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PART- I PART- II
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Mechanics :
In its broadest sense the term ‘Mechanics’ may be defined as
the ‘Science which describes and predicts the conditions of rest
or motion of bodies under the action of forces’.
Engineering Mechanics
Kinematics Kinetics
Concept of Rigid Body :
Actually solid bodies are never rigid; they deform under the
action of applied forces. In those cases where this deformation
is negligible compared to the size of the body, the body may be
considered to be rigid.
Particle
For example, while studying the motion of sun and earth, they
are considered as particles since their dimensions are small
when compared with the distance between them.
Force
A
300
Scalars and Vectors
A quantity is said to be a ‘scalar’ if it is completely defined by
its magnitude alone.
Example : Length, Area, and Time.
A B
P P
For example, consider the above figure. The motion of the block will be
the same if a force of magnitude P is applied as a push at A or as a pull
at B.
P P
O
The same is true when the force is applied at a point O.
1. RESULTANT OF COPLANAR FORCES
R
F2
=
F1
θ
A A
F3
R = F1 + F2 + F3
external effect on particle, A is same
Resultant of two forces acting at a point
B C
P2 R
α
θ
O
P1 A
Contd..
B C
P2 R
α
θ
O
P1 A
In the above figure, P1 and P2, represented by the sides OA and OB have
R as their resultant represented by the diagonal OC of the parallelogram
OACB.
It can be shown that the magnitude of the resultant is given by:
R = √P12 + P22 + 2P1P2Cos α
Inclination of the resultant w.r.t. the force P1 is given by:
B C
P2 R
α
θ
O
P1 A
P2 R R = P1 + P 2 2
2
θ
O P2
A tan θ =
P1 P1
Triangle law of forces
the sense of the resultant force is defined by its tail at the tail of the
first force and its tip at the tip of the second force’.
Triangle law of forces
F1
F1
R θ
=
θ
A F2
F2
F1 F2 R
R β F2 = =
sin β sin α sin(180 − α − β )
α
(180 - α - β) = θ
F1
where α and β are the angles made by the resultant force
with the force F1 and F2 respectively.
Component of a force :
F
F
Fy F
= Fy
θx θx θx
Fx Fx
F2 M
F F β F2
F1
β α
α F1
O
The resolved part of the force F along OM and ON can
obtained by using the equation of a triangle.
F1 / Sin β = F2 / Sin α = F / Sin(180 - α - β)
Sign Convention for force components:
y
y
x
+ve
x
+ve
Also force components that are directed along +ve y-direction are
taken +ve for summation along the y-direction.
Classification of force system
Force system
F2 F1 F2
F1
F5 F3
F3 F4
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
1. Parallel Force System – Lines of action of individual
forces are parallel to each other.
2. Non-Parallel Force System – Lines of action of the forces
are not parallel to each other.
MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT AN AXIS
The applied force can also tend to rotate the body about
an axis in addition to motion. This rotational tendency is
known as moment.
Moment Arm:
Perpendicular distance
from the line of action of
the force to moment
center. Distance AB = d.
Magnitude of moment:
MA = F×d
A d2 A
F
Hence, couple does not produce any
=
translation and produces only rotation. M=Fxd
RESOLUTION OF A FORCE INTO A
FORCE-COUPLE SYSTEM
B A
B A
d
F
F F F
B A B
= A
d M=Fxd
F
Of these three forces, two forces i.e., one at A and the other
oppositely directed at B form a couple.
Moment of this couple, M = F × d.
Third force at B is acting in the same direction as that at P.
W kN
1. Concentrated Loads – This is the load
acting for very small length of the beam.
(also known as point load, Total load W is
acting at one point )
w kN/m
2. Uniformly distributed load – This is
the load acting for a considerable
length of the beam with same intensity
L
of w kN/m throughout its spread.
W = (w x L) kN
Total intensity, W = w × L
L/2
(acts at L/2 from one end of the spread)
L
3. Uniformly varying load – This load acts
for a considerable length of the beam with
intensity varying linearly from ‘0’ at one end
to w kN/m to the other representing a w kN/m
triangular distribution. L
Total intensity of load = area of triangular
spread of the load
W=½×L×w
W = 1/2× w × L.
(acts at 2×L/3 from ‘Zero’ load end) 2/3 ×L 1/3 ×L
L
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. Resultant of force system
F1 = 1200 N
Y
X
F2 = 400 N
3
4
F1 = 300 N
F3 =400 N
600N
800N
40º
20º
30º
200N
Q4. A disabled ship is pulled by means of two tug boats as shown in FIG.
4. If the resultant of the two forces T1 and T2 exerted by the ropes is a
300 N force acting parallel to the X – direction, find :
(a) Force exerted by each of the tug boats knowing α = 30º.
(b) The value of α such that the force of tugboat 2 is minimum,
while that of 1 acts in the same direction.
Find the corresponding force to be exerted by tugboat 2.
T2
α R = 300 N
X - direction
20º
FIG. 4 T1
( Ans: a. T1= 195.81 N, T2 = 133.94 N
b. α = 70º, T1 = 281.91 N, T2(min) = 102.61 N )
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. Resultant of force system
P
20º
R
40º
Q = 5 kN
1200 N
60º 800 N
θ
F
COLLAR
ROD
( Ans: a. θ = 41.81º ; b. The resultant cannot be horizontal.)
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. Resultant of force system
8kN
5kN
α
30º
Q
20N
D
30N C
A 10N
a B
40N
70.7 kN
200 kN
45º 30º
1.5m
A
1m 30º
100 N
80 N
150 Nm
150 N
1.5m 3m 1.5m
100 N 500 N
Definition:-
If a system of forces acting on a body, keeps the body in a
state of rest or in a state of uniform motion along a straight
line, then the system of forces is said to be in equilibrium.
ALTERNATIVELY, if the resultant of the force system is zero,
then, the force system is said to be in equilibrium.
