EXPERIMENT NO.

1 : ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER

AIM: To design and set up an first order Butter worth low pass filter for f c
= 1 KHz and to plot the frequency response.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : µA 741 op-amp, resistors,

capacitors, connecting board, power supply, signal generator and CRO.

THEORY: A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass a specified band of

frequencies while attenuating all signals outside this band. Filter network
may be either active or passive.

Passive filter networks contain only resistors, inductors and

capacitors.

Active filter networks contain transistors or op-amps plus resistors,

inductors and capacitors.

There are four types of filters

1. Low Pass Filters

2. High Pass Filters
3. Band Pass Filters
4. Band Stop Filters

Low Pass Filter : A low-pass filter is a circuit that has a constant output
voltage from dc to a cutoff frequency f c . As the frequency increases
above f c, the output voltage is attenuated (decreases).

Fig. (a) shows a first order low-pass Butterworth filter that uses an
RC network for filtering. And the op-amp is used in the non inverting
configuration, hence it does not lond down the RC network. Resistors R1
and f F, determine the gain of the filter.

I already said the low – pass filter has a constant A F from 0 Hz to

the high cutoff frequency f c, At f c, the gain is 0.707 A f c, and after f c it
decreases at a constant fold (one decade), the voltage gain is divided by
10. In other words, the gain decreases 20 dB ( = 20 log 10) each time
the frequency is increased by 10. Hence the rate at which the gain rolls
off after f c is 20 dB/decade or 6 db/octave, where octave signifies a two
fold increase in frequency. The frequency f = f c is called the cut off
frequency because the gain of the filter at this frequency is down by 3 dB
( = 20 log 0.707) from 0 Hz. Other equivalent terms for cut off frequency
are – 3dB frequency, break frequency, or corner frequency.
Circuit Diagram

Fig. (a)

Design: Let fc=1Khz

fc=1/2П RC Choose proper value for C and find R

A= 1+Rf/R1 choose A=2 find Rf and R1

Tabular Column :

Input Voltage Vin = V P-P

Input Output Voltage Gain Magnitude Magnitude

frequency, f Vo |Vo/Vin| (dB)=
in Hz 20 log |V0/Vin|
10 Hz

100 Khz
 Frequency Response :

PROCEDURE :

1. Before wiring the circuit, check all the components using multi meter and
IC IC tester.

2. Design the filter for a gain and make the connections as shown in circuit
diagram.

3. Set the signal generator (input voltage) amplitude say IV peak to peak
and observe the input (Vo) and output (Vo ) signals of the circuit
simultaneously on CRO screen.

4. By varying the frequency of the input from Hz range to higher kHz range
and note the frequency of signal and corresponding output voltage across
pin number 6 of the op-amp with respect to ground. [See that input
voltage V in remains constant throughout the frequency range].

5. The output voltage remains constant at lower frequency range.

6. Tabulate the readings in tabular column.

7. Plot the graph with frequency along X-axis and gain of dB along Y-axis.

RESULT :

Experiment No.2 : ACTIVE HIGH PASS FILTERS

AIM : To design and set up an 1st order Butter worth high pass filter for fc
= 1 kHz and to plot the frequency response.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : µA 741 op-amp, resistors,

capacitors, connecting board, power supply, signal generator and CRO.

THEORY : High pass filters attenuate the output voltage for all
frequencies below the cut-off frequency fc , Above fc , the magnitude of
the output voltage is constant. The range of frequencies that are
transmitted is known as the pass band. The range of frequencies that are
attenuated is known as the stop band.

High pass filters are often formed simply by interchanging frequency

determining resistors and capacitors in low-pass filters. That is, a first-
order
high-pass filter is formed from a first order low-pass type by interchanging
components R and C.

Fig.(a) shows a first order high pass Butter worth filter with a low
cut off frequency of fc. This is the frequency at which the magnitude of
the gain is a 0.707 times its pass band value. Obviously, all frequencies
higher than fc are pass band frequencies, with the highest frequency
determined by the closed-loop bandwidth of the op-amp.

