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6, 2007 717
M. Sundar*
School of Laser Science and Engineering,
Jadavpur University,
USIC Building, Kolkata 700032, India
E-mail: marimuthusundar@gmail.com
*Corresponding author
A.K. Nath
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Kharagpur – 721302, India
E-mail: aknath@mech.iitkgp.ernet.in
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Sundar, M., Nath, A.K.,
Bandyopadhyay, D.K., Chaudhuri, S.P., Dey, P.K. and Misra, D. (2007)
‘Numerical simulation of melting and solidification in laser welding of mild
steel’, Int. J. Computational Materials Science and Surface Engineering,
Vol. 1, No. 6, pp.717–733.
A.K. Nath is the Head of Industrial CO2 laser section RRCAT, Indore, India.
He received his PhD from the University of Bombay. He is working on the
indigenous development of high power CW and Pulsed CO2 laser. He is
working extensively on various laser material processing including laser
welding, laser cutting.
1 Introduction
In laser welding process the parts to be joined are locally melted by an intense laser
beam, followed by a solidification process as the beam moves away. The mechanical
strength and microstructure of such joints are strongly dependent on the thermal history
in the weld zone and the nearby Heat Affected Zone (HAZ). One of the main advantages
of laser welding is its low HAZ. To keep track of the HAZ and other properties, it is
necessary to have a thorough understanding of the fluid flow and heat transfer
mechanisms in the weld pool. Since molten metals are opaque, flow visualisation of the
weld pool is difficult. Hence, it is necessary to have an appropriate mathematical model
for clear understanding of the transport mechanisms in the weld pool.
Numerical simulation of melting and solidification in laser welding 719
The research on welding heat source models dates back to early 1940s when Rosenthal
(1941) first proposed a mathematical model of the moving heat source under the
assumptions of quasi-stationary state and concentrated point heating in the 3D analysis.
Numerical studies of weld pool in laser welding process have been studied by
various researches (Carmignani, 1999; Hanbin et al., 2004) and several mathematical
models have been developed to investigate the nature of heat transfer in the laser welding
process. However, most investigations have focused on modelling laser weld pool
behaviour in a quasi-steady state, and little attention has been paid to the transient
dynamics of the weld pool, especially the transient heating period after the laser beam
moves away. Mahrle and Schmidt (2002) numerically predicted temperature and velocity
distributions as well as weld pool geometry using a steady-state model for transport
phenomena in the fusion zone of deep penetration laser beam welded joints.
Many works done in the past based on traditional approach, the so called Stefan’s
problem, assumes a heat conduction-controlled process; that is, there exist no motion of
liquid in the molten weld pool during melting (Crowley, 1978; Nedja, 2002).
A two-dimensional model has been used by Sluzalec (1988) to study the flow of metal
subjected to a laser beam, in which changes of the laser beam intensity in time was taken
into account. Recently a three-dimensional model was developed by Ye and Xi (2002) to
study heat transfer and fluid flow in the full-penetration laser welding.
The hydrodynamics of the liquid metal arising in laser welding is a very complex
process, which is still the subject of studies. Experimental investigations show melt flow
velocities of a few metres per second (Fabbro et al., 1998; Ki et al., 2000). Two physical
mechanisms can generate such motion, namely convection driven by the gradient of
surface tension (Marangoni effect) and the bouncy force. As the workpiece melts, the
absorbed energy induces a predominantly surface tension driven flow from the top,
which redistributes the fluid momentum as well as the thermal energy in the weld pool.
720 M. Sundar et al.
This along with scanning speed strongly affects the temperature distribution as well as
the final shape and size of the weld pool and it is obvious that a correct modelling
of the melt flow has to be conducted in order to build a numerical tool for the study of
laser welding.
The physical effects during laser welding involves heat transfer into the material,
radiation and convection for the boundary conditions, thermo-dynamics of
phase- changes, moving boundary at the melt/solid interface, fluid flow caused by
surface tension and buoyancy and mass transportation within the molten body. In order
to model the transient dynamic development of the weld pool, transient analysis (Wu and
Yan, 2004) of the thermal and the fluid flow must be considered. Antony and Cline
(1977) have carried out a quantitative analysis and proposed that the flow in molten pool
is created by the surface tension gradient. Srinivasan and Basu (1986) studied the surface
tension flow during laser melting and have shown that the effect of buoyancy force is
negligible compared to the surface tension force.
