.8281
0.5736 0.5721 0.5707 0.5693 0.5678 0.5664 0.5650 0.5635 0,5621 0.5606
-
55 00s
tan 1.4281 1.4335 1.4388 1.4442 1.4496 1.4550 --
1.4605 1.4659 1.4715 1.4770
APPENDIX 947

- Natural Trigonometric Functions, 56.W5.9'


name X 6-z
Am!
de
Of
Value of function or each __ ~

func- 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5


Ere tion 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
- -sin -0.8200
_ 0.8300
_ _ _ _ _ ~ ~-
0.8310 0.8320 0.8828 0.833
- -
0.834 0.835; 0.8361 m 7 7
51 COB 0.5582 0.5577 0.5563 0.5548 0.5534 0.551 0.550 0.5401 0.5471 0.5461
tan 1.4826 1.4882 1.4938 1.4884 1.5051 1.510 1.5168 1.522, 1.528: 1.5340
ain 0.8387 0.8396 0.8406 0.8415 0.8425 0.843 0.844 0.845: 0.846: 0.8471
5: C w 0.5446 0.5432 0.5417 0.5402 0.5388 0.537, 0.535; 0.534. 0.532s 0.5314
tan 1.5399 1.5458 1.5517 1.5577 1.5637 1.569 1.575 1.5811 1.5881 1.5841
sin 0.8450 0.8490 0.8488 0.8508 0.8517 0.852, 0.8531 0.854! 0.855' 0.8563
a ow 0.5299 0.5284 0.5270 0.6255 0.5240 0.522. 0.5211 0.519! 0.5181 0.5165
tan 1.6003 1.6086 1.6128 1.6191 1.6255 1.6311 1.638: 1.644; 1.651: 1.6577
sin 0.8572 0.8581 0.8590 0.8589 0.8607 0.8611 0.862! 0.8634 0.8641 0.8652
58 D w 0.5150 0.5135 0.5120 0.5105 0.5090 0.5071 0.5061 0.504) 0.503( 0.5015
tan 1.6643 1.6709 1.6775 1.6842 1.6909 1.687: 1,704) 1.711: 1.7181 1.7251
sin 0.8660 0.8669 0.8678 0.8686 0.8695 0.870. 0.871: 0.8721 0.8726 0.8738
60 ow 0.5000 0.4985 0.4870 0.4855 0.4839 0.482l 0.4901 0.4984 0.4876 3.4863
tan 1.7321 1.7391 1.7461 1.7532 1.1603 1.767! 1.774; 1.782C 1.7883 I ,7966
sin 0.8746 0.8755 0.8763 0.8771 0.8780 0.8781 0.878t 0.880: 0.8813 1.8821
61 cw 0.4545 0.4833 0.4818 0.4502 0.4787 0.477: 0.475L 0.4741 9.4726 1.4710
tan 1.8040 1.8115 1.8190 1.8265 1.8341 1.8411 1.8491 1.8572 1.8650 I.8728
sin 0.8829 0.8818 0.8846 0.8854 0.8862 0.887( 0.8878 0.8888 1. 8894 ).8802
62 cot/ 0.4695 0.4678 0.4664 0.4648 0.4633 0.4611 0.4602 1.4586 1.4571 ) ,4555
tan 1.88m 1.8887 1.8967 1.9047 1.9128 1 . 0 2 1 ~ 1.9282 1.9375 I . 9458 I . 8542
sin 0.8810 0.8918 0.8826 0.8934 0.8942 0.8849 D .n957 1.8965 ).SO73 ).8980
63 COB 0.4540 0.4524 0.4508 0.4493 0.4478 0.4462 0.4446 1.4481 1.4415 1.4399
tan 1.8625 1.8711 1.8787 1.9583 l.9870 2.0051 2.0145 2.0233 1.0323 !.0413
sin 0.8958 0.8896 0.8003 0.9011 0.9018 0.9026 1.9033 ).9041 ).go45 1.9056
64 008
tan
0.4384 0.4368 0.4352 0.4337 0.4321
2.0503 2.0594 2.0686 2.0778 2.0872
0.4305 1.4289 ).4274 ).4258 I. 4242
2.0965 ?.lo60 !.I155 !.I251 ,.1348
sin 0.9063 0.9070 0.9078 0.90e.5 0.9092 0.81w 1.0107 1.8114 1.9121 1.8128
65 COB 0.4226 0.4210 0.4185 0.4178 0.4163 0.4147 1.4131 1.4115 1.4098 1.4083
ban 2.1445 2.1543 2.1642 2.1742 2.1842 2.1943 !.2045 !.2148 !.2251 ~.2355

66
?in
10s
0.9135 0.8143 0.9150 0.9157 0.9164
0.4067 0.4051 0.4035 0.4018 0 . 4 w 3
0.9171
0.3887
).8178
1.3971
1.9184
1.3955
l.0181
!.3939
,8.3923
8188
tan 2.2460 2.2566 2.2673 2.2781 2.2889 2.2998 1.3109 1.3220 ,.3332 .3445
sin 0.9205 0.9212 0.9219 0.8225 0.9232 0.9239 1.8245 1.8252 1.8259 8.8255
67 108 0.3907 0.3891 0.3875 0.3859 0.3843 0.3827 1.3811 1.3795 '.3778 8.3162
;an 2.3559 2.3673 2.3788 2.3906 2.4023 2.4142 1.4262 '.4383 4504 -4627
/in 0.9272 0.0278 0.9285 0.'9291 0 . 0 2 8 8 0.0304 1.8311 1.9317 8.9323 .8330
88 :OQ 0.3746 0.3730 0.3714 0.3697 0.3681 0.3665 1.3648 1.3633 '.3615 .3600
.an 2.4751 2.4876 2.5002 2.5129 2.5257 2.5386 !.5517 ,5548 5782 ,5916
,in 0.9336 0.9342 0.8348 0.8354 0.9361 0.9367 18373 8.9379 ,8385 8391
69 :DB 0.3584 0.3567 0.3551 0.3535 0.3518 0.3502 !.3496 '.3469 ,3453 ,3437
,an 2.6051 2.6187 2.6325 2.6464 2.6605 2.6746 6888 7034 ,7179 ,7326
in 0.9397 0.9403 0.0409 0.9415 0.9421 0.8426 8.8432 ,9438 8444 ,9449
70 8- 0.3420 0.3404 0.3387 0.3371 0.3355 0.3338 '.3322 '.3305 3289 3272
an 2.7475 2.7625 2.7776 2.7829 2.8083 2.8238 .a397 .a55 ,8718 8878
in 0.9455 0.8461 0.9266 0.9172 0.9178 0.92s.3 ,8159 .Ql81 .9500 ,9505
71 08 0.3256 0.3239 0.3223 0.3206 0.3180 0.3173 ,3156 ,3140 ,3123 ,3107
an 2.9042 2.9208 2.9375 2.8544 2.9714 2.9387 .0061 ,0237 ,0415 .0585
in 0.9511 0.9516 0.8521 0.9527 0.9532 0.9537 ,9542 9548 ,9553 .9558
72 w 0.3090 0.3074 0.3057 0.3040 0.3024 0.3W .2890 ,2974 2957 .2940
Bn 3.0777 3.0861 3.1146 3.1334 3.1524 3.1716 1910 ,2106 2305 2506
in 0.9563 0.9568 0.8573 0.9578 0.9583 0.8588 9593 .8598 ,9603 ,9608
73 OQ 0.2924 0.2907 0.W80 0.2874 0.2557 0.2840 2823 2807 .2790 2773
m 3.2709 3.2914 3.3122 3.3332 3.3544 3.3759 ,3977 ,4197 .4420 ,4646

74
'n
8
0
0.9613 0.9617 0.9622 0.8827 0.9632 0.9636
0.2756 0.2740 0.2723 0.2706 0.2689 0.2672
3.4874 3.5105 3.5339 3.5576 3.5816 3.6058 1 0541
2556
6305
I 9646
2638
5554
I 6806
9655
2605
7062

75
-
PU APPWDIX

- -
Nan Value of function for each tenth of B degree
And
de of
Kre tune
tion 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
- - ~ ~ ~ ~
sin 0.9703 0.9707 0.9711 0.9715 0.9720 0.9724 0.9728 0.9732 0.9736 0.9740
76 em 0.2419 0.2402 0.2385 0.2368 0.2351 0.2334 0.2317 0.2300 0.2284 0.2267
tan 4.0108 4.0408 4.0713 4.1022 4.1335 4.1653 4.1976 4.2303 4.2615 4.2972
sin 0.9744 0.9748 0.9751 0.9755 0.9759 0.9763 0.9767 0.9770 0.9774 0.9718
77 om 0.2250 0.2232 0.2215 0.2198 0.2181 0.2164 0.2147 0.2130 0.2113 0.2096
tan 4.3315 4.3662 4.4015 4.4374 4.4737 4.5107 4.5483 4.5864 4.6252 4.6646
sin 0.9781 0.9785 0.9789 0.9792 0.9796 0.9799 0 . 9 W 0.9806 0.9810 0.9813
78 em 0.2079 0.2062 0,2045 0,2028 0.2011 0.1994 0.1977 0.1959 0.1942 0.1825
tan 4.7046 4.7453 4.7867 4.8288 4.8716 4.9152 4.9594 5.0045 5.0504 5.0970
sin 0.9816 0.9820 0.9823 0.9826 0.9828 0.9833 0.9836 0.9839 0.9842 0.9845
79 em 0.1908 0.1891 0,1874 0.1857 0.1840 O:l822 0.1805 0.1788 0.1771 0.1754
tan 5.1446 5.1929 5.2422 5.2924 5.3435 5.3955 5.4486 5.5026 5.5578 5.6140
sin 0.9848 0.9851 0.9854 0.9857 0.9860 0.9863 0.9866 0.9869 0.9871 0.9874
80 00s 0.1736 0.1719 0.1102 0.1685 0.1668 0.1650 0.1633 0.1616 0.1599 0.1582
tan 5.6713 5.7297 5.7894 5.8502 5.9124 5.9758 6.0405 6.1066 6.1742 6.2432
Sin 0.9877 0.9880 0,9882 0.9885 0.9888 0.9890 0.9893 0.9895 0.9898 0,9900
81 COB 0.1564 0.1547 0.1530 0.1513 0.1495 0.1478 0.1461 0.1444 0.1426 0.1409
tan 6.3138 6.3859 6.4596 6.5350 6.6122 6.6912 6.7720 6.8548 6.9395 7.0264
ain 0.9903 0.9905 0.9907 0.9910 0.9912 0.9914 0.9917 0.9919 0.9921 0.9923
82 eon 0.1392 0.1374 0.1357 0.1340 0.1323 0.1305 0.1288 0.1271 0.1253 0,1236
tan 7.1154 7.2066 7.3042 7.3962 7.4947 7.5958 7.6996 7.8062 7.9158 8.0285
sin 0.9925 0.9928 0.9930 0.9932 0.9934 0.9936 0.9938 0.9940 0.9942 0.9943
83 coa 0.1219 0.1201 0.1184 0.1167 0.1149 0.1132 0.1115 0.1097 0.1080 0,1063
tan 8.1443 8.2636 8.3863 8.5126 8.6427 8.7769 8.9152 9.0579 9.2052 9.3572
*in 0.9945 0.9947 0.9949 0.9951 0.9952 0.9954 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.9960
84 em 0.1045 0.1028 0.1011 0.0993 0.0976 0.0958 0.0941 0.0924 0.0906 0.0889
tan 9.5144 9.6768 9.844810.02 10.20 10.39 10.58 10.78 10.99 11.20
sin 0.9962 0.9963 0.9965 0.9966 0.9968 0.9969 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9Q74
85 ces 0.0872 0.0854 0.0837 0.0819 0.0802 0.0785 0.0767 0.0750 0.0732 0.0715
tan 1.43 11.66 11.91 12.16 12.43 12.71 13.04 13.30 13.62 13.95
sin 0.9976 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9980 0.9981 0.9982 0.9983 0.9984 0.9985
86 co* 0.0698 0.0680 0.0663 0.0645 0.0628 0.0610 0.0593 0.0576 0.0558 0.0541
tan 4.30 14.67 15.06 15.46 15.89 16.35 16.83 17.34 17.89 18.46
sin 0.9986 0.9987 0,9988 0.91/89 0.9990 0.9990 0.9991 0.9992 0.9993 0.9993
87 DO8 0.0523 0.0506 0,0488 0.0471 0.0454 0.0436 0.0419 0.0401 0.0384 0.0366
tan 9.08 19.74 20.45 21.20 22.02 22.90 23.86 24.90 26.03 27.27
sin 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998
88 om 0.0349 0.0332 0.0314 0.1297 0.0279 0.0262 0.0244 0.0227 0,0209 0.0192
tan 8.64 30.14 31.82 33.69 35.80 38.19 40.92 44.07 47.74 52.08
sin D.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.000 I.WO 1.040 1.000 1.OW
89 COB 0.0175 0.0157 0.0140 0,0122 0.0105 0.0487 0.0070 0.0052 0.0035 0.0017
- -
tan 7.29 63.66 71.62 81.85 95.49 114.6 143.2 191.0 286.5 573.0
Index

