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That line Making Sense of Identity indent indepe’ ing about iden often takes the form the more fervent versio not invoke any criterion of rational be obtain in the co Any reference or "whose r tion of a person's ist be based on the values and norms of the community to which the person belongs, but al that these judgments can be ethic ly assessed only within thoseing the feasibility choice and reasoning about iden- for at least two specific reasons, the nature of our reasoning, they cannot and we need not lose our abi soning just because w identify with, and have been influenced * particular group, Influence is not the same Second, the so: defined set of attitudes anc Indeed, many of these “cultures” co ophies") presents sixteen ch to sixteen different positions o nt, but we can, as adi begin to challenge what given the opportunity stances may not som such questioning, the beyond our reach ‘The point is often made, plausibly enough, that one cannot reason from nowhere. But this does not imply that no matter what the antecedent associations of a person are, those must remain unchallenged, unrejectable, and permanent, The alternative to the "discovery" view is not choice from positions ‘unencumbered” with any nemunitarian polemicists seem to imply), but choices that co in any encumbered position one happens to occupy. Choice does ity (as some ue to exist evenWestiTy Byron's acqui lentity with the Greeks vastly enriched his own fe while also adding some strength to the Greek strug pendence. We a affi presume Perhaps, ns as the the disc ourselves ev choices are ingame guage and his u tiful use of thatENTITY A ooks had At one stroke, Gora’s ce Gora finds We do discover many things about ourselves even wh dat ygnize this is not the overy. Even when the persc about himself or hers faced. Gora had to ask whet! conservatism may not be as fi oning ofCIVILIZATIONAL CONFINEMENT wwe been tempted to see an immedi age between observations of global c vies of civilizational confro in the Presented in Samuel Hunt- 1 theory of a clash between ations hes fsquenty been ok iculties with the theory o - each The fist hichn perhaps mvendaneval a the viabil : ington’ famous book, “Western” and “I Civilizational Confinement a the civilizations to which they allegedly “belong.” This question the view that arises well before problems wi 0 cartons of ci people thus clas As was discussed in chap as a member of a civ jon, as a member of this one dimension. Thus clash thesis begins well before we get to the point of asking disparate civilizations (among which the popt of the world is neatly part cally~clash, No matter what answer we pve to that question, yportance of that one cover ll the other ways in which people of the world Indeed, even the opponents of the theory of a “civilizational clash” can, in effect, contribute to propping up its intellectual foundation if they begin by accepting the same singular classifi cation of the world population. The heartwarming belief in an underlying goodwill among people belonging to discrete civiliza- tions is, of course, very different from the cold pessimism of see- ing only conflict and strife between them. But the two approaches share the same reductionist conviction that human beings around2 IDENTITY AND VIOLENCE the world can be understood and preeminently characterized in shared by both groups—warm and cold—of theorists. For example, in disputing the gros members ofthe Islamic disparate and dis- .e arguments on both hin the presumption we taken to belong is a good way of understanding human beings. C | partitioning is a intrusive phenomenon analysis, stifling —richer—ways of seeing people. It lays the foundations for sunderstanding nearly everyone in the world, even before going the drumbeats of a civilizational clash ngular Visions and the Appeat ‘ashing civilizations is a remarkably grand thesis about conflicts, re are lesser, but also influential, claims that relate contrasts of ltures and identities to the conflicts and the profusion of atroc- we see in different parts of the world today, Instead of one ‘majestically momentous partition that s into contending civilizations, as in Hunti the world population mn’ imagined uni- Civilizational Confinement the lesser variants of the approach see wd to understand why much. It invokes the richness in England from India, as a stud Sa fe had already acq) took me to see the ae Stewart, observing, ‘ut erippled photographer, played by James Stewart, . ae co orcrveious events in the house opposite. Like Jame os ci convinced that a Decame comin wart, 1 in my naive kind of way, = ve mud ‘may have been committed in the apartment that grocsome mera could be seen from the rear window. iclous ever” IDENTITY AND. ck However, my theorist companion e» ined to me (amid whispered protests from neighbors urging him to shut up) that there was, he was certain, no murder at all, and that the whole. indictment of McCarthyism in America, which encouraged everyone to watch film, 1 would soon discover, was a seri lues against what “those others” believe is rather makes regular head- immigrant oratory. In the aftermath of September 11, the stereotyping of Muslims came often enough from people who are cated foundations of crude and coarse popular beliefs. Cultivated theory can bolster uncomplicated