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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
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INTRODUCTION
Medium wave (MW) is the part of the medium frequency (MF) radio band used mainly for AM broadcasting. Medium Wave is the original radio broadcasting band, in use since the early 1920's. Typically it's used by stations serving a local or regional audience. However, at night, signals are no longer absorbed by the lower levels of the ionosphere, and can often be heard hundreds or even thousands of miles away. The Medium Wave (MW) band better known as the AM Broadcast Band (BCB) is the band from 530 to 1600 kHz. and currently being extended to 1700. This is the band used for local stations and the programming is generally intended for a local audience. AM broadcast stations typically have a daytime range of from 80 to 250 kilometers (50 to 150 miles). But some stations can be heard much farther away even in the daytime during the winter months. But at night this range extends considerably farther and you can hear stations 1000 or more kilometers distant. Medium wave signals have the property of following the curvature of the earth (the groundwave) at all times, and also refracting off the ionosphere at night (skywave). This makes this frequency band ideal for both local and continent-wide service, depending on the time of day.
Medium wave (MW) transmitter has a frequency of 927 KHz and delivers a power of 10KW/100KW (STAND BY). MW transmitters deliver more power and hence they are placed in the city outskirts. For MW transmission any number of antennas can be used. But for MW broadcasting at Aganmapudi only two antennas are used. Both the antennas act as radiators. MW transmission uses vertiacal polarisation and propagation type is ground wave. Through microwave link program is received from the studio at Siripuram to the transmitter at Aganampudi. Microwave frequency is approximately 100MHz to 5 GHz. For medium wave broadcasting mostly 1440MHz is utilized. At Aganampudi the carrier is modulated with the received studio program and is then transmitted into air.
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A brief description of RF and AF stages and Power Supply of 10 kW HMB 104 MW transmitter is given below (Fig. 1).
RF SECTION :
RF section consists of crystal oscillator, buffer, intermediate power Amplifier, Exciter and power amplifier.
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The oscillator frequency changes considerably under initial transient condition, that is when power is switched ON. However, it is essential to keep it always ready at a stable condition. To facilitate this a separate power supply is provided to feed the oven which can be switched ON and OFF with the help of a snap switch S3 (Oven) located on the AE panel of the transmitter. Two crystal units X1 and X2 housed separately in different ovens Z1 and Z2 viz. a normal and a stand by unit are provided. Either one of them can be selected by means of change over switch S2. However, both the ovens Z1 and Z2 are kept ON all the time. The oscillator output comes to the buffer stage 6AQ5 or its equivalent. It acts as a buffer between the oscillator and the intermediate power amplifier (IPA). Its output can be tuned by an adjustable dust iron core of coil L.
IPA STAGE:
This stage employs an indirectly heated beam power tube BEL 25 and it operates as a class C amplifier.
EXCITER:
This stage is operated as a class - C amplifier, employing air cooled tetrode type BEL 400 and drives P.A. stage. Screen supply is taken from plate supply. The output is a tuned circuit consists of a fixed capacitor C 29 (Value of C29 depends on the operating frequency) and coil L3. L3 is having a flipper, through it, fine tuning can be made. This stage is modulated about 10 to 20%. A small secondary tap from the modulation transformer supplies the necessary audio and super-imposes on the DC Plate supply. When the triodes are anode modulated, the grid must be overdriven in the carrier condition in order that the drive level will be adequate to sustain the peak anode current at 100% modulation. Alternatively the drive must be modulated. Hence the 10 to 20% modulation. With tetrode the same effect is achieved by modulating the screen enabling the anode current peaks to be attained with the same drive level as that required for the carrier only condition. To some extent this ceases the grid dissipation limit.
