LAPPING, HONING AND BROACHING

BY
B.V.NARAYANA
MITS, KODAD, NALGONDA
Lapping, Honing and broaching
 As the name of this group of abrasive operations
suggests, their objective is to achieve superior
surface finish up to mirror-like finishing and very
close dimensional precision. The finishing
operations are assigned as the last operations in
the single part production cycle usually after the
conventional or abrasive machining operations,
but also after net shape processes such as
powder metallurgy, cold flash less forging, etc.
 The finishing processes discussed in this
section include honing, lapping, super
finishing, polishing, and buffing. The
typical surface finishes for these
operations are presented in the figure.
Also presented for comparison are surface
roughness values for fine grit size
grinding.
 In lapping, instead of a bonded abrasive tool, oil-based fluid
suspension of very small free abrasive grains
 (aluminum oxide and silicon carbide, with typical grit sizes between
300 and 600) called a lapping compound is applied between the
workpiece and the lapping tool.
 The lapping tool is called a lap, which is made of soft materials like
copper, lead or wood. The lap has the reverse of the desired shape
of the workpart. To accomplish the process, the lap is pressed
against the work and moved back and forth over the surface in a
figure-eight or other motion pattern, subjecting all portions of the
surface to the same action. Lapping is sometimes performed by
hand, but lapping machines accomplish the process with greater
consistency and efficiency
 The cutting mechanism in lapping is that the
abrasives become embedded in the lap surface,
and the cutting action is very similar to grinding,
but a concurrent cutting action of the free
abrasive particles in the fluid cannot be
excluded.
 Lapping is used lo produce optical lenses,
metallic bearing surfaces, gages, and other
parts requiring very good finishes and extreme
accuracy.
 Honing

 Honing is a finishing process performed by a

honing tool, which contains a set of three to a
dozen and more bonded abrasive sticks. The
sticks are equally spaced about the periphery of
the honing tool. They are held against the work
surface with controlled light pressure, usually
exercised by small springs. The honing tool is
given a complex rotational and oscillatory axial
motion, which combine to produce a
crosshatched lay pattern of very low surface
roughness
 In addition to the surface finish of about 0.1 μm,
honing produces a characteristic crosshatched
surface that tends to retain lubrication during
operation of the component, thus contributing to
its function and service life. A cutting fluid must
be used in honing to cool and lubricate the tool
and to help remove the chips.
 A common application of honing is to finish the
holes.
 Typical examples include bores of internal
combustion engines, bearings, hydraulic
cylinders, and gun barrels.
 Broaching
 Broaching is one of the most productive, basic
machining process. As a process, it is similar to
shaping, competes economically with milling and
boring and is capable of producing precision
machined surfaces.
 The heart of this process lies in the broaching
tool wherein roughing, semi finishing, and
finishing teeth are combined into one tool.
 Broaching is process to produce non
circular holes like rectangular , hexagonal ,
Square and irregularly shaped holes that
have been cored or punched: and also for
Cutting slots and key ways
 Lapping

 Grinding
 Grinding can be defined as the rapid removal of material from a
sample either to reduce it to a suitable size or to remove large
irregularities from the surface. The grinding wheel or plate typically
rotates at a high speed (around 200- 1000rpm) and a coarse,
bonded abrasive (> 40 μm) is used. Grinding is quick and relatively
easy process but can cause deep subsurface damage in delicate
materials. Typically grinding is applied to hard metals such as high
carbon steels where rapid removal is essential and subsurface
damage is not a critical parameter.
 For delicate materials the grinding process must be a balance of
material removal and subsurface damage. In many cases it is
advisable to initially cut the specimen with a gentle mechanical
method such as a wire saw. A properly prepared wire saw cut
sample can eliminate the grinding process altogether
 Lapping
 Lapping is the removal of material to produce a smooth, flat, unpolished surface.
Lapping processes are used to produce dimensionally accurate specimens to high
tolerances (generally less than 2.5 μm uniformity). The lapping plate will rotate at a
low speed (<80 rpm) and a mid-range abrasive particle (5-20μm) is typically used.
Lapping removes subsurface damage caused by sawing or grinding and produces
the required thickness and flatness.
 Although the lapping process is less damaging than grinding, there are two regimes
of lapping: free abrasive lapping and fixed abrasive lapping.
 Free Abrasive Lapping is when abrasive slurry is applied directly to a lapping plate
(e.g. cast iron). This is perhaps the most accurate method for producing specimens
and causes the least amount of damage. Free abrasive lapping is accurate because
of the rigid lapping surface which can be tailored to suit a particular material. Fixed
Abrasive Lapping is when an abrasive particle in bonded to a substrate as with
abrasive lapping films and SiC papers. Abrasive lapping films have various particles
bonded to a thin, uniform polyester substrate and are also capable of producing a
very flat surface. SiC papers are much thicker than the film and create the potential
for rounded edges on the sample.
 Abrasive Types