CircuitDiagram
Design : : Let fc=1Khz

fc=1/2П RC Choose proper value for C and find R

A= 1+Rf/R1 choose A=2 find Rf and R1

Tabular Column :

Input voltage Vin=1 V P-P

Input Output Voltage Gain Magnitude Magnitude

frequency, f Vo |Vo/Vin| (dB)=
in Hz 20 log |V0/Vin|
10 Hz

100 Mhz

PROCEDURE :

1. Before wiring the circuit, check all the components using multi
meter and IC IC tester.

2. Design the filter for a gain and make the connections as shown in
circuit diagram.

3. Set the signal generator (input voltage) amplitude say IV peak-to-

peak and observe the input (Vin) an output (Vo) signals of the circuit
simultaneously on CRO screen.

4. By varying the frequency of the input from Hz range to higher kHz

range and note the frequency of signal and corresponding output
voltage across pin no.6 of the op-amp, with respect to ground. [See
that input voltage Vin remains constant throughout the frequency
range].

5. The output voltage remains constant at higher frequency range.

6. Tabulate the readings in tabular column.

7. Plot the graph with frequency along X-axis and gain dB along y-axis.
RESULT :

Experiment No.3 : ACTIVE BAND REJECT FILTER

AIM : To design and set up an 2nd order butter worth Band Reject filter
and to plot the frequency response.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : µA 741 op-amp, resistors,

capacitors, connecting board, power supply, signal generator and CRO.

THEORY : Band – Reject filters is also known as Band Elimination filters.

Bond elimination filters perform in an exactly opposite way

compared to Band pass filters. That is, band elimination filters reject a
specified band of frequencies while passing all frequencies outside the
band.

The narrow band-reject filter, often called the notch filter, is

commonly used for the rejection of a single frequency such as the 72 Hz
power line frequency wm . The most commonly used notch filter is the
Twin – T network shown in Fig. (a), made up of two resistors and a
capacitor, while the other uses two capacitors and a resistor.

The passive twin – T network has a relativity low figure of merit Q.

The Q of the network can be increased significantly if it is used with

the voltage follower as shown in Fig. (b).

The frequency response of the active notch filter is shown in Fig. (c).

The most common use of notch filter is in communications and bio

medical instruments for eliminating undesired frequencies.

Circuit Diagram :
Design : fc=1/(2ЛRC)

Choose proper value for C and find out R

Tabular Column :

Input voltage Vin=1 V P.P

Input Output Voltage Gain Magnitude Magnitude

frequency, f Vo |Vo/Vin| (dB)=
in Hz 20 log |V0/Vin|
10 Hz

100 Khz

PROCEDURE

1. Before wiring the circuit, check all the components using multi
meter and IC tester.

2. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.

3. Set the signal generator (input voltage) amplitude I V peak to peak

sine wave and observe the input (V in ) and output (V o ) signals of
the circuit simultaneously on dual channel oscilloscope.
 4. By varying the frequency of the input from Hz range to 1 kHz range
and note the frequency of the signal and corresponding output
voltage across pin number 6 of the op-amp with respect to ground.
[See that input voltage V in remains constant throughout the
frequency range].

5. At some particular designed frequency, the voltage reaches

minimum value. Enter it in the tabular column.

6. Plot the graph with frequency along X-axis and Gain in dB along Y-axis.

7. From graph determine bandwidth and Q.

RESULT :
 Experiment No.3 : ACTIVE BAND PASS FILTER

AIM : To design and set up an 2nd order Butter worth Band pass filter and
too plot the frequency response.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : µA 741 op-amp,

resistors, capacitors, connecting board, power supply, signal generator
and CRO.

THEORY : Band pass filters pass only a band of frequencies while

attenuating all frequencies outside the band.

The narrow band-pass filter using multiple feedback is shown in

figure (a). As shown in this figure, the filter uses only one op-amp. This
filter is unique in the following respects :

[1] It has two feedback paths, hence the name multiple feedback
filter.
[2] The op-amp is used in the inverting mode.

Another advantage of the multiple feedback filter is that the center

frequency fc can be changed to a new frequency f’c without changing the
gain or bandwidth. This is accomplished simply by changing R to R’2 so
that

Circuit Diagram :

Design : Choose C1=C2=0.01μF ,Find R1=Q/(2ПfcCAf)

R2=Q/(2Пfc[2Q2-Af])
 R3=Q/ЛfcC where Af=10, Q= fc /(fh-fl) = 3

Tabular Column :

Input voltage V in = 1 V P.P.