EQUILIBRIUM OF - CONCURRENT COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS
i) ∑ Fx = 0; and ii) ∑ Fy = 0
Y X
Graphical conditions for Equilibrium
F2
3
F
F1
Fig 2.1
F3
F1
Polygonal Law: If more than three forces are in equilibrium,
then, they form a closed polygon when represented in a Tip to
Tail arrangement, as shown in Fig. 2.2. F4 F
3
F3 F2
F5
F
F1
2
F4 F1
Fig 2.2
F5
LAMI’S THEOREM
F3 α F2
F1
=
F2
=
F3 β γ
Sin α Sin β Sin γ
F1
Fig. 2.3
Thus the resultant force R and the resultant couple M are both
zero, and we have the equilibrium equations for two
dimensional force system
∑ Fx = 0; ∑ Fy = 0 ∑M = 0
Sphere
wall
Fig. 2.4 SPD
Free Body Diagram (FBD) :
900 F
F
(c) Roller
support
A Rh A
θ
Rv
R
RAV
A B A B
span
span
A B
span
RH M
A B
Rv
A B
A B
W
P
F (Friction)
N Hills & Vales Magnified Surface
W FαN
Fmax = µN
P
Where Fmax = Limiting Friction
N= Normal Reaction between the
Fmax contact surfaces
φ µ =Coefficient of friction
R
N
Fmax
µ=
N
Note : Static friction varies from zero to a maximum value. Dynamic
friction is fairly a constant.
FRICTION
Angle of Friction
W
The angle between N & R depends
on the value of F.
P
This angle θ, between the resultant
R and the normal reaction N is
φ Fmax
termed as angle of friction.
Angle of repose
When granular material is heaped, there exists a limit for the
inclination of the surface. Beyond that angle, the grains start
rolling down. This limiting angle upto which the grains repose
(sleep) is called the angle of repose of the granular material.
FRICTION
7kN
C 450
5kN
A 300
Fig(1)
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
2m
P
θ
10kN
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
Q3. Determine the value of P and the nature of the forces in the
bars for equilibrium of the system shown in figure.
[Ans: P = 3.04 kN, Forces in bars are Compressive.]
60
45 45
75
2kN P
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
A
D
30
B 60
θ
C
20 22.5
Loads are in kN
W
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
Q5. Find the reactions at A,B,C and D for the beam loaded
as shown in the figure. (Ans.RA=RB =34kN;RC=28.84kN;
MC=-140kNm ; θC=-33.69 ˚ )
12kN/m 20 kN 12kN/m
4kN/m 30kN
4kN/m
3
4
A B
C
40kNm
1m 2m 1m 1m 2m 1m 1m 2m
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
string
2.5m
B
A 60˚
200N
2.5m
2.5m
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
Q7. Find the position of the hinged support (x),such that the
reactions developed at the supports of the beam are equal..
(Ans.x=2m.)
10kN/m 15kN
18kN/m
x
2.0m 1.0m 0.6 1.4m 3.0m
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
A
Lm
θ
W
C
0.5L 2W
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
Take µ = 0.20
[Ans.:
(a) Pmin = 59.2N
(b) Pmin = 23.7N
(b) θ = 11.3o]
P
100N θ
25°
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
30° 800N
2000N P
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
200N
500N
θ=?
[Ans.: θ = 28.4°]
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
100N 200N
X=?
2m
A B
30° 60°
[Ans.: x = 3.5m]
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
B
A 20°
[Ans.: P = 328.42N]
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
20
P °
wedge
[Ans.: P = 1192N]
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
5m
α
A
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
Smooth wall
B
12m
[Ans.: FA = 52 N]
A
5m
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS
Contd.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Contd.
W
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Contd.
W CENTRE OF GRAVITY
x W3
W4
W2 To determine mathematically the
W1
X1
of any body, we apply the
X2 “principle of moments” to the
parallel system of gravitational
forces
x ⋅ W = ∫ x × dW
X1
X2
Where W = ∫ dW Contd.
x
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
x=
∫ x ⋅ dW
W
x
y=
∫ y ⋅ dW
and z=
∫ z ⋅ dW
----(1)
W W
x
CENTRE OF MASS
x=
∫ x ⋅ dm
y=
∫ y ⋅ dm
z=
∫ z ⋅ dm
----(2)
m , m , m
Contd.
The centroid “C” of the Volume segment,
x=
∫ x ⋅ dV
, y=
∫ y ⋅ dV
, ∫ z ⋅ dV
z=
V V V
x=
∫ x ⋅ dL
y=
∫ y ⋅ dL
z=
∫ z ⋅ dL
L , L , L
The centroid “C” of the Area segment,
x=
∫ x ⋅ dA
y =
∫ y ⋅ dA , z=
∫ z ⋅ dA
A
, A A
Contd.
Centroid of Simple figures: using method of moment ( First
moment of area)
Contd.
For example:
B
To locate the centroid w.r.t. the base line x-x
A ⋅ y = ∫ y ⋅ da
Moment of Sum of moment of
Total area A = elemental area dA
about x-axis about the same axis
Contd.
Consider a elemental area dA at a distance y from the
base line (x-x)
Let the thickness of the element be ‘dy’
Contd.
Sum of Moment of all such elemental areas
comprising the total area =
= ∫ y ⋅ da
= ∫ B ⋅ dy ⋅ y
D
⎡ By ⎤2 ⎡ BD 2 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦0 ⎣ 2 ⎦
BD 2
Then from the Principle of Moments Ay =
2
BD 2 BD 2 D
y= , y= , y=
2A 2 BD 2 Contd.
Similarly we can show
B
Y
Y x
dx B
⎡ Dx ⎤
2
A ⋅ x = ∫ x ⋅ da = ∫ x ⋅ (D ⋅ dx ) =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦0
x = B/2
To locate the centroid of simple right angle triangular
area from first principles
B
To locate the centroid w.r.t. the base line x-x.
Let the distance of
centroid from the base
line x-x be y
H
x x
Then from the Principle of Moments
A ⋅ y = ∫ y ⋅ da
Moment of Total area Algebraic Sum of moment of
A about = elementary area ‘dA’ about the same
x-axis axis.
Contd.
Consider a small elemental area ‘dA’ at a distance ‘y’
from the base line (x-x)
Let the thickness of the element be ‘dy’
B (H − y )
b=
A ⋅ y = ∫ b ⋅ dy ⋅ y H
B (H − y )
A⋅ y = ∫ ⋅ dy ⋅ y
H
H/3
y = H/3
H
y
X X
B
Contd.
Similarly we can prove that x = B/3
H (B − x )
da = h ⋅ dx = ⋅ dx
A ⋅ x = ∫ x ⋅ da B
A ⋅ x = ∫ b ⋅ dx ⋅ x
H (B − x )
Y b=
B
H (B − x )
A⋅ x = ∫ ⋅ dx ⋅ x
B
dx
x = B/3 H
x
b
x
B/3
B
Contd.