 There is a wide selection of abrasives to choose from when

selecting a lapping and polishing process. Selecting an
 abrasive is dependent upon the specimen hardness, desired
surface finish, desired removal rate, lifetime, and price.
 There are four basic types of abrasives that are used in lapping and
polishing processes: silicon carbide (SiC),
 aluminum oxide or alumina (Al2O3), boron carbide (B4C), and
diamond (C). All of these abrasives have distinct
 properties and are used for different materials and applications.
 SiC: SiC is hard and generally has a needle or blocky structure. SiC
is used in many applications where
 rough lapping is required. It seldom is used for polishing or
applications that require smooth surface
 finishes.
 Al2O3: Al2O3 is relatively hard and has a sharp, angular structure.
Alumina is commonly used where fine
 surface finishes are required as it breaks down over time and gives
excellent surfaces during lapping
 and polishing. Alumina is also relatively inexpensive.
 B4C: B4C is harder than most other abrasives (excluding diamond)
and has a blocky crystal structure. B4C
 provides excellent removal rates and is typically used when fast
removal with moderate surface quality
 is needed.
 Diamond: Diamond is the hardest material known and has a sharp,
angular structure. Diamond is extremely
 useful in lapping and polishing due to it’s removal rates and surface
finishing qualities. Diamond can
 produce excellent surface finishes combined with high removal rates.
 Lapping and Polishing
Equipment

 Equipment used for lapping and polishing can vary from application.
Typically what is required for lapping and polishing
 are the following:
 1. A lapping and polishing machine with variable speed.
 2. A polishing jig for holding specimens precisely.
 3. Various lapping plates for different applications.
 4. Workstations for controlling lapping fixtures and conditioning
equipment.
 5. Conditioning equipment for maintaining plate flatness.
 There are various methods available to accomplish these tasks.
South Bay Technology, Inc. has developed a series of
 equipment designed for this purpose and is described below.
Lapping and Polishing Machines
 Lapping and polishing machines vary extensively depending upon the
manufacturer. SBT has designed a set of instruments that are specifically
designed for universal lapping and polishing applications.
 The Model 920 Lapping and Polishing Machine incorporates a precision
spindle assembly housed in a solid cast aluminum casting to provide stable
operation in any laboratory environment. Stability when lapping is critical in
producing flat, precisely controlled tolerances on a given specimen.
 The motor is a high torque, variable speed motor that allows a wide range of
speeds to be employed. Flexibility in speed control allows the instrument to
be used as a grinding machine, high quality lapping machine, or polishing
machine. During grinding high speeds are required, whereas lapping and
polishing applications are generally completed at low speeds.
 The Model 920 also incorporates workstations, which allow for the use of
precise Lapping and Polishing Fixtures. Each workstation has it’s own
speed control, allowing the user to precisely rotate the lapping fixtures or the
conditioning ring. Lapping plates are held into place with three locating pins
and are easily removable, allowing maximum flexibility in processing
specimens. Various materials can be selected for the lapping plates,
ranging from aluminum, cast iron, and glass.
 Below is an image showing the Model 920 with a typical setup for lapping
Lapping finishing
Types of lapping
single sided
Double sided
 Cylindrical lapping