Input Output Voltage Gain Magnitude Magnitude

frequency, f Vo |Vo/Vin| (dB)=
in Hz 20 log |V0/Vin|
10 Hz

100 Khz

PROCEDURE :

1. Before wiring the circuit

2. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.

3. Set the signal generator (input voltage) amplitude I V peak to

peak sine wave and observe the input (Vin) and output (Vo) signals
of the circuit simultaneously on dual channel oscilloscope.

4. By varying the frequency of the input from Hz range to higher

kHz range and note the frequency of the signal and corresponding
output voltage V in remains constant throughout the frequency
range].

5. At some particular designed frequency, the voltage reaches

maximum value. Enter it in the tabular column.

6. Plot the graph with frequency along X-axis and Gain in dB along
Y-axis.

7. From graph determine bandwidth and Q.

RESULT :
 Experiment No.3 : ENVELOPE DETECTOR

AIM : Conduct an experiment to demonstrate envelope detector for an

input AM signal. Em = Ac (1 + m sin wmt) cos wct) cos wct. Plot the
variation of o/p signal amplitude v/s the depth of modulation.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : OA79 diode, resistors,

capacitors, function generator, connecting board and CRO.

THEORY : An envelope detector is a simple and highly effective device

that is well-suited for the demodulation of narrow-band AM wave (that is
the carrier frequency is large compared with the modulating signal
bandwidth), for which the percentage modulation is less than 100%. In
an envelope detector, the o/p of the detector follows the envelope of the
modulated signal, hence the name.

Fig. (a) shows the envelope detector circuit. It consists of a diode

and a resistor capacitor filter. This circuit is also known as diode detector.
In the positive half cycle of the AM signal diode conducts and current flows
though R whereas in the negative half cycle, diode is reverse biased and
no current flows through R. As a result only positive half of the AM wave
appears across RC.

Let us see how RC filter responses to this positive half of AM wave

on the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and the capacitor C
charges up rapidly to the peak value of the input signal when the input
signals falls below this value, the diode becomes reverse biased and the
capacitor C discharges slowly through the load resistor RL. The
discharging process continues until the next positive half cycle when the
input signal becomes greater than the voltage across capacitor, the diode
conducts again and the process is repeated..

Circuit Diagram :
Design : 1/fc << RLC << 1/W

W=fm So RLC << 1/fm Choose proper value of C find RL for given carrier
and message signal frequencies

PROCEDURE :

1. Before wiring the circuit, check all the components using multi
meter.

2. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram.

3. From function generation apply AM wave to the input.

4. Vary the modulation index knob (that is M1) and note down v
max’ , v min simultaneously and also note down the o/p voltage
vO in steps.

5. Plot the graph Vo versus modulation index (M1).

RESULT :
 Experiment No.4 : COLLECTOR MODULATION

AIM : Conduct an experiment to generate an AM signal using collector

modulation for an fc = 455 kHz and fm = 2 kHz. Plot the variations of
modulation signal amplitude versus modulation index.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : AFT, IFT, Function

generators, CL 100/BF 194 Transistor, Resistors, Capacitors, power supply
and CRO.

THEORY : Fig.(a) shows the basic circuit for a BJT modulator. It is high
power class C amplifier with high level modulators. The modulator is a
linear power amplifier that takes the low level modulating signal and
amplifies it to a high power level. The modulating output signal is coupled
through modulating transformer T1 to the class C amplifier. The
secondary winding of the modulation transformer is connected in series
with the collector supply voltage Vcc of the class C amplifier. This means
that modulating signal is applied in series with the collector power supply
voltage of the class C amplifier applying collector modulation.

In the absence of modulating input signal, there will be zero

modulation voltage across the secondary of T1. Therefore, the collector
supply voltage will be applied directly to the class C amplifier generating
current pulses of equal amplitude and the output of the tuned circuit will
be a steady sine wave.

When the modulating signal occurs, the a.c. voltage across the
secondary of the modulating transformer will be added to and subtracted
from the collector supply voltage. This varying supply voltage is then
applied to the class C amplifier, resulting in variations in the amplitude of
the carrier sine wave in accordance with the modulated signal. Due to
this amplitude of the current pulses also vary in accordance with the
modulating signal. The tuned circuit then converts the current pulses into
an amplitude modulated wave as shown in Fig. (b).