Y
The centroid of simple right angled triangle
area from the base
B/3
H Centroid
H/3
To locate the centroid of Semi Circular Area w.r.t. the
diameter AB from first principles
Consider a semicircle of
radius R,
A = area = πD 2
D = 2R
8
Contd.
dA = r × dθ × dr
Let ‘r’ =radial distance of area ‘da’ from centre of the semi
circle.
da = r × dθ × dr
y = r × sin θ
= r 2 sin θ ⋅ dr ⋅ dθ
Contd.
Moment of all such elemental
area ‘da’ about the diameter
AB
π R
= ∫ ∫ r 2 ⋅ sin θ ⋅ dr.dθ
OO
π R
⎡r ⎤3
= ∫ ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ sin θ ⋅ .dθ
O⎣
3 ⎦O
R3
(−[cos θ ]O )
π
=
3
2.R 3
= Contd.
3
Then from the Principle of Moments
A ⋅ y = ∫ y ⋅ da
y
π R
A⋅ y = ∫ ∫ ⋅ sin θ ⋅ dr.dθ
2
r Centroid
OO
2.R 3
A⋅ y = x x
3
R
4R 4R
y= y y=
3π 3π
Because of symmetry x=0
R
To locate the centroid of Quarter Circular Area w.r.t. the
boundary radial line AB from first principle
A ⋅ y = ∫ y ⋅ da
π
2 R
dr A⋅ y = ∫ ∫ ⋅ sin θ ⋅ dr.dθ
r 2
OO
r
y 4R
dθ y=
A
θ
B 3π
R
Contd.
Centroid of Quarter Circular Area w.r.t. the boundary radial
lines
4R Centroid
x=
3π
4R
y=
3π
4R
y=
3π
To locate the centroid of Circular Sector w.r.t. the y-axis
shown from first principle
y Consider a triangle of
Xc=(2/3)Rcosθ
differential area = da =
da
1
= × base × height
2
1
= × R × dθ × R
2
Distance of the differential area
‘da’, from y-axis = xc =
2
= × R × cos θ
3 Contd.
To locate the centroid of Circular Sector w.r.t. the y-axis
shown from first principle
Consider a triangle of
differential area = da =
1
= × base × height
2
1
= × R × dθ × R
2
Distance of the differential area
‘da’, from y-axis = xc =
2
= × R × cos θ
3 Contd.
Then from the Principle of Moments
α A × x = ∫ da × xc
A=∫ 1
R × dθ × R = R × α
2
−α 2
α
( ) 2 1 2
R × α x = ∫ ⋅ R cos θ × R dθ
2
3 2
−α
( 2
)
R × α x = × R 3 × sin α
2
3
2 R × sin α
x=
3 α
2 R × sin α
x=
3 α
4 R
y =
3π
To locate the centroid of area under the curve x = k y3
from x = 0 to x = a from first principle
Consider a vertical element of
area da = y dx at a distance x
from the y-axis.
da
To find x- coordinate,
x x X A × x = ∫ da × x
a At x = a, y = b,
A = ∫ y ⋅ dx
0 i.e. a = k b3, k = a/b3
Contd.
Substituting y = (x/k)1/3 and k = a/b3
a a
x ∫ ydx = ∫ xydx
0 0
1 1
a a
⎛ x⎞ 3 ⎛ x⎞ 3
x ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dx = ∫ x⎜ ⎟ dx
0⎝
k⎠ 0 ⎝
k⎠
3ab 3a 2b
⋅x=
4 7
4
x= a Contd.
7
To find y, Coordinate of centroid of the rectangular
element is yc = y/2
A × y = ∫ yc × dA
a a
⎛ y⎞
y ∫ ydx = ∫ ⎜ ⎟( ydx )
0 0⎝
2⎠
Substituting, y = b( x/a)1/3
3ab 3ab 2
⋅y=
4 10
2
y= b
5
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
3. Centroid of plane area
Problem No.1:
10
50
10
40
Problem No.2:
Locate the centroid of the shaded area shown
500 300
300
1000 mm
r=600
D=600
500
1000 mm
Problem No.3:
Locate the centroid of the shaded area w.r.t. to the axes
shown
y-axis
90
20
120
r=40
20
x-axis
60
Problem No.4:
250 mm
20
10
10
380
10
200 mm x-axis
Problem No.5
y 30
50
30
40
40
x
20 20
r=20
Problem No.6
Locate the centroid of the shaded area w.r.t. to the axes
shown
2.4 m
1.0
r=0.6
x
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
Problem No.7
Locate the centroid of the shaded area w.r.t. to the axes
shown
Problem No.8
Locate the centroid of the shaded area.
20
Problem No.9
Locate the centroid of the shaded area w.r.t. to the base
line.
Problem No.10
Locate the centroid of the shaded area w.r.t. to the axes
shown
Problem No.11
Locate the centroid of the shaded area w.r.t. to the axes
shown
Ans: x= y= 22.22
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
3. Centroid of plane area
Problem No.12
Locate the centroid of the shaded area w.r.t. to the axes
shown
Y
R=25
R=25
80
50
50 75
r1 k
r2 k
r3 k
B B
Radius of gyration is defined as a constant distance of all
elemental areas which have been rearranged with out
altering the total moment of inertia.
IAB = ∑ da k2 k=√IAB/A
Polar moment of Inertia
(Perpendicular Axes theorem)
Y x
r
y
O
x
z
Polar moment of Inertia
(Perpendicular Axes theorem)
x y x
*G
A B
Moment of inertia of any area about an axis AB is equal to the
M.I. about parallel centroidal axis plus the product of the total
area and square of the distance between the two axes.