In this present method, the energy equation is generally written in terms of the
sensible enthalpy, and an appropriate formulation of the latent heat function play a
pivotal role in ensuring that the results from the energy equation are consistent with
phase-change considerations. The most recent effort to solve this problem was by
Chakraborty and Dutta (2001), who outlined generalised formulation for evaluation of
latent heat functions that addressed wide variety of phase-change situations.
This study involves the simulation of laser welding process for investigating the
effects of fluid flow, laser power, beam diameter and scanning speed in the weld pool.
The transient heat and fluid flow phenomena of the laser weld pool is studied and the
time needed for attaining the quasi-steady state in laser welding is found out. To this
end, this work considers two models: (I) Model with pure conduction, (II) Model
involving Marangoni force and compares the results in terms of transient temperature
distribution, velocity distribution and the weld pool geometry.
2 Formulation
Numerical simulation is carried out by the finite volume based code Fluent.
The mathematical model used in this work is based on the Navier-Stokes equations with
the Reynolds method of averaging the time-dependent equations (RANS).
Continuity and momentum equation
∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ (ρu) + (ρv ) + (ρw) = 0 (1)
∂t ∂ x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(ρu) + (ρuu) + (ρuv) + (ρuw)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
(2)
∂p ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ u ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞
= − + ⎜µ ⎟+ µ + ⎜µ ⎟ + ρ g x − su
∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝⎜ ∂y ⎠⎟ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
(1 − β )2
su = Am (u)
(β 3
+ξ )
Numerical simulation of melting and solidification in laser welding 721
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(ρv) + (ρvu) + (ρvv) + (ρvw)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
(3)
∂p ∂ ⎛ ∂v ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂v ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂v ⎞
=− + ⎜µ ⎟+ µ + ⎜µ ⎟ + ρ gy − s y
∂y ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝⎜ ∂y ⎠⎟ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
(1 − β )2
sv = Am (v)
(β 3
+ξ )
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(ρw) + (ρwu) + (ρwv) + (ρww)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
(4)
∂p ∂ ⎛ ∂w ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ w ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂w ⎞
= − + ⎜µ ⎟+ µ + ⎜µ ⎟ + ρ g z − sw
∂z ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝⎜ ∂y ⎠⎟ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
(1 − β )2
sw = Am (w)
(β 3
+ξ )
The phase change model makes use of the melt/freeze enthalpy-porosity technique
described in Voller and Prakash (1987) and Voller and Swaminathan (1991). The
melt/solid interface is not explicitly tracked; instead a liquid fraction value is used for
each cell in the computational domain. Hence, the mushy zone is a region where
liquid-fraction values lie between zero and unity and its temperature ranges between the
ones of the liquid and the solid. The energy equation used in heat transfer calculations, is
expressed in terms of enthalpy h at the temperature of the melt:
T
H = h + ∆H , h = href + ∫ C dT
Tref
p (5)
∂T
K = q( x, y) − hc ( T − T∞ ) (8)
∂n
The laser beam can be modelled as a heat source as follows (Mazmumder and Steen,
1980)
q( x, y) = Px , y (1 − rf ) (9)
The value of Px,y for TEM00 mode structure is given in the form of Gaussian power
distribution as
Ptotal ⎛ 2r ⎞
Px , y = exp ⎜ − 2 ⎟ (10)
rb π
2
⎝ rb ⎠
where r = (x2 + y2)1/2 is the radial distance from the beam centre m, Ptot is the total incident
power in laser beam W and rb is the Gaussian beam radius defined as the radial distance
at which the power density falls to 1/e2 the central value m.
The combined coefficient due to convection and radiation is given by
hc = 24.1 × 10 −4 εT 1.61 (11)
The shear stresses caused by the variation of surface tension due to temperature is
given by
∂σ
τ= ∇sT (12)
∂T
where ∂σ/∂T = Surface tension gradient and ∆sT = Surface gradient.
At all other surfaces, except at the top, heat loss due to convection and radiation is
given by
∂T
K = hc ( T − T∞ ) (13)
∂n
The equations are solved using commercial finite different code Fluent, version 6.11
(Fluent 6.1 User Guide (1993). The discretisation scheme used is second order upwind
for momentum and energy equations, and the SIMPLE scheme for pressure-velocity
coupling. The equations are solved using the segregated solver. As the governing
equations are non-linear and coupled, several iterations of the solution loop is performed
before a converged solution is obtained. The convergence criterion for all the simulations
was 10−6.