“a,” the operator, function of, 118-119 Bus, arrangements of, in primary systems
Ahbreviations of electrical terms, 930 sectionalized bus, 717-718
Aerial cable, in primary systems, 723- star bus, 717
724 straight hus, 717
protection of, against overvoltages synchronizing bus, 717, 725-730
from lightning, 326 busway, low-voltage, 697498
(See also Cable) for feeders, 702
Air circuit breakers (see Circuit plug-in type, 701
breakers) reactance of. 101
Arcing ground as intermittent line-to- short-circuit current estimating
ground short circuit, 286-289, 337- curve for, 76-77, 8W81
338, 340-341 medium-voltage, cost estimating
(See also Overvoltages) d a t a for (2.4-13.8 kv indoor),
Arresters, lightning (see Lightning 916
arresters) installation casts for, 894
Asymmetrical short-circuit current, d-c capacitors connected to, 482
component of, 15-18 ground, 406, 408-417
explanation of, 10-15 neutral, 373
rms value of, 20 reactance of, 101-104
Autotransformers, groundibg of, 391-395 synchronizing, for modernization and
in light and power systems for com- expansion of power systems, 776,
mercial-type buildings, 749 790, 794, 799
neutral inversion of, 391P394 in primary power systems, 615,
overvoltages caused by, 295-297, 391- 717, 725-730
395 voltage drop in, calculation of, 242-
in primary substations, 711 244
Auxiliaries, power-plant,, 831-832, 882 Bus-tie circuit breakers, 717-718
Available short-circuit current, explana- (See also Load-center power distribo-
tion of, 36-37 tion systems)
(See also Short-eircuit current) Busway (see Bus)
By-product fuel, 809, 811
Balancing reactors, 784-788 By-product power (see Generation of
BIL (basic impulse insulation level), electric power)
303-305
Cable, aerial, in primary systems, 723-
724
efficiency of, 831 protection of, against overvoltages
supplementary-fired, 820, 867 caused by lightning, 326
Branch circuit design (see Commercial- copper, fusing time of, 189-190
type buildings; Factories) cost-estimating data for, 917-919
Buildings, light and power systems far current-carrying capacities for, table
(see Commercial-type buildings; of, 943
Factories) failure rates of, 630
Bus, arrangements of, in primary sys- heating of, during short circuit, 18W
tems, 717-718 183
double bus, 715 impedance, reactance, resistance of,
ring bus, 717. 730 96-110
949
950 INDEX

Cable, interlocked armor, in primary sys- Capacitors, shunt, switching devices for,
tems, 724 ampere ratings of, 485-487
in secondary systems, 699-701 interrupting ratings of, 487
protection of, by current limiting repetitive duty of, 487
fuses, 186 system capacity released by, 462-
replacing old, 767 468
selection of, based on short-circuit economics of, 468-470
current, curves for, 185 voltage ratings of, 199, 499-500
examples of, 186-190 voltage rise due to, 4 7 1 4 7 4
tables of minimum conductor voltage spread on, effect of, 214
size for, 182 (See also Power factor, improve-
for capacitors, 487-488 ment of)
in short-circuit calculations, eonsidera- surge protective, for rotating ma-
tion of, 45 chines, 31&311
short-circuit current limited by, 76- application of, 32G333
77, 8&8l, 83-84, 87-90 Cascading low-voltage circuit breakers,
synthetic-rubber-insulated, 698-699 rules far, 155-161
temperature limits of, during short selection table for, 162-163
circuit, IX(t181 vs. selective tripping, 155-161
voltage drop in, calculation of, 237- Case histories, of expanding power sys-
241 tems at higher voltage, 758-759
caused by motor starting, calcula- of overvoltages, on ungrounded-
tion of, 261-263 neutral systems, 337-338, 401-
Capacitively grounded system (see 402
Ungrounded system) unusual, 297-299
Capacitors, constants for, 502 of protective-device failures, 146, 147
formulas for, 501-502 Circuit arrangements (see Bus; Load-
series, far power service, definition of, center power distribution systems;
492494 Neutral circuit arrangements far
effect of, on voltage drop due to grounding; Power systems)
motor starting, 264 Circuit breakers, air, large (600 volts
limitations of, 498 and less), application of, 154-
principle of operation of, 494-495 161
use of, 495-498 application table for, 162-163
shunt, automatic switching of, 489- cascading of, 155-161
492 description of, 154
on buses, 456, 482 rating, basis of, 35
cable for, selection of, 4 8 7 4 8 8 ratings of, 154
discharge of, 500-501 selection of, 161-163
in equipments, kilovsr ratings of, selective tripping of, 15&156
498500 standards for, 164
harmonics and resonance dueto, v8. switches and fuses, 153, 169-
488489
~~ ~ 170
&L induction motor terminals, limi- basic characteristics of, 14&149
tations of, 477-479 direct-acting trips on (see Direet-
location of, 477 acting trips)
ratings of, 4 7 M 8 2 vs. fuses, 153
thermal-overlortd current reduced interrupting rating of, explanation of,
by, 482 27, 35
with induction motors v8. syn- low-voltage (600 volts and below),
chronous motor, 482-484 154-166
as kilovar generators, 449
kilovar ratings of, 49&500
location of, 4 5 6 4 5 8 interrupting duty on, calculation
operating characteristics of, 501 of, 32, 33, 35
power-hill savings with, 459-460 momentary duty on, calculation of,
poweraystem losses reduced by, 32, 33, 35
470-471 reactance of, 110
INDEX 951
Circuit breakers, low-voltage (GOO volts Codes and standards, for overcurrent pro-
and below), short-circuit-current tection of load-center systems, 632
rating basis for, 35 for power systems, secondary, 684
main, in load-center substations, 674- for switches, low-voltage, 170
676 on system voltage selection, effect of,
molded-case, 164-166 576
application of, 165 for transformer protection, 632
application table for, 162-163 Combined light and power systems (see
cascading of, 165 Commercial-type buildings; Fae-
direct-acting trips OD, 537, 54&541 tories)
ratings of, 164, 165 Commercial-type buildings, definition
selection of, 166 of, 731
stendards for, 166 light and power systems for, auto-
momentary rating of, explanation of, transformers in. 749
35 economic comparison of 480Y/277-
power (above 600 volts), application vs. 208Y/120-valt, 737-747
of, 172 feeder circuits used in, 742-743,
application limits for, on short-eir- 745
wit-current basis, 28-29 lighting loads used in, 738-739
interrupting duty on, checking of, power loads used in, 739
29,32 grounding transformer for, con-
momentary duty an, checking of, nections of, 750
29,32 reactance of, 750
BS motor starters, 172
higher voltage, types and applica-
rating structure for, 24-28 tions of, 732-735
ratings of, 171 incoming service for, types of, 731-
selection of, 173
on GW-volt systems, application of,
.__
73s
lighting-load estimates for, 885-886
35, 36
National Electrical Code require-
standards for, 174
ments for, 752-753
types of, 171
overcurrent protection for, 751-752
rating, basis of, 24-28
current-limiting fuses as, 751-
sectionslizing, in loop feeders, 72%
752
721
in primary buses, 717-718 remote-control wiring system for,
short-circuit-eurrent calculation for 74&742
application of, 29-31, 35-38 Rexibilitv of. 740. 7.53-7.55
~I ~~ ~~

short-time rating of, 27 120/240-v&, j31


(See also Short-circuit-current 208Y/12&volt, 731
rating) 480Y/277-volt, components of, 7 3 6
switching arrangements for, in gen- 737
erating stations, 725-726 fundamentals of, 735-736
in main substations, 712-715 12Gvolt load on, economic limit
in primary buses, 715-718 for, 747
in primary feeders, 718-723 power services for, 748-751
types of, used in primary systems, Conductor (see B w ; Cable; Grounding
708-711 conductor; Neutral eonductor;
Codes and standards, for circuit break- Overhead lines)
ers, air, large, 164 Control circuits, motor, on grounded-
molded-case, 166 neutral systems, 39&391
~ o w e r 174
. a n line-grounded systems, 390-391
for commercial-type buildings, re- safety of, 389-391
strictions of, 752-753 on ungrounded systems, 390-391
for cutouts, 178 Conversion factors, 925-928
for fuses, low-voltage, 170 for amperes to kw or kva, 64
power, 178 for horsepower to kva, 39
for lighting equipment, voltage limited for ohms to per cent or per-unit, 38,
by, 752-753 40
952 IN1>M

Coordination of relays and other pro- Cutouts, application of, 176


tective devices (see Overcurrent- standards for, 178
protective-device coordination) types of, 174-176
Corner-of-delta grounding, 388-389 (See also Oil-fused cutouts)
Costa, estimatingdatafor, for busway, 916
for cable, 917-919 Decrement, definition of, 1&19
for generators, turbine, 909 fault current, effect of, on relay
for motor control, 914, 915, 922- operation, 546-548, 561-567
924 Demand factors for load estimating, 889
far motors, induction, 920,922, 923 Detector, ground, use of, 344
synchronous, 921, 924 on portable-equipment circuits, 433
restrictions on use of, 892 Device numbers and functions for
for switchgear, low-voltage, 915 switchgem, 930-932
medium-voltage, 914 Diesel-engine power plants, far indus-
for transformers, 907, 908 trial generation, 809, 874
for unit substations, load-center, 912 for power generation, 873-874
master, 910, 911 for process heat, 873-874
primary switching for, 913 Differentid relays (see Relays, differ-
for factory combined light and power ential)
systems, 582-587, 589 Direct-acting trips, a n air circuit
fixed charges in, 809, 875, 883 breakers (600 volts and less)...
initial investment, return on, 809 533-537
installation, factory-assembled switch- operating currents of, 548
ing equipment, 893 discussion of, 532-533
field-assembled switching equip- pickup settings of, 534
ment, 893 on power circuit breakers (above 600
large generating units, effect of, volts), 533
80W310 reset time of, 536
metal-enclosed bus, 894 thermal-magnetic type, on molded-
motor and control, 893, 894 case breakers, 537, 54&541
steam plant, 881-882 time-current curves of, 535-540
transformer. R93
I~ coordination of, 537, 5 6 8 5 7 3
of load-center power distribution sys- Direct-current component of short-cir-
tems, 623-624, 898-900 cuit current (see Short-circuit cur-
radial, 636 rent)
secondary network, 65WG52 Directional relays (see Relays, direc-
secondary selective. 63&640. 650- tional)
652 Directly grounded system (see Ground-
spot secondary selective, 642 . ing, solid)
maintenance, steam plant, 881 Disconnecting switches, reactance of, 110
for modernization and expansion of (See also Switches)
power systems, examples of, 764- Distribution systems (see Commercial-
796 type buildings; Factories; h a d -
of piecemeal equipment, 894-895 center power distribution systems;
power, reduction by shunt capacitors Modernization and expansion of
of, 459-460 power systems; Power systems)
power generation, by-product, Distribution transformers, impedance
811, 875-878 of, 96-97
condensing steam, 878 (See also Transformers)
fixed charges on, effect of, 875, Double-bus arrangement, 715
882883 Double-throw interrupter switches on
labor on, effect of, 875, 88&881 unit substations, 655-664
plant factor on, effect of, 875, 880 Dry-type transformers vs. liquid-filled,
Current-limiting fuses (see Fuses) 671-672
Current transformers, reactance of, Duplex reactors, equivalent circuit for,
110-112 65-66
saturation of, effect on relay per- use of, with large generators, 730, 784,
farmsnee of, 559-561 793
INDEX 953
Economic comparison of power systems, Extraction turbines (see Turbines, steam)
for commercial-type buildings, 737-
748 Factories, combined light and power
estimating data far, 892-895, 906- systems for, economic comparisons
924 of, 583-587, 589
for factory combined light and power 480-120-volt transformers for,
systems, 582-587 593-595
for load-center systems; radial, higher voltage lighting for, 582-592
secondary selective, and second- lamps in, lighting-system voltage for,
arv network. 9 W 9 0 5 587
for piecemeal equipment vs. load- lighting-load estimates for, 885-886
center, 89G900 office lighting supplied from, 592
Efficiency, of by-product power genera- other lighting supplied from, 592
tion, 811 for reliability, design of, 590-592
engine, definition of, 844 short-circuit protection of, 587-590
of gas turbine, 861 system considerations for, 587-595
importance of; 833 transformers (480-120 volts) for,
plant thermal, definition of, 818 593-595
power-plant, gas-turbine, 862 277-volt lighting systems for, 582-
steam, actual, 822-823, 832-834 595
theoretical, 823-824 voltage flicker control in, 590
of steam boilers, 831 (See also Commercial-type buildings)
of steam turbine, 820, 822 Fall-of-potential method of measuring
Electric power generation (see Generation resistance to earth, 424-425
of electric power) Fault current (see Short-circuit current)
Electric utility, grounding of, 366-367, Fault location in ungrounded neutral
ROF, system, 344-345
industrial ties with, 707-708, 712-715, Feeder voltage regulators, application of,
725, 815 224-225
Electrical fires, causes of, 406, 415 reactance of, 112
due to motective-device failure, 1 4 6 Feeders (see Bus; Cable; Overhead lines;
14? Power systems; Transmission
Electrode, grounding, definition of, 406 circuits)
types of, 410 Feedwater heating, 833, 862, 869
water pipe for, minimum size of, 414 Fence, substation, grounding of, 417
Electronic equipment, voltage spread on, Ferroresonrtnce, 284
effect of, 211-213 Fires, electrical, causes of, 406, 415
Enthalpy, 828 due to protective-device failures,
Equipment grounding (see Grounding, 146-147
equipment) Fixed charges in costs, 809, 875, 883
Equivalent circuits, for duplex reactors, Flicker, voltage (see Voltage flicker)
65-66 Fuel, by-product, 809, 811
of impedance diagrams, 5C-51 gas-turbine, 871
for symmetrical-component analysis, of Furnaces, electric resistance, power
basic sequence systems, 126 supply for, 595-597
of double line-to-ground short voltage for, 575, 580
circuit, 135 Fused switches (see Switches, fused)
of line-to-ground short circuit, 133 Fuses, characteristics of, basic, 15C-153
of line-to-line short circuit, 130 timecurrent, 530-532
of three-phase short circuit, 127 coordination of, 531-532, 549
for three-winding transformers, 66 examples of, 568-573
transformer zero sequence, 135-140 current-limiting, 166170
Exhaust-heat recovery boilers, use of, application of, in lighting systems,
820, 866 587, 590
Expansion line (Mollier chart), 830 for cable protection, 185-186
Expansion of power distribution systems vs. large air circuit breakers, 16+170
(see Modernization and expansion of overvoltages caused by, 294-295
power systems) performance of, 169-170
954 INDEX
Fuses, low-voltage (600 volts and below), Generator-transformer unit system, use
16~x70 of, 730
application of, 167-170 voltage rating of, 198
vs. large air circuit breakers, 169-170 Generators, balancing load in, 781-788
NEC t w e , 166 dielectric teats of, 305
rating,b;asis of, 36 double-winding, 730
.,
ratinns of. 166-167
I
minimum rating of, for system
short-circuit-current calculations for grounding, 366
application of, 33, 36 neutral grounding of, 355, 357
standards for, 170 protection of, against overvoltages
in switches, 166-170 caused by lightning, 326-333
types of, 166 reactance of, 92-94
power (above 600 volts), application of, explanation of, 8-10
in open structures, 176-177 short-circuit-current decrement of,
for interrupter switches, 176 546-518. 562
~I ~ ~