IAB =∑dA (d +y)2
= ∑dA (d2 + y2 + 2 × d × y)
B
Moment of Inertia of rectangular area about its base-
(about the line AB) using Parallel Axis Theorem
=BD3/12+BD3/4
=BD3/3 A B
B
Moment of inertia of Triangular area about the base
by direct integration
dy
(h-y)
h
x
x y x
h/3
A B
b
h
x
x y x
h/3
A B
b
IAB = ∫ dA.y2 = ∫ (x.dy)y2
h
Ixx = ∫ (b . (h-y) y2.dy) /h
0
R 2π
r
y=rSinθ
=∫ ∫ r3.dr Sin2θ dθ x θ x
0 0
R 2π
R
=∫ r3 dr ∫ {(1- Cos2θ)/2} dθ
0
R
0
2π
A B
=[r4/4] [θ/2 – Sin2θ/4]
0 0
= R4/4[π - 0] = πR4/4
IAB = ∫ dA . y2
R π
= ∫ ∫ (r.dθ.dr) r2Sin2θ
0 0
R π y0
=∫ r3.dr ∫ Sin2θ dθ
0 0
R π
=∫ ∫ r3 dr (1- Cos2θ)/2) dθ
0 0
π R
=[R4/4] [θ/2 – Sin2θ/4] x x
0 4R/3π
A B
= R4/4[π/2 - 0]
= πR4/8 = (πD4/32) y0
Moment of inertia of Semi-circular area about the
centriodal horizontal axis
using parallel axis theorem:
2
IAB = Ixx + A(d)
D y
IAB = ICD
R π/2
IAB = ∫ ∫ (r.dθ.dr). r2Sin2θ
0 0
R π/2
=∫ r3.dr ∫ Sin2θ dθ x x
0 0 4R/3π
R π/2 A B
=∫ r3 dr ∫ (1- Cos2θ)/2) dθ C y
0 0
π/2
=[R4/4] [θ/2 – (Sin2 θ)/4]
0 4R/3π
= R4 (π/16 – 0) = πR4/16
Moment of inertia about Centroidal axis,
Ixx = IAB - Ad2
y0
4 y0 4R/3π
x0 0.11R4 πR4/8 πR4/8 -
x0
x y0 x
5 y y0
x0 4R/3π 0.055R4 0.055R4 πR4/16 πR4/16
4R/3π
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
30mm
30mm
20
30mm
100mm
300mm
200
200mm
900mm
[Ans: X = 99.7mm from A, Y = 265 mm
Ixx = 10.29 x 109mm4, Iyy = 16.97 x 109mm4]
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
200mm
20
140mm
60
20
100mm
[Ans: Ixx = 45.54 x 106mm4, Iyy = 24.15 x 106mm4
rxx = 62.66mm, ryy = 45.63mm]
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
X 60 20
20 X
60 60
[Ans: X = 83.1mm
Ixx = 2228.94 x 104mm4, Iyy = 4789.61 x 104mm4]
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
200mm
400mm
200mm d 200mm
200mm
600mm
[Ans: d/2 = 223.9mm d=447.8mm]
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Properties of ISA
Cross sectional area = 4400mm2
Ixx = Iyy ;Cxx = Cyy =18.5mm
18.5mm
200mm
18.5mm
20mm
300mm
[Ans: Ixx = 111.078 x 107mm4, Iyy = 39.574 x 107mm4]
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Q8. The R.S. Channel section ISAIC 300 are placed back to
back with required to keep them in place. Determine the
clear distance d between them so that Ixx = Iyy for the composite
section.
Properties of ISMC300 Lacing
Y
C/S Area = 4564mm2
Ixx = 6362.6 x 104mm4
23.6mm
Iyy = 310.8 x 104mm4
Cyy = 23.6mm X X 380mm
[Ans: d = 183.1mm] Y
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
40mm
160mm
40mm
40mm
90mm
[Ans: Ixx = 2870.43 x 104mm4, Iyy = 521.64 x 104mm4]
5. Kinetics of rectilinear motion
5. Kinetics of rectilinear motion
F sinθ F
F sinθ
F cosθ F F cosθ
α α
A B
s
Work done = (F cosα ) × s
X- component of force F moves through distance a S,
S = displacement of force from A to B
Unit: Nm ( Joule )
POWER:-
= force × velocity
Unit :- N m (Joule)
Momentum:-
Quantity of motion possessed by a body is called momentum. It
is the product of mass and velocity. It is a vector quantity.
Unit:- N s.
Impulse of a Force:-
It is defined as the product of force and the time over which it
acts. It is a vector quantity.
Unit:- N s.
Newton’s second law of motion.
F = ma
m= mass of the particle.
The constant value obtained for the ratio of the
magnitude of the force and acceleration is
characteristic of the particle and is denoted by ‘m’.
Where ‘m’ is mass of the particle
Units
Force in Newtons (N) N = 1 Kgm/s2
Acceleration in m/s2
h e
n t t
e i an
a o v ult
m m s
= l
l f r e
R i
w o
y
d tion
o
B rec
F2 di
F1
F3
ΣFx = max
ΣFy = may
ΣFz = maz
F1 + F2 + F3 + ma = 0
If
ΣFx = 0
ΣFy= 0 including inertia force vector
ΣFz = 0
This principle is known as D’Alembert’s principle
Work-Energy relation for translation
∑ F = m × v × dv/ds
ΣF × ds = m × v × dv ------------------(2)
v2 v
∑ F × s = ( m )
2
u
1
∑ F × s = m(v − u )
2 2
F=m×a
F = m × (v - u)/t = (mv – mu)/t
F × t = mv – mu
B A
60o 30o
Ans: v=13.6m/s
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Ans: Pull = 2 kN
a) Output power=11.12kW
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
5kg 3kg
30º 30º
V = 4.45 m/s
s = 0.61 m
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
V = 23.66 m/s
s = 2.9 km
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Ans : T=211.72 kN
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Q8. A small block starts from rest at point a and slides down the
inclined plane. At what distance along the horizontal will it travel
before coming to rest . Take µk=0.3 [Ans :s=6m ]
5m
A
3
4 B C
s
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Q9. The system starts from rest in the position shown . How
much further will block ‘A’ move up the incline after block B hits
the ground . assume the pulley to be frictionless and massless
and µ is 0.2 .WA=1000N, WB=2000N. [ Answer s =1.27m]
B
3
4 3m
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
A
5 B 3m
12
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
2.5 m/s
60kg
600m
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Q13. The system shown in figure has a rightward velocity of
4m/s, just before force P is applied. Determine the value of P
that will give a leftward velocity of 6m/s in a time interval of
20sec. Take µ = 0.2 & assume ideal pulley. [Answer
P=645.41N]
P 1000N
400N
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Q15. A wagon weighing 400kN starts from rest, runs 30m down
a 1% grade & strikes a post. If the rolling resistance of the track
is 5N/kN, find the velocity of the wagon when it strikes the post.