Upper lap rotation

Upper lap Cylindrical parts
rotation

Rolling
cylindrical workpieces
Lower lap Lower lap rotation
rotation
Lapping process
 Lapping and Polishing Fixtures
 Lapping and Polishing fixtures are perhaps the most critical part of
any lapping and polishing system. The lapping
 fixture is what holds the specimen during processing and ultimately
will determine the final specimen quality. South
 Bay Technology has been a leader in the manufacture of precision
lapping fixtures for any application. In general, the
 fixture typically performs like a piston, with a housing used for
support of a dynamically sliding piston assembly.
 Specimens are attached to the base of the piston using vacuum
mounting or wax mounting techniques. The piston
 movement is controlled with a precision dial micrometer at the top of
the fixture, and thus allows the precise removal of
 material in various increments determined by the user.
 The base of the housing contains a wear
resistant ring that supports the fixture,
controls the flatness and parallelism
 of the specimen, and gives stability to the
fixture.
 Below is a basic image of a typical lapping
and polishing fixture.
 Lapping and Polishing Plates
 Lapping and polishing processes are performed on a hard, metal
plate used in conjunction with abrasive
 suspensions such as diamond, silicon carbide (SiC), aluminum
oxide (Al2O3), or boron carbide (B4C). The metal
 lapping plate selected depends upon the desired material removal
rate, the surface finish desired, the hardness of the
 specimen being lapped, and the flatness requirement.
 Plate selection can play a critical role in the production of high
quality specimens. Lapping plates can be flat or
 grooved depending upon the desired application. Grooved plates
provide greater removal rates and prevent the
 abrasive from squeezing out from between the plate and the
specimen.
 Examples of some types are given below:
 Cast Iron (Fe): Cast iron lapping plates are used for rough lapping
and stock removal of materials. Specimens around 8-10 on the
Mohs Hardness Scale can be lapped using cast iron plates. Cast
iron produces a gray surface finish and provides high removal rates.
 Composites: Composite plates are used for rough lapping and
stock removal of materials. Specimens of 7-10 on Mohs Hardness
Scale can be lapped on composite plates. These plates produce
medium quality surface finishes with very high removal rates.
 Copper (Cu): Copper plates are used for both rough and fine
lapping of materials. Specimens around 9-5 on the Mohs Hardness
Scale can be lapped using copper plates. They provide high quality
surface finishes with intermediate removal rates.
 Tin/Lead (Sn/Pb): Tin lead plates are used for fine lapping and
polishing of materials. Specimens around 2-4 on Mohs Hardness
Scale are lapped with tin lead plates. They provide high quality
surface finishes with low removal rates.
 Polishing can also be carried out using a polishing cloth
attached to a substrate plate (either glass or aluminum
 typically) using aluminum oxide, colloidal silica, or
diamond suspensions. Use of polishing cloths can be
 advantageous due to the high quality surface finish they
produce. However, it must be noted that for extended
polishing times the use of a cloth will sometimes lead to
wavy surfaces and edge turning, which can be
detrimental to the specimen quality. Proper selection of
polishing cloths and process times is key in the
successful use of a cloth for final polishing of specimens.
 Plate Conditioning
 Plate conditioning is a process by which the lapping plate surface is
machined to maintain the flatness of the lapping plate and to “pre-
condition” the lapping plate surface with the abrasive being used for
the lapping process.
 Plate conditioning is important for lapping applications where
flatness and parallelism of the specimen is critical.
 Specimen quality is a direct result of plate condition, and therefore
proper maintenance of the lapping plate is crucial in preparing high
quality specimens.
 Conditioning of the lapping plate is affected by two primary
parameters: a) position of the conditioning ring, and b) weight of the
conditioning ring. The conditioning ring is generally a cast iron or
stainless steel ring used with the abrasive desired or with diamond
plated to the bottom of the ring. Conditioning of the lapping plate
also helps maintain high removal rates during long lapping
operations
 Honing
Used mainly to improve the surface finish of
holes

Bonded abrasives called stones are

mounted on a rotating mandrel; also used
on cylindrical or flat surfaces and to
remove sharp edges on tools
 Honing