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capacitance. The output circuit is formed by PI () section and 'L' section made up of coils and condensers. There is a variable coil to tune the output. A second harmonic filter is connected at the output which attenuates the harmonics. This filter is a simple L C circuit tuned to the second harmonic frequency. The output circuit also matches the plate impedance of about 1100 ohms to the feeder impedance of 230 ohms, which is carried out at the time of installation of the transmitter using Impedance Bridge. At the time of maintenance, care should be taken that the coil settings are not disturbed.
AF CIRCUITS:
The audio frequency amplifier consists of two voltage amplifiers, a cathode follower which serves as a driver to the modulator and the modulator is a class B push pull power Amplifier.
Sub Modulator Stage This stage employs two 4B 85 (or its equivalent with modifications) in push-pull mode to excite the modulator. The sub-modulator is a cathode follower. As the grid current flows in the modulator tube, the input impedance varies widely with different input levels and hence a cathode follower which possesses low output impedance, very small non linear distortion for load impedance variations and good frequency and phase shift characteristics is used. The DC potential of the cathodes of sub-modulator and the grid of the modulator stages are kept nearly at the same negative voltage of about 200 volt.
Modulator Amplifier -
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This is the final stage audio frequency power amplifier which supplies the RF power amplifier, the required modulating power. The HT and the superimposed audio signals are connected to the plate of the PA valves. It may be noted that the negative feedback Network is connected in the primary of the modulation transformer.
POWER SUPPLY:
1. 2. 3. 4. Filament Supply - All AC. Low Tension Bias High Tension
FILAMENT SUPPLY:
For PA and modulator valves, there is a separate filament transformers with centre tap arrangement. The centre tap will be grounded through metering current shunt resistance for the measurement of a cathode currents and an overload coils in parallel with a resistance.
LOW TENSION:
3 phase 220 V AC is stepped up to 3 phase 520 V AC using a Delta/Star connected transformer. It is rectified using silicon diodes and filtered using L C components. It gives DC voltage to the following. 1. 2. 3. Plate and screen of 1st AF, 2nd AF, oscillator and Buffer. Screen grid of sub modulator Sub modulator plate and IPA plate.
BIAS:
3 phase 400 V AC is stepped up to 3 phase 470 V using Delta/Star connected transformer and rectified using silicon diodes in two sets SE 2 and SE3 and filtered using L-C components. SE 2 output supply is connected to the cathode Bias of sub modulator. The out put of SE 3 is connected to control grid of Exciter and Grid of P.A.
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HIGH TENSION:
3 phase 400 V AC is stepped up to 2300 V 3 phase and rectified using silicon diodes assembly SE4 and filtered using L-C components. Full HT is supplied to plate of modulator and PA valves. The filtered DC from the star point of the HT transformer is connected to the plate of 2nd AF and plate and screen grid of Exciter.
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CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
To oscillate at a consistent frequency, the crystal is kept in a oven. The temperature of the oven is maintained between 68 to 72o C and the corresponding indication is available in the meter panel. Crystal oven is heated by + 12 V. One crystal oscillator with a standby has been provided. It gives an output of 5 V square wave which is required to drive the Transistor Power Amplifier. The crystal oscillator works between 3 MHz and 6 MHz for different carrier frequencies. Different capacitors are used to select different frequency ranges. In addition, variable capacitor is used for varying the frequency of the crystal within a few cycles. The oscillator frequency is divided by 2, 4, or 8 which is selected by jumpering the appropriate terminals. The oscillator Unit gives 3 outputs, one each for RF output, RF Monitoring and RF output indication.
RF DRIVER:
A 4-1000 A tetrode is used as a driver which operates under class AB condition, without drawing any grid current. About 7 to 10 Watts, of power is fed to the grid of the driver through 75: 800 ohms RF Transformer, which provides proper impedance matching to the TRPA output and also provides the necessary grid voltage swing to the driver tube.