If the impact is to be cushioned by means of one bumper string,
which compresses 1mm per 20 kN weight, determine how much
the bumper spring will be compressed. [Answer v=1.716m/s, x=77.5mm]
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Ans: F = 5.663 kN
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
string
Frictionless pulley
A
string
Frictionless pulley
Ans: aA=8.403m/s2
B
aB=4.201 m/s2
T= 85.71 N
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Frictionless pulley
B
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Frictionless pulley
B
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Frictionless pulley
B
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Ans:
Pull=40.19kN,
power=401kW,
T=30.15kN
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5. Kinetics
Q22. what velocity the block A will attain after 2
seconds starting from rest? Take µ = 0.2. WA =
1500N, WB = 2000N. Use impulse-momentum
relation.
A 3
4 B
4
3
PART - II
STRESS
Direct or Normal
Stress:
∆F P
σ = lim σ ave =
∆A→0 ∆A A
STRAIN
STRAIN :
when a load acts on the material it will undergo
deformation. Strain is a measure of deformation produced by
the application of external forces.
P
σ=
P 2P P A
σ = = stress σ= = 2δ δ
A 2A A ε= =
δ δ 2L L
ε=
L
= normal strain ε=
L
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Proportionality limit
Typical tensile test curve for mild steel showing upper yield point
and lower yield point and also the elastic range and plastic range
Stress-strain Diagram
Limit of Proportionality :
From the origin O to a point called proportionality limit the
stress strain diagram is a straight line. That is stress is
proportional to strain. Hence proportional limit is the maximum
stress up to which the stress – strain relationship is a straight
line and material behaves elastically.
Elastic limit:
It is the stress beyond which the material will not return to its
original shape when unloaded but will retain a permanent
deformation called permanent set. For most practical purposes
it can often be assumed that points corresponding proportional
limit and elastic limit coincide.
Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains
are not totally recoverable. There will be thus some permanent
deformation when load is removed.
PB
σB = =
load at breaking (failure)
A Original cross sectional area
After yield point the graph becomes much more shallow and
covers a much greater portion of the strain axis than the
elastic range.
The capacity of a material to allow these large plastic
deformations is a measure of ductility of the material
Ductile Materials:
The capacity of a material to allow large extension i.e. the
ability to be drawn out plastically is termed as its ductility.
Material with high ductility are termed ductile material.
Brittle Materials :
A brittle material is one which exhibits relatively small
extensions before fracture so that plastic region of the tensile
test graph is much reduced.
Example: steel with higher carbon content, cast iron,
concrete, brick
Hooke’s Law
stress (σ) = P δL PL
E = strain (ε) ÷ =
A L AδL
W W
A
B
d1 x d2
dx
(d 2 − d1 ) πd1
2
π
Diameter at x, = d1 + ×x c/s area at x, =
4
= (d1 + kx )2
L 4
= d1 + k × x
⎛ ⎞
⎛ PL ⎞ ⎜ Wdx ⎟
Change in length over a =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ AE ⎠ dx ⎜⎜ π (d + kx )2 × E ⎟⎟
length dx is ⎝4
1
⎠
⎛ ⎞
Change in length over a L⎜ Wdx ⎟
=∫ ⎜ ⎟
length L is 0
⎜ π (d + kx )2 × E ⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝4 ⎠
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Change in length over a L
=∫ ⎜
Wdx
⎟
length L is 0
⎜ π (d + kx )2 × E ⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛
⎜ W
dt ⎞
⎟
Put d1+kx = t,
L
=∫ ⎜ k ⎟
0
⎜ π (t )2 × E ⎟ Then k dx = dt
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
L L L
4W ⎡ t ⎤
− 2 +1
4W ⎡ − 1⎤ − 4W ⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢⎣ t ⎥⎦ = πEk ⎢ ⎥
πEk ⎣ − 1 ⎦ 0 πEk 0 (
⎣ 1 d + kx ) ⎦0
4WL WL
= =
πEd1d 2 πd1d 2 × E
4
Derive an expression for the total extension of the tapered bar
AB of rectangular cross section and uniform thickness, as
shown in the figure, when subjected to an axial tensile load ,W.
W W d2
d1
A B
b
L b
W W d2
d1
A B
b
b
x dx
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A
depth at x, = d1 +
(d 2 − d1 ) × x c/s area at x, = (d1 + kx )b
L
= d1 + k × x
⎛ PL ⎞ ⎛ Wdx ⎞
Change in length over a =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ AE ⎠ dx ⎝ (d1 + kx )b × E ⎠
length dx is
Change in length over a L ⎛ Wdx ⎞
= ∫ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
length L is 0
⎝ (d1 + kx )b × E ⎠
P
= (log e d 2 − log e d1 )
b× E ×k
2.302 × P × L
= (log d 2 − log d1 )
b × E × (d 2 − d1 )
Derive an expression for the total extension produced by self
weight of a uniform bar, when the bar is suspended vertically.
Diameter
d
P1 = weight of the bar below
element
the section,
= volume × specific weight
dx dx
= (π d2/4)× x × γ
P1
x = A× x ×γ
Diameter
Extension of
d the element ⎡ PL ⎤ P1 dx ( A × x × ρ ) dx
=⎢ ⎥ = =
due to weight ⎣ AE ⎦ dx AE AE
of the bar
below that,
Hence the total extension
entire bar
L
L ( A × x × γ )dx ⎡ γx ⎤2
γL2
=∫ =⎢ ⎥ =
0 AE ⎣ 2E ⎦ 0 2E
Where, P = (AL)×γ
= total weight of the bar
SHEAR STRESS
The resisting forces acting parallel to the surface per unit area is
called as shear stress.
Shear stress (τ) Shear resistance P
=
= Area resisting shear A
A D A D
τ τ
Fig. d Fig. e
τ Shear strain is defined as
B B' C'
C the change in angle
φ between two line element
which are originally right
A D
angles to one another.
τ
Fig. e
BB′
shear strain = = tan φ ≈ φ
AB
Shear Modulus
Shear stress (τ)
Shear strain (φ) = constant = G =
or
Modulus of Rigidity
τ
A B
D C
τ
Force on the face AB = P = τ × AB × t
Where, t is the thickness of the
element.