Circuit Diagram :
Tabular Column :

Vm signal Modulation
Amplitude Vmax Vmin index
vm µ

PROCEDURE :

1. Check all the components using multi meter.

2. IFT is tuned by connecting in between signal generator and CRO

with V1=2V(p-p) vary frequency of signal generator so that
maximum o/p is obtained.
3. Biasing circuit is same as in class C operation.

4. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram (a).

5. Switch off the AFT (modulating input) of modulating signal. For

carrier frequency ‘fc’ (from test oscillations) of modulating signal.
Adjust the carrier frequency to get maximum O/P. (Here fine
tune the signal).

6. Switch on the modulating signal and adjust amplitude about 5 V

P-P; Frequency 1 to 2 kHz and obtain an undistorted amplitude
modulated o/p.

7. Feed AM output to Y-pates and Modulation signal to X-plates of

CRO. Obtain trapezoidal patterns as shown.

8. Keep carrier amplitude constant. Vary modulating voltage

(amplitude) in steps and measure Vmax and Vmin and calculate
modulation index.

9. Plot the graph modulating signal versus modulation index.

Result :
 Experiment No.5 : BALANCED MODULATION IC 1496

AIM : Using IC 1496, rig up a balanced modulator circuit, test its

operation and record the waveform.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : IC 1496, Resistors,

capacitors, power supply, function generators and CRO.

THEORY : The integrated circuit (IC) balanced mixed is widely used in

receiver ICs, as well as being available as a separate integrates circuit.
The IC versions are usually described as balanced modulators since the
modulation function is basically the same as the mixing functions.

Integrated circuit doubly balanced modulators like the LM 1496

operate as multiplier circuits that produce only side band pairs at the o/o.

Application is simple, requiring only bias and an approximate band

pass filter to eliminate side band pairs at harmonics of the carrier very
little adjustment is required to obtain good balance.

An important advantage of the integrated circuit balanced modulator

is that, when it is operated with a large carrier signal, the o/p signal
amplitude is independent of the carrier amplitude. The result is that the
o/p amplitude depends only on the amplitude of the input signal (which is
he modulating signal when it is used as a modulator or the side band
when it is used as a demodulator).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION :

LM 1596/LM 1496 Balanced Modulator – Demodulator : The LM

1596/LM 1496 are double balanced modulators – demodulators which
produce an output voltage proportional to the product of an input (signal)
voltage and switching (carrier) signal. Typical applications include
suppressed carrier modulation, amplitude modulation, synchronous
detection. FM or PM detection, broad band frequency doubling and
chopping LM 1496 is specified for operation over the 0o C to + 70 oC
temperature range.

Features :

1. Excellent carrier suppression.

65 dB typical at 0.5 MHz.
50 dB typical at 10 MHz.
2. Adjustable gain and signal handling.
3. Fully balanced inputs and outputs.
4. Low offset and drift.
5. Wide frequency response up to 100 MHz.

The equivalent internal circuitry and 14 – pin Dip pin out for the
LM1496 are shown in Fig.(b) and (c).

The circuit consists of two differential pairs with cross-occupied open

collectors a biasing current source, and a modulation input section signals
that are applied to the carrier and modulation inputs are multiplied
together, and the product is scaled by the gain of the circuit. The LM1496
is designed to operate with carrier frequencies up to 100 MHz.

PROCEDURE :

1. Before wiring the circuit check all the components using multi
meter.
2. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram.
3. Apply positive (+ 12 V) and negative (-12 V) voltage to the IC as
Vcc.
4. Set the carrier wave amplitude and frequencies and also the
modulating signal amplitude and frequencies so as to get the
DSBSC wave.
5. Check for the positive and negative o/p voltage at pin no.6 and
12 respectively.
6. Observe the phase reversals at the cross points as shown in the
Fig.(d).
Circuit Diagram :

Result :

Experiment No.6 : RING MODULATION

AIM : Rig up and test a ring modulator / twisted ring modulator to
generate a DSBSC signal and plot the o/p waveform.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : OA79 diodes, Audio

transformers, function generators and CRO.

THEORY : A circuit known as the double balanced ring modulator,

which is widely used in carrier telephony, is shown in Fig.(a). The
name comes from the fact that the circuit is balanced to reject both the
carrier and modulating signals using a ring of diodes. The o/p contains
only side band pairs about the carrier frequency position and several of
its harmonies.