The simulation is transient with initial temperature of 300 K. For simplicity, we have
taken constant thermophysical properties for the present analysis, except for the variation
of surface tension. Because of the presence of surface-active elements such as sulphur
and manganese, the temperature coefficient of surface tension is usually positive for the
case of steel. It is assumed that the surface of weld pool is flat, the flow is Newtonian &
laminar and the distribution of laser energy density is parabolic.
Numerical simulation of melting and solidification in laser welding 723
For getting a better insight of the mechanisms of fluid and heat flow in the weld pool and
to find the effects of speed, beam diameter and power, two Models have been considered
with various parameters as given in Table 2.
Model I: The Model involving pure conduction, with out any fluid flow.
Model II: The Model involving Marangoni convection.
The numerical results of the two Models with two different speeds have been initially
compared and particularly the contours of temperature distribution, liquid fraction and
weld pool velocity have been discussed in detail. All the contours presented here
correspond to time level of 0.4 sec with scanning speed 20 mm/sec.
724 M. Sundar et al.
Figure 2 Temperature contour for Model I, case 5 with scanning speed 20 mm/s, beam diameter
2 mm and laser power 2 kW (a) top surface and (b) mid-cross section
Numerical simulation of melting and solidification in laser welding 725
Figure 2 Temperature contour for Model I, case 5 with scanning speed 20 mm/s, beam diameter
2 mm and laser power 2 kW (a) top surface and (b) mid-cross section (continued)
Figure 3 Temperature contour for Model II, case 5 with scanning speed 20 mm/s, beam
diameter 2 mm and laser power 2 kW (a) top surface and (b) mid-cross section
The maximum temperature for Model I is 2860 and for Model II it is 2170. We observe a
lower peak temperature in Model II (Figure 3) in comparison to Model I (Figure 2). This
is due to the fact that fluid motion in Model II tends to homogenise the temperature in the
weld pool to a large extent.
726 M. Sundar et al.
Figure 4 Velocity vector for Model II, case 5 with scanning speed 20 mm/s, beam diameter
2 mm and laser power 2 kW (a) top surface; (b) mid-cross section and (c) on the
plane along the beam movement
Numerical simulation of melting and solidification in laser welding 727
Figure 4 Velocity vector for Model II, case 5 with scanning speed 20 mm/s, beam diameter
2 mm and laser power 2 kW (a) top surface; (b) mid-cross section and (c) on the
plane along the beam movement
The circular motion of the weld pool from top to bottom is seen in the trailing edge of the
laser beam. Owing to the Marangoni convection, the high temperature fluid penetrates
deeper into the work piece, which results in high depth in Model II than Model I. This
Marangoni convection also lowers the temperature gradient in Model II. The molten
metal is pulled from the relatively cooler pool edges towards the centre of the pool,
resulting in counter-rotating vortices as shown in Figure 4. The weld pool is deeper and
narrower when convection due to Marangoni effect is considered.
Figure 5 Liquid fraction contour for Model I, case 5 with scanning speed 20 mm/s, beam
diameter 2 mm and laser power 2 kW (a) top surface and (b) mid-cross section
728 M. Sundar et al.
Figure 5 Liquid fraction contour for Model I, case 5 with scanning speed 20 mm/s, beam
diameter 2 mm and laser power 2 kW (a) top surface and (b) mid-cross section
(continued)
Figure 6 Liquid fraction contour for Model II, case 5 with scanning speed 20 mm/s, beam
diameter 2 mm and laser power 2 kW (a) top surface and (b) mid-cross section
(a)
(b)
Numerical simulation of melting and solidification in laser welding 729
The simulation without considering flow (Figure 5) does not predict the weld pool
profile in agreement with the results observed in practice. Especially, the simulated weld
pool widths are too high with shallow depth. In Model I higher heat transfer takes place
along the horizontal direction and in Model II higher heat transfer takes place along the
vertical direction. The maximum pool depth for Model I is 0.55 mm and for Model II it is
1.15 mm corresponding to the speed of 20 mm/sec.