Force on the face DC is also equal to
P
State of simple shear
τ' =τ
State of simple shear
Poisson’s Ratio:
Fig.(a)
POISSON’S RATIO
Lateral strain (− δd ) (− δb )
= d b
POISSON’S RATIO = δl OR δl
Longitudinal strain l l
Poisson’s Ratio = µ
For most engineering metals the value of µ lies between 0.25 and
0.33
In general y
Lz Ly
P P
x
Lx
z
− δl y − δl z
Lateral strain ly lz
Poisson’s = = OR = δl
Strain in the direction of δl x x
Ratio lx lx
load applied
Poisson’s Ratio = µ
y
In general
Ly
Lz
Px Px
x
Lx
z
Strain in Y-direction =
Strain in X-direction = εx εy
δl y δl x
δl x = =µ
= ly lx
lx
δl z δl x
Strain in Z-direction = εz = =µ
lz lx
Load applied in Y-direction
y Py
Lz Ly
x
Lx
z
Py
− δl x − δl z
Lateral strain lx lz
Poisson’s = = OR = δl
Strain in the direction of δl y y
Ratio ly ly
load applied
δl x δl y
Strain in X-direction = εx = =µ
lx ly
Load applied in Z-direction
y
Pz
Lz Ly
x
Lx
z Pz
− δl x − δl y
Lateral strain lx ly
Poisson’s = = OR =
Strain in the direction of δl z δl z
Ratio lz lz
load applied
δl x δl z
Strain in X-direction = εx = =µ
lx lz
Load applied in X & Y direction
y Py
Ly Strain in X-direction = εx
Lz
Px σx σy
Px x = −µ
Lx E E
z Py
Strain in Y-direction = εy σy σx
= −µ
E E
σy σx
Strain in Z-direction = εz = −µ −µ
E E
Py
General
Pz case:
y
Strain in X-direction = εx
Px Px
x
σx σy σz
εx = −µ −µ
z Py E E E
Pz
Strain in Y-direction = εy σy
σz
σy σx σz
εy = −µ −µ
E E E σx σx
Strain in Z-direction = εz
σz σy σx σz σy
εz = −µ −µ
E E E
Bulk Modulus
Bulk Modulus
dV
1
[ ] [
= 1 − (1 + ε x )(1 + ε y )(1 + ε z ) = 1 − 1 + ε x + ε y + ε z ]
= εx +εy +εz
= change in volume per unit volume
Relationship between volumetric strain and linear strain
Volumetric strain
dV
= εx +εy +εz
V
⎛σx σy σ ⎞ ⎛σ y σ σ ⎞ ⎛σ
= ⎜⎜ −µ −µ z ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ −µ x −µ z ⎟⎟ + ⎜ z − µ σ y − µ σ x ⎞⎟
⎝ E E E ⎠ ⎝ E E E ⎠ ⎜⎝ E E E ⎟⎠
1 − 2µ
= (σ x + σ y + σ z )
E
For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,
σx =σy =σz =σ
dV 1 − 2 µ
= (σ x + σ y + σ z )
V E
dV 1 − 2 µ
= (3σ )
V E
σ
K=
⎛ dV ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ V ⎠
E
K= = bulk modulus
3(1 − 2 µ )
or
E = 3K (1 - 2 µ )
Relationship between young’s modulus of elasticity (E)
and modulus of rigidity (G) :-
A1 A B1 B
45˚ a
H
a
φ φτ
D C
τ
Consider a square element ABCD of side ‘a’ subjected to pure shear
‘τ’. DA'B'C is the deformed shape due to shear τ. Drop a perpendicular
AH to diagonal A'C.
Strain in the diagonal AC = τ /E – µ (- τ /E) [ σn= τ ]
= τ /E [ 1 + µ ] -----------(1)
Strain along the diagonal AC=(A'C–AC)/AC=(A'C–CH)/AC=A'H/AC
In ∆le AA'H
Cos 45˚ = A'H/AA'
A'H= AA' × 1/√2
AC = √2 × AD ( AC = √ AD2 +AD2)
Strain along the diagonal AC = AA'/ (√2 × √2 × AD)=φ/2 ----(2)
Modulus of rigidity = G = τ /φ
φ = τ /G
Substituting in (2)
Strain along the diagonal AC = τ /2G -----------(3)
Equating (1) & (3)
τ /2G = τ /E[1+µ]
E=2G(1+ µ)
Relationship between E, G, and K:-
We have
E = 2G( 1+ µ) -----------(1)
E = 3K( 1-2µ) -----------(2)
Equating (1) & (2)
2G( 1+ µ) =3K( 1- 2µ)
2G + 2Gµ=3K- 6Kµ
µ= (3K- 2G) /(2G +6K)
Substituting in (1)
E = 2G[ 1+(3K – 2G)/ (2G+6K)]
E = 18GK/( 2G+6K)
E = 9GK/(G+3K)
Working stress: It is obvious that one cannot take risk of
loading a member to its ultimate strength, in practice. The
maximum stress to which the material of a member is
subjected to in practice is called working stress.
This value should be well within the elastic limit in elastic
design method.
Factor of safety: Because of uncertainty of loading
conditions, design procedure, production methods, etc.,
designers generally introduce a factor of safety into their
design, defined as follows
Aa=1000mm2
Ab=700mm2 As=800mm2
20kN 15kN 15kN 10kN
brass steel
aluminum
Ф = D mm
Q3. The diameter of a specimen is found to reduce by
0.004mm when it is subjected to a tensile force of 19kN.
The initial diameter of the specimen was 20mm. Taking
modulus of rigidity as 40GPa determine the value of E and
µ
Ans: E=110GPa, µ=0.36
Q.4 A circular bar of brass is to be loaded by a shear load of
30kN. Determine the necessary diameter of the bars (a) in
single shear (b) in double shear, if the shear stress in
material must not exceed 50MPa.
Ans: 27.6, 19.5mm
Q.5 Determine the largest weight W that can be supported
by the two wires shown. Stresses in wires AB and AC are
not to exceed 100MPa and 150MPa respectively. The cross
sectional areas of the two wires are 400mm2 for AB and
200mm2 for AC.