bigotry. Civilizational Confinement 6 Expk em: the crudeness ized, taking lar than tends to jons, nor as lust as a h gives him or her belief in the overarch front iquely divisive view of the world population goes inst the old-fashioned belief that “people are much the same the world over.” but also formed understanding that we are dif can and do have many differ- cent idet icant groups to which we simultaneously belong appears to some as a rather complicated idea. But, as was discussed in the last chapter, itis an extremely ordinary and elementary recognition. In our normal lives, we see ourselves as members of a variety of groups: we belong to all of them. The fact that a person is a woman does not conflict with } | |‘exception of Indonesia and very marginally Paki rary definition of “the Muslim wor a heterasexu 4 supporter of gay and lesbian rights. Any per- son is a member of many different groups (w' ree than the whole British po} tion put together) has a preat many more Muslims than nearly tory of the c it would be, orks against our or Food without se indermines the diverse ik ins nus and Muslims in a thoroughly i he interactions in everyda ‘are not separated along communal Shan sof their ical music, ¢ basi has tended h identified they would never be seen speci an" oF 8 respec ndu and Kha civilization and also from ov betwi ). The same applies 10 cultural creat od—that reat field of Indian mass culture—where many’ of the leading actors and actresses s, come from a M background (along with others with non-Muslim an they are much adored by @ population of whic percent happen to be Hindu. 1s are not the only non-Hindu group in the Indian population. The Sikhs have a major presence, as Jains. India is not only the country of origin of Buddhis inant religion of India was Buddl the Chinese often referred to ing India as a he issue by considering the way my own is treated in this classi India as a “Hindu civili alleged In describing ion,” Huntington's exposition of the the fact that India has many more Muslims than any other country in the world with catory system ism for over @ millent ia as “the Buddhist kingdom.”Agnostic and atheistic schools of thought—the Carvaka and the Lokayata—have flourished in India from. ne least the sixth century he present day. There have been large Christian commu. ies in India from the fourth century—two hundred years before there were substa Jews communities in Brit India as a descriptive difficulties. It is als tends to add some highly deceptive the extraordinary distortion of history a of the p quoted by many ly active “Hindutva” movement, and this is happens, in the general elections held in Indi spring of 2004, the coalition led by the Hindu activist fairly comprehensive reversals across the board. In addition to being headed by a Muslim president, the secular Republic of India now has a Sikh prime minister and president ofthe ruling party (not bad for the largest clectorate in the world with more than 80 percent Hindu voters). However, the threat of a renewed promotion of the Hindu sectarian conception of India is ever present. Even though the political parties committed to a Hindu view of India have received considerably less than a quarter of the votes (a smallish fraction of the Hindu populat ittempts at seeing India as a “Hindu civilization” will not easly die away. A simplistic characterization of India along an artificially singular ynal Confinement ci remains poli criptively flawed. ‘The portrayal of India as a Hind of one kind or take, but coarseness of one ki ve well, Consider w history. Indee clash of vale rington insists that the “West aaa Me ete aman her aleed special 1 sense of individualism and individual rights and : is increasingly common way de acres a rote in atonal : mes supposed. For example, the characteriza a other—very different—cul- ld. Spengler in his widely tion of Western culture in a world tures that was presented by Osval Spender in influential book The Decline oft ot i te xi ities within each culture I eee a ace ane clary observed Infact, Spengler argued wm Rhing preposterous inthe idea of Socrates. Epics ally Diogenes stingy the Ganges, whereas Dots a Western megalopo ‘would be an unimportant fool . ro umingtons tess infact, very hard to sustain emp “there is nothing prso ENTITY AND VIOLENCE Tolerance and hi ‘ments of modem. Germany, or are certainly among the important achieve. -aving out some aberrations |i L governance of the Bi nample, the Indian emperor Ashoka’s dedicated champi- wood movie Ashoka ‘may or may not be, ly emphasizes the and tolerance 2,300 years ago and their continuing relevanc: When a later Indian emperor, Akb: ing similar pronouncements on the 1590s onward (such as, "{NJo one should he interfered with on account of religion, and anyone is to be allowed to go over to ‘religion that pleases him’), the Inquisitions were quite extensive in Europe, and heretics were still being burned at the stake. igious tolerance in Agra from rary prospect ‘There can, ; cepts of democracy and put naheve rropean and American anal See fence particularly by the int reasoning have xl experiences over en lectual force of the the last few c% san Enlightenment (ine theorists of democracy as the Marquis de Condores ‘Tocqueville, and John Stuart Mi Madison, Alexis de he a SB nti3 ance in the centuries following the flowering of Athenian of Susa (or |. a popular for several centuries the ran had an elected counci who were proposed by the council and ly. and magistr ted by the assembly _phrase—is often lic reasoning did flo eral other ancient but the jump fr p from anci ‘Western’—or _ — the thesis of the turopean’—nature of and confounded for at ture of democracy is here is the classificatory open een different points of adh differences. Emperor Ashoka, referred to ea inthe third century 8.