4.4 Effect of speed, laser power and laser beam diameter on weld pool length
From the simulation it is well understood that, only Model II, which considers fluid flow
is realistic. Hence, the effects of variation of speed, power and beam diameter on weld
pool length, width and depth are studied only for Model II. Figure 7 shows the variation
of weld pool length for various welding speed, laser power and laser beam diameter. It is
found from the figure that, the increase in power leads to increase in length of the
weldment; this is due to increased supply of heat by the laser beam. An increase of power
from 2 to 4 kW tends to an increase in weld pool length from 2 to 4 mm, respectively for
a speed of 10 mm/sec and beam diameter 1 mm. Increase in speed results in decrease of
length of the weld pool. For low speed, the length of weld pool is high and it reduces
rapidly as the speed increases. Finally, it reaches a quasi steady state and further
increases in speed makes the welding insignificant. As the diameter of the beam
increases, the length of the weld pool decreases, this is due to the fact that increase in
beam diameter leads to reduction of power supply per unit area. The effect of speed and
laser beam diameter is marginally low compared to the effect of laser power on the weld
pool length.
4.5 Effect of speed, laser power and laser beam diameter on weld pool width
Width of the weld pool is measured in the transverse direction (direction perpendicular to
the length). This gives a direct indication of dimensions of the HAZ. Figure 8 shows the
weld pool width for various speed, diameter and power. An increase in welding speed
(within the optimal range) leads to a decrease in weld pool width, that is, lower HAZ.
This is because, the increase in scanning speed reduces the interaction time of laser beam
with the job. Therefore, the heat input reduces, which leads to less volume of the base
metal being melted. The results indicate that the welding speed and beam diameter are
the most important factors affecting the welded pool width. Weld pool width increases
with increase in laser power and decrease in beam diameter. This trend was expected
since laser power density is inversely proportional to the square of the beam diameter.
4.6 Effect of speed, laser power and laser beam diameter on weld pool depth
Depth of the weld pool gives direct indication of the material thickness that can be
welded effectively with the available power. Figure 9 shows the depth of the weld pool
with various speed, power and beam diameter. From the figure, it is clear that all the
three parameters (speed, laser power and beam diameter) significantly affect the depth of
weld pool. These effects are due to the following reasons. The increase in laser power
leads to an increase in the heat input; therefore, more molten metal and consequently
higher depth is predicted. However, the effect is reversed in the case of welding speed
effect, as lesser energy is delivered at higher scanning speed. Increase in beam diameter
reduces the depth of the weld pool. A small beam radius results in increasing the power
density. This means that the heating will be localised and intense in a small metal portion
resulting in a higher depth. Moreover, high beam diameter, which means wide laser
beam results in spreading the same laser power onto wide area. Therefore, wide area of
the base metal will be heated, also, the heat loss due to convection radiation and
conduction will be higher, which leads to decrease of weld pool depth. Increase in
scanning speed results in reducing the weld pool depth.
5 Conclusions
A comprehensive fluid and heat flow model has been developed for simulating the weld
pool geometry in laser welding. From the simulation, it is observed that the fluid flow
plays a significant role in deciding the temperature distribution, final shape and size of
the weld pool. The calculated results show that due to fluid flow the molten pool
Numerical simulation of melting and solidification in laser welding 731
becomes deeper and narrower. Whereas, in the Model with pure conduction, the weld
pool is more or less of spherical shape. Models including the fluid flow show lower
maximum temperature, narrower HAZ and higher depth than those without fluid flow.
Further, it is observed that with the increase in scanning speed, the weld pool length,
width and depth decreases. Increase in laser power results in wider HAZ and higher
depth. As the diameter of the laser beam increases length and depth of weld pool
decreases and width of weld pool increases The proposed model can be effectively used
for predicting the weld pool shape in laser welding with varying process parameters such
as speed, laser power and beam diameter. These Models can be used as a tool for a
parametric examination of the laser welding process, which will lead to optimised values
of the welding parameters.
Acknowledgements
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Nomenclature
Ts Solidus temperature
T∞ Temperature of radiation source
u, v, w Velocity component along x, y and z directions
U Scanning Velocity of Laser Beam
W Width
x, y, z Coordinates
t Time
Greek symbols
β Liquid fraction
ε Emissivity
µ Molecular viscosity
ρ Density
ξ A constant to prevent division by zero