Ans: 33.4kN
B C
300 450
A
W
Q.6 A homogeneous rigid bar of weight 1500N carries a
2000N load as shown. The bar is supported by a pin at B
and a 10mm diameter cable CD. Determine the stress in
the cable
Ans: 87.53MPa
D
A C
B
3m 3m
2000 N
Q.7. A stepped bar with three different cross-sectional
areas, is fixed at one end and loaded as shown in the
figure. Determine the stress and deformation in each
portions. Also find the net change in the length of the
bar. Take E = 200GPa
450mm2
300mm2
250mm2 40kN
20kN 10kN
30 90kN
30
180
Ans: 0.125mm
Q.12 Define the terms: stress, strain, elastic limit,
proportionality limit, yield stress, ultimate stress, proof
stress, true stress, factor of safety, Young’s modulus,
modulus of rigidity, bulk modulus, Poisson's ratio,
Q.18 Find the extension of a conical rod due to its own weight
when suspended vertically with its base at the top.
Material(2)
L1 L2
Material(1)
W
A compound bar is one which is made of two or more than
two materials rigidly fixed, so that they sustain together an
externally applied load. In such cases
(i) Change in length in all the materials are same.
(ii) Applied load is equal to sum of the loads carried by
hb
(dL)1 = (dL)2
(σ1/ E1)L1 = (σ2 /E2)L2
σ1 = σ2 ×( E1/E2)(L1/L2) (1)
A B
L B B´
A
P
L αTL
A B
L
Any material is capable of expanding or contracting freely
due to rise or fall in temperature. If it is subjected to rise in
temperature of T˚C, it expands freely by an amount ‘αTL’ as
shown in figure. Where α is the coefficient of linear
expansion, T˚C = rise in temperature and L = original length.
From the above figure it is seen that ‘B’ shifts to B' by an
amount ‘αTL’. If this expansion is to be prevented a
compressive force is required at B'.
∆ x
When a compound bar is subjected to change in temperature,
both the materials will experience stresses of opposite nature.
Compressive force on material (1) = tensile force on material (2)
σ1A1 = σ2A2 (there is no external
load)
σ1=( σ2A2)/A1 (1)
As the two bars are connected together, the actual position of the
bars will be at XX.
Actual expansion in material (1) = actual expansion in material (2)
α1TL – (dL)1 = α2TL + (dL)2
α1TL – (σ1 / E1) L =α2TL + (σ2 / E2) L
αT – (σ1 / E1) = α2T + σ2 / E2 --------------------------(2)
From (1) and (2) magnitude of σ1 and σ2 can be found out.
Exercise problems
Steel
Bronze Bronze
160kN
Q..3 A cart wheel of 1.2m diameter is to be provided with
steel tyre. Assume the wheel to be rigid. If the stress in steel
does not exceed 140MPa, calculate minimum diameter of steel
tyre & minimum temperature to which it should be heated
before on to the wheel.
ANS: d=1199.16mm T=58.330C
Q.4 A brass rod 20mm diameter enclosed in a steel tube of
25mm internal diameter & 10mm thick. The bar & the tube are
initially 2m long & rigidly fastened at both the ends. The
temperature is raised from 200C to 800C. Find the stresses in
both the materials.
If the composite bar is then subjected to an axial pull of 50kN, find
the total stress. Es=200GPa, Eb=80GPa, αs=12×10-6/0C,
αb=19×10-6/0C.
ANS: σb=8.81N/mm2 ( C ) , σs=47.99N/mm2( T )
8. STRESSES ON INCLINED PLANES
INTRODUCTION
(ii) The inclination of max. and min. normal stress planes and
values of the normal stress (max. / min.) on them;
⎛σ −σ ⎞
τθ = ⎜⎜
x y
⎟⎟ sin 2 θ − τ cos 2 θ − − − ( 2 )
⎝ 2 ⎠
(ii) The inclination of max. and min. normal stress planes and
the values of the normal stress (max. / min.) on them
Let, θP be the inclination of the plane of max. or min. normal stress
and σP be the value of the max. or min. normal stress on that plane,
then, from Eqn. (1):
⎛σ x +σ y ⎞ ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
σ P = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ cos 2θ P + τ sin 2θ P - - - (1)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Thus, the condition for max. or
dσ P min. normal stress to occur on a
For σ P to be max. or min., =0 plane is, shear stress on that
dθ
⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞ plane should be zero.
⇒ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(− 2 sin 2θ P ) + τ (2 cos 2θ P ) = 0 These planes on which shear
⎝ 2 ⎠
stress is zero and the normal
⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
⇒ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(sin 2θ P ) − τ (cos 2θ P ) = 0 stress on them being either the
⎝ 2 ⎠ max. or the min. are called
⇒ τθ = 0
P
‘PRINCIPAL PLANES’.
From,τ θ P = 0, we have,
⎛σ x −σ y ⎞ τ
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(sin 2θ P ) − τ (cos 2θ P ) = 0 ⇒ tan 2θ P = - - - (3)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎛ xσ − σ y ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
The above Eqn. (3), gives two values for θP, which differ by 900.
Thus, there are two mutually perpendicular Principal planes, on
which there are only normal stresses, shear stress being zero on
them.
On one of them, the value of the normal stress is the max.; it is
called the ‘Major Principal plane’, the max. normal stress on it is
called the ‘Major Principal Stress’.
On the other principal plane, the value of the normal stress is the
min.; it is called the ‘Minor Principal plane’, the min. normal stress on
it is called the ‘Minor Principal Stress’.
τ
From tan 2θ P = , we get,
⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
τ2
2θP ⎝ 2 ⎠
] 2+
τ
y /2 sin 2θ P = ±
(σx-σy)/ 2
-σ
2
⎡ (σ X − σ Y ) ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎥ +τ 2
x
[(σ
2 ⎦
±√
cos 2θ P = ±
(σ X − σ Y ) / 2
2
τ ⎡ (σ X − σ Y ) ⎤
⎥⎦ + τ
2
⎢⎣ 2
Substituting for sin 2θP and cos 2θP in Eqn. (1), and simplifying, we
get the equation for principal stresses as:
σP =
(σ x +σ y )± ⎛σ x −σ
⎜⎜ y ⎞
2
⎟⎟ + τ 2
− − − (4)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
The above equation (4) gives two values for principal stresses.
The numerically max. of the two values (+ ve or − ve) is the Major
Principal Stress, (σMajor or σMax);
The numerically min. (+ ve or − ve) is the Minor Principal Stress (σMinor
or σMin).
(iii) Inclination of max. shear stress planes, Max. shear stress Equation.