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: : :
Because the cathode is at -600 V, the effective grid to cathode bias voltage (fixed) is -50V and the effective plate voltage is 2500 V. The driver develops a peak grid voltage of 800 to 900 V at the grid of PA and PA grid current of about 0.3 A to 0.4 Amps. The required wave form for operating the PA as class -D operation is also developed at the output of the driver by mixing about 20% third harmonic with the fundamental which is the operating frequency of the transmitter.
RF POWER AMPLIFIER:
CQK - 50, condensed vapour cooled tetrode valve is used as a PA stage. High level anode modulation is used, using a class B Modulator stage. The screen of the PA tube is also modulated by a separate tap on modulation transformer. Plate load impedance of the PA stage is about 750 ohms and the output impedance is 120 ohms, and it is matched by L-C components. Using various combinations of the L-C circuits plate impedance of third harmonic is created, the Harmonics also are filtered imaginatively at the output side. 11 kV DC, the HT voltage is connected to the plate of the PA valves through the secondary of the modulation transformer and RF chokes: hence the AF signal is super imposed on the DC for the PA plate.
PA OUTPUT CIRCUIT:
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1.
The required load impedance for Class D operation that is there should be third harmonic impedance in addition to the fundamental impedance. Matches the plate impedance of 750 ohms to the feeder impedance of 120 ohms at the operating frequency. Filters all the second and third harmonic before the feeder.
2.
3.
AF STAGE:
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The AF stage supply the audio power required to amplitude modulate the final RF stage. The output of the AF stage is superimposed upon the DC voltage to the RF PA tube via modulation transformer. An Auxiliary winding in the modulation transformer, provides the AF voltage necessary to modulate the screen of the final stage. The modulator stage consists of two CQK-25 ceramic tetrode valves working in push pull class B configuration. The drive stages up to the grid of the modulator are fully transistorized.
AF PRE- AMPLIFIER:
The output of the High Pass Filter is fed to the AF Pre-amplifier, one for each balanced audio line. Signal from the negative feedback network from the secondary of the modulation transformer and the signals from the compensator also are fed to this unit.
AF PRE - CORRECTOR:
Pre- amplifier outputs are fed to the AF Pre-correctors. As the final modulator valve in the AF is operating as Class B, its gain will not be uniform for various levels of AF signal. That is the gain of the modulator will be low for low level, input, and high for high level AF input because of the operating characteristics of the Vacuum tubes. Hence to compensate for the non linear gain of the modulator. The Pre-corrector amplifies the low level signal highly and high level signal with low gain. Hum compensator is used to have a better signal to noise ratio.
AF DRIVER:
2 AF drivers are used to drive the two modulator valves. The driver provides the necessary DC Bias voltage and also AF signal sufficient to modulate 100%.. The output of AF driver stage is formed by four transistor in series as it works with a high voltage of about -400 V. The transistors are protected with diodes and Zener diodes against high voltages that may result due to internal tube flashovers. There is a potentiometer by which any clipping can be avoided such that the maximum modulation factor will not exceeded.
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AF FINAL STAGE:
AF final stage is equipped with ceramic tetrodes CQK-25. Filament current of this tube is about 210 Amps. at 10V. The filament transformers are of special leakage reactance type and their short circuit current is limited to about 2 to 3 times the normal load current. Hence the filament surge current at the time of switching on will not exceed the maximum limit. A varistor at the screen or spark gaps across the grid are to prevent over voltages. As the modulator valve is condensed vapour cooled tetrodes, deionised water is used for cooling. The valve required about 11.5 litres/min. of water. Two water flow switches WF1 and WF2 in the water lines of each of the valves protect against low or no water flow. Thermostats WT1 and WT2 in each water line provide protection against excessive water temperature by tripping the transmitter up to stand-by if the temperature of the water exceeds 70o C. Modulation condenser and modulation choke have been dispensed with due to the special design of the modulation transformer. Special high power varistor is provided across the secondary winding of the modulation transformer to prevent transformer over voltages.
