Structure of the Description

Stars and
sun
Core -innermost layer of the sun
-extend 25% of the sun radius
-15 000 000 ®C
Photosphere -innermost atmospheric layer
-originates the visible light to earth
-300 km thick, 6 000®C(one of the coolest layer of the sun)
Chromospheres -layer above the visible photosphere
-10 000 km thick, 6 000-20 000®C
-hydrogen gives off reddish colour at this temperature
-can only be seen during total solar eclipse
Corona -extremely hot outermost layer above chromospheres, 1 000 000®C

9.1 THE SUN -thickest layer

-forms rings of whitish-blue lights
-can only be seen during total solar eclipses
- It is in this region where prominences appear
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUN
- 110 times bigger than the earth
PHENOMENA ON THE SUN’S SURFACE
- Sun is the nearest star to Earth
- 150 million km away from earth
- Sunlight takes about 8 minutes to reach earth
PHENOMEN DESCRIPTION
- Medium-sized star known as yellow dwarf A
- Mass of a sun is 98% of the total mass of the solar system Prominences -immense clouds of glowing gases that erupt the upper chromospheres
-the loops or arches of gases may shoot as high as 100 000 km from the
- Density is much less than earth because it is not a solid, it is made up primarily of gases
surface of the sun. This allows gases mainly hydrogen and helium to escape
into space
PROPERTY CHARACTERISTIC CHARACTERISTIC -it lasts for two to three months and can be only seen during solar eclipse
COMPARED TO EARTH
Diameter 1 392 000 km 109 times the diameter of earth Solar Flares -result of violent energy explosions in complex sunspot group
Mass 1.989 x 10₃₄ KG 333 420 times the mass of earth -releases gases and charged particles far into space
Density 1 485 kg m₋₃ 0.27 times the density of earth -reach up to 5 million ®C
Surface 5 500-6 000 ®c 227-273 times the temperature of -emit electrons, visible light, and radiation such as X-rays and ultraviolet rays
temperature earth -make the night above poles appear colourful which known as aurora
Composition 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, and other The earth atmosphere contains Sunspot -dark regions which visible on the photosphere result of the high
element such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, concentration of magnet fields generated by the sun
oxygen, silicon and iron which amount inert gases and water vapour -it appear dark because it is cooler than the surrounding area. Temperature of
less than 2% this regions are 4 000®C
-usually appear in group and are of different sizes. Minor spots last in few
hours while a major group last for a few month

STRUCTURE OF THE SUN

 experience severe droughts once every 11 years. This is linked to the appearance of
sunspot in 11-years cycles
EFFECTS OF THE SUN’S PHENOMENA ON EARTH 9. FORMATION OF AURORA
a) Aurora are bands of coloured lights visible in the night sky, especially at the polar
1. a) the eruption of prominences and solar flares release large amount of solar material into regions of the Earth
space b) Aurora results from a collision between the charged particles of the solar wind and
b) gases that escape to space carry a steam of electrical charged particles of energy gas molecule in the atmosphere of the earth. This interaction causes them to emit a
c) the continuous flow of these particles from the surface of the sun causes a visible light.
phenomenon known as ‘solar wind’ c) Fluctuations in the solar wind can causes them to be visible at lower altitudes
2. Solar wind is strongest when solar activity is high and when the number of visible sunspots
is high GENERATION OF LIGHTS BY THE SUN
3. When the solar wind blows past earth, there are effects on the following.
4. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 1. Solar energy is generated deep in the core of the sun through a process called nuclear
a) The earth’s atmosphere play an important role in reflecting radio signals in fusion.
communication 2. Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction in which several atoms of one element combine to
b) Solar wind effects radio communication as it causes ‘radio signal’ to fluctuate form a different element.
5. NAVIGATION SYSTEM and COMPASSES 3. The temperature and pressure at the core are so intense that nuclear reaction take place
a) Radio signals from transmitters are used by ships and air plane to determine their all the time
location 4. In the nuclear fusion process at the sun’s core, four hydrogen nuclei combine to form a
b) Solar wind disrupts the radio signals of the transmitter, resulting in inaccuracies in helium nucleus and a large amount of energy is produced
the navigation system 5. The energy generated is carried to the surface of the sun and released as light and heat.
c) Intense solar flares send out continuous streams of electrically charged particles
which interfere with the earth’s magnetic field and compasses
6. SATELLITES AND ASTROUNOUTS
a) The ultra violets rays and x-rays given off by solar flares heat up the earth’s upper
atmosphere. As a result, satellites have to orbit further up to prevent them from

9.2 STARS ANG GALAXIES

falling back to earth. Their life spans shortened
b) High-energy particles released by intense solar flares increase radiation hazard and
pose a threat to the health of astronauts in space. The excessive radiation can also