oil-cutout type of, 174-176 effect on relay operation of, 546,


rating, basis of, 31 ... ...
561-567
selection of, 178 as short-circuit-current source, 3, 4
short-circuit-current calculations for short-circuit protection of (see Over-
application of, 31-35 current protection; Relays)
standards for, 178 short-circuit ratio of, definition of, 22
types of, 174-176 turbine, cost-estimating data for, 909
rating, basis of, 31, 34-35 voltage drop of, due t o motor start-
short-eireuit-current calculation for ing, calculation of, 253-260
application of, 31-34 voltage ratings of, 194, 197-198
three-phase equivalent interrupting Governing of steam turbine, by admission
rating of, 34-35 pressure, 852-851
(See also Switches, fused) automatic division of load by, 849-
851
Gas torhines (see Turbines, gas) by exhaust pressure, 852
Generating capacity, industrial and by extraction pressure, 852-854
utility, 809 by initial pressure, 852
Generating stations, electrical layout of, load regulator for, 849, 852
725-730 performance charts of, 853-854
plant factor of, 808 speed corrector for, 849
(See also Generation of electric power; speed governor for, regulation of, 849
Generators; Psrellel operation of by speed regulation, 849
utility and industrial; Turbines) Graphical symbols of electrical e q u i p
Generation of electric power, by-pfoduct, ment for one-line diagrams, 932-942
810,812, 819, 831,840 Greek alphabet, 928
efficiency of, 820 Ground bus, connections for, 413
steam conditions on, eKeet of, 810, definition of, 406
819 illustration of, 408
for critical loads, 814, 817 importance of, 410
cycles for, 818 installation of, 412-413
industrial, economical arrangement for, location of, 412-413
812 material for, 412
factors favoring, 811-812 resistance to earth of, 414
in industrial plants, 809, 811, 875 size of, 411-412
vs. purchased power, 811-813 for switchgear, 415, 417
industrial use of, 808 Ground fault (see Short circuit, line-to-
installed capacity for, in industrial ground)
plants, 809 Ground-fault current (see Short-circuit
in utility plants, 809 current)
plant factor for, 808 Ground-fault detectors, use of, 344
in utility plants, 809 on portable-equipment circuits, 433
Generator-transformer unit system, zero-sequence measuring circuits for,
grounding of, 395-396 142-143
INDEX 955
Ground-fault neutralizer, definition of, Grounding, neutral, reactors for, selection
340 of, 381-385
overvoltages reduced by, 289 table for selection of. 388
use of, 35&360 resistors for, rating of, '377-381
Ground indicators. use of. 344 selection of, 378-381
zero-sequence measuring circuits for, table for selection of, 379
143-144
~~~ ~~~ selection of point for, 367-370
Grounding, equipment, components for, summary of practice for, 364-365
406-409 of systems, 600 volts and below,
conductors for, 414 36+364
definition of, 339, 404 2.4 kv to 15 kv, 363, 365
earth as a conductor for, 426 above 15 kv, 365, 366
electrodes for, 410 reactance, calculation of ground-fault
ground bus for, 410-413 current for, 131-134, 376-377
impedance in circuits for, 414-415 calculation of reactor for, 381-385
importance of, 405-406 definition of, 339
of lighting fixtures, 42W421 use of, 351, 357
of lightning arresters, 421 resistance, calculation of ground-fault
for lightning protection, 421-422 current for, 131-134, 375-376
measuring resistance to earth for, definition of, 339
422426 selection of resistor for, 378-381
of motor frames, 416 use of, 354-357
objectives of, 404-405 resonant, definition of, 339-340
of outdoor circuit breakers, 416 solid, calculation of ground-fault
of portable equipment, large, 426- current for, 131-134, 377
438 definition of, 339
small, 419-420 fault duty increased by, 396-399
of power-plant and dist,ribution table for estimating ground-fault
equipment, 415-417 current for, 362
in secondary power systems, 694- use of, 352-355
696 system, advantages of, 345-348
of semiportable equipment, 418 definition of, 339
of small apparatus and devices, effect of, on lightning arrester
419-420 selection, 314-315
of stationary utilization equipment, equipment for, rating of, 377-378
417-419 ~selection of., 378-3RR
~~~ ~ ~~~~~ ~..
~ ~

