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3 Rotational Speed Measurement

3.1 Magnetic Tachometers

3.1.1 Describe the construction and principles of operation of a magnetic tachometer. TQ(2)

The magnetic type of tachometer (also known as the eddy current tachometer) is the most widely
used meter on small engines. A relatively small permanent magnet inside the instrument case is
driven by a rotating steel shaft coming from the engine at one half the crankshaft speed. Riding
on the outside of the magnet, but not touching it, is an aluminium drag cup. A steel shaft is
attached to the outside centre of the cup, rides in bearings in the instrument and is free to rotate.
An instrument pointer is attached to the end of the shaft and although free to rotate, it is prevented
from turning by a calibrated hairspring (not shown).

Figure1: Principle of the magnetic tachometer

When the engine is operating, the magnet is spinning inside the instrument. As it spins, its lines
of flux cut across the aluminium drag cup and induce eddy currents in it. The current produces a
magnetic field which interacts with the magnetic field of the spinning magnet, and this tries to
drive the drag cup. However, the cup is prevented from spinning by a calibrated hairspring, so the
needle, which is indirectly attached to the cup, can only turn part of a revolution.

3.2 Electric Tachometers

3.2.1 Explain the function and operation of the following equipment in relation to an
electric tachometer:
a. Tacho generator
b. Synchronous motor
c. Magnets and drag cups
d. Indicator unit sensing TQ
e. Mounting and drive arrangements
f. Electrical connections
g. Drive gearboxes TQ (2)

a. Tacho generator:

When a flexible drive shaft is used to operate a tachometer, the distance between the engine and
the cockpit is a limiting factor. For this reason, electric tachometers were developed so instrument
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wiring could be used in place of a drive shaft. There are both AC and DC type generators, but the
DC type is not found on modern aircraft. The DC type had a small DC generator on the engine
and a cockpit instrument indicating the voltage output as RPM. A lower than normal voltage
would result in a drop in RPM which is a major disadvantage of the DC tacho-generator.

The AC generator eliminates this problem. A typical three phase AC electric tachometer system
consists of a 2 or 4 pole (and sometimes 12 pole) generator, sometimes referred to as a
tachometer generator or tach generator, mounted on the engine accessory case. An AC
synchronous motor is located in the indicator. As the engine runs, the tacho generator produces
AC voltage with a frequency that is directly proportional to engine rpm. The method most
commonly used for driving a rotor is by means of a splined shaft coupling, the generator as a
whole being bolted directly to a mounting pad at the appropriate accessories drive gear outlet of
the engine. To limit the mechanical loads the speed of the rotor is reduced by a ratio of 4:1 or 2:1
by ratio gears in the engine drive system.

b. Synchronous motor:

This is part of the electric tachometer and is located inside the instrument. It is the driving
element of the pointer in the instrument, receiving signals from the tach generator. The AC
voltage produced by the tacho generator drives the synchronous motor in the indicator, causing it
to turn at the same rpm as the generator.

c. Magnets and Drag cups:

The synchronous motor in turn spins a magnet and drag cup assembly similar to that of a
magnetic tachometer to provide RPM indications.
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Figure 2: An electric Tachometer. The 3-phase generator is driven by the engine to produce
AC whose frequency relates to engine RPM. The indicator holds a synchronous motor
which drives a magnetic drag tachometer magnet.
d. Indicator unit sensing: TQ

The indicator unit sensing the output from the tacho generator is the synchronous motor which
produces the same voltage frequency or speed as the generator which in turn spins the drag cup
which is responsible for moving the instrument pointer. The speed indicating element consists of
a permanent magnet device which operates on the eddy current drag principle and it utilizes either
a drag cup or a drag disc. The primary determining factor in the motor RPM is the frequency of
the AC that powers it. A lower voltage caused by loose connections for example would not have
much effect on the indicated RPM. Both AC and DC use permanent magnets so that they are
totally independent of the electrical systems of the aircraft.