Let, θS be the inclination of the plane of max. or min. shear stress
and τS be the value of the max. or min. shear stress on that plane,
then, from Eqn. (2):
⎛σ −σ ⎞
τS = ⎜⎜
x y
⎟⎟ sin 2 θ S − τ cos 2 θ S − − − (2)
⎝ 2 ⎠
τ2
2
From tan 2θ S = − ⎝ ⎠ , we get,
+
τ
2] 2
τ
y )/
cos 2θ s = ±
−σ
(σx-σy)/ 2 ⎡ (σ x − σ y ) ⎤
2
⎢ ⎥ +τ
2
x
[(σ
⎣ 2 ⎦
±√
2θS
sin 2θ S = ±
(σ x − σ y )/ 2
τ ⎡ (σ x − σ y ) ⎤
2
+τ
⎢ ⎥
2
⎣ 2 ⎦
Substituting for sin 2θS and cos 2θS in Eqn. (2), we get the
equation for Max. shear stresses as:
⎛σ x −σ ⎞
2 ⎤
τ max . = ± ⎜⎜
y
⎟⎟ + τ 2 ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎥ − − − (6 )
⎛ σ Major − σ Minor ⎞ ⎥
⇒ τ max . = ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
The above equation (6) gives two values for Max. shear stresses,
which are numerically equal but opposite in sense.
NOTATIONS & SIGN CONVENTIONS
σx Æ Normal Stress in x- direction σy
σy Æ Normal Stress in y- direction τ
τ ÆShear Stresses in x & y – directions C τθ E B
σx σx
θ Æ Angle made by inclined plane wrt vertical σθ θ
D A
σθ ÆNormal Stress on inclined plane AE
τ
τθ ÆShear Stress on inclined plane AE σy
θP Æ Inclination of Principal planes
σP Æ Principal stresses
θS Æ Inclination of Max. shear stress planes [θS = θP + 450].
All the parameters are shown in their +ve sense in the Fig.
60MPa Ans:
σ = − 22.5MPa, τ = − 64.95MPa.
90 Pure shear plane σ = 0,
MPa
30o Ө = 39.23o w.r.t. horizontal.
τpure = − 73.48MPa.
Q.3 A plane element is subjected to the system of stresses as shown
in Fig. Determine (i) the principal stresses and inclination of their planes
(ii) maximum shearing stresses and inclination of their planes.
Represent your answers in neat sketches.
160 MPa
80 MPa
200 MPa
Ans:
σ1 = 262.46MPa, σ2 = 97.54MPa.
Өp = 37.98 or 127.98 with horizontal
τtmax = 82.46, Өs = 82.98 or 172.98 with horizontal
Q.4 At a point in a structural member subjected to stresses as
shown in fig. determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear
stress. Also determine and sketch planes on which these stresses
act. 80
p σr
p p
σC σC σL σL
σC σr
A cylinder or spherical shell is considered to be thin
when the metal thickness is small compared to internal
diameter.
p×d
Longitudinal stress, σL = ...................( 2)
4× t
Maximum Shear stress, τmax = (σc- σL) / 2
τmax = ( p x d) / (8 x t)
Where
p = internal fluid pressure
d= internal diameter, t = thickness of the wall
EVALUATION OF STRAINS
σ L=(pd)/(4t)
σ C=(pd)/(2t) σ C=(pd)/(2t)
σ L=(pd)/(4t)
σL
= × (2 − µ)
E L=(pd)/(4t)
δd p×d
i.e., εC = = × (2 − µ)................................(3)
d 4× t × E
Longitudinal strain, ε L :
σL σC σL (2 × σ L ) σ L
εL = −µ× = −µ× = × (1 − 2 × µ)
E E E E E
δl p×d
i.e., εL = = × (1 − 2 × µ)................................(4)
L 4× t × E
dv
VOLUMETRIC STRAIN,
V
σL=(pd)/(4t)
π 2
We have volume, V = × d × L. σC=(pd)/(2t) σC=(pd)/(2t)
4
π 2 π
dV = × d × dL + L × × 2 × d × dd σL=(pd)/(4t)
4 4
π 2 π
× d × dL + L × × 2 × d × dd
dv 4 4 dL dd
= = + 2×
V π 2 L d
×d ×L
4
dV p×d p×d
= ε +2× εC = (1 − 2 × µ) + 2 × (2 − µ)
V L 4× t × E 4× t × E
dv p×d
i.e., = (5 − 4 × µ).................(5)
V 4× t × E
JOINT EFFICIENCY
p×d
σC = .............(1)
2 × t × ηL
Longitudinal stress is given by,
p×d
σL = ..........
...(2)
4×t×ηC
Q.1
Calculate the circumferential and longitudinal strains for a boiler of
1000mm diameter when it is subjected to an internal pressure of 1MPa. The
wall thickness is such that the safe maximum tensile stress in the boiler
material is 35 MPa. Take E=200GPa and µ= 0.25.
(Ans: ε C=0.0001531, ε L=0.00004375)
Q.2
A water main 1m in diameter contains water at a pressure head of
120m. Find the thickness of the metal if the working stress in the pipe
metal is 30 MPa. Take unit weight of water = 10 kN/m3.
(Ans: t=20mm)
Q.3
A gravity main 2m in diameter and 15mm in thickness. It is subjected to an
internal fluid pressure of 1.5 MPa. Calculate the hoop and longitudinal
stresses induced in the pipe material. If a factor of safety 4 was used in the
design, what is the ultimate tensile stress in the pipe material?
(Ans: σC=100 MPa, σL=50 MPa, σU=400 MPa)
Q.4
At a point in a thin cylinder subjected to internal fluid pressure, the value of
hoop strain is 600×10-4 (tensile). Compute hoop and longitudinal stresses.
How much is the percentage change in the volume of the cylinder? Take
E=200GPa and µ= 0.2857. (Ans: σC=140 MPa,
σL=70 MPa, %age change=0.135%.)
Q.5
A cylindrical tank of 750mm internal diameter and 1.5m long is to be filled
with an oil of specific weight 7.85 kN/m3 under a pressure head of 365 m. If
the longitudinal joint efficiency is 75% and circumferential joint efficiency is
40%, find the thickness of the tank required. Also calculate the error of
calculation in the quantity of oil in the tank if the volumetric strain of the tank
is neglected. Take permissible tensile stress as 120 MPa, E=200GPa and
µ= 0.3 for the tank material.
(Ans: t=12 mm, error=0.085%.)