7.
damage satellites
POWER GENERATION IN THE UNIVERSE
a) The charged particles interfere with earth’s magnetic field and induce surges in the
electric current along power transmission lines
DEFINITION OF A STAR
b) This overloads the power grids and causes blackout over large area
8. GLOBAL CLIMATE 1. Star is a celestial body that releases it own light and heat. It is a big ball of hot gases.
a) Sunspot bring about changes in temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure, 2. Star is made up of gases like helium and hydrogen. They generate energy through nuclear
which affect the weather conditions on earth reaction.
b) Wind, land, and sea breeze are affected by sunspots 3. Light year is the distance measurement between the earth and star. Stars are not
c) In 1980, E.W.Maundour discovered the connection between sunspot and the climatic distributed uniformly in the universe but are group together in galaxies.
disruptions on Earth, especially severe droughts. Several places on Earth will
THE SUN AS A STAR Vega 26
Capella 45
1. Is a medium-sized star Rigel 900
2. Form in a huge cloud of gas and dust called nebula Procyon 11
Achernar 118
3. Huge sphere made up from hydrogen and helium
Beta Centauri 490

FORMATION OF STAR
VARIOUS TYPES OF STARS
CLOUD OF SWIRLING GAS AND CLOUDS > GAS
1. THE COLOUR AND TEMPERATURE OF STARS
AND DUST COLLECT AT THE CENTRES OF THE
WHIRPOOLS > COLLECTION OF GAS AND DUST; A
CLAS COLOUR SURFACE TEMPERATURE EXAMPLE STAR IS FORMED
S (®c)
O Blue More than 25 000 Spica 1. Nebulae – huge clouds of gases(mainly hydrogen and helium) and dust(is a result of the
B Whitish-blue 11 000 – 25 000 Rigel ‘pull of gravity’ between particles)
A White 7 500 – 11 000 Sirius 2. A star is formed when the nebulae is pulled inwards towards the core until it become
F Yellowish-white 6 000 – 7 500 Procyon A compact. As the nebulae collapse, it starts to spin.
G Yellow 5 000 – 6 000 The Sun
3. The gravitational force increases and this causes the material within the nebula to
K Orange 3 500 – 5 000 Arcturus
condense. As a result, the temperature and pressure of the gases and dust particles at the
M Red Less than 3 500 Betelgeuse
2. SIZE centre increase.
Neutron star > white dwarf > the sun > giant star > supergiant star 4. a) When the temperature reaches 15 000 ®C, nuclear fusion takes place at the core of
the nebula.
TYPE OF STAR White dwarf Dwar Giant Supergiant c) Hydrogen atoms fuse together to form helium atoms, releasing a large amount of
f heat and light energy.
RELATIVE SIZE (the sun = 0.1 10 10 – 100 >100 5. The ball of gases starts to shine and a new star is born. Once the star is stable, its size
1) remains constant.
3. BRIGHTNESS
a) Brightness of star known as apparent magnitude. It is determined by naked eye. DEATH OF A STAR
b) A star with apparent magnitude of 1 is the brightest and a star with apparent
magnitude of 6 is the dimmest.
c) Factors such as surface temperature, size and distance manipulated the brightness of ‐ nuclear fusion of hydrogen and helium has been completed > the core of the star is getting
the star. smaller and smaller = star is said to be dying; heat is generated

‐ this will heat the outermost layer of a star

NAME OF DISTANCE IN LIGHT YEAR
‐ hydrogen within this layer starts to burn > star expand; star appear red and is called a red
STAR giant
Sirius 9
Conopus 98 ‐ gravitational force becomes stronger > heat loss > star collapse = pulls the star inwards
Alpha Centauri 4.3 ‐ if red giant is not massive > white dwarf is formed
Arctutus 36
‐ if the red giant big enough > it will contract quickly and supernova(big explosion) occur
 ‐ supernova = large star > a neutron star ‐ our solar system is part of the universe
‐ supernova = super-large star > black hole (*named as black hole because light is trap inside
and cannot escape; any matter that enters it cannot escape too)

GALAXIES
9.3 THE UNIVERSE AS A GIFT
‐ stars + planets + gasses and dust = galaxies FROM GOD
‐ earth = in galaxy called ‘Milky Way’ ; near ‘Canis Major Dwarf’ galaxy
BEING THANKFUL FOR THE EXISTENCE OF THE UNIVERSE
‐ all living things depends it life to the sun's energy

TYPES OF DESCRIPTION ‐ photosynthesis = plant use the energy to make food

GALAXY
‐ animal = get energy indirect from the sun by eating plant
SPIRAL ‐ ~ disc shaped with spiral arms; consisting old(centre) and young
star(edges) ‐ earth = solar energy warmth(help plants and animal to grow) and lights it up
Elliptical ‐~ common type of galaxy (flattened ball‐shaped consist mainly old star)
Irregular ‐ ~not formed in specific shape ‐ solar energy(control earth's climate) = clouds, storm, rain, wind and drought
‐ ~consist mainly young star\par
‐ ~most uncommon type of galaxy ‐ human = used solar energy to produce electrical energy, dry clothing and kill microorganisms

‐ moon smaller than sun > moon's gravity effects the earth > influence ocean and the seas > tidal
changes

THE MILKY WAY

‐ spiral‐shaped galaxy that is about 100 000 lights years from one side to the other

‐ consists of billions of stars(not spread evenly in it; some are group in cluster)

‐ stars closed to each other > observe as hazy patches ‐ nebulae = no stars but mainly dust and
gases

‐ solar system(midway out to edges in one of the spiral arms) = very small part of milky way

‐ sun = 30 000 lights years away from the centre of the milky way

THE UNIVERSE
‐ consists of all the matter, energy and spaces that exist

‐ contains billions of galaxies, stars, planets and particles