Hole defects correctible by honing

 Honing

Hole defects correctible by honing

 Superfinishing/
Microhoning
Uses very low pressure and short strokes
 Broaching
 BROACHING MACHINES AND OPERATIONS
BROACHING:
 Broaching is a cutting process using a multitoothed tool (broach)
having successive cutting edges, each protruding to a greater
distance than the proceeding one in the direction perpendicular to
 the broach length. In contrast to all other cutting processes, there is
no feeding of the broach or the WP. The feed is built into the broach
itself through the consecutive protruding of its teeth.
 Therefore, no complex motion of the tool relative to the WP is
required, where the tool is moved past the WP with a rectilinear
motion vc (Figure 3.77).
 Equally effective results are obtained if the tool is stationary and the
work is moved.
 The total depth of the material removed in one stroke
 T is the sum of rises of teeth of the broach. T may be as
deep as 6 mm broached in one stroke. If
 more depth is to be broached, two broaches may be
used to perform the task. Broaching is generally used to
machine through holes of any cross-sectional shape,
straight and helical slots, external surfaces of various
shapes, and external and internal toothed gears (Figure
3.78). To permit the broaching of spiral grooves and gun-
barrel rifl ing, a rotational movement should be added to
the broach. Broaching usually produces better accuracy
and fi nish than drilling, boring, or reaming operations. A
tolerance grade of IT6 and a surface roughness Ra of
about 0.2 μm can be easily achieved by broaching.
 Broaching dates back to the early 1850s, when it was
originally developed for cutting keyways in pulleys and
gears. However, its obvious advantages quickly led to its
development for mass production machining of various
surfaces and shapes to tight tolerance. Today, almost
every conceivable form and material can be broached.
 Broaches must be designed individually for a particular
job. They are very expensive to manufacture
($15,000–$30,000 per tool).
 It follows that the broaching can only be justifi ed when a
very large batch size (100,000–200,000) is to be
machined. However, sometimes the WP is designed so
 that a non expensive standard broach can be used.
 Advantages and Limitations of
Broaching
 1. Advantages
 Broaching is a process in which both roughing and finishing operations are
completed in one pass, giving a high rate of production.
 It is a fast process; it takes only seconds to accomplish a task that would
require minutes with any other method. Rapid loading and unloading of
fixtures keeps the total production time to the minimum.
 Automation is easily arranged.
 Internal and external surfaces can be machined within close tolerance that
is normally required for interchangeable mass production
 As all the performance is built into the tooling, little skill is needed to operate
a broaching machine.
 Broaches have an exceptionally long life (10,000–20,000 parts per each
sharpening), as each tooth passes over the work only once per pass.
 2. Limitations

 Broaches are costly to make and sharpen. Hence, broaching is

adopted only in cases of mass production.
 Standard broaches are available; however, most broaches are
expensive, as they are made especially to perform only one job.
 Special precautions may be necessary when broaching cast and
forged parts to control the variations in stock. Operations for
removing excess stock may be necessary, which add to the overall
cost of manufacturing.
 Surfaces to be machined must be parallel to the axis of the broach.
 Broaching is impractical in the following cases:
 a. A surface that has obstructions across the path of the broach
travel.
 b. Blind holes and pockets.
 c. Fragile W /Ps, because they cannot withstand broaching forces
without distortion or
 breakage.
 THE BROACH TOOL