Referring to Fig 2, a permanent magnet is attached to the rotor shaft of the synchronous motor;
this is connected to the pointer of the indicator. As the stator field rotates, the permanent magnet
keeps itself aligned with the field. A second permanent magnet is attached to the indicator rotor;
this is located within a drag cup, see Fig 1. As this second magnet rotates, it induces eddy
currents in the drag cup. These currents produce their own magnetic fields in opposition to the
rotating magnet. When the rotating magnet increases in speed, the drag (or torque) on the drag
cup increases. A hairspring attached to the shaft opposes this torque; the net result is the pointer
moves across the scale in proportion to the speed of the engine shaft.

e. Mounting and drive arrangements:

Tachometer generators are small compact units, generally available in 3 types: the pad, the swivel
nut, and the screw type. These names are derived from the kind of mounting used in attaching the
generator to the engine.
• The pad-type is constructed with an end shield designed so the generator can be
bolted to a flat plate on the engine frame or accessory reduction gearbox by 4 bolts. (Electric
and electronic tachometer installations must be checked periodically to be sure the tach
generators and instruments are securely mounted and do not vibrate when the engine is
running.)
• The swivel-nut type is free to turn in respect to the rest of the instrument. This
type of generator can be held stationary while the mounting nut is screwed into place.
• The screw-type is constructed with a mounting nut inserted in one of the
generator end shields. The mounting nut is a rigid part of the instrument, and the whole
generator must be turned to screw the nut onto its mating threads.

Figure 3: Pad-type and screw-type mounting pads for tacho generators

f. Electrical connections:
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Electrical wiring should be properly laced and clamped to prevent chafing caused by vibration
and looseness. Verify that the wiring bundle is not under tension from being clamped too tightly
and is protected from corrosive fluids and heat.

g. Drive gearboxes: TQ

The tachometer indicating system is a small three phase AC generator connected via a
mechanical link to engine accessory gearbox. To limit the mechanical loads the speed of the rotor
is reduced by a ratio of 4:1 or 2:1 by ratio gears in the engine drive system.

3.3 Electronic Tachometers

3.3.1 Describe the construction and principles of operation of an electronic tachometer with
particular reference to the following:
a. Pulse detection and frequency
b. Signal processing (2)

Pulse detection and frequency.

Electronic tachometers produce engine rpm indications by counting electric pulses from the
magneto ignition system. A special pair of breaker points in one of the engine magnetos sends
pulses to a module which uses digital circuitry to convert the pulses to a voltage for powering the
tachometer instrument in the cockpit. The set of points in the magneto open and close like normal
points, but they only supply signals to the tacho system. As the engine rpm increases, so too does
the pulse frequency and voltage, causing the meter to move and register increased rpm.

A simple electronic tachometer is installed with two electrical connections; one connection to
ground and another to a magneto. This system depends on the magneto pulses being strong
enough to power the instrument without amplification. A more complex system has an internal
solid state amplifier which requires a third connection for 12 volt power from the aircraft
electrical system. In this instance an amplifier amplifies a weak magneto pulse and provides a
uniform pulse voltage to the digital counter circuitry.

From another source: A special type of point is used in an engine magneto which only supplies
signals to the tacho system. The points in the magneto are connected by wiring to the cockpit
instrument. Since the frequency of the opening of the points is proportional to the engine rpm, an
electronic circuit measures the frequency at which the points open and close and moves the
pointer to indicate the proper engine rpm.

Signal processing

Two slightly different types of electronic tachometers are found on turbine engines.

The first type is often used as a fan speed sensor to measure the rpm of the fan section of a
turbofan engine. It uses a sensor containing a coil of wire mounted in the shroud around the fan.
The coil produces a magnetic field which each fan blade cuts as it passes. As the shaft speed
increases the fan tips pass the sensor at an increase rate. The output from the coil is in the form of
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voltage ‘spikes’. The frequency at which the field is cut is sensed and measured by an electronic
circuit. The frequency is proportional to the rpm of the fan (see figure 4).