Fig.(a) shows the ring modulator. It consists of a input

transformer T1, an output transformer T2 and four diodes connected in
a bridge circuit.

Here the carrier signal is applied to the center taps of the input
and output transformer and modulating signal is applied to the input
transformer T1. The o/p appears across the secondary of the
transformer. The diodes connected in the bridge acts like switches,
and their switching is controlled by the carrier signal as it is usually
higher in frequency and amplitude than the modulating signal.

The doubly balanced diode ring circuit is widely used as a mixer in

microwave. Applications where shielded enclosures prevent radiation.

Circuit Diagram :

PROCEDURE :

1. Before wiring the circuit, check all the components using multi
meter.
 2. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram.

3. Connect the AF generator M(t) and C(t) as shown.

4. Select amplitude of modulating signal as Vm = 0.5 V(P-P) at a

frequency of 450 Hz (fm = 450 Hz) and for carrier signal V c =
1.4(P-P) at frequency of 10 kHz (fc = 10 kHz).

5. Observe DSBSC waveform on CRO. Observe the phase voltage

and study variation by changing AF signal amplitude and
frequency and Diodes are [OA79] point contact diodes.

Result :

EXPERIMENT NO.7 : FREQUENCY MODULATION IC 8038

AIM : Design and conduct a suitable experiment to generate an FM wave

using IC 8038. Find the modulation index ‘β’ and the bandwidth of
operation ‘Br’ and display the waveforms.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : IC 8038, resistors,

capacitors, function generators, power supply and CRO.

THEORY: The IC 8038 waveforms generator is a monolithic integrated

circuit capable of producing high accuracy sine, square, triangular,
sawtooth and pulse waveforms with a minimum of external pulse
components.

The frequency of the waveform generator is direct function of the dc

voltage at terminal (measured from V+). By altering this voltage,
frequency modulation is performed. For small deviations (eg. ± 10%) the
modulating signal can be applied directly to pin 8, merely providing dc de-
couping with a capacitor. An external resistor between pins 7 and 8 is not
necessary but it can be used to increase input impedance from about 8K.
(Pins 7 and 8 connected together), to about (R + 8KW).
 The sine wave output has a relative high output impedance (1K
typical). The circuit may use a simple op-amp follower to provide
buffering, gain and amplitude adjustment.

For large FM deviations or for frequency sweeping, the modulating

signal is applied between the positive supply voltage and pin 8. In this
way the entire bias for the current sources is created by the modulating,
and a very large (eg. 1000 : 1) sweep range is created (f = 0 at V sweep =
0). Care must be taken, however, to regulate the supply voltage; in this
configuration the charge current is no longer a function of the supply
voltage (yet the trigger thresholds still are) and thus the frequency,
becomes dependent on the supply voltage. The potential on pin 8 may be
swept down from V + by (7/3 V supply – 2 V).

The IC 8038 is fabricated with advanced monolithic technology,

using Schottkybarrier biodes and thin film resistors, and the output is
stable over a wide range of temperature and supply variations.

Features :

1. Low-frequency drift with temperature.

2. Simultaneous sine, square and triangular wave o/ps.
3. Low distortion sine wave output.
4. High linearity triangle wave output.
5. Wide operating frequency range 0.001 Hz to 300 kHz.
6. High level outputs – TTL to 28 V.
7. Easy to use – just a handful of external components required.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
PROCEDURE :

1. Before wiring the circuit checl all the components using multi
meter.

2. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram

3. Apply + ve (+ 12V) and – ve (-12 V) voltages to the IC as VCC.

4. And observe the waveform at pin no.9, 3 and 2 on CRO that is

square, triangular and sine wave respectively.

5. measure sine wave amplitude and frequency. It will be the

frequency of carrier wave.

6. Switch on the function generator and apply modulating signal of

Vim(p-p) = 2 V (P-P) and frequency in the range of 1 kHz to 10
kHz through RC circuit as shown.

7. Observe FM wave output at pin 2. Draw output waveform and

note down
f max and f min.

8. Calculate modulation index β and transmission bandwidth Br.

Experiment No.8 : PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS

AIM : Design and conduct an experiment to test a pre-emphasis circuit for

75 μ Sec and record the results.
 Design and conduct an experiment to test a De-emphasis circuit for
75 μ sec and record the results.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : Resistors, capacitors,

μA 741
op-amp, function generator, CRO and Bred Board.