 3.7.2.1 Tool Geometry and Confi guration

 Figure 3.79 illustrates the broach tooth terminology. Each individual
tooth has the basic wedge form.
 Depending on the material being cut, the rake (hook) angle ranges
from 0° to 20°. The small clearance (back-off) angle is usually 3°–4°
for roughing teeth and 1°–2° for fi nishing teeth.
 The rise per tooth (RPT) (superelevation) is the difference in height of
two consecutive teeth (Figure 3.77). It is selected depending upon the
material to be machined and the type (form) of the broach (Table 3.3).
 The pitch is the distance between two consecutive teeth of a broach.
It depends upon the following factors:
 Length of cut l
 Material of WP and its mechanical properties
 RPT (superelevation)
 The pitch P can be expressed empirically
by
 p = 3 √R.P.T ∙ l ∙ χ
 where
 χ = chip space number
 = 3–5 for brittle WP materials
 = 6–10 for ductile and soft WP materials
 A relatively large pitch and tooth depth are required for roughing
teeth to accommodate greater chip volume in the chip gullet,
especially when machining materials produce continuous chips.
 For semi finishing and finishing teeth, the pitch is reduced to about
60% of that of roughing teeth to reduce the overall length of the
broach. The calculated pitch, according to Equation 3.19, should not
be greater than l/2 (l is the length to be cut) to provide better
guidance of the tool and to prevent the broach from drifting. To
prevent possible chattering and to obtain better surface finish, the
pitch p should be made non uniform as shown in Figure 3.80. To
avoid the formation of long chips, especially when broaching profiles
and circular shapes, chip breakers are uniformly cut into the cutting
edges of the broach in a staggered manner.
 Chip breakers are not necessary when broaching brittle materials
produce discontinuous chips. They are not used for finishing teeth
and small size broaches. The use of chip breakers reduces the pitch
and consequently the overall length of the broach. As a result, the
productivity is enhanced and the tool cost may be reduced
Solid-pull broach configuration.
Shell broach. (From Degarmo, E. P. et al.,
Materials and Processes in Manufacturing,
8th Edition, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1997
 Broach Configuration

 Figure illustrates the terminology of a pull-type internal broach for

enlarging circular holes .The cutting teeth on the broach have three
regions: roughing, semi finishing, and finishing teeth. On some
round broaches, burnishing teeth are provided for finishing or sizing.
These teeth have no cutting edge, but are rounded. Their diameters
are oversized by 25–30 μm larger than the finished hole.
 Irregular shapes are produced by starting from circular broaching in
the WP originally provided with drilled, bored, cored, or reamed
hole.
 The pull end provides a means of quickly attaching the broach to the
pulling mechanism. The front pilot aligns the broach in the hole
before it begins to cut and the rear pilot keeps the tool square
 with the finished hole as it leaves the WP. It also prevents sagging
of the broach. The follower end is ground to fi t in the machine
follower rest.
 Internal broaches are also made of shells
mounted on an arbor (Figure 3.82). Shell
broaches are superior to solid broaches in that
worn or broken shells can be replaced without
discarding the entire broach. Shell construction,
however, is initially more expensive than a solid
broach of comparable size. The disadvantage of
shell broaches is that some accuracy and
concentricity are sacrificed.
 Regarding the application of broaching force,
two types of broaching are distinguished
 1. Pull-broaching
 as the name implies, involves the broach being pulled
through the hole (Figure 3.83a). In this case, the main
cutting force is applied to the front of the broach,
subjecting the body to tension. Most internal broaching is
done with pull-broaches. Because there is no problem of
buckling, pull-broaches can be longer than push-types
for the same broaching depth.
 Pull-broaches can be made to long lengths, but cost
usually limits the length to approximately 2 m. Broaches
longer than 2 m are shell broaches, because the cost is
less for replacing damaged or worn sections than for
replacing the entire broach.
 2. Push-broaching
 applies the main cutting force to the rear of
the broach, thus subjecting the body to
compression (Figure 3.83b). A push-
broach should be shorter than a pull-
broach and its length does not usually
exceed 15 times its diameter to avoid
buckling
PULL BROACHING
PUSH BROACHING
 Broach Material

 The low cutting speeds used in most broaching operations (2–12

m/min) do not lend themselves to the advantage of carbide tooling.
Accordingly, most broaches are made of alloy steel and HSS
 of high grades (Cr-V-grade), which have less distortion during heat
treatment. This is an important factor in the manufacture of long
broaches.
 Titanium-coated HSS broaches are becoming more common due to
their prolonged tool life.
 Recently, carbide-tipped K-type (cobalt group) tools are employed to
machine CI, thus allowing higher cutting speeds, increased
durability, and improved surface finish. However, carbide-tipped
 broaches are seldom used for machining steels and forged parts, as
the cutting edges tend to chip in the first stroke due to lack of rigidity
of work fixture/tool combination.
 Broach Sharpening