Figure 4: Electronic tachometer which measures fan speed for N1 tachometer. The sensors
produce an output signal each time a fan blade cuts through the magnetic field. The
frequency of this output signal is measured to provide indications of N1 RPM.
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Figure 5: A tachometer system for the high pressure compressor of a turbofan engine. The
gear-driven rotor from the accessory section has a permanent magnet which induces signals
in a pick-up coil.
The other type has a gear driven shaft on the engine which turns a rotor with a permanent magnet
embedded in its rim. A sensor containing a coil is located close the permanent magnet. Each time
the field of the permanent magnet cuts across the coil a voltage is induced, the frequency of
which is measured by an electronic circuit and used to position a pointer for the correct rpm
indication (figure 5).

3.4 Dual Tacho systems

3.4.1 Specify the use of dual tacho systems (e.g. multi engine airplanes and rotorcraft). (1)

The dual tachometer consists of two tachometer indicator units housed in a single case. The
indicator pointers show simultaneously on a single dial the RPM of both engines. Some indicators
are equipped with a flight-hour meter dial, usually located in the lower centre area. On multi-
engine aircraft, each engine may have a separate tachometer or a single tach may be used for both
engines. If a single tach is used, the indicating needle for the right engine is identified with an
“R”, while the left engine is indicated with an “L”.

Dual tachometers are also placed in the same case with a synchroscope for various purposes. One
of these is the helicopter tachometer with synchroscope which shows the simultaneously the
speed of rotation (RPM) of the engine crankshaft, the RPM of the rotor shaft and the slippage of
the rotor due to malfunctioning of the clutch or excessive speed of the rotor when the clutch is
disengaged in flight.

FAR part 27 Airworthiness standards require that all helicopters have at least two tachometer
systems. One tachometer indicates engine rpm while the other provides main rotor rpm.

3.5 Maintenance practices

State the following maintenance practices associated with tacho systems:

a. Lubrication of drives
b. Rectifying erratic indications
c. Flexible drive considerations with respect to heat, fluids and bends (1)

a. Lubrication of drives:

Tachometers that are mechanically driven with flexible drive shafts require periodic maintenance
to prevent erratic behaviour. The drive shaft must be lubricated with an approved lubricant such
as graphite.

b. Rectifying erratic indications:

As an A&P, you are required to check instruments for poor condition. Minor discrepancies such
as tightening mount screws or replacing range markings on the glass instrument face are allowed.
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Discrepancies that require opening of the instrument case, such as cracked or fogged glass, loose
pointer or a pointer that will not zero, must be corrected by an approved repair station. As a
technician you may replace the instrument.

The hardware that attaches the flexi-drive shaft to the instrument, airframe and engine should be
secure.

The difference in readings taken before and after light tapping the instrument should not exceed
plus minus 15 RPM. This value may vary by indicator manufacturer. Both generator and
indicator should be inspected for tightness of mechanical and electrical connections, security of
mounting, and general condition. The manufacturer’s instructions should always be consulted.

An engine equipped with an electric tachometer may fluctuate and read low at idle rpm. This is an
indication the synchronous motor is not synchronized with the generator output. As engine speed
increases, the motor should synchronize and register the rpm correctly – the rpm at which
synchronization occurs will vary with the design of the tachometer system. If the instrument
pointers oscillate at speeds above the synchronizing value, determine that the total oscillation
does not exceed the allowable tolerances. Check generators and instruments are securely mounted
and do not vibrate when the engine is running. Electric and electronic tacho wiring should be
checked for:

• Properly laced and clamped to prevent chafing caused by looseness and vibration
• Verify the wiring is not under tension from being clamped too tightly
• Wires are protected from corrosive fluids and excessive heat.

c. Flexible drive considerations with respect to heat, fluids and bends:

The drive shaft should be installed away from excessive heat or fluids without sharp bends or
kinks, and should not impose any strain on the instrument. In addition, the drive shaft should be
secured at frequent intervals to prevent whipping, which causes pointer oscillation.