HT -11 kV PA & Modulator : thyristor controlled for smooth variation of HT 800 V Power Supply : 1070 V 1900 V - 650 V : : Screen voltage to PA valve. Screen voltage to modulate valve. Plate voltage to RF Driver :
(ii)
(i)
A tap on -650 V provides -600 V supply to the cathode of RF Driver -100 V for the screen of RF Driver.
(iii)
6. 7. 8. 9.
: : : :
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10.
Earthing switch operated by a handle from the front of the rack has been provided in the filter tank. The main HT terminal and also the live ends of the filter condensers C201 to C 210 have been brought to the earthing switch. In addition all the MT voltage (- 650, 800, 1070, 1900) are also brought to the earthing switch.The 11 kV point is discharged initially through a resistor R - 543 before it is grounded. The earthing switch is interlocked to the main transmitter by micro switches S 302, S 303 and S 304. In addition, a key interlock system is provided to prevent accidental contact with high voltages.
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In the following paragraph the details regarding the above aspects are dealt briefly:
1.
a.
Ventilation All the transmitters handle large amount of power. Basically the transmitters convert power from AC main's to Radio Frequency and Audio Frequency energy. The conversion process always result in some loss. The loss in energy is dissipated in the form of heat. The dissipated energy has to be carried away by a suitable medium to keep the raise in temperature of the transmitting equipment within limits. Hence, in order to ensure that the heat generated by the equipment is carried away as soon as it is generated the ventilation equipment need to be switched on first. Normally the cooling provided in a transmitter could be classified on the following lines:
Cooling for the tube filaments. Cooling for the tube Anodes. General cooling of the cubics. Cooling for coils, condensers, Resistors etc.
The cooling equipments comprise of blowers, pumps and heat exchangers. Another important consideration is that during the switching off sequence the cooling equipments should run a little longer to carry away the heat generated in the equipments. This is ensured by providing a time delay for the switch off of the cooling equipment. Normal time delay is of the order of 3 to 6 Minutes. The water flow and the air flow provided by the cooling equipments to the various equipments are monitored by means of air flow and water flow switches. In
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case of failure of water or air flow, these switches provide necessary commands for tripping the transmitter.
a.
Filaments All the transmitters invariably employ tubes in their drive and final stages of RF amplifiers and sub modulator and modular stages of AF amplifiers. After ventilation equipments are switched on and requisite air and water flow established, the filament of the tubes can be switched on. While switching on filament of the tube, the control and interlocking circuits have to take care of the following points. The cold resistance of the filament is very low and hence application of full filament voltage in one strike would result in enormous filament current and may damage the tube filament. Hence, it becomes necessary to apply the filament voltage in steps. Various methods adopted are:
i.
Use of step starter resistance: Here the filament voltages of the tubes are given through a series resistance (called step starter resistance). The series resistance which limits the initial filament current is shorted and after a time interval by the use of a timer switch.
ii.
Use of special filament transformer which allows slow build up of the filament voltage.
iii.
The emission from the tubes depend upon the temperature of the filament. Generally it takes some time for the filament to reach a steady temperature after it is switched on. Hence, it is not desirable to draw any power from the tube till it attains a stable temperature. This means that the further switching on process has to be suspended till the filament temperature and hence the emission becomes stable. This aspect is taken care of by providing a time delay of 3 to 5 minutes between the filament switching on and the next sequence namely bias switching on.
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c.
Bias And Medium Tension For obvious reasons the control grid of the tube has to be given the necessary negative bias voltage before its anode voltage can be applied. Hence, after the application of full filament voltage and after the lapse of necessary delay for the filament temperature to become stable bias voltage can be switched on. Along with bias generally anode and screen voltages of intermediate stages and driver stages are also switched on. Application of bias and medium tension makes available very high voltages for the various transmitter equipment. Hence, in order to ensure the safety of the personnel access to these equipment should be forbidden before the application of bias and medium tension. This is ensured by providing the interlocking so that the bias and medium tension can be put on only after all the transmitter and other HV equipment doors are closed to prevent access.