THEORY : The noise triangle showed that noise has a greater effect on
the higher modulating frequencies than on the lower ones. Thus, if the
higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the transmitter and
correspondingly cut at the receiver, an improvement in noise immunity
could be excepted, thereby increasing the signal to noise ratio. This
boosting of the higher modulating frequencies, in accordance with a pre-
arranged curve, is termed pre-emphasis and the compensation at the
receiver is called de-emphasis.

The circuit diagram of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is shown in

Fig. (a) and Fig. (b).

Take two modulating signals having the same initial amplitude, with
one of them pre-emphasized to twice this amplitude, whereas the other is
unaffected (being at a much lower frequency).

The receiver will naturally have to de-emphasis the first signal by a

factor of 2, to ensure that both signals have the same amplitude in the
output of the receiver. Before demodulation, i.e., while susceptible to
noise interference, the emphasized signal had twice the deviation it would
have had without pre-emphasis and was thus more immune to noise.
When this signal is de-emphasized, any noise sideband voltages are de-
emphasized with it and therefore have a correspondingly lower amplitude
then they would have had without emphasis. Their effect on the output is
reduced.

The amount of pre-emphasis in U.S. FM broadcasting, and in the

sound transmission accompanying television, has been standardized as
75- μs, whereas a number of other services, notably European and
Australian broadcasting and TV sound transmission, use 50 μs. The
usage of microseconds for defining emphasis is standard. A 75-μs de-
emphasis corresponds to a frequency response curve that is 3 dB down at
the frequency whose time constant RC is 75 μs. This frequency is given
by f = 1/2πRC and is therefore 2120 Hz. With 50-…s de-emphasis it
would be 3180 Hz. Fig. (c) shows pre-emphasis and de-emphasis curves
for a 75-μs emphasis, as used in the United States.

The curves of Fig.(c) show that a 15-kHz signal is pre-emphasized

by about 17 dB; with 50 …s this figure would have been 12.6 dB. It must
be made certain that when such boosting is applied, the resulting signal
cannot over modulate the carrier by exceeding the maximum 75-kHz
deviation, since distortion will be introduced. It is seen that a limit for –
pre-emphasis exists, and any practical value used is always a compromise
between protection for high modulating frequencies on the one hand and
risk of over modulation on the other.

If emphasis were applied to amplitude modulation, some

improvement would also result, but it is not as great as in FM because the
highest modulating frequencies in AM are no more affected by noise than
any others. Apart from that, it would be difficult to introduce pre-
emphasis and de-emphasis in existing AM services since extensive
modifications would be needed, particularly in view of the huge numbers
of receives in use.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

PRE-EMPHASIS

DE-EMPHASIS
PROCEDURE :

1. Before wiring the circuit, check all the components using multi
meter.

2. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram.

3. Set the signal generator (input voltage) amplitude say 1 V P-P

sine wave and observe the input and output signals of the circuit
simultaneously on CRO screen.

4. By varying the frequency of the input from Hz range to higher

kHz range and note the frequency of the signal and measure the
output voltage V0.

5. Tabulate the readings in tabular column.

6. Plot the graph with frequency along X-axis and gain dB along Y-
axis.

Experiment No.9 : PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

AIM : To conduct an experiment to generate PAM signal and also

design a circuit to demodulate the PAM signal and verify sampling
theorem. Plot the relevant waveforms.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : Transistor SL100, resistors,

capacitor, Diode OA79, connecting board, signal generator and CRO.

THEORY : In pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) the amplitude of the

pulses are varied in accordance with the modulating signal denoting the
modulating signal as m(t), pulse amplitude modulation is achieved simply
by multiplying the carrier with the m(f) signal. The balanced mixer /
modulators are frequently used as multipliers for this purpose. The o/p is
a series of pulses, the amplitudes of which vary in proportion to the
modulating signal.

Fig. (a) shows the circuit diagram of PAM.

 The particular form of pulse amplitude modulation (shown in Fig. C)
is referred to as natural PAM because the tops of the pulses follow the
shape of the modulating signal.

As shown in Fig. (c) the samples are taken at regular interval of

time. Each sample is a pulse, whose amplitude is determined by the
amplitude of the variable at the instant of time at which the sample is
taken. If enough samples are taken, a reasonable approximation of the
signal being sampled can be constructed at the receiving end. This is
known as “pulse amplitude modulation”.