 Broach sharpening is essential, as dull tools require more force,

leading to less accuracy and broach damage. Dull internal broaches
have the tendency to drift during cutting.
 The clearance angle of the sizing teeth of a broach is made as small
as possible (1°–2°) to minimize the loss of size when it is
sharpened. Also, the finishing or sizing teeth are commonly
provided with a land of a small width of 50–200 μm to limit the size
loss due to sharpening. Most of broaches are sharpened by grinding
the hook faces of the broach. The lands must not be reground
because this would change the size of the broach (Figure 3.84).
After sharpening, the tooth characteristics such as rake angle,
clearance angles, tooth depth, root radius, RPT, and pitch should
not be altered.
 BROACHING MACHINES

 In comparison with other types of machine tools, broaching

machines are notable for their simple construction and operation.
This is due to the fact that the shape of the surface produced in
broaching depends upon the shape and arrangement of the cutting
edges on the broach. The only cutting motion of the broaching
machine is the straight line motion of the ram. Broaching machines
have no feed mechanisms, as the feed is provided by a gradual
increase in the height of the broach teeth.
 Hydraulic drives, developed in the early 1920s, offered pronounced
advantages over the various early mechanical driving methods.
Most broaching machines existing today are of hydraulic drive,
accordingly characterized by smooth running and safe operation.
 The choice between vertical and horizontal machines is determined
primarily by the length of stroke required and the available fl oor
space. Vertical machines seldom have strokes greater than
 1.5 m because of ceiling limitation. Horizontal
machines can have almost any stroke length;
however, they require greater floor space.
 The main specifications of a broaching machine
are as follows:
 Maximum pulling or pushing force (capacity)
(ton)
 Maximum stroke length (m)
 Broaching speed (m/min)
 Overall dimensions and total weigh
 Horizontal Broaching Machines

 Currently, horizontal machines are finding increasing favor among users

because of their long strokes and the limitation that ceiling height places on
vertical machines. About 47% of all broaching machines are horizontal units
(ASM International, 1989). Horizontal internal broaching machines are used
mainly for some types of work such as automotive engine blocks.
The pulling capacity ranges from 2.5 to 75 tons, strokes up to 3 m, and
cutting speeds limited to less than 12 m/min. Broaching that requires
rotation of the broach, as in rifling and spiral splines, is usually done on
horizontal internal broaching machines. Horizontal machines are seldom
used for broaching small holes.
Horizontal surface broaching machines may be hydraulically or
electromechanically driven. In these machines, the broach is always
supported in guides. The surface hydraulic broaching machines are built
with capacities up to 40 tons, strokes up to 4.5 m, and cutting speeds up to
30 m/min. These machines are basically used in the automotive industry to
broach a great variety of CI parts for nearly 30 years.
Pull-down vertical broaching
machine
 On the other hand,the electromechanically
driven horizontal surface broaching
machines are available with higher
capacities, stroke lengths, and cutting
speeds (up to 100 tons, 9 m, and 30
m/min, respectively). Carbide-tipped
broaches are used to machine CI blocks of
internal combustion engines (ICEs).
 Vertical Broaching Machines
 These machines are almost all hydraulically driven. They are used
in every major area of metal working. Depending on their mode of
operation, they may be pull-up, pull-down, or push-down
 units. Figure 3.85 schematically illustrates a pull-down vertical
broaching machine in which the work is placed on the worktable.
These machines are capable of machining internal shapes to close
 tolerances by means of special locating fixtures. They are available
with pulling capacities from 2 to 50 tons, strokes from 0.4 to 2.3 m,
and cutting speeds up to 24 m/min. When cutting strokes exceed
 existing factory ceiling clearances, expensive pits must be dug for
the machine so that the operator can work at the factory floor level.
 Continuous Horizontal Surface Broaching Machines
 In this type of machines, the broaches are usually
stationary and mounted in a tunnel on the top of the
machine, while the work is pulled past the cutters by
means of a conveyor (Figure 3.86). Fixtures are usually
attached to the conveyor chain, so that the WPs can be
provided automatically by the loading chute at one end of
the bed and removed at the other end.
 The key to the productivity of this type of machines is the
elimination of the return stroke by mounting the WPs on
continuous chain. In the rotary continuous horizontal
broaching machines, the broaches are also stationary,
while the work is passed beneath or between them. The
work is held in fixtures on a rotary table.
 These machines are also used in mass production, as
there is no loss of time due to the non cutting
reciprocating strokes.