Connection of Load (Antenna/Dummy load):After the application of ventilation, filament and bias the anode voltage can be switched on. But before the anode voltage can be increased the interlocking circuit is to ensure that the load of the transmitter namely antenna or dummy load is connected to the transmitter. The tuning process of the various RF stages are complete and none of the tuning motors are moving.
Application of Screen Voltage In the case of tetrode tubes, the screen voltage to the tube should not be applied before the application of anode voltage to keep the screen current and screen dissipation within limits. This is taken care of by an interlocking provision that the screen voltage is applied only after the anode voltage reach a certain pre-determined value well above the normal screen voltage. Release of Audio frequency The application of AF signal to the AF stage in the absence of carrier power would result in the operation of modulation transformer with no load connected. This is not desirable. Therefore, the AF signal should be applied to the Audio frequency
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stages only when the RF power amplifier is delivering the nominal power. Normally AF frequency signal to the AF stage is released only when the carrier power is approximately 80% of the normal power.
1.
over loads etc. The various safety provisions provided in the transmitter are as follows: i) All the rotating machinery are provided with switches with magnetic and thermal over load release.
ii)
The air flow and water flow switches and temperature sensors monitors the air flow and water flow of the cooling medium. If the air and water flow fall below a certain pre-determined value, it ensures the necessary tripping sequence.
iii)
Water levels in the reservoir and water conductivity are monitored constantly.
iv)
Momentary release of air flow and water flow switches due to some turbulence for a short duration will not result in the tripping of transmitters. However, if the fault persists for a few seconds then the tripping will result.
v)
Sometimes thermal sensors are embedded in the filament transformers to monitor its temperature.
vi)
The filament voltage of various high power tubes is monitored. In case of low or high filament voltage tripping of the transmitter filament is initiated.
vii)
Circuit breakers associated with various rectifiers such as grid bias, screen voltage etc. protect the rectifiers and associated equipment against over currents.
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viii)
All the vital currents of the tubes and stages are monitored and indicated by means of panel meters. This is to monitor abnormality if any on the various operating conditions.
ix)
Also current operated over load relays are provided in the cathode, screen grid and anode circuits to protect the tubes and the associated rectifiers in case any of these respective currents exceed a pre-determined value. The operation of over load relays are indicated by means of flags or latched lamps.
x)
The standing wave ratio on the load side is monitored suitably and signal is used to trip the transmitter anode voltage in case of VSWR is higher than the pre-determined value.
xi)
Spark detectors are provided in various cubicles to ensure the tripping sequence in case of sparking to prevent damage to the equipments.
xii)
Normally the over currents are counted over a period of time and if number of over currents occur in a short interval the transmitter is tripped up to the filament.
xiii)
In addition to the above safety provisions spark gaps and varistors provided at various high voltage points offer protection to the equipment against high RF voltage.
xiv)
In some of the transmitter a crow bar device is provided to short circuit the stored energies in the power supply circuit in case of over load. This provision is to protect the high power tubes
1.
be protected by coming into contact with these high voltages accidentally. The safety interlocking generally comprises of:
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a.
An earthing switch which earths all the high voltage supplies before the access to the cubicles keys are allowed.
b.
A key exchange panel from where the key to the transmitter cubicles can be utilised only after the earthing switch is put on. The earthing switch is interlocked in the bias circuit and hence the operation of the earth switch automatically switches off up to bias. This provision ensures that the cubicle doors can be opened only when the bias and medium voltages are switched off and earthed through the earthing switch.
c.
In addition to the above earth hooks are provided at various parts of the cubicle and high voltage equipment area. The operating personnel are to short through these earth hooks the high voltage points before any work is undertaken in these equipment.
d.
Some of the transmitters are also provided with additional shorting switches in the cubicles which shorts the supplies in the cubicle as soon as the door is opened.