The sampling theorem states that, if the sampling rate in any pulse
modulation system exceeds twice the maximum signal frequency, the
original signal can be reconstructed in the receiver with minimal
distortion.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

PROCEDURE :

1. Before wiring the circuit check all the components using multi
meter.

2. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram.

3. Set the carrier amplitude to around 2V(p-p) and frequency in the

range of 5 kHz to 15 kHz.

4. Set the signal amplitude to around 1 V (p-p) and frequency to 2

kHz.
5. Connect the CRO at the emitter of the transistor and observe the
PAM waveform.

6. Now to verify sampling theorem, keep the modulating signal

frequency to say 2kHz and the carrier frequency to twice that of
modulating signal frequency and observe the o/p waveform.
Connect this o/p to the demodulator circuit and observe the
signal if it matches with the modulating signal then sampling
theorem is verified.

7. Check the demodulated o/p for different frequencies of carrier

wave.

Experiment No.10 : PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

AIM : Conduct an experiment to generate a PWM signal for the given

analog signal of frequency less than 1 kHz.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : μA 741 Op-Amp,

resistors, signal generators, power supply and CRO.

THEORY : Pulse width modulation is also known as pulse duration

modulation [PDM]. Three variations of pulse width modulation are
possible. In one variation, the leading edge of the pulse is held
constant and change in pulse width with signal is measured with
respect to the leading edge. In other variation, the tall edge is held
constant and with respect to its pulse width is measured. In the third
variation, centre of the pulse is held constant and pulse width changes
on either side of the centre of the pulse. This is illustrated in Fig.b.

Fig. A shows the circuit diagram of PWM. In PWM, the same

sampling take is used as that is PAM. However, unlike PAM, noise is
not as much problem, since in PWM, amplitude is held constant.
 Pulse width modulation has the disadvantage when compared to
pulse position modulation [PPM], that its pulses are of varying width and
therefore of varying power content, this means that the transmitter must
be powerful enough to handle the maximum width pulses, although the
average power transmitted is perhaps only half of the peak power. PWM
still works if synchronization between transmitter and receiver fails,
whereas pulse position does not.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Experiment No. 11 : PULSE POSITION MODULATION

AIM : To conduct an experiment to generate PPM signal of pulse width

(between 100 μs and 200 μs) for a given modulating signal.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : μA 741 op-amp, 555

timer IC resistors, capacitors, diode IN4007, signal generator, power
supply and CRO.

THEORY : In this type of modulation, the amplitude and width of the

pulses is kept constant, while the position of each pulse, with reference to
the position of a reference pulse is changes according to the instantaneous
sampled value of the modulating signal.

Pulse position modulation is observed from pulse width modulation.

Any pulse has a leading edge and trailing edge.

In this system the leading edge x, is held in fixed position while the
trailing edge, varies towards or a way from X in accordance to
instantaneous value of sampled signal. The length XY of the pulse is
hence width modulated.

PROCEDURE :
 1. Before wiring the circuit check all the components using multi
meter.
2. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram.
3. Set the carrier amplitude to around 4 V (P-P)
4. Set the signal amplitude to around 2 V (P-P) and frequency < 1
kHz.
5. Observe the output signal at pin no.6, of second op-amp and also
observe the variation in pulse width by varying the modulating
signal amplitude.
6. Draw PWM waveform.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 Experiment No. 12 : TRANSISTOR MIXER

AIM : To design a transmitter mixer circuit and demonstrate the

mixing action (up and down) for an IFT of 455 kHz.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED : IFT, resistors,

capacitors, signal generator, power supply, connecting board and CRO.

THEORY : Transistors mixer is also known as RF amplifier, RF amplifier

provides initial gain and selectivity. Fig. (a) shows the RF amplifier
circuits. It is a tuned circuit followed by an amplifier. The RF amplifier
is usually a simple class A circuit. A typical bipolar circuit is shown in
Fig. (a).

The values of resistors R1 and R2 in the bi-polar circuit are adjusted

such that the amplifier works as class A amplifier. The RF (input
(Antenna) is connected through coupling capacitor [CC1] to base of the
transistor. This makes the circuit very broad band as the transistor
will amplify virtually any signal picked up by the RF input (Antenna).
However the collector is tuned with a parallel resonant circuit to
provide the initial selectivity for the mixed input.