¢ now Patna), also ts of, say, Goths and V vt nd = igoths as proper inher he east or south w ancient Greeks them- ranians, or Indi + than in chattin ee ting up the ancient Ostro ed issue concems eae experince While Athen loting started, there were fee "re were many regional gover The tradition of public discussion ¢ arid. To choose another historical example, in eatly seventh- century Japan, the Buddhist prince Sl npress Suiko, insisted in canteen articles,” promulgated in 4.0, 604: "Decisions on impor tant matters should not be made by one person alone. They should be discussed with many. ” This, as -up of the early Greek oneer in getting bal- nal gnermmens which went ee low. There is nothit in e 7 i Greek experience in electra Ss Ia mh immeste impact in the countries to the west of G oc me, in, say, what is now France or Germar sey tet some ofthe contemporary cies in A eee and India—incorporated elements of democracy ome racy in. mus his mother happens. is six hun~ din the thirteenth century. The Japanese con: ‘on to explain the reason why plural reasoning was so important “Nor let us be resentful when others differ from us. For all men have hearts, and each heart has its own leanings. Their right isENTITY 4} our wrong, and our right lu gts ther wrong Not surprising ee in this seventh-century ane fo 7 development toward der : ‘story of public discussion * the ‘onquering Alexander w: i see iperor Akbar o ror Akbar of Indian the sseenth) 1 next cha At chapter when discussing the systemati be found in the pro- and of Western The Western wor stern world has n 1 proprietary right over over democratic ivilizational Confinement ss ile modern institutional forms of democracy are rela ‘everywhere, the history of democracy in the form of soning is spread across the world. As 1835 in his classic book on democ- democrat which he observed be seen, from one point of view. as in “the state of argument has rensely broader relevance. "autobiography Long Walk to Freedom, Nelson Mandel how influenced he was, as a young boy. by seeing the < nature of the proceedings of the local meetings fy rong the speakers, bu everyone was heard, chief and s warrior and medicine man, shopkeeper and far and laborer.” met, landow «for democracy did not emerge from any Western Tr beyan distinctly at his African home, though he did fight to “impose” it on “the Europeans” (asthe white rulers in Africa, it may be recol ' ate victory was a triumph of human-Itis sit draws on which evohed rnnium, went to Euro} the Arabs. A large group of contributors from different non- at the end of that the Flowering of global science and techn ly Western-led phenomenon, there were major global the world that involved extensive international Consider printing, which Fran- it among the developments that “have changed the ce and state of things throughout the w of the early attempts at developing the art of pri mil ‘occurred far away from Europe. They were also, to a of Bud- reading and the propagation of ideas, he attempts at early printing in China, Korea, and Japan were undertaken by Buddhist technologists. Indian Bud- ists, who tried to develop printing, in the seventh century, ‘were less successful in this, but they did contribute the material that constituted the first dated printed book in the world, a Bud- dhist Sanskrit classic (Vajracchedikaprajnaparamita) popularly known as the Diamond Sutra, which was translated by a half- Indian, hal-Turkish scholar from Sanskrit into Chinese in a.0. 402. the book was printed in Chinese in a.p. 868, it carried @ Wvational preface to the effect that it was being printed “for versal free distribution. It is right that there should be adequate acknowledgment of f ideas and knowledge in Europe and ization. But the presumption that ly sequestered "W ly flawed for at Reliance on civilizational partitioning is thoro there is a basic methodological problem involved in the im ming is uniquely relevant and must drown—or swamp— fying people. Itis bad enough, though scarcely surprising, that those who foment global confrontations or local sectarian violence ty 1 impose a pechose sine and divisive le who are to be recruited as the “foot soldiers” of Ha Dee el sad tose that this inered88 IDENTITY AND VI oF vision gets significantly reinforced by the implicit support the anti- ‘Wester fundamentalist warriors get from theories bred in the West- em countries of singular cat ion of people of the world. The second difficulty wi joning used in descriptive he significant ignored, and dependence in science, technology, mathe- rade, commerce, and political, economic, and ields an RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS AND MUSLIM HISTORY historical mistake of overlooking jons between what are assumed to be ley oe chapter), these © Gherlok the heterogeneity of religious afi jes and, even more, most ite a big one, too, since peor c of the same reli problem can be oft