of substation fence, 417 industrial vs. utility practice in, 366-


of switcbgear, 415-417 367
of transformer tanks, 416 influence of, on control circuit safety,
ground-fault neutralizer, 354, 358- 389-391
360 methods of, 352-366
line (corner-of-the-delta), 388-389 selection of, 360-367
mid-phase, 389 neutral for, obtaining, 348-352
neutral, of autotransformers, 391-395 operating experience with, examples
circuit arrangement for, 370-374 of, 337-338, 401-402
equipment for, ratings of, 377-378 overvoltages curbed by, 279, 280,
selection of, 378-388 282, 285, 289, 296, 297
of fused transformers, 712 practice in, examples of, 399-401
grounding transformers for, 340, system characteristics with various
348-352, 377-378, 385-388 methods of, 354
methods of, 352-360 Grounding conductor, connections of, 413
minimum rating of generators and definition of, 406
power transformers for, 366 distinction of, from neutral conductor,
of portable-machinery oircuits, 409, 414
428-429, 434 size of, 414
of public-utility supply, 395 Grounding electrode, definition of, 406
reactors for, rating of, 378, 381- types of, 410
385 water pipe for, minimum size of, 414
916 INDU
Grounding of equipment (see Grounding, Induction motors (see Motors, induction)
equipment) Induction-type relays (see Relays)
Grounding point, definition of, 339 Injuries, electrical work, 405, 406
selection of. 367-370 Installation costs (see Costs, installation)
.
1See also Neutral m. i n t ). Insulation, basic impulse level of. 303-305
(hounding practice, wmniary of, :iti,l-:i65 chopped-wave tests of, 305
utility w. irrduatrial, :iIiti-:iGi dielectric tests of, 302-305
Groundirig reactors, rating of, :i78, 381- impulse tests of, 302-305
385 Interlocked-armor cable, in primary
selection hi, 381-385 systems, 724
table for, 388 in secondary systems, 697, 699, 701
Grounding resistors, rating of, 377-381 (See also Cable)
selection of, 37&381 Interlocking of interrupter switches, 631,
tshle for, 379 671
Grounding transformers (see Interrupter switches (see Switches)
Transformers, grounding) Interrupting capacity (see Short-ciycuit-
current rating)
Harmonics, with capacitors, 488-489 Interrupting duty (see Short-circuit
caused by fluorescent lighting, 695 current, calculation of)
Higher voltage lighting systems (see Interrupting rating (see Short-circuit-
Commercial-type buildings;
Factories)
-_
current ratinn)
Inversion of neutral of autotransformers,
391-394
Impedance, of bus, 101-104
of husway, 101 Kilovars, capacitors a8 generators of, 449
of cable, 96101 control of, need for, 817
of circuit breakers, 110 as unit of measurement, 440
combining of, method of, 60-63 (See also Capacitors, shunt)
of connected motors, 94-95
of current transformers, 116-112 Lamps, fluorescent, harmonics from, 695
of disconnect switches, 110 power requirements of, 885-886
dividing of, 63 voltage ratings of, 194, 198
in equipment-grounding circuits, effect voltage spread on, effect of, 208-210
of, 414-415 incandescent, power requirements of,
of machines, induction, 91 885-886
synchronous, 91 voltage ratings of, 194, 198
multiplying of, 63 I soread
voltane . on. effect of. 207-208
of overhead lines, 104-110 mercury-vapor, voltage spread on,
of reactors, 112 effect of, 210
of regulators, feeder, 112 voltage for, in factories, 582-587
of rotating machines for symmetrical L u g e air circuit breakers (see Circuit
component analysis, 134, 135 breakers)
in series, addition of, 66-61 Letter symbols, for electrical terms, 92%
short-circuit current limited by, 688- 929
689 for heat and thermodynamic terms,
surge, of cable, 301 929-930
definition of, 301 Light flicker (see Voltage flicker)
of overhead lines, 301 Lighting, distribution systems for (see
of transformers, distribution, 96 Commercial-type buildings; Fac-
load-center, 97 tories)
power, 97 Lightning, grounding connections for
of transmission lines, 104-110 protection against, 421422
of turbine-generators, 92-94 masts for shielding against, 324-325
zero-sequence, of transformers, 135-140 nature of, 299
Impulse tests of insulation, 303-305 overvoltages caused by, 299-302
Indicator, ground, use of, 344 on portahle equipment, 427, 435
zero-sequence measuring circuits for, protection against, for aerial cable,
142-143 326
INDEX P57
Lightning, protection against, for a-c Load-centcr power distribution systems,
rotating machines, 326-333 circuit arrangements for, cost corn-
for d-c rotating machines, 333 parison of, 634-635
for indimtrial power systems, 299- distrihuted secondary sclectivr, 643
326 load shifts in, caring for, 652-653
for metal-clad switchgear, 321-324 manual-transfer secondary selective,
for rectifiers, 333-334 645-646
for substations, 324-326 primary d c e t i v e , 655-601
for transformers, 319-321 vs. radial, G51-658
traveling waves on transmission lines vs. stxondary selective, 655
produced by, 301-302 radial, G35-ti37
voltage surges induced by, 300 secondary network, 646-054
Lightning arresters, 305-31B secondary sclectivc, G37-G46, 65&
application proccdure for, 314-319 654
for direct-current systems, 312-313 YS. secondary network, 650-654
discharge voltngc oi, 307-310 spot secondary nrtwork, 650
distribution-typc, 308-3 10 spot secondary selective, 642Mi43
eflcct of altitude on sdcction of, 308 types of, basic 629
for effectively groundcd aystems, relativc use of, 635
315, 316 cost of, 623-624
expulsion-type, :305-307 rost-estimating data for, 898-900
on grounded-neutral systcms, 345-346 ciconomic comparisons of, 896-905
grounding of, 421 above 15 kv primary vultagc, 621,
high-voltage, 308-310 680-682
line-t y pe, 308-3 10
high-voltage (ahovr 600 volts), 621
location of, 317-3I:l
looped primary iceders for, 661-664
lolv-voltage, 311-3l2
overcurrcnt protcetion of, 632-634
opcrating principle of, 305-:iOG
principles of, 622-623
protective characteristics of, 307-3 I0
ahow 600 volts secondary voltage,
tolerances in, 308
621, Gi!)-683
for rcsistance-grounded systems, 314,
316 Load-center unit suhstation (see Unit
suhststion, load-center)
for rotating-machine protcction, 310-
31 I Load cstiniating, dPinarid factors for,
sparkovw voltage of, 307-3 10 table of, 889
station-typc, 308-3 10 m e of, 890-892
t y p w of, selct.tion of, :307, :3l2,315-317 diversity factor for, 888
for ilngroundcd systcms, 314-316, importnncc of, 881-885
345-346 for lighting, 885-886
valve-typc, 305-807 load data for, actual, 8!11
voltage ratings of, 307-312 load dcnsititts in rcpwsrntative
selrrtion of, :311-:315 industries for, 887
Lightning protcctive eqiiiprncrit (see load factor for, 889
Capacitors,surgc protective i Light- power consumption of industry for,
riing arresters) 888
Lightning S L ~ O K P St o transmission lines, for power load, 88G-887
direct and indnred, :iCU Load-ratio control, i i s ~of, 221, 814
Line grounding (eornrr-of-dclta ground- Load rrgulators, turhine-gcnerator, 811,
ing), 388-389 819. 851
Line-to-ground fault (see Short rimzit, h o p e d primary iredrr systems, use of,
line-to-ground j 661-664, 718, 720-723
Load-break switches (see Switches, intcr- Iniv-voltagp air c i r c u i t hreakers (see
rupter) Circuit hrcakers, Ion-voltage)
Load-cmter power distrihutiun systems, Low-voltage switchgear, cost-cstimating
advmtagcs of, 623-WI data far, !J15
circuit arrangements for, automntir- drawout type, application, 154-155
transfer, secondary sdrrtivr, far unit snhstntions, li72-G74
643-645 (See also Circuit breakers)
PSB INDEX
Low-voltage systems (see Commercial- Motor starters, types of, 178
type buildings; Factories; hfoderni- Motors, control for, cost-estimating data
sation and expansion of power for, 914, 915, 922-924
systems; Power systems, secondary) installation costs of, 893, 894
converting horsepower o f , to kvs, 39
Magne-blast circuit breakers (see Cir- cost-estimating data for, 920-924
cuit breakers, power) dielectric tests of, 305
Magnetic air circuit breakers (see Cir- induction, with capacitor vs. synehro-
cuit breakers, low-voltage) nous motors, 482-484
Master unit substation, cost-estimating cost-estimating data for, 920, 922,
data for, 910, 911 923
primary switching in, cost-estimating installation coats for, 893, 894
data for, 913 limitations for capacitors on, 476-
use of, 681-483, 815 479
Metal-clad switchgesr, cost-estimating power factor of, 474-476
data far, 914 ratio of, to synchronous, 95
in primary s y s t e m , 708-711 reactance oi, 90-91
proteetion of, against overvoltages selection of capacitor rating for, 479-
from lightning, 321-324 481
(See also Circuit breakers, power) as short-circuit-current source, 7-8
Mid-phase grounding. 389 voltage ratings of, 104, 198
Modernization and expansion of power voltage spread on, effect of, 205-206
systems, without changing voltage, power systems for, 679-681
797-799 protection of, against overvoltages
double transformation eliminated in, caused by lightning, 326-333
770-773 ratio of energized to installed, 95
with generating systems, 773-797 reactance of, 90-91, 94-95
with grid, high-voltage, 800-807 explanation of, 8-10
high voltage in, 758-763 in short-circuit-eurrent calculations,
advantages of, 759-761 32-33, 4 6 5 0
lower cost of, 759 starting of, calculation of voltage drop
rated 600 volts, 777-784 due to, 248-277
rated 2400 volts, 78&796, 800 starting power factor of, 271-272
reduces short-circuit bottlenecks, synchronous, cost-estimating data for,
759-760 921, 924
reduces voltage drop, 761 vs. induction with capacitors, 482-
step-by-step basis of, 741 484
high-voltage backbone for, SOW807 installation casts for, 893, 894
load-center power systems in, 758 kilovar output of, 452-453, 485
planning of, 757 power-factor improvement by, 452-
rated 600 volts, 777-784 453, 485
rated 2400 volts, 788-796 ratio of, to induction, 95
from 2.4 kv to 13.8 kv, 794-796 . reactance of, 9C-91, 94-95
Molded-ease circuit breakers (see Circuit as short-circuit-current source, 5-6
breakers) voltage ratings of, 194, 198
hlollier chart, description of, 824, 828 voltage spread on, effect of, 206-207
examples explaining use of, 829-830, voltage for, selection of, 600-611
837-839 (See also Control circuits, motor)
expansion line on, 821, 830 Multiplying factors, short-circuit-
state line on, 830 current, table of, 32-33
Momentary duty, 29, 32-33, 35 use of, 20-22, 46, 43
Momentary rating, 27, 35
Motor starters, for lighting control in
factories, 587-588 Segative-phase-sequenee component,
selection of, above 600 volts, 179-180 dcfinition of, 116-117
for 600 volts and less, 179 (See also Symmetrical-eomponent
short-cirenit-eurrpnt calculation for analysis)
application of, 35, 36 Setwork protector, 648
INDEX 959
Neutral circuit arrangements for ground- Overcurrent proteetion, devices for, oper-
ing, of multiple power sources, 371- ating-time classifications of, 510
374 (See also Direct-acting trips; Fuses;
practice recommended for, 370-374 Relays)
selection of, 374 of load-center systems, 632-034
of single power source, 371 of portable-machinery circuits, 429-433
Neutral conductor, ,capacity of, 694-695 on power systems, general discussion
distinction of, from grounding eondue- of, 504-506, 542-543
tor, 409, 414 in secondary power systcms, 685-689,
Neutral grounding (see Grounding, 692-693
neutral) (See also Overcurrent-protective-
Neutral inversion of autotransformer, device coordination)
391-394 Overcurrent-protective-deviee eoordina-
Neutral point (system neutral), defini- tion, basic principles of, 543-544
tion of, 339 data required for, 544-545
how to obtain, 348 error currents due to current-tmns-
selection of, 367-370 former saturation on, effect of,
Neutralizer, ground-fault, definition of, 553, 559-561
340 examples of, 568-573
overvoltages reduced by, 289 fault-current calculations for, 545-546
use of, 358-360 fault currents needed for. 548-550
Nomenelaturc, 928-930 generator-current decrement on, effect
of, 546-518
Office buildings (see Commercial-type allowing for, 561-567
buildings; Factories) graphical proof of, 557-559
Ohms, conversion to per cent or per-unit, phase shift in Y-delta or delta-Y
formula for, 38 transformers on, cffeet of. 568
table for, 40 time-current curve8 for, air circuit
Oil-fused cutouts, application of, 176 breaker, 535, 538, 539
as interrupter switch and fuse, I76 molded-case circuit breaker, 540
on load-center unit substations, 670- relay, inverse-time induction, 512
671 time and current settings for, cur-
standards for, 178 rent-balance relay, 567
One-line diagram, graphical symbols used differential relay, 507
in, 932-942 direct-acting trip, air-eircuit-
Open lines (see Overhead lines) breaker, 534
Open-type switchgear, replacement of, molded-ease circuit-breaker, 541
763-764 general discussion of, 550
Operating experiences, of expanding generator overcurrent relay, volt-
power systems a t higher voltage, 758 age-controlled, 567
of overvoltages, on ungrounded neutral voltage restraint, 561
systema, 337-338, 401-402 ground-fault relays, residually eon-
unusual, 297-299 neeted, 552-553
of protective-device failures, 146-147 effect of error currents a n , 553
Ovens, electric, power supply for, 595-597 generator or trsnsformcr neutral,
voltages for, 575, 580 554
Overcurrent protection, of combined light on incoming lines and miscellaneous
and power systems, 587-590 fccders, 552
in commercial-type buildings, 751- instantaneous relays, 557
752 an single-motor fceders, 551
devices for, application of, typical, 542- on transformer feeders. 55&551
513 wire-pilot relays, 567
basic types of, 504 time margins for, of direct-acting
electromagnetic attraction, 506- trips, 537
507 of fuses, 549
electromagnetic induction, 507-510 graphic examples of use of, 556,
fault currents needed to predict 564, 569, 572
operation of, 518-550 of relays, 554-556
960 IN1

Overcurrent relays (see Relays, over- Portable equipment, large, circuits for,
current) cable skids in, 429
Overhead lines, in primary systems, ground-dctector equipment on,
723-724 433
reactance of, 104-110 isolating transformcr in, 434
resistance of, 104-110 lightning protection for, 435
spacing of, 105, 108 protectivc devices in, 429-433
voltage drop in, due to motor start- relaying of, 484
ing, calculation of, 261-263 simultaneous ground faults on,
Overvoltages, cause of, autotransformers 433-434
as, 295-297, 391-395 ground circuit for, isolation of,
contact with higher voltage systems 435-436
as, 279-280 resistance of, 429
forced-current-zero interruption as, grounding of, 426-438
294-295 lightning disturbances on, 435
grounded-Y broken-delta potential lightning protection for, 435
transformers as, 284 resistance to ground of, 427-429
high-reactance line-to-ground con- shock hazard on, causes of, 427-429
nection as, 281-282 safety rules for, 427
intermittent line-to-ground short on ungrounded systems, 433-434
circuit as, 286-289, 337-338, voltage rating for, 426
340-341 small, on secondary power systems,
liehtnine
I , 299-302
I as. 694-696
neutral grounding of Y-Y trans- disconnect means for, 696
formers as, 295-297 (See also Grounding, equipment)
resonant L-C circuits as, 281-285 Positive-phase-sequence component,
static as, 279 definition of, 116-117
switching surges as, 289-294 (See also Symmetrical-component
curbing of, by ground-fault neu- analysis)
tralizer, 289 Power centers (see Unit substations,
b y system neutral grounding, 279, load-center)
280, 282, 285, 289, 296, 297 Power circuit breakers (see Circuit
on ungrounded systems, 278-299, breakers, power)
34&343 Power-company service (see Purchased
power)
Panelboards in secondary power s y 6 Power consumption in industry, 808,
tems, 692 -"-
PPP
Parallel operation of utility and indus- Power factor, definition of, 441-442
trial, 816-817 fundamentals of, 440
Per cent, conversion of ohms to, 38, 40 of groups of loads, 444-446
Per-unit method, base number for, improvement of, 446-448
selection of, 53, 55 advantages of, 459-474
comparison of, with per cent method, calculation methods for, 448-449
53 kilowatt multiplier used in,
formulas used in, 38, 54-57 449-451
ohms to, conversion of, 38 by capacitors with induction motors,
ohms used in., 54., 55 474-484
in symmetrieal-component analysis, kilovar generators for, capacitors as,
value of, 124-125 449
Pilot-wire relays, operating principles location of, 4 5 6 4 5 8
of, 528-529 synchronous machines as, 452-
pilot-wire supervisory system for, 529 453, 485
setting of, 567 power-hill savings from, 4 5 9 4 6 0
(See also Relays) power-system losses reduced by,
Plant factor, 808 470-471
Plastic-case circuit breakers (see Circuit release of system capacity by, addi-
breakers, molded-case) tional lording permitted by,
Plug-in busway, 701 462-468
INDEX Pbl
Power factor, irnprovcment of, release of Power systems, primary, cable for, 723-
system capacity by, definition 724
of, 460 characteristics of, 706-707
economics of capacitors for, 468- circuit-breaker switching arrange-
470 ments for, bus, 715-718
examples of, 460-461, 4 6 7 4 6 8 bu s-tie, 717-7 18
by synchronous machines, 452-453, feeder, 718-723
485 generating station, 725-726
of thermally overloaded apparatus, main substation, 712-715
460-461 circuit breakers used in, 708-711
voltage increased by, 471-474 feeders in, installation of, 723-724
(See also Capacitors, shunt) loop, 661-664, 718, 720-723
of induction motors, 474-476 parallel or alternate, 717, 719-720,
leading and lagging, definition of, 443- 722, 723
444 radial, 718-720
examples of, 443-444 tie, 718, 722
low, causes of, 439 generating-station bus arrangements
effects of, 439 in, 725-730
measurement of, 453-456 generator-transformer unit system
by wattmeter readings, 454 in, 730
of motor-starting current, 271-272
generators in, double-winding, 730
Power fuses (see Fuses, power) main substations in, circuit arrange-
Power-generating stations, clectrical lay- ments of, 712-715
out of, 725-730 transformer connections for, 711-
plant factor of, 808
712
(See also Generation of electric power;
Gencrators; Parallel operation of overhead lines in, 723-724
purchased-power arrangements for,
utilitv and industrial: Turbines)
Power-generation costs (see costs, power 707-708, 712-715, 725
generation) reactors in, bus-tie, 730
Power-plant efficiency (see Efficiency) generator duplex, 730
Power supply (see Generation of electric generator series, 730
power; Power systems, primary) synchronizing, 725-730
Power systems, capacity released in, by service reliability in, 706-707
capacitors, 462-468 switches in, manual, 721-722
for commercial-type buildings (see switchgear in, metal-clad, 708-711
Commercial-type buildings) station-type, 70&710
for critical loads, 814-817 transformers for, delta-Y-conneoted,
economic comparisons of (see Economic 711
comparisons of power systems) tertiary windings in, 711
for factory combined light and power three-winding, 711-712
(see Factories) Y-Y connections for, 711
for lighting circuits, 704 protective devices for,short-eireuit-
load-center (see Load-center power current (see Short-eircuit-current
distribution systems) protective devices)
losses in, reduction by capacitors of, relay protection for, typical layout of,
47M71 542543
~~

modernization and expansion of (see secondary, cable for, interlocked-


Modernization and expansion of armor, 699-700
power systems) short-circuit capability of, 688
for Dortable tools. 695 synthetic-rubber-insulated. 69%
primary, bus arrangements used in, 699
double, 715 circuits for, cable in conduit, 69&699
ring, 717, 730 interlocked-armor, 699-700
sectionalized, 717-718 metal-enclosed, 6 9 7 4 9 8
star, 717 open-wire, 697
straight, 717 codes for, 684
synchronizing, 717, 725-730 definition of, 684
Pb2 INDEX
Power systems, secondary, four-wire, Process heat, gas-turbine exhaust re-
fluorescent lighting on, 695 covery for, 820, 862, 864, 866
neutral conductor size in, 694- industrial requirements for, 820, 872
695 steam-turbine exhaust or extraction
impedance in, short-circuit current for, 862, 866
limited by, 688-692 Protective devices, overcurrent (see
large spot loads in, voltage for, 702 Overcurrent protection, devices for;
lighting circuits in, 704 Short-circuit-current protective
load-center system on, effect of, 685- devices)
686 overvoltage (see Lightning arrestera;
for metal-fabricating-type plants, Capacitors, surge protective)
701 Purchased power, availability of, 813-
motor control in, grouped, 702-703 814
overload protection of, Sational connections of, 707-708, 712-715,
Electrical Code requirements for, 725
692493 for critical processes, 814-817
factors affecting use of, 811, 813
panelboards in, 692
vs. industrial generation, 811-813
portable equipment in, disconnect on plant site, effect of, 813-814
means for, 696
grounding of, 694-696 reliability of, 812, 814, 817
for remote loads, 812
for process-type plants, 701-704
radial circuits in, 704-705 RoIXo ratia, influence on transient over-
reactors in, calculation for, 690491 voltages of, 387-388
disadvantages of. 689 Radial load-center System, circuit
location of, 689-690 arrangement of, 635-637
short-circuit current limited by, (See also Load-center power distribu-
689-692 tion systems)
voltage drop in, 689, 691 Ratio method of measuring resistance
safety to personnel in, 693494 to earth, 425-426
short-circuit current protection for, Reactance, of bus, 101-104
685-689 of buswrty, 101
short-circuit current protection of cable, 96-100
devices for, types of, 686-688 of circuit breakers, 110
transformers far 120-volt power in, combining of, method of, 58-60
593-595, 692, 696-697 of connected motors, 94-95
voltage drop permissible in, 693 of current transformers, 110-112
SOurce~in, limits on size of, 784, 793 of disconnect switches, 110
voltage for, selection of (see Voltage, of machines, definition of, 8-10
system, selection of) induction, 91
voltage drop in, example of, 244-248 synchronous, 91
due to motor starting, calculation of, of overhead lines, 104-110
264-265 of regulators, feeder, 112
Power transformers, impedance of, 97 in short-circuit-current calculetions,
(See also Transformers) 44-45
Primary power distribution systems (see suhtransient, definition of, 9
Power systems, primary) synchronous, definition of, 9
Primary-selective load-center system, of transformers, distribution, 96
load-center, 97
circuit arrangement of, 655-661
vs. radial system, 657-658 power, 97
vs. secondary selective system, 655 transient, definition of, 9
(See also had-center power dis- of transmission lines, 104-110
tribution systems) of turbinegenerators, 92-94
Reactance diagram, equivalent circuit,
Process heat, characteristics of steam t o 50, 51
provide, 836 (See also Equivalent circuits)
economics of indostrial generation Reactance grounding, calci~lationof
affected by, 811 ground-fault current for, 376377
I/NDEX 963
Reactance grounding, calculation of Relays, directional, uses of, 517-518
reactor for, 381-385 overcurrent, operating principles of,
definition of, 339 518-519
use of, 354, 357 polarization of, 519
(See also Grounding, neutral) with voltagc restraint, 521
Reactors, balancing, 784-788 product-type, for ground faults, 519-
duplex, equivalent circuit for, 65-66 521
use of, with large generators, 730, distance, operating principles of, 529-
784, 793 530
grounding, rating of, 378, 381-385 ground-fault, in generator or trans-
selection of, 381-385 former neutral, 554
table for, 388 residually connected, 552-553
primary bus-tie, 730 holding coils for, 509
reactance of, 112 induction, general discussion of, 507-
in secondary power systems, 689-692 515
in series with generators, 730 inverse-time types of, comparison of
synchronizing bus, short-circuit cur- characteristics of, 511-513
rent limited by, 725-727 with extremely inverse-time char-
voltage drop caused by, 728-730 acteristics, 512
Rectifiers, protection of, against over- with inverse-timc characteristics, 51 1
voltages caused by lightning, 333- typical time-current BUIVCS for, 512
334 with very inverse-time charaeter-
Reduced-frequency starting of motors, istics, 511
971
_.I
overcurrent, current-tap range of, 51 I ,
Regulators, turbine load, 849-851 514
~~~

voltage (see Voltage regulators) generator, with voltage restraint,


Relaying (see Overcurrent-protective- 515-517
device coordination) instantaneous hinged-armature 01
Relays, basic types of, 506 plungcr type of, 511
electromagnctic-attraction, 5 0 6 oueratine urineioles of. 511-515
507 reset timehf, 5i5
hinged-armature construction of, time-current operating C U ~ Y ~for,
S
506 512-513
operating currents of, 507 use of, 555555
plunger (solenoid) construetion time-delay induction, 511-515
of, 507 tolerances of, operating, 511
electromagnetie-induction, 507-510 voltage-controllrd, 517
operating currents of, 507 setting of, 567
burdens of, 514 pickup current of, 514
effect on current trsnsiormers of, residually connected ground-fault, 552-
559 553
contacts on, current carrying eapac- seal-in circuit of, 50&510
ity of, 508 target coils on, 509
coordination of, definition of, 543- time-dial (lever) on, 511
644 wire-pilot (a-e), 528-529
(See also Overcurrcnt-protective- pilot-wire supervisorysystem for, 529
device coordination) setting of, 567
current-balance, operating principles Reuetitivo restrike as intermittent line-
of, 529 to-ground short circuit, 286-289,
setting of, 567 337-338, 340-341
current required for operation of, 548 (See also Overvoltages)
definition of, 505 Resistance, of busway, 101
differential, for bus protection, 526- of cable, 98-101
527 of overhead lines, 104, 108
for generators, 521-524 of transformers, 96
operating principles of, 521 of transmission lines, 108
for transformers, 525-526 use of, for short-circuit-current calcula-
setting of, 567 tions, 45-46
964 INDEX
Resistance t o earth, limiting values of, Service reliability, of cables, 630
414 of combined light and power systems,
methods of measuring, 422426 590-592
Resistance grounding, calculation of of primary selective systems, 657
ground-fault current for, 375-376 in primary Systems, 706-707
definition of, 339 of radial systems, 635-636
selection of resistor for, 378-381 of secondary network systems, 653-654
use of, 354-357 of secondary selective systems, 637-
(See also Grounding, neutral) 638, 653-651
Resistors, grounding, rating of, 377-381 of transformers, 630
selection of, 378-381 Short circuit, bolted, for calculation of
table for, 379 short-circuit current, 42-43
Resonant grounded, definition of, 339- failure of circuit breaker due to, 146-
__
24n
I __.
1 A7
(See also Groundfault neutralizer) line-to-ground on ungrounded systom,
Restriking as intermittent line-to-ground detectors for, 344
short circuit, 286-289, 337-338, 340- intermittent type of, 340-341
341 location of, 344-345
(See also Overvoltages) locators for, 344
Ring bus for primary power systems, 717, multiple occurrence of, 345
730 location of, for calculation of short-
Rms value of short-circuit current, defi- circuit current, 43
nition of, 20 (See also Short-circuit current, edcula-
Rotating machines (see Generators; tion of)
Motors) Short-circuit current., asvmmetrical.
" d-c
component of, 15-18
Safety to personnel, grounding of systems explanation of, 12-15
as related to, 345, 347, 348 rms value of, 20
on motor control circuits, 389-391 available, explanation of, 36-37
on portable equipment, 426429 cable conductor selection based on,
on secondary power systems, 693-604 180-190
system voltage selection on, effect of, calculation of, base kva numbersfor, 55
575-576 bolted short circuits used in. 42-43
Safety grounding (see Grounding, calculating board for, 58
eauinmentl for circuit-breaker application, 29-
31, 32-33, 35
combining impedances for, 60-63
combining series and parallel
reactances for, 58-60
converting Y to delta or delta to
Y imnedances for. 60
equivalent system impedance for,
57-63
estimating curves and tables for,
7690
examples of, 66-76
formulas for, 38-39
lor fuse application, 31, 32-33,
35-36
impedance diagram for, 41-42,
50-51
for interrupting duty, 29-31, 32-
33, 35
lor line-to-ground short circuit,
374-377
estimatine tables for. 362
on reactance-grounded systems,
376-377
INDEX 965
Short-circuit current, calculation of, for Short-circuit current, estimating curve8
line-to-ground short circuit, on and tables for, for fccder cir-
resistance-grounded systems, cuits, of different construction
375-376 in series, 83
on solidly. arounded
.. svstems. 377 parallel, 81
by symmetrieal-eomponent single-conductor cable, 83-84
analysis, 131-134 single-phase, 64
for momentary duty, 29, 32-33, 35 three-conductor cable, 76-77,
motors considered in, 46-50 8&81, 87-90
converting horsepower t o k v a for unit substation, single-phase
for, 39 (120/240 volts), 82
reactances for, 32-33, 46-50 three-phase (600 volts and less),
multiplying factors for, 20-22, 46, 76, 78-79
63 fundamcntals of, 1-24
table of, 32-33 limiting effect of cable on, 87-90
ohms for, choice of, 51-52 line-to-ground, estimating tables for,
conversion t o common base of, 57 302
per cent for, choice of, 51-52 return path for, 405, 414-415
per-unit for, choice of, 51-52 on ungrounded systems, 340-315
reactances t o use for, 32-33, 14-46 multiplying factors far, calculation of,
condensrd tithle of, 32-33 32-33
in resistance-welder circuits, 69, explanation of, 2&22
75 on portahle-machinery circuits, 427-
resistances t o use for, 45-46 429
in secondary network systems, 44- r m v~ a of,~20 ~ ~
45, 68-69 SoIIrcBs of, 3-4
short-circuit location for, 43-44 symmetrical, cxplanation of, 10-12
in single-phase systems, 69, 75 total valuc of, cnplanatian of, 22-24
summary of, 38-39 from unit substations, table of, 7&82
by symmetrical-component ansly- X I R ratio in relation to, 19
sis. for double line-to-mound
~
Short-circuit-current protection, ade-
short c i r u i t , 134 quate, haw t o he sure of, 344-346
for line-to-ground short circuit, inadequate, cnsmple of, 146-147
131-134 (See also Overcurrent protection)
for line-to-line short circuit, Short-circiiit-currcnt proteetivc devices,
127-130 adequate, how to be m r e of, 144-
for three-phase short rircuit, 1 2 6 145
127 basic types of, 148
in svstems above 600 volts., 44., 49., 69 cable se!eetion influcnccd hy, 185-186
for unbalanced circuit conditions, circuit hreakers (see Circuit hreakers)
42, 127-131 fuses 5s (see Fusrs: Switches, fused)
utility systems in, representation on portablc-machinery circuits, 429-
of, 57 433
decrement of, explanation of, 18-19 for primary power systems, 170-160
relay coordination of, effect on, rating, basis of, 24-36
546, 561-567 relays as (see Relays)
X / R ratio, effect of, 19 rerpircments of, bnsie, 147-148
d-e component of, 15-18 for secondary power systems, 154-
decrement of, 18 170, 170, 686-688
cffccts on ovcreurrent protective selection of t y p r of, 147-153
devices of, 507, 548, 570 switches as, fused (see Switches,
explanation of, 15-18 fuscd)
initial magnitude of, 18 (See also Overcurrent protection;
d k time constant of, 19-20 Short-circuit-current rating)
effects of, 1-3 Short-eircuit-current rating, basis of,
estimating curves and tables for, for for circuit breakers, low-volt-
feeder circuits, husway, 76-77, age (600 volts and below), 35
60-81 power (above 600 volts), 24-31
966 INDEX
Shart-circuit-current rating, hasis of, Steam pressures and tempershres, effect
for fuses, low-voltage (600 volts of, on by-product power, 810
and below), 36 a t exhaust and extraction of steam
power (above 600 volts), 31, 34-35 turbines, 837-843
for motor starters, high-voltage, 35 on plant fuel consumption, effect of,
low-voltage, 36 836-837
of fused switches, low-voltage, 167 on power-plant efficiency, effect of, 835
of fuses, low-voltage, 167 selection of, 835-843
interrupting, explanation of, 27, 35 trends in, 810, 820, 835
of large air circuit breakers, 154 turbine exhaust, 842
of molded-case circuit breakers, 166 Steam rates, actual, condensing turbine,
momentary, explanation of, 27, 35 859
of panelboards, 692 extraction-turbine, 860
of power circuit breakers, 26 noncondensing-turbine, 858
Short-circuit ratio of generators, defini- theoretical, table of, condensed, 826
tion of, 22 examples explaining use of, 831
Short-circuit study (see Short-circuit cur- Steam turbine (see Turbines, steam)
rent, calculation of) Steam turbine-generators, cost-estimat-
Shovels, electric (see Portable equipment) ing data far, 909
Solid grounding, calculation of ground- reactance of, 92-94
fault current for, 131-134, 377 (See also Generators)
definition of, 339 Steam-gas turbine plant (combined
fault duty increased by, 396-399 cycles), 868-869
table for estimating ground-fault cur- Straight bus in primary power systems,
rent for, 362 717
use of, 352-355 Substations, primary, arrangements of,
(See also Grounding, neutral) 712-715
Speed governing (see Governing of steam preferred transformer connections
turbine) for, 711-712
Standards (see Codes and standards) protection of, against overvortages
Star bus in primary power Rystems, 717 caused by lightning, 324-326
State line (Mollier chart), definition of, replacement of, 764-767
830 (See also Unit substations)
Station-type switcbgear, in primary Subtransient reactance, definition of, 9
power systems, 708, 710 Surge impedance, of cable, 301
reduced rating of, a t 6.9 kv, 616 definition of, 301
selection of, for 6.9-kv system, 616-617 of overhead lines, 301
for 13.8-kv system, 616-617 Switches, for capacitors, selection of,
(See also Circuit breakers, powerr 485-487
Steam and power generation in industrial disconnecting, reactance of, 110
plants, costs of, 874-883 fused, VS. circuit breakers, 153
(See also Costs) interrupter above 600 volts, 176
diesel plants for, 873 low-voltage (600 volts and below),
gas turbines for, 857, 861-866 application of, 167-170
power-plant cycles for, steam, 818, ratings of, avrtilable, 166-167
820-824 standards for, 170
purchased power vs., 813 tvoes of. 166
steam conditions for, 835-843 oil-&ed cutout type of, 174-176
(See also Steam pressures and (See also. Pnaea\
~ .
...
temperatures) interruptr ir (above 600 volts), air-type,
"""
steam plants far, efficiency of, 832-834 176, boy
steam turbines for, 820-824 classes of, 668
performance of, 857 description of, 669
selection of, 844-849 double-throw type of, 657-661
steam vs. gas turbines for, 872-873 vs. single-throw, 657458
trends in. 808 vs. two single-throw, 659-661
(See also Generation of electric power; interlocking of, 631, 671
Turbines) liquid-filled, 669
INDEX P67
Switches, interrupter (above 600 volts), Symmetrical-component analysis,
in load-center power distribution measurement of sequence quantities
systems, 6 3 M 3 1 used in. 142-143
oil-cutout type of, 176, 670-671 negative-sequence component in,
overcurrent protection affected by, definition of, 116-117
630-631 phase shift affecting, transformer,
use of, on load-center unit substa- 135, 137-138
tions, 63&631 positive-sequence component in,
manual, in loop feeders. 661464, 721-
.--
799
definition of, 116-117
properties of symmetrical quantities
oil-fused cutout type of, 174-176 used in, 119-121
Switcbgear, BIL (basic impulse insulation sequence systems used in, indepund-
level) of, 304 ence of, 121-122
device numbers and functions of, 930- of short circuit, double line-to-ground,
932 134
installation coats of, 893 line-to-ground, 131-134
low-voltage, cost-estimating data for, line-to-line, 127-130
915 three-nhase. 126-127
drawout-type, where applicable, transformer zero-sequence circuits
155155 used in, 135-140
for unit substations, 672-674 zero-sequence component in, defini-
metal-clad, cost-estimating data for, tion of, 116-117
914 Symmetrical short-circuit current, ex-
in primary systems, 708-711 planation of, I S 1 2
protection of, against overvoltages (See also Short-circuit current)
caused by lightning, 321-324 Synchronizing bus, for modernization
open-type, replacement of, 763-764 and expansion of power systems,
station-type, in primary power sys- 776, 790, 794, 799
tems, 708, 710 in primary power systems, 615, 717,
reduced rating of, at 6.9 kv, 616 725-730
selection of, for 6.S-kv system, 616- Synchronous condensers, reactance of, 91
617 Synchronous converters, reactance of, 91
for 13.8kv system, 616-617 Synchronous motors (see Motors, Syn-
(See also Circuit breakers) chronous)
Switching surges a s cause of overvoltage, Synchronous reactance, definition of, 9
289-294 (See olso Reactance)
Symbols, of electrical equipment for one- System grounding (see Grounding,
line diagrams, 932-942 system)
letter, for electrical terms, 928-929 System neutral, definition of, 339
for beat and thermodynamic terms, how to obtain, for grounding, 348
929-930 selection of, for grounding, 367-370
Symmetrical-component analysis, (See also Grounding, neutral)
“ a ” operator used in, function of, System neutral grounding (see Graund-
11~119
~~
ing, neutral)
basic components used in, definition System voltage (see Voltage, system)
of, 115-117
physical concept of, 122-124 Tap changing under load for regulation
basic system application of, 125-126 of voltage, 221, 814
characteristiesof.. imoortant.
. 1 1 6 1 17 Tests, dielectric, of insulation, 302-305
example of, in composite system, Theoretical steam rates, table of, 826
la142 Three-point method of measuring re-
fundamental equations for, deriva- sistance to earth, 423424
tion of, 119-121 Throwover schemes, for automatic- or
table of, 123 manual-transfer secondary selective
impedances for, rotating machine, load-center svstems. 643-646
~~

134-135 for primary selective load-center sya-


transformer, 135-140 terns, 655-6131
introduction to, 114-116 Time constant, d-c, dehition of, 19-20
968 INDEX
Topping turbines, noncondensing steam Transformers, voltagc drop in, calculation
turbines used as, 846, 849, 854 of, due to motor starting, 280-261
Transformers, askarel-type, 671-672 for steady-state conditions, 235-237
BIL (basic impulse insulation level) voltage ratings of, 194-190
of, 303-304 method of exprcssing, 196-197
bus-tie, far expansion of power sys- (See also Autotransformers)
tems, 774-776 Transient overvoltages (see Ovcrvolt-
connections of, in main substations, ages)
711-712 Transient reactance, definition of, 9
cost estimating data for, 907, 908 (See also Rcactsnce)
distribution, impedance of, 96-97 Transmission circuits, impedance, rese-
dry-type vs. liquid-filled, 671-672 tancc, and resistance of, 105-109
failure rates of, 630 spacing of lines for, 109
grounding, definition of, 340 in system expansion, US^ of, 800-807
for 480-volt light and power sys- voltage selection for, 619-621
tems, 749-750 Transmission voltage, selection of, 619-
on portable-machinery circuits, 434 62 I
rating of, 377-378 (See also Voltage, system, selection of)
selection of, 385-388 Traveling wavcs on transmission lines
specification of, 385 produced by lightning, 301-302
Y-delta, 350 Trigonomctrie functions, tables of, 944-
zigzag, 349-350 948
impedance, reactance, and resistance Trips, direct-acting (see Direct-acting
of, 96-97 trios)
installation costs of, 893 Tuned 'grounded (see Ground-fault
isolating, on portable-machinery eir- neutralizer)
cuits, 434 Turbine-generators, cost-estimating
lighting, 593-595 data for, 909
for loitd-center unit substations, 671- reactance of, 92-94
672 (See also Generator)
loading of, 638-640 Turbines, gas, ambient temperature on,
minimum rating of, for grounding, 366 effect of, 862
ail-filled type, 671-672 applications for, 866-871
for 120-volt power on secondary by-product generation with, 819
power systems, 593-595, 692, combined s t e a m g a s cycles using,
696-697 868-869
open-ventilated dry-type, 671-672 cooling-water requirements of, 861
parallel operation of, 646, 64&649 cycles for, description of, 864
phase shift in, effect of, 135, 137-138 description of, 861
on relay coordination, 568. efficiency of, 861-862
exes8 air in, requircments for, 869
power, impedance of, 97
protection of, against overvoltages exhaust-heat recovery from, for
caused by lightning, 319-321 boilers (see Boilers)
as required by Kational Electrical for drying manufactured prod-
Code, 632 ucts, 87&871
for feedwater heating, 862, 869
sealed dry-type, 671-072
for steam generation, 820, 864,
small dry-type, for factory combined
light and power systems, 593-595
866-869
fuels for, 871
as sources of short-circuit current, 8
starting characteristics of, 866
symmetrical-eomponent impedances vs. steam turbines, 872-873
of, 137-140 t o top steam-turbine plants, 86%
taps on, selection of, 227-229 869
with tertiary windings in main sub- steam, automatic-admission, 848, 855
stations, i l l automatic-extraction, 846-848, 855-
three-winding, equivalent circuit for, 857
66 division of load and flow be-
in main substations, 711-712 tween sections of, 855-856
INDEX 969
Turbines, steam, sutomatic-extraetion, Unit substations, load-eenter, main sec-
performance of, 857 ondary breakers in, use of, 674-676
efficiency of, 820-822 secondary switchgear for, 672-671
expansion lines for, 830 secondary switching section for,
"8. gas turbines, 872-873 672-676
governing of (see Governing of Steam selection and application of, 664-678
turbine) short-circuit current from, estimat-
industrial, partial list of large, 810 ing tables for, 76, 78-79, 82
nonextraction, 831, 844, 846 transformers for, 671-672
performance of, 857-859 master, cost-estimating data for, 910,
power-plant cyclcs for, 82&823 911
ratings of, 855 primary switching in, cost-estimat-
average, in industrial plants, 810 ing data for, 913
standard kw, 855 use of. 681-683. 815
I

selection of, 844-849 Unit 'system, generator-transformer,


size of, physical, 854-855 grounding of, 395-396
stcam conditions of, partial list of voltage rating of, 198
high initial, 810 use of, 730
steam rates of (see Steam rates) Utility system, cleetric, grounding of,
topping, noncondensing steam tur- 366-367, 395
bines used as, 846, 849, 854 industrial ties with, 815
type of, automatic-extraetion-ad- Utilization equipment, grounding of,
mission, 848 417-419
automatic-ertraction-eondensing, on system voltage selection, effect of,
846 575
automatic-extraction-noncono- voltage ratings of (see Voltage ratings)
densing, 848 voltage spread on, effect of (see Volt-
condensing, 844 age spread)
noneondensing, 846
topping, noncondensing steam Voltage, improvement of, by capacitors,
turbines used as, 846, 849, 854 471474
regulation of, on feeders, 224-225
Unbalanced currents, balancing reactors by load-ratio control, 221, 814
for, 784-788 a t main power sourre, 22LL222
Ungrounded system, characteristics of, when paralleling utility and indus-
340-345 trial generation, 817
definition of, 339 by t a p changing under load, 221
failures related to, 337-338, 401-402 system, nominal, 191, 199
ground detectors for, 344 selection of, codes and standsrds
locating isults on, 344-345 on, effect of, 576
overvoltages on, damaging, 278-299, for commercial-type buildings
34b343 (see Commercial-type buildings)
single line-to-ground fault on, effect factors affecting, 574, 576
of, 340-345 above 15 kv, 619-621
(See also Grounding, system) for furnaces, electric, 575, 580,
Unit substations, installation costs of, 595-597
893 far large mills, 619-621
load-eenter, arrangement of, selection for lighting in factories, 582-587
of, 666-667 (See also Factories)
centralized motor control used with, for lighting in factory offices, 592
674-675 for modernization or expansion
cost-estimating data for, 912 of power system (see Modern-
for grounded-neutral systems, 36& ization and expansion of power
361 systems)
incoming-line section of, 6 6 7 4 7 1 for motors, as function of horse-
interrupter switches for, 668-671 power, 600-610
kva rating for, scleetion of, 664-666 for motors on primary system,
location of, 6 7 7 4 7 8 600-603
970 INDEX

Voltage, system, selection of, for ovens, Voltage drop, steady-state, calculation of,
electric, 575, 580, 595-597 formulas for, 232-234
for plants, large, 613-621 charts of, for husway, 242-244
for primary power systems, 597- for cable, 237-241
619 for transformers, 235-237
safety an, effect of, 575-576 definition of, 201-202
for secondary power systems, effect of, 202-204
576597 Voltage flicker, in combined light and
for serving different voltage loads power systems in factories, 500
at 600 volts or Less, 580-581 limits of, 215-216
of single-phase vs. three-phase, reduction of, by separate circuits, 226
57S580 by series capacitor, 227
switeheertr. effect of. 612-617
~I
summary of methods for, 230-231
for transmission circuits above by system design, 590
15 kv, 619-621 by voltage stabilizer, 226-227
utilization devices, effect of, 575 Voltage identification, basic pattern of,
of 208 Y/120 volts where ap- 194
plicahk, 579 Voltage ratings, basic structure of, 1 9 s
of 480 volts vs. 240 volts. 57&579 194
of 480 volts vs. 600 volts; 577-578 of capacitors, 199, 499-500
of 600 volts and less, 576597 of eenorators. 194. 197-198
of 2400 volts, where most eco- of Tamps, 194, 190 ~

nomical, 600, 608410 of lightning arresters, 307-312


of 2400 volts to 15,oM) volts, of motors, 194, 198
597-619 of systems, 194, 199-200
of 4160 volts, where most ap- of transformers, 194-196
plicahle, 603-604, 60&610 Voltage regulators, feeder, 224-225
of 4160 volts vs. 2400 volts, 600- generator, advantages of, in motor
607 starting, 256-257
of 13,800 volts vs. 4160 volts. 599 induction, 222-225
of 13,800 volts vs. 6900 volts, basic impulse insulation level of,
607-619 303-304
of 69 kv vs. 34.5 kv, 620-621 reactance of, 112
Voltage drop, due to motor starting, stop-type, 222-224
calculation of, 248-277 basic impulse insulation level of,
in cables, 261-263 303-304
in distribution systems, 260-265 Voltage spread, definition of, 200
examples of, 273-277 effect of, on capacitors, 214
formulas for, 266272 on electronic equipment, 21 1-213
in generators, 253-260 on fluorescent lamps, 208-210
in overhead lines, 261-263 on incandescent lamps, 207-208
in power systems, 264-265 an induction motors, 205-206
in reactors, 262 on infrared heating devices, 211
in transformers, 260-261 an mercury lamps, 210
combining two or more, 265-266 an resistance heating devices, 210-
description of, 251-253 211
reduced frequency on, effect of, 272 an solenoid-operated devices, 213-
series capacitors, effect of, 264 214
starting-method charactcristics that on synchronous motors, 206207
affect. 249-251 recommended limits of, 214-215
in reactors, in secondary power sys- reduction of, by generator voltage
tems, 689, 691 regulators, 226
with synchronizing bus, 728-730 by load-center distribution system,
reduced by load-center power dis- 217-218
tribution system, 628 by lower impedance circuits, 220
in secondary power systems, 693 methods for, summary of, 230-231
steady-state, calculation of, 232-234 by regulating equipment, 220-225
example of system, 244-248 by shunt capacitors, 225
INDEX 97 1
Voltage stabilizers, use of, 226-227 Y-connected autotransformers in pri-
Voltngc variation (see Voltagc spread) mary substations, 711
Voltage zone, definition of, ZO(t201 Y-delta grounding transformer, 350
Y-Y transformer connections in primary
X / R ratio, explanation of, 19 substations, 71 1
short-eireiiit-eiirrent magnitude
affected hy, 83,85, 86 Zero-phase-sequence component, defini-
X o / K oratio, influenre on transient ovcr- tion of, 116-117
voltagPs of, 387-388 (See also Symmetrical-component
X , / X , ratio, overvoltage influenced hy, analysis)
280, 339, 3 8 6 3 8 8 Zigzag grounding transformer, 349-350
Contents

Preface vii
Introdnction xi
1. Short-circuit-current Calculating Procedures 1
by Donald Beeman, Alan Graeme Darling, and R . H.
Kaufmann
2. Symmetrical Components as Applied to Short-circuit-current
Calculation on Three-phase Systems I11
by R. H . Kaufmann
3. Selection of A-C Short-circuit Protective Devices and Circuit
Equipment 144
by Donald Beeman and R. H . Kaufmann
4. Voltage-Standard Ratings, Allowable Variations, Reduction
of Variations, Calculation of Drops 101
by W . R . Criles and Mavnord N . Halberg
5. System Overvoltages-Causes and Protective Measures 278
by R. H . Kaufmann and Maynard N . Halberg
6. System Grounding 337
by L. J . Carpenter and L. G . Levoy, J r .
7. Equipment Grounding 404
by L. J . Carpenter, Shelby C. Coolce, J r . , R H . Kaufmann,
and David Stoelzel
8. Power-factor Improvement 430
by W . C . Bloomquist
9. System Overcurrent Protection 504
by Francis P. Brightman
10. Selection of System Voltages 574
by Donald Reeman
11. Load-center Power Systems and Circuit Arrangements 622
by Donald Beeman
ix
x CONTENTS

12. Secondary Distribution Systems 684


by Shelby C . Cooke, J r .
13. Primary Distribution Systems 706
by Norman L . Hadley
14. Power Systems for Commercial Buildings 731
by Donald S . Brereton
15. Modernization and Expansion of Existing Power Systems 757
by Donald Beeman and L. G . Leuoy, J r .
113. Steam and Power Generation 808
by William B . Wilson
17. Load- and Cost-estimating Data 881
by Donald S. Brereeton
Appendix 925
compiled b y D. B . Armstrong
Index 949
McGRAW- HILL HANDBOOKS

ARBOPTAND SXITH . National Electrical Code Handbook, 8th ed.


AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECKANICAL ENQINEERS
ASME Handbook: Metals Engineering-Design
ASME Handbook: Metals Properties
AXERICAN SOCIETY OF TOOL ENQINEERS . Die Design Handbook
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF TOOL ENGINEERS ’ Tool Engineers Handbook
BEEMAN. Industrial Power Systems Handbook
BERRY, BOLLAY, AND BEERS. Handbook of Meteorology
BRADY. Materials Handbook, 7th ed.
COXPRESSED AIR AND GAS INSTITUTE ’ Compressed Air Handbook, 2d ed.
CROCKER . piping Handbook, 4th ed.
CROFT. American Electricians’ Handbook, 7th ed.
DAVIS . Handbook of Applied Hydraulics, 2d ed.
H ENNEY . Radio Engineering Handbook, 4th ed.
JOHNSON AND AWTH . Fuel8 and Combustion Handbook
JWRAN . Quality-control Handbook
KETCKWX . Structural Engineers’ Handbook, 3d ed.
KINQ. Handbook of Hydraulics, 4th ed.
KNOWLTON . Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, 8th ed.
KWRTZ . The Lineman’s Handbook, 3d ed.
LABRERTON AND MARKS . Marine Engineers’ Handbook
LE G RAND ’ The New American Machinist’s Handbook
L1nnm.L . Handbook of Nonferrous Metallurgy, 2 vols., 2d ed.
MARKS . Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, 5th ed.
O’ROURKE . General Engineering Handbook, 2d ed.
PACIFIC COAST GAS ASSOCIATION ’ Gas Engineers’ Handbook
P ERRY . Chemical Business Handbook
P ERRY . Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 3d ed.
STANIAR . Plant Engineering Handbook
TERMAN ’ Radio Engineers’ Handbook
URQUEART ’ Civil Engineering Handbook, 3d ed.
Authors

,411 :iutliors of material in the Industrial Polx-er Systems Handbook


:Ire in the Industrial Engineering Section of the General Electric
Compnn?-, Srhenedady, Kew York.

D O N ~ LH DEEM-AN Fellow-AIEE ;* Registered Professional Engineer


'

(Kew York and California)


W. C. BLOOMQUIST Fello\-.4IEE; Registered Professional Engineer
(Sew York)
DOXALD S. H RERETOK . Associate Member-AIEE
FRAKCIS P. RRICHTHN . Associate Member-AIEE; Registered Profes-
sioiial Engineer (Sew York)
I,. J. C.\RPENTEK . Member-AIEE
S HELBY C. COOICE, J R. Member-AIEE; Registered ProfessionaI Engi-
neer (Pennsylvania)
W. R. CRITES Associate Member-AIEE
'

ALAK GRAEME D.AI~LING (retired) Member-AIEE; Registered Pro-


fessional Engineer (New York)
XORMAN I,. HADLEY . Associate Member-AIEE
MAYXORD S . HALRERG . Fellon-AIEE; Registered Professional Engi-
neer (Kew York)
R . 13. KATJFM.ANN . Fellow-MEE; Registered Professional Engineer
(Kew York)
L. G. LEVOU,JR. Member-AIEE; Registered Professional Engineer
(Kern York)
D AVID STOETZEL, JR. . Member-AIEE: Registered Professional Engi-
neer (New York)
WILLI.A~I B. WILSOK Member-AIEE; Member-ASMEt; Registered
Professional Engiiieer (Massachusetts)
Ameriran Institute of Electrical Engineers.
t AmericanSociety of hlcchsnieal Engineers.
T H I S BOOK I S DEDICATED TO F. MOHLEYROBERTS AND LEONIDA. UYAN8KY

WITHOUT WHOSE UNDER8TANDINQ GUIDANCE, ENCOUIUQEYENT,

AND COUNSEL IT COULD NOT HATE B E E N WRITTEN


Preface

The engineering knowledge required to maintain and operate industrial


power generation, transmission, and distribution systems has increased
manyfold since electricity was first used in industrial plants t o light a few
lamps and run a line shaft motor. The exacting power requirements of
modern production equipment necessitate the introduction of refine-
ments in power system design as to voltage spreads, service continuity,
flexibility, etc. Since the introduction of the load-center power distrihu-
tion system, industrial power distribution practices have been almost
completely revolutionized.
This book outlines up-to-date industrial power system engineering
practices whirh should be especially valuable to industrial plant engineers
and electricians, utility power salesmen, consulting engineers, contractors,
industrial power application engineers, architects, and others who have
anything t o do with the planning of elertrical facilities for industrial
plants or rommercial buildings. College professors and students should
find use for i t vhere it is desired t o teach and study the principles of
industrial power system engineering. There will be uses in other organi-
zations as text material for discussion groups and classes involved in
industrial power system engineering. Although the problems involved
in electric utility generation, transmission, and distribution systems are
different in many ways from those in industrial power systems, the
utility engineer will find 'many of the data in this hook useful to him,
particularly when designing power services for industrial plants.
Many of the application data have heen presented in condensed tabular
and curve form t o make practical solution of many problems easy and
fast. Kumerous examples are included illustrating the nse of the princi-
ples and data outlined in this hook.
The general order of chapters is that the technical information is
placed in the first part of the hook and the economic or system design
information in the latter part of the book. All the information on power
and steam generation is placed in Chapter 16. The problems associated
with system voltages are divided into three categories. Those discussed
in Chapter 4 include the designation of system voltages, equipment
ratings, voltage spreads, calculations of voltage drops, etc. Chapter 5
"ii
”iii PREFACE

deals with transient overvoltages. I n Chapter 10 the economic aspects


of the selection of system voltage are considered.
The cost-estimating data given in Chapter 17 will naturally apply only
at the date of publication of the hook. They will, however, be a valuable
referenre io the years following, provided that they are adjusted according
t o the industrial price index. Even though the actual costs change over
a period of years, one can still use the cost data in this book for making
relative rost st,udies t o compare one type of system with another.
Most of the equipment for modern industrial power systems is available
from several manufacturers. Because of the authors’ familiarity with,
and ready acress to information on, General Electric products, they have
been used as examples i n this hook. In most cases the discussion of
equipment applies equally well t o similar equipment available from other
manufacturers.
I n writing t,his hook, it has been assumed that the reader will have a t
least a working knowledge of electrical engineering principles and is
familiar with the terms commonly used in this field. Commonly used
symbols and abbreviations, etc., are included in the Appendix.
Although this hook Ivas written by the various authors whose names
appear in this book, many others contributed in various ways in its
preparation. Because of space limitations it was possible t o make
specific acknowledgment of such assistance in only a few cases. We wish
t o express our appreciation t o all those others whose contributions in the
field of industrial poirer system engineering have helped t o make this
book possihle.
Much of the information in this book has been previously published
by the authors in various trade magazines and engineering society
journals. We nish t o express our appreciation, particularly t o Industry
and Power, Electrical Construction and Maintenance, Factory Management
and Maintenance, Elrctrical Engineering, 4 1 E E Transactions, Electrical
World, General Electric Reuiew, Power, Plant Engineering, The Plant,
The Consulting Engineer, and all other magazines in which parts of this
information have appeared for permission t o use the information prepared
for, and originally published in, them. We also wish t o thank John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., for permission t o reprint in Chapter 8 data from the
hook “Capacitors for Industry” by W. C. Bloomquist, C. R. Craig,
H . M. Partingtoti, and R. C. Wilson.
T H E AUTHORS
Introduction

When electric power stops flowing in a manufact,uring plant, the plant's


production stops. The plaut owners may have invested money for the
best of plant facilities, the most modern production machines, have an
ample inventory of raw material, good product design, highly traiued
and efficient labor, and everything else that is required to produce manu-
factured goods quickly and a t low cost. However, if electric power is
not available when and where needed in the plant, then the owner's
investment in both plant and inventory is so much idle capital. Because
electric power is so important in any manufacturing process, the electric
power distribution syst,em in the plant is the vital link that carries the
electric power from the utility supply point to the production machine
that keeps the plant's productioir moving.
The electric power dist,ribution system in a plant generally costs less
than 2 to 5 per cent of the tot,al plant cost, including process machinery.
Since one gets so much for so little from t,he investment in the plant
power system; it pays to use only the best pract.ices and equipment t o
assure a maximum of profit from the over-all plant investment.
The power system engineer who designs an industrial plant power
distribution system must rely on his technical engineering background,
and also he must, exercise considerable engineering judgment, as all phases
of industrial power system enk'neering rannot be expressed i n numbers
or solved by formulas. When decisioiis based on engineering judgment
are required, the power system engineer should always base his con-
sideration on the best facts availahle and not on vague hypotheses or
information which does not apply t o the specific problems a t hand. One
of his most valuable tools is test data made under specific controlled
conditions. Field reports and operating experiences must always be
weighed very carefully to be sure that all the facts and all the background
are available.
For example, a short-circuit test on a circuit breaker made in the
laboratory under controlled conditions gives accurate knowledge of the
performance of the circuit breaker because t.he test conditions can be
measured. Just because a circuit breaker opened and cleared, a short
circuit in a field application may or may not have been a measure of
the ability of the circuit breaker t o perform under all conditions existing
Xi
xii INTRODUCTION

in that system. All conditions of a tield short circuit are generally not
known, as measuring instruments are not usually continuously connected
t o the circuit t o tell what the circuit current conditions were when the
circuit breaker opened. Unfortunately, there is a tendency t o construe
such field operation as proof that a circuit breaker is satisfactory, whereas
the facts obtained from tests made under controlled conditions may show
that it may be inadequate under many conditions in the particular system
involved.
Field data are part of the engineer’s warehouse of facts, and certain
kinds of field data are extremely valuable. The engineer must be sure
that he knows the conditions under which the field data are obtained
and that the data are broad enough t o mean something. Referring again
to the short-circuit protection picture, the operating experience in any
one plant with inadequate protective equipment may have been satis-
factory over a period of years. Generalizing on that one experience
only or even a few more like it may lead t o the belief that inadequate
circuit breakers mill never fail. More complete data may prove that
inadequate equipment has failed in literally hundreds of other cases not
known t o a particular individual. Therefore, any field data that are
used should be extensive and represent a cross section of industry and
not just a few isolated cases.
To do this job effectively, the engineer must be constantly searching
for facts on which t o base his decisions. Then if power system engi-
neering is based on facts-the scientific method-many electric power
system shortcomings will be overcome.

OVER-ALL PLANNING

To obtain a power distribution system which is adequate to meet the


service reliability requirements of a plant and yet which is lowest in cost
requires that the power system engineer plan the power distribution
system on an over-all inrlusive basis. While the electrical system is
installed in parts, such as substations, cable, bus, switchgear, trans-
formers, etc., the system nevertheless functions as a complete integral
unit. The best way to get an over-all picture of the probable performance
of an industrial power distribution system is to make a one-line diagram.
This, on one small piece of paper, shows the system in its entirety.
The one-line diagram gives the power system designer a reasonable idea
of what service reliability will be and how the components of the system
will tit together electrically t o serve the needs of the plant most effectively
and economically. There are many factors which must be considered
in the over-all planning of a power system. Some of the more important
aspects to be considered are discussed in the following.
INTRODUCTION xiii

SAFETY

One cannot put too much emphasis on safety. Electricity is becoming


more and more an integral part of our production lines. I t is used in
areas where all kinds of people work. The power system engineer is
responsible for making the systems as safe as possible. Building a sub-
station structure with a fence around it labeled "For Authorized Persons
Only" is no safety guarantee. Authorized personnel make mistakes too.
Three fundamental ideas help to build safe power systems:
1. Enclose all live conductors in grounded metal.
2. Use only adequate circuit-protective equipment.
3. Design the system so that working on energized conductors is not
necessary.
Of course, there are other important safety points. But these are
three which the system design engineer can influence greatly.

ECONOMICS

Economics is a very important part of power system engineering. The


engineer must compare systems on the basis of cost as well as other
features. I n making cost comparisons, i t is important t o include all
parts of the system from the power source down to and including the
utilization equipment.
Cost comparisons should also include installation as well as eqnipment
costs. To illustrate: System A may require less transformer kva than
system B . But the conneetions of system A and other factors may
require far more expensive switchgear and more cable than system B .
The increased cost of switchgear and cable may more than offset savings
in transformers. A comparison on the basis of transformers only would
give the wrong answer.
Aft,er a system has been selected, the equipment is chosen. Equipment
Type I may be so constructed that its selling price is lower than the price
of equipment Type 11,which is more completely assembled a t the factory.
On the other hand, the increased field installation expense of Type I
equipment may more than offset the difference in price. Hence, both
price and installation cost must be Considered t o obtain the lowest
over-all investment.
Always consider the cost of the completely installed system, not just
the prices of its components.

PLAN FOR LOAD GROWTH

One of the greatest mistakes made in power system engineering is


planning without allowance for future expansion. Failure t o plan for
xi" INTROOUCTION

the future results in extravagance, inflexibility, and complication. The


use of electricity in most plants increases. Even if new floor area is not
added, more intensive manufacture within a given area increases the
amount of electricity 3 to 5 per cent a year.
Our economy is still expanding, and as long as that takes place we are
going to have to manufacture more goods. The manufacture of more
goods requires expansion of existing facilities as well as new facilities.
It costs so little to plan and arrange for future load growth that it should
be a must for every plant. Some important items in this respect are t o
allow some reserve in substation kva size over predicted present loads,
to buy main switchgear with a margin in interrupting rating to allow
for increasing power supply to the plant, and last and perhaps most
import,ant, t o select the proper voltage, i.e., one high enough to permit
growth without bottlenecks.

SIMPLICITY

Make systems simple. Many total shut,downs have resulted from


complicated systems. Industrial operators do not get emergency switch-
ing practice every day. If they have complicated systems, experience
proves they are apt to make mistakes in an emergency. These errors
usually cause greater outages than they would with simple systems.
Simple systems are easy t o understand and easy to operate during both
normal and emergency conditions. The growing difficulty of obtaiuing
adequately trained personnel makcs a simple power system desirable.

FLEXIBILITY

Plants change manufacturing proceases from time to time. Where


castings are used today, welding may be used tomorrow. Process and
product alike change as demands and styles change. Any plant, and
particularly a metal-fabricating plant, should be designed with the idea
that complete new process layouts can be made without requiring major
changes in the electric distribution system. Two great contributions
toward flexibility are (1) the load-center system with small substations
which may be added in small units as required and, if necessary, moved,
and (2) plug-in busway, which permits the installation of permanent
power distribution systems to which machine tools and other devices are
merely plugged in where neceseary.

SERVICE FZUABILITY
Service reliability in any plant is important. Most manufacturing
proeesaes are on a production-line basis, so that a shutdown of any part
INTRODUCTION X"

of the line may hold up an entire plant. Some processes in themselves


require a very high order of service reliability. High service reliability
generally can be obtained in two ways. One is by providing duplicate
channels to route power to any load; the other is by installing only the
highest-grade electric equipment available, using the best installation
methods. It might. be added that service reliability can be increased
through simplicity of system design, a fact that was emphasized
previously.

MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION

When plant facilities have to be expanded or modernized, the engineer


is afforded an opportunity to design the ideal electrical system. First a
one-line diagram should be made of the system he would have if the plant
were starting new. Having made this plan, he should let it guide the
future modernization and expansion. Existing equipment obviously
cannot all be retired a t once. But, as additions and replacements of
equipment are made, they should he on the basis of being integrated into
the ideal plan and not merely as replacements of equipment in the old
system.
One of the most significant parts of the new program is selecting the
proper voltage-not just riding along and trying to expand at existing
lorn voltage.

SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
The main fundamental in selecting equipment is to choose the best
available. It costs no more in the end and pays dividends in service
continuity and lower maintenance. Some widely accepted principles are:
1. Use only metal-clad equipment a t 15 kv and below.
2. Choose noninflammable transformers.
3. Use factory-assembled equipment for easier field installation and
better coordination.
4. Be sure equipment ratings are adequate in every respect, i.e.,
voltage, current, int.errupting rating, etc.
Much of the advantage of the high-quality equipment can he lost if it
is carelessly installed and maintained.

MAINTENANCE

Maintenance is largely in the hands of operators. However, the


system designer can aid in this problem by designing systems that provide
nlternate power channels, to permit one to be taken out for maintenance
i"i INTRODUCTION
without dropping essential loads. Use drawout equipment wherever
possible t o enable maintenance on circuit-breaker elements t o be done in
a clean service shop. A spare element should be specified t o replace the
one being maintained.

MAKE A RELAY COORDINATION STUDY

The operator should check all equipment regularly. The system


design engineer can help by including suggested maintenance schedules
in the data given t o the operator.
Relay settings can be selected by the design engineer to permit t,he
operator t o set them properly. Most important of all, operation and
settings of relays should be regularly checked.

THINGS TO CHECK WHEN DESIGNING THE POWER SYSTEM

The discussion of items in which proper judgment should be used t o


obtain a power system best suited to a given plant could be expanded.
However, the foregoing points illustrate the basic thinking used by today's
power system design engineers. As a guide, here are things t.o check
when designing a power system for an industrial plant or building.
1. What is the nature and magnitude o,f the load? Until the process and
load requirements are known, one cannot intelligently lay out a power
system to meet the load requirements. Use data from existing plaut,s.
See Chapter 17.
2. Where i s the power corning from? See the local utility early in the
planning stages t o see what problems there are in power supply. Are
there savings possible from by-product power gerieration because of
by-product fuel or use of large quantities of process steam? See Chap-
ter 16.
These questions must be answered early i n the study as well as other
details of what voltage is available and where is the nearest adequate
utility line located in relation t o the plant site.
3 . How much will the electric power system cost? Estimates are usually
required in the early stages. Be sure t o make your estimates realistic
and not so low that you.later find you have t,o cut corners t o stay within
the appropriations. See Chapter 17.
4. What vollage levels should be selected for the plant primary system and
low-voltage system? Consider load growth, economics, flexibility, etc.
Usually 13.8 or 4.16 kv is the most advantageous primary voltage and
480 volts the most all-around satisfactory for low voltage. See Chap-
ter 10.
5 . What circuit arrangement is best suited, i.e., radial, secondary selective,
INTRODUCTION x4i

07 secondaq network? Consider service reliability as dictated by process,


provision for maintenance and possible load growth, flexibility required
for process changes? etc. See Chapter 11.
6. W h a t size subsubstations are most economical? General studies give
the most economical range at 500 to 1500 kva at 480 volts secondary, but
in a specific plant load density, load locations, primary voltage, and
many other facts affect the choice. See Chapter 11.
7. Secondary distribution. What type of feeders, cable or bus? How
big should feeders be? How much load per feeder? Should plug-in
busway be used or are panel hoards required? How can adequate short-
circuit protection be secured in the branch circuit protective equipment?
See Chapter 12.
8. Combined Zight and power svslems. IJsually combined light and
power systems are more economical, but the flicker problem must he
watched, particularly if welders are present. How big should the 480-
120-volt transformers be? Should they be single or three phase? If
fluorescent lighting is heing used, can 265-volt ballast operating off
480Y,’277-volt systems be used? Should lights be switched individually
or in groups? See Chapters 10 and 11.
9. Are voltage-regulating means required? If the primary voltage varies
too much, feeder or bus voltage regulators may be required. Should
there be load ratio control in the main transformers? Individual regu-
lators? Switched capacitors? Or secondary feeder regulators? See
Chapter 4.
10. Short-circuit protection. Do circuit breakers, fuses, fused switches,
and motor starters have adequate interrupt’ing rating? Do circuit
breakers. fuses, etc., have a margin to allow for increases in plant supply?
Is the system laid out so that additions can be made without overstressing
circuit breakers and fuses interrupting rating-wise? See Chapters 1
through 3.
11. Grounding. Experience has shown that system neutral grounding
is desirable a t all voltage levels. Is the system properly grounded a t the
neutrals and are machine frames, etc.: properly grounded to earth?
See Chapters 6 and 7.
12. Overcurrent protection. Are there adequate overcurrent devices
properly set to provide selective tripping in the event of overcurrent
conditions? Are the relays the simplest that will do the job:’ Is there
adequate backup protection? Do relays, circuit breakers, and fuses
operate selectively wherever practical? Are all parts of the systems
adequately protected against the effects of overloads? See Chapter 9.
13. I s the lightning protection adequate? Are the lightning arresters
of the proper rating, and are they properly located and grounded? Are
the rotating machines adequately protected? See Chapter 5.
rriii INTRODUCTlON

14. Are circuils properly metered to lell what loads are? Is provision
made for connecting portable meters where permanent meters are not
justified? Adequate metering is the only way one can check the system
performance and to check when loads reach the limit,s of apparatus
ratings. Remote metering, i.e., telemeteriug, gives meter readings at
centralized points remote from the location of the meters.
15. Power-factor correction. Can the power bill be reduced through
reduction of vars? Can you increase voltage and current-carrying
capacity by using capacitors? Where should they be installed? Should
they be switched? See Chapter 8.
16. Superviswy control. Are there remote water-pumping stations or
other loads that should be controlled from the powerhouse or some other
central points? Supervisory control will do it.

THINGS TO CHECK IF POWER IS GENERATED IN THE INDUSTRIAL PLANT

17. What heat cycle should be used-gas turbine or sfearn turbine?


18. What steam presswes and temperatures are best for steam generation
and process use?
19. How big should the boilers and turbines be?
20. What should the balance between extraction at various pressures be,
and what should the condenser capacity be?
21. What kind of steam turbine is most suitable to the particular process
under consideration?
a. Straight condensing
b. Extraction
c. Topping
d. Extraction condensing
See Chapter 16.

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