1.
INDICATION LAMPS : The indication lamps are provided in the transmitter to indicate the status of switching
on of the transmitter as well as to indicate the occurrence of over load etc. These indicating lamps are provided to help the fault diagnosis.
CHAPTER 4
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loaded antenna and umbrella antenna are at a few All India Radio stations. Directional antenna systems also exist in many All India Radio stations.
As most of the All India Radio MW towers are of the first category, only they are discussed here.(see Fig. 5) The first consideration of such mast is its height in terms of the wave length. What is the optimum height ? Obviously the main considerations are economy consistent with maximum coverage and minimum high angle radiation (sky wave).
The relative characteristics of mast height 30o to 225o (electrical lengths) are given below :
Height in wave length ( ) 1/12 1/6 1/4 3/8 1/2 0.53 5/8
Field strength at one mile V/m 186 189 196 214 242 254 276
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From the above analysis, it may be seen that as the height of the MW mast increases, the field strength at one mile increases (range of the transmitter increases) and is maximum for 225o (5 /8) of electrical length of the antenna. Examination of the polar
pattern shows that as the height increases, the high angle radiation decreases and the horizontal gain increases. However at 5 /8 height, the presence of side lobe will contribute high angle radiation and therefore sky waves. Therefore electrical length of 190o (0.53 ) would look optimum from the points of view of maximum range, high horizontal directivity and maximum suppression of high angle radiation. 190o antenna is known as 'Antifading' broadcast antenna as it eliminates the sky wave interference fading beyond the ground wave range during night. The height of the MW tower also will have to be coordinated with the civil aviation authorities from the point of view of nearness of the airport. Should this require reduction in actual physical height top loading technique can be adopted. This increases the current distribution in the vertical portion of the radiator, thereby increases the efficiency of radiators. However in special cases such as the AIR's National Channel at Nagpur, the stress is particularly for the night time service, to provide more sky wave average for which two short antenna of 60m height (0.3) fed suitably are used.
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The MW self supporting mast antenna could be excited in 3 different methods. The first method requires an insulator at the base of the mast. The second method is called shunt feed and the third top feed. The comparatively low voltage at the base and top of the mast antenna, simplifies the operating condition of the insulators and enables to accommodate a larger power into the mast antenna, than the wire antenna. Shunt feed, earthed mast overcomes the difficulties of installing and maintaining masts placed on insulators. The feed line is usually connected to the mast at a height equal to 1/5 to 1/10 the height of the mast. The top fed antenna is fed by means of a coaxial line (or wires vertically forced inside the body of the mast). The advantages are
More uniform current distribution compared to the base feed. Absence of supporting insulator. High radiation resistance and high efficiency.
It is possible to simulate higher electrical length of the MW antenna for any physically smaller MW antenna by top loading. A large capacitance disc (insulated from the mast, and series resonated by an inductance connected across the insulator at the top of short mast effectively increases the electrical length of the mast. Another alternative is to use a number of wires in the form of umbrella emanating from the top of the radiator and secured via insulated rope to the ground (fig. 7). This is particularly valuable for thin masts. One such umbrella antenna is installed in Nagarcoil and some other stations of AIR.
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antenna in the network. This may perhaps be very handy to rig up one for emergency arrangements. The antenna is secured on two high (100 to 250m) mast (wood or metal), spaced 100-250 m apart. (Fig.8 & 9) The antenna consists of two to sixteen wires spaced 1 to 1.5 m apart. The copper wires are usually 5 to 8 mm in diameter. The supporting towers may be secured by several tiers of guys in which insulators are inserted. The antenna down leads directly connect the radio transmitter. There may not be any need for feeder lines if suitably structured. The disadvantages are : Need for two or more masts Distortion of directional diagram caused by the influence of supporting cables. The voltage at the base and at the end of wire antenna is very high compared to the mast antenna,
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