And also local oscillator input is connected through coupling

capacitor to the emitter of the transmitter.

PROCEDURE :
1. Before wiring the circuit check all the components using multi
meter.
2. Connect the IFT in between signal source and CRO and measure the
tuned frequency that is f IFT = 455 KhZ.
3. Rig up the circuit as shown in Fig. (a). Using the same 1FT.
4. Switch on the signal source V1 and V2 (use always MHz frequency
range). Adjust V2 amplitude to be 10 times larger than V1.
For ex : V1 = 5 V (P-P) and V2 = 0.5 V (P-P)
5. Vary the frequency of RF source V1 and local oscillator source V2
such that we can see undistorted sine wave on CRO.
6. Note down V1 and V2 the difference should be equal to IFT frequency
that is 455 kHz.
7. Tabulate the readings in the tabular column.
 8. If f2 – f1 = fIFT up conversion and if f1 – f2 = fIFT down conversion.
9. Plot the waveform.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

EXPERIMENT NO.13 : FREQUENCY DEMODULATION

USING PHASE LOCKED LOOP IC

AIM :

Conduct a suitable experiment to determine the locking and

capture range and frequency demodulator of IC 565 (PLL).

And also implement a frequency synthesizers circuit using IC

565.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

IC 565, Breadboard, capacitors, resistors, connecting wires,

power supply and CRO.

THEORY: A phase locked loop is basically a closed loop system

designed to lock the output frequency and phase to the
frequency and phase of an input signal. It is commonly
abbreviated as PLL.

It consists of :

Phase detector

Low pass filter

Error amplifier

Voltage controlled Oscillator (VCO)

The phase detector compares the input frequency fi with the

feedback frequency f0 and generates an output signal which is a
function of the difference between the phase of the two input
signals. The output signal of the phase detector is a dc voltage.
The output of phase detector is applied to low-pass filter to
remove high frequency noise is often from the dc voltage. The
output of low pass filter without high frequency noise is often
referred to as error voltage or control voltage for VCO. When
control voltage is zero, VCO is in free running mode and its
output frequency is called as cenre frequency f0.

The error or control voltage applied as an input to the VCO,

forces the VCO to change its output frequency in the direction
that reduces the difference between the input frequency and
output frequency of VCO.

Once the two frequencies are same, the circuit is said to be

locked. Thus, a PLL goes through three state : free running,
capture and phase lock.

Lock Range : When PLL is in lock, it can track frequency

changes in the incoming signal. The range of frequencies over
which the PLL can maintain lock with the incoming signal is
called the lock range or tracking range of the PLL. It is usually
expressed as a percentage of f0, the VCO frequency.

CAPTURE RANGE : The range of frequencies over which the PLL

can acquire lock with an input signal called the capture range.
It is also expressed as a percentage of f0.

PULL-IN TIME: The capture of an input signal does not take

place as soon as the signal is applied, but it takes finite time.
The total time taken by the PLL to establish lock is called pull-
in-time. This depends on the initial phase and frequency
difference between the two signals as well as the overall loop
again and the bandwidth of the low pass filter.
 Fig. (b) shows the transfer characteristics of PLL. Just see
the figure how the PLL is locking and capture the frequency.

IC 565 available in a 14 pin DIP package. Fig. © shows 14-

pin configuration for IC 565 and Fig. (d) shows the block
diagram for IC 565.

The centre frequency of the PLL is determined by the free-

running frequency of the VCO and it is given as , …………

Where R1 and C1 are an external resistor and a capacitor

connected to pins 8 and 9, respectively. The values of R1 and C1
are adjusted such that the free running frequency will be at the
centre of the input frequency range. The value of R1 is
restricted from 2 kΩ to 20 kΩ but a capacitor can have any
value. A capacitor C2 connected between pin 7 and the positive
supply (pin 10) forms a first order low pass filter with an
internal resistance 3.6 kΩ The value of filter capacitor C2 should
be large enough to eliminate possible oscillations in the VCO
voltage.

The lock range and capture range for IC 565 PLL are given by
the following equations : …..

Where f0 = free running frequency of VCO in Hz and V = (+V)

– (-V) volts.

Where C2 is in Farads.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: