1

TAMIL NADU ELECTRICITY BOARD

MANUAL ON
PRE-COMMISSIONING & PERIODICAL
TESTING
OF
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
2
FOREWORD
The need for a comprehensive manual on Substation equipments and testing procedures
for these equipments is a long felt need. Initiative for this was taken in July 1999 to prepare
such a manual by constituting a Committee of experts.
It is not enough if the officers of specialised field such as GRT, MRT, SS Erection,
Transformer Erection etc., know about such testing procedures. The officers in charge of
Substations should also have adequate knowledge of the equipments they are incharge of, so
that these equipments are maintained well, operated in the way they should be done. Besides
the maintenance officials, the operators of the 400 KV, 230 KV and 110 KV Substations should
also be familiar about the functioning of each equipment they have to operate, observe and
monitor during the course of their duty.
Though piece meal instructions are available in various literature and suppliers
manuals, they are not codified and written in the way the maintenance and operating officials
could easily understand and carry out their function with confidence and in a systematic way.
The expert committee has brought out a good manual covering pre-commissioning and
periodical testing on all the equipments. I congratulate the members of the team for their
excellent work particularly Thiru K. Mounagurusamy, Thiru M. Varadharajan and Thiru M.
Arunachalam who have shouldered a major responsibility in bringing out this manual.
Any suggestions for improvement are welcome. An updated and improved version will
be published later based on these suggestions.
I am confident that the manual will be of immense use to the testing, operating and
maintenance personnel in the T.N.E.B.,.
CHENNAI-600 002 R. POORNALINGAM,
16.02.2001 CHAIRMAN
Tamil Nadu Electricity Board.
3
INTRODUCTION:
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines a relay as an electric
device that is designed to interpret input conditions in a prescribed manner and after specified
conditions are met to respond to cause contact operation as similar abrupt change in associated
electric control circuits.
Any unwanted operation or a non-operation can equally result in major system upsets. To
differentiate between these two levels, a protection engineer has to be fully conversant and
knowledgeable not only with the protection relay subject but also the protected equipments like
generators, motors, transformers, transmission lines, distribution etc. For example, if a
protection engineer is not clear about the principles of transformers, he will not be able to
handle the protection of the transformers effectively.
TNEBs policy has always been to the modern trends on protection system then and there
and to give opportunities to its engineers to have the latest philosophy of the system. The
TNEB engineers are well exposed to the protection field and are being responsible for the
application of modern systems.
Now the experienced engineers of the TNEB in the field of protection have developed a
manual, sharing their experiences.
The objective of this manual is to help the field protection engineers carry out their works
effectively to the extent possible. There may be different opinions about some of the points
given in this manual. This is natural since protection though a science is an art by itself and any
art can not be defined or contained in a shell. It could be practically seen that decisions in
protection field are depending upon individuals mainly. This manual is to furnish a minimum
common base for the protection art
The topics chosen are grouped in separate chapters dealing with major area Power system
protection and the power line carrier communication. A sample calculation of fault levels of a
small substation is given to generate the idea on the very important area to be familiarised by
any protection engineer.
Subjects like design, application, principles etc are not dealt with since these are available
in various textbooks and brochures of relay manufactures. Care has been taken to include
materials, which are not normally available in text books and relay manuals. Importance has
been given to provide information and guidelines to the field engineers on the
precommissioning, commissioning, periodical maintenance and analysis of relay operations.
The provision of such a manual was suggested in response to Chairmans D.O.Letter No.
SE/CHO/D 493223 DT 08.07.99 seeking suggestion from various officers. It is not known
which officer has actually suggested this, but the subsequent efforts taken by our Chairman
Thiru. R. Poornalingam IAS., has broughtout this publication. The engineering fraternity
should thank our chairman for having been the starter and keeping a constant drive to achieve
the goal.
4
The suggestion was accepted in the meeting held on 17.9.99 and it was decided that Chief
Engineer / Research & Development and Chief Engineer / Technical Audit shall print and
distribute.
A committee consisting the following officers was constituted wide LR No.
CE/TA/EE/AEE/F.SSETP/D204/99 dt 12.11.99.
1) Er. A.S. Kandasamy
2) Er. K. Mounagurusamy
3) Er. S. Swaminathan
4) Er. M. Arunachalam
5) Er. P. Ponnambalam
6) Er. ULO Chenthamizh Kodai
7) Er. M. Varadarajan
It was also approved in the above ref. that the above committee shall prepare the manual
and put up to the steering committee consisting of Chief Engineer / Technical Audit, Chief
Engineer / Research & Development and Chief Engineer / Operation.
First meeting of the committee was held on 22.11.99 and the subjects were decided along
with the allocation of various subjects to the members of the committee. The members were
asked to submit the materials on or before 22.12.99. The copies of materials received were
furnished to all other members in order to check and avoid any technical errors and to suggest
for any improvements. Subsequent meetings were held on 28.1.2000 and 28.2.2000.
The subject was reviewed by Chairman on 13.11.2000 and Chief Engineer / Protection &
Communication was instructed to take up the work and complete the job.
The job was completed with the best cooperation of Engineers Thiru M. Arunachalam,
Thiru M. Varadarajan and Thiru Ponnambalam in the final stages and a long felt need of relay
engineers has been accomplished.
It is our best hope that the manual will be of valuable assistance to the field engineers.
Any suggestions and improvement are welcome and will be sincerely acknowledged and
appreciated.
CHENNAI 600 002 Chief Engineer
DATE: 16.2.2001 Protection & Communication
Chennai 2.
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CONTENTS
Chapter Subject Author Page
Introduction
1. Need for Tests on Electrical Instalation 7
2. Current Transformers Er. A. S. Kandasamy 19
CE/Transmission.
3. Potential Transformers Er.K. Mounagurusamy 43
Capacitive Voltage Transformer CE/P&C
4. Pre-commissioning Tests Er.K. Mounagurusamy 48
CE / P&C
5. Commissioning Test Er.K. Mounagurusamy 54
CE / P&C
6. Testing of Circuit Breaker at Site Er. P. Ponnambalam 75
EE/ S.S Erection
7. Testing of Relays Er.K. Mounagurusamy 78
CE / P&C
8. Protection of Non Grid Feeders Er. M. Varadarajan 81
EE / O&M.
9. Distance Protection Er. M. Arunachalam 121
EE / GRT
10. Power Transformer Testing and Protection Er. M. Varadarajan 156
EE / O&M
11. Generator Protection Er.K. Mounagurusamy 251
CE / P&C
12. Under Frequency relaying Er.K. Mounagurusamy 267
CE / P&C
13. Power-line Carrier Communication Er. M. Arunachalam 271
EE / GRT
14. HV AC/DC Test By R&D. 290
15. Maintenance of Relays Er.K. Mounagurusamy 316
CE / P&C
6
16. Gas Insulated Sub-Stations. Er.K. Mounagurusamy 322
CE / P&C
17. Review and Analysis of Tripping Er.K. Mounagurusamy 336
CE / P&C
18. Experience in protection field Er.K. Mounagurusamy 353
CE / P&C
19. Under ground Cable System Er. M. Arunachalam 366
EE / GRT
20. Batteries Er. M. Arunachalam 370
EE / GRT
7
CHAPTER-I
NEED FOR TESTS ON
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
EACH AND EVERY PIECE OF EQUIPMENT IS TESTED IN THE FACTORY BEFORE
DESPATCHING TO THE SITE. PRECOMMISSIONING TESTING AT SITE IS DONE TO
PROVE THAT:
i) TO ENSURE THAT EQUIPMENT WAS NOT SUBJECTED TO ANY DAMAGE
DURING TRANSPORTATION.
ii) EACH EQUIPMENT HAS BEEN INSTALLED CORRECTLY.
iii) EACH EQUIPMENT IS WORKING IN CO-ORDINATION WITH OTHER
EQUIPMENTS AS DESIRED.
iv) ALL THE PROTECTION AND CONTROL SCHEMES ARE WORKING IN
ACCORDANCE WITH RELEVENT SPECIFICATION AND PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS.
v) EACH EQUIPMENT HAS BEEN ADJUSTED PROPERLY IN ACCORDANCE
WITH TNEBS SETTINGS.
vi) THE INSTALLATION IS SAFE FOR PUTTING IN TO SERVICE.
vii) THE PREIODICAL TESTING WILL ENSURE THE AVAILABILITY OF THE
EQUIPMENT FOR THE RELIABILITY OF THE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE.
viii) THE TESTING OF PROTECTIVE SYSTEM FOR COMBINATION OF
CONTINGENCIES THAT CAUSE THE SYSTEM INSTABILITY AND
SEPARATION WILL EVOLVE THE DYNAMICS OF THE SYSTEM.
ix) THIS WILL ALSO HELP IN UPDATING THE SYSTEM DISASTER CONTROL
MEASURES IMPLEMETED.
x) FINALLY THIS WILL GIVE A RECOGNITION FOR THE POSSIBILITY TO FACE
THE UNFORSEEN MULTIPLE CONTINGENCIES AND/OR NATURAL
CALAMITY WHICH MAY CAUSE THE COLLAPSE OF THE ENTIRE SYSTEM.
8
CHAPTER-I
PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
UNDER NORMAL CIRCUMSTANCES, THE ELECTRICAL ENERGY IN
AN ELECTRICAL SYSTEM IS SAFELY CONTAINED AND
CONTROLLED.
WHEN EQUIPMENT FAILS, THE ENERGY IS RELEASED AND EVERY
COMPONENT IN THE SYSTEM IS AT RISK. THE PROTECTIVE
RELAYING SYSTEM MONITORS THE ENERGY FLOWING IN THE
SYSTEM AND INITIATE ACTION WHEN DAMAGING FAULTS OCCUR.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEER NEEDS TO UNDERSTAND:
- ROLES OF PROTECTION
- EFFECTS OF FAULTS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
- BASIC PROTECTIVE METHODS
- ZONES OF PROTECTION IN RELAYING SYSTEMS
ROLES OF PROTECTION IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEM.
THE PRIMARY ROLE OF ELECTRICAL PROTECTION SYSTEM IS TO
DETECT AND ISOLATE ABNORMAL CONDITIONS.
ABNORMAL CONDITIONS EXPERIENCED IN POWER SYSTEMS ARE
FAULTS, OVERLOADS, AND EQUIPMENT FAILURES.
THE CAUSES OF THESE ABNORMAL CONDITIONS INCLUDE;
- ENVIRONMENT DISTURBANCES
- OPERATOR ERROR
- EQUIPMENT MALFUNCTIONS
- INSULATION DETERIORATION
9
CHAPTER-I
OBJECTIVE OF SYSTEM PROTECTION
PROTECTION DOES NOT MEAN PREVENTION. IT IS RATHER MINIMISING THE
DURATION OF THE TROUBLE AND LIMITING THE DAMAGE.
RELIABILITY, SELECTIVITY, SENSITIVITY, SPEED OF OPERATION,
SIMPLICITY, AND ECONOMICS ARE SOME TERMS COMMONLY USED TO
DESCRIBE THE OBJECTIVE OF SYSTEM PROTECTION.
RELIABILITY HAS TWO ASPECTS I.E., DEPENDABILITY & SECURITY
- DEPENDABILITY is the certainty of correct operation in response to system
trouble.
- SECURITY relates to the degree of ability that a relay system will avoid miss
operation. Generally, enhancing security tends to decrease the dependability and
vice versa.
SELECTIVITY:
- The ability of the protection system to select (search out) the point at which
the fault appears and switch it out of the circuit by tripping the nearest circuit
breaker.
SENSITIVITY:
- The capability of the protection system to respond to abnormalities in normal
operating conditions
SPEED OF CONTROL:
- Quick disconnection of a short-circuit, decreases the amount of damage
incurred, maintains the machines running in synchronism (A high speed relay
will operate in 3 cycles)
SIMPLICITY:
- The simpler the protection system the greater is its reliability.
ECONOMICS:
- Protection costs are considered high when considered alone, but they should be
evaluated in the light of the much higher cost of the equipment they are
protecting and the cost of an outage and/or the loss of the protected equipment.
10
CHAPTER-I
PROTECTIVE RELAY CLASSIFICATION
1. According to functional categories
Protective relays, monitoring relays, reclosing relays, regulating relays, Auxiliary
relays, synchronizing relays
2. According to input quantity, operating principle and performance characteristic.
Inputs: Current, Voltage, Power, Frequency, Pressure, Temperature, Flow, and vibration.
Operating principle: Current balance, Percentage, Multi restraint, product, Solid state,
Static, Microprocessor, Electromechanical, Thermal Performance characteristics: Distance,
Directional over-current, Inverse time, Definite time, Under-voltage, Over-voltage,
Ground or phase, High or low speed, phase comparison, Directional comparison
3. According to the method of connection to the power circuit
Primary relays.
Secondary relays connected through C.Ts and P.Ts.
4. According to the method of action
Direct-acting relays
Indirect-acting relays, those operate through auxiliary relays.
5. According to the degree of importance
Main relays
Supplementary relays such as signal relays, time relays, contact multiplier relays.
6. According to time of action
Quick relays: operate in 4-40ms.
Ordinary relays: operate in 40-200ms.
7. According to type of contacts
Relays with normally-open contacts
Relays with normally closed contacts.
Relay performance is generally classified, as (1) correct, (2) no conclusion,
(3) incorrect. Incorrect operation may be either failure to trip or false tripping, the
cause of it may be poor application, incorrect setting, personnel error, or equipment
malfunction.
11
CHAPTER-I
ELECTRICAL ENVIRONMENT REQUIRED
FOR THE PROTECTIVE RELAYS
Sl.No. Specification Number Details
1. IEC 255-11:1979 The unit should withstand a
10ms interruption in the
auxiliary supply, under normal operating
conditions, without
de-energising.
2. AC ripple on DC supply The unit should withstand 12%
IEC 255-11:1979 ac ripple on the dc supply.
3. High frequency disturbance 2.5 kv peak between independent
IEC 255-22-1:1988 Class III circuits and case.
1 kv peak across terminals of the
same circuit.
4. Fast transient disturbance
IEC 255-22-4:1992 Class IV 4 kV, 2.5kHz applied directly to
auxiliary supply.
IEC 801-4:1988 Level 4 4kv, 2.5 kHz applied directly to
all inputs.
5. Surge immunity
IEC 1000-4-5:1995 Level 3 2kv peak, 1.2/50 s between
all groups and case earth.
2kv peak, 1.2/50 s between
terminals of each group.
6. EMC compliance In compliance with the
European Commission directive.
89/336/EEC
Generic standards of
EN5008-2:1994, EN5008-2:1995
12
CHAPTER-I
REFRENCE STANDARDS
01 IEC Electrical Relays-All-or-nothing electrical relays
255-1-00
02 IEC 255-3 Electrical Relays Single input energising quantity measuring
relays with dependent or independent time
03 IEC 255-6 Electrical Relays Insulation tests for electrical relays
04 IEC 255-6 Electrical Relays Measuring relays and protection equipments
05 IEC 255-7 Electrical Relays Test and measurement procedures for
electro-mechanical all-or-nothing relays
06 IEC 255-8 Electrical Relays Thermal electrical relays
07 IEC 255-10 Electrical Relays Application of the IEC quality assessment
system for electronic components to all-or-nothing relays
08 IEC 255-11 Electrical Relays Interruptions to and alternating component
(Ripple) in DC auxiliary energising quantity of measuring relays
09 IEC 255-12 Electrical Relays Directional relays and power relays with two
input energising quantities
10 IEC 255-13 Electrical Relays Biased (%) differential relays
11 IEC 255-16 Electrical Relays Impedance measuring relays
12 IEC Electrical Relays Vibration, shock, bump and seismic tests on
255-21-1 measuring relays and protection equipment (Vibration tests)
13 IEC Electrical Relays Vibration, shock, pump and seismic tests on
255-21.2 measuring relays and protection equipment (Shock & Bump tests)
14 IEC Electrical Relays Vibration, Shock, pump and seismic tests on
255-21-3 measuring relays and protection equipment (Seismic tests)
15 IEC Electrical Relays Electrical disturbance tests for measuring
255-22-1 relays and protection equipment (1 MHz burst disturbance tests)
16 IEC Electrical Relays Electrical disturbance tests for measuring
255-22-2 relays and protection equipment (Electrostatic discharge tests)
17 IEC Electrical Relays Electrical disturbance test for measuring
relays and protection equipment (Radiated electromagnetic
field disturbance tests)
18 IEC Electrical Relays Electrical disturbance tests for measuring
255-22-4 relays and protection equipment (Fast transient disturbance tests)
19 IEC Electrical Relays contract performance
255-23
13
CHAPTER-I
ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT
TEMPERATURE
IEC-255-6:1988 Storage and transit -25C to +70C
Operating -25 to 55C
IEC-68-2-1:1990 Cold
IEC-68-2-3:1974 Dry Heat
2. Humidity
IEC-68-2-3:1969 56 days at 93% RH and 40C
3. Enclosure Protection
IEC-529:1989 IP50 (dust protected)
Mechanical Environment
Vibration
IEC-255-21-1:1988 Response Class 1.
The relay should be capable of performing 10000 operations. The relay should be
capable of withstanding shock, bump and seismic disturbances.
IEC 255-21-2:1988
IEC 255-21-3:1993 Exception: lowest frequency tested is 5Hz.
High Voltage Withstand
1. Dielectric Withstand
IEC 255-5:1977 2Kv rms 1 minute between all
case terminals connected
together and the case earth terminal.
2Kv rms 1 minute between all
terminals of independent
circuits, with terminals on each
independent circuit connected
together.1.5 Kv rms for 1 minute
across normally open outgoing
contact pairs.
14
CHAPTER-I
2. High voltage impulse
IEC 255-5:1977 Three positive and three negative
impulses of 5 kv peak, 1.2/50 s,
0.5J between all terminals of the
same circuit (except output
contacts), independent circuits,
and all terminals connected
together and case earth.
THE FOLLOWING INFORMATIONS APPLY TO RELAYS:-
1. INPUT ENERGISING QUANTITIES
AC Voltages (rms) 115V
AC Current (rms) 1Amp or 5 Amps
2. AUXILIARY ENERGISING QUANTITIES
Fixed Inputs Level sensitive inputs Jumper selectable inputs
30Vdc 18Vdc 30Vdc
48Vdc 28.8Vdc 48Vdc
110Vdc 66Vdc 110Vdc
220Vdc 132Vdc 220Vdc
3. FREQUENCY
Specified as 50Hz with a range of operation from 47.5Hz to 52.5Hz
4. REFERENCE CONDITIONS OF INFLUENCING QUANTITIES
Ambient temperature 355C
Position Horizontal
5. NOMINAL RANGE OF INFLUENCING QUANTITIES
Unless otherwise specified, the following values represent the reference condition
Ambient temperature -40C to 85C
Position 0 to 180in any direction from the reference position
6. LIMITING SHORT TIME THERMAL WITH STAND
Current Inputs Voltage Inputs
500amps (ac) for 1see 365v (ac) for 10 sec
The above conditions are to be verified for the acceptance of relays for the
precommissioning test on protective relays.
15
CHAPTER-I
Protective relays have been called sentinels and electric brains.
From the economic point of view, relays are akin to insurance; they protect the power
utility from financial loss due to damage to equipment.
From the under writers point of view, they prevent accidents to personnel and minimise
damage to equipments.
From the consumers point of view, good service depends more upon adequate relaying
than upon any other equipment.
FUNCTION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS AND RELAYING
When anything abnormal occurs on an electrical system, some action is necessary to
isolate the abnormal condition either instantaneously or in some circumstances, after a pre-
determined time delay. Such action must be automatic and selective ie. it must segregate the
faulty section or piece of equipment leaving the healthy remainder in normal service. This is
the function of protective gear, which in one form or another is designed to sense the presence
of abnormal conditions and based on this a sensing, to isolate the circuit. The abnormal
conditions against which protection is required, may be broadly summarised as follows.
1. The condition of overloading.
2. The failure of insulation to the extend where a dangerous leakage of current can occur to
earth.
3. The failure of insulation to the extend where short circuit occurs between two or three
phases.
Relays do not prevent occurring of abnormal conditions, but only to help to protect.
When we say that relays protect we mean that together with other equipments such as
current transformers (CT), Potential transformers (PT) circuit breakers (CB), Battery, control
circuit etc. the relays help to minimise damage and improve service.
16
CHAPTER-I
GLOSSARY OF COMMON RELAY TERMS
1. Operating force or torque.
- that which tends to close the contacts of the relay.
2. Restraining force or Torque.
- that which opposes the operating force or torque and tends to prevent the closure of the
relay contacts.
3. Pickup (level)
- The value of current or voltage etc. which is the threshold above which the relay will
close its contacts.
4. Dropout (level) OR Reset
- The values of current or voltage etc. which is the threshold below which the relay will
open its contacts and return to normal position or state.
5. Characteristic (of a relay in the steady state)
- The locus of the pick up or reset when drawn on a graph.
6. Backup relay
A relay which operates usually after a slight delay, if the normal relay does not operate
to trip its circuit breaker.
7. Selectivity
- The ability of the relay to discriminate between a fault in the protected section and
abnormal conditions or a fault else where on the system.
8. Consistency
- The accuracy with which the relay can repeat its electrical or time characteristic.
9. Flag or Target
- A visual device, usually spring or gravity operated for indicating the operation of a
relay.
17
CHAPTER-I
10. Instantaneous relay
- One which has no intentional time delay and operates in less than 0.1 second.
11. Burden (VA)
- The power absorbed by the circuits of the relay expressed in volt-amperes if
alternating current, and in watts if direct current at the rated current or voltage.
12. Operating time
- The time which elapses from the moment when actuating quantity attains a value
equal to the pick up value until the relay operates its contacts.
13. Blocking
- Preventing the protective relay from tripping, either due to its own characteristic or to
an additional relay.
14. Annunciator Audible and/or visible alarm or signal initiated electrically.
15. Circuit breaker
- A device for interrupting a circuit between separate contacts under normal or
abnormal conditions. May be operated manually or automatically for circuit control by
overload or the selected condition.
16. Circuit breaker mechanism:
- An assembly of levers, cranks and other parts which actuate the moving contacts of a
circuit breaker.
17. Dash pot
- A device using a gas or liquid to absorb energy or retard the movement of moving
parts such as on a circuit breaker.
18. Closing Coil
- The electromagnet or solenoid which supplies power for closing a circuit breaker.
19. Trip coil:
- An electromagnet used for opening a circuit breaker.
18
CHAPTER-I
20. Differential relay
- A relay which functions by reason of the difference between two quantities of the
same nature such as current or voltage.
21. Instrument transformers (CTs, PTs)
- Used for measuring and control purposes, provides current and voltages
representative of the primary components but of such magnitude that there is less danger to
instruments and personnel.
22. Interlock
- An electrical or mechanical arrangement that prevents one operation or sequence of
operation from taking place, until another prerequisite operation or condition has been satisfied.
23. Solenoid
- An Electro magnetic coil which when electrically energised produces a mechanical
force by acting up on a free armature in the coil axis.
24. T.M.S. Time Multiplier setting (UK)
T.L.S. Time lever setting (U.S.A.)
- A means of adjusting the movable back stop which controls the travel of the disc and
thereby varies the time in which the relay will close its contacts for given values of current.
25. Plug setting bridge (UK) or Tap block (USA)
- A device providing a range of current settings at which the relay will start to operate.
26. Capacitor
- An electrical device for storing of electricity and returning it to the line. It is used to
balance the inductance of a circuit since its action is opposite in phase to that of inductive
apparatus ie. it throws the current ahead of emf in phase.
19
CHAPTER-II
CURRENT TRANSFORMES:
Er. A.S. Kandasamy (CE/Transmission)
INTRODUCTION:
The most widely used input quantity, in the application of protective relays is current.
The source of this quantity is from current Transformer (CTs) which are located on or near the
protected equipment. CTs are used to provide isolation from the power system and reduction
in magnitude to a level usable by relays and meters. Protective relays use this quantity in
numerous ways to determine if the protected system is abnormal and requires isolation. Failure
of CTs to perform as designed, has resulted in failure to trip, failure to trip promptly and
tripping when not required.
Many of these failures can be traced to incomplete or improper testing of the CTs and
the associated circuitry. (This manual for field testing of relaying CTs is written to provide
testing personnel with the basis to properly test the CTs.)
Accuracy class:
Understanding of the accuracy class of a CT is necessary for proper testing and
evaluation.
Ratiotest:
CT ratio can be checked by two generally accepted methods. The voltage method of
testing measures ratio directly by impressing a voltage on the CT secondary with the primary
open circulated, while reading primary and secondary voltages directly with a high impedance
voltmeter. The current method of determining ratio circulates a known value of current through
the CT primary while measuring secondary current. Only the latter method is discussed in
detail as the same is adopted on T. N. E. B.
Polarity Tests:
CT polarity can be determined by three generally accepted methods.
(1) The DC voltage test momentarily imposes a small DC voltage on one side of a C.T and
the direction of the momentary deflection of a milliammeter on the opposite side of the
CT is noted and compared with polarity marks.
20
CHAPTER-II
(2) The AC voltage test utilizes an osiloscope to compare the instantaneous values of
voltage on the primary and secondary of a C.T while an AC voltage is impressed on the
secondary.
(3) The current method compares the polarity of the CT under test with that of a C.T.
whose polarity is known by circulating current through both and measuring the
difference.
The first method is discussed in detail.
Excitation Test:
Excitation Tests are made to assure the CT is capable of developing its published
secondary terminal voltage without excessive excitation current. An excitation curve is plotted
by applying various values of an AC voltage below saturation level to the secondary with the
primary open circuited. While measuring secondary current and voltage substantial deviations
from published curves should be investigated (or from the curves obtained during
commissioning) and may indicate a turn to turn short circuit or a completed magnetic path
around the CT core.
Inter-core coupling:
In many instances several secondary cores are mounted in close proximity on the same
primary lead. It is possible, through failure of grading shields or CT support structures, to have
coupling between cores which is not detectible by excitation tests, but it is still substantial
enough to improperly operate bus differential relays. The presence of abnormal coupling can
be detected by reading open circuit voltage on CTs adjacent to a CT being excitation tested.
CT SATURATION:
In present day power system, increased concentration of generation has caused
considerable increase in the ratio of the fault current to the normal load currents. Also in EHV
networks increased reactance to resistance ratio causes slow decay of the d. c. component in the
short circuit current. The time constants of the decay of d. c. transients. Can be as high as 300
m secs. The D. C. component in the magnetizing in rush current of a large power transformer
have still longer time constants. For a fault close to a generator the fault current may not touch
the zero current axis for several cycles. Saturation of a conventional current transformer under
such situation can be avoided only by choosing the cross sectional area of their cores to be
several times larger than that needed for the transformation of symmetrical current of the same
peak value.
21
CHAPTER-II
A CT used with slow speed protective relays should not saturate during steady state
fault current. It may be allowed to saturate due to d. c. component in the fault current as the
protective relays energised with are slow, these operate only after the d. c. component decay
down.
CTs when driven above their knee point voltage can create substantial distortion in the
secondary current as well as reducing the rms value of that current. The fundamental
component (frequency) is thus reduced by a larger factor than implied by the ratio error,
causing non-operation of the relay, or slow operation of the relay.
The CT core may be of iron or air; Iron cored CTs have a substantial power output but
are subject to many errors, both static and transient. Air cored CTs have linear characteristics
with no transient errors and are called linear couplers, but these CTs have a low power output
which is generally inadequate for electro magnetic relays but suitable for static relays.
Fig 2. Shows the magnetic characteristic of the iron lamination materials commonly used for
CT cores. It will be seen that steel with very low exciting current tends to saturate at lower flux
densities.
Effect of Remnance in iron core:
Remnance the ability of a material to retain magnetization, equal to the magnetic flux
density of the material after the removal of the magnetic field Also called retentivity.
The CT core may saturate prematurely at currents well below the normal saturation
level due to the existence of remnant flux. Unfortunately cold rolled silicon steel, which is
favoured nowadays because of its high saturating level, has high remanence so that the recent
occurrence of a heavy fault may leave a remanent flux high enough to cause saturation when a
second fault occurs (Remanent remaining or left over)
Cold rolled silicon steel
Hot rolled silicon steel
High nickel steel
Exciting AT
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B

m
a
x
FIGURE : 2
22
CHAPTER-II
Effect of transient D.C.component upon CT flux.
Saturation in CTs may be due to remnance or high primary current and / or high secondary
burden.
TO OVERCOME THE DIFFICULTY OF SATURATION OF CTS
If the CT gets saturated due to heavy fault current, thereby operating time will increase
considerably. If it is found that the CT gets saturated the following suggestion can be
considered to avoid saturation.
1. O/L setting may be adopted as 100% if not already done:
2. Increase of CT Ratio, if possible.
3. As a last resort change the CT with higher VA burden and ALF if necessary.
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CTS)
Current transformers (CTs) are used.
a) to reduce the power system currents to values low enough for safe measurement in
protective relays
b) to insulate the relay circuits from the primary circuit and
c) to permit the use of standardized current ratings for relays.
Time
M
u
l
t
i
p
l
e
s

o
f

s
t
e
a
d
y

s
t
a
t
e

f
l
u
x
Flux Without
d.c. component
Flux With d.c. component
23
CHAPTER-II
1. Polarity, Terminal markings
The relative polarities of CT primary and secondary terminals are identified either by
painted polarity marks or symbols.
P1 and P2 for the primary terminals
S1 and S2 for the secondary terminals
or
1S1 1 S2 } for the secondary terminals of
2S2 2 S2 } of CTs having 3 cores.
3S3 3 S 2 }

The convention is that when primary current enters the P1 terminal, secondary current
leaves the S1 terminal as shown by the arrows in Fig. 5. (or when current enters the P2
terminal, it leaves the S2 terminal.
Since a. c current is continually reversing its direction, one might well ask what the
significance is of polarity marking. Its significance is in showing the direction of current flow
relative to another current or to a voltage as well as to aid in making proper connections.
If CTs are not interconnected or if the current from one C. T. did not have to Co-operate
with a current from another CT or with a voltage from a voltage source to produce some
desired result such as torque in a relay, there would be no need for polarity marks.
1S
1
1S
2
P
1
P
2
2S
2
3S
1
3S
2
2S
1
FIGURE: 5
S
1
P
2
P
1
S
2
24
CHAPTER-II
Polarity of instrument transformers:
When instrument transformers are used with measuring or control devices that respond
only to the magnitude of the current or voltage, the direction of current flow does not affect the
response and the connections to the secondary terminals can be reversed without affecting the
operation of the devices. When instrument transformers are used with measuring or control
devices that respond to the interaction of two or more currents, the correct operation of the
devices depends upon the relative phase positions of the currents in addition to the magnitudes.
To show the relative instantaneous directions of current flow one primary and one secondary
terminal are identified with a distinctive polarity marker, these indicate that at the instant when
the primary current is flowing into the marked primary terminal the secondary current is
flowing out of the marked secondary terminal.
Markings of CTS shall be as indicated below:
(1) SINGLE RATIO CT (2) CT WITH INTERMEDIATE TAPPING ON
SECONDARY WINDING.
S
2
S
2
S
3
S
1
S
1
P
2
P
1
P
1
P
2
2S
2
2S
1
1S
2
1S
1
S
2
P
1
C
1
P
1
C2
S
1
P
2
P
2
(3) CT WITH PY WINDING IN 4) CT WITH TWO SECONDARY
TWO SECTIONS INTENDED WINDINGS
FOR CONNECTION EITHER
IN SERIES OR PARALLEL
25
CHAPTER-II
Primary Series connection gives 2 turns P1- C2- C1- P2
Primary parallel Connection gives 1 turn P1C1 P2 C2.
2. CT MANGETISING CHARACTERISTICS:
The working range of a protective CT extends over the full range between the ankle and
the knee points and beyond, whereas the measuring CT usually operates in the region of the
ankle point.
The major difference in requirement between those for metering and those for
protection is that with the former, specified accuracies are essential over a range of primary
current about 5% full load upto 125%. Whereas the protective purposes, we are concerned with
accurate secondary reproductions of the primary currents from about full load upto those of
short circuit magnitude, the latter being many times full load. It is therefore a primary
requirement, that protective CTs should have a high saturation level. Whereas those for
metering should preferably saturate at low level, thus protecting the connected instruments or
meters against over currents. The point at which a CT begins to saturate is known as the knee
point on the curve of its magnetising characteristic and is by definition, the point where the
exciting current increases by 50% for a 10% increase in secondary voltage typically as shown
in figure.
It is very difficult to avoid saturation of protective CTs during short circuit condition;
the effect of saturation is the reduced output hence reduced speed of over current relays.
10% Increase in
secondary voltage
KNEE
POINT
50% Increase in
exciting current
S
E
C
O
N
D
A
R
Y

V
O
L
T
A
G
E
EXCITING CURRENT
26
CHAPTER-II

Figure shows, the characteristics of two CTs both for the same rated burden, but one for
protection and the other for metering. It is quite obvious that a core of larger cross section
would be required for a protective CT if the material has to be the same.
CAUTION:
The relays should not be connected to the metering characteristic CTs and the meters
should not be connected to the protective characteristic CTS. If connected meter will be
damaged and the relay will be inactive during faults.
DUAL PURPOSE APPLICATION:
The requirements for a protective current transformer differ radically from those from a
measuring CT. A measuring CT has to be accurate within the specified working range of rated
current. Accuracy is not required on high over current, it is in fact, an advantage if the CT
saturates at a moderate over current, since this tends to relieve the measuring instruments of the
severe strain caused by heavy over current. A protective CT has to be accurate within the
appropriate limits at all higher values of current upto the rated accuracy limit primary current,
whereas on the otherhand it is not usually required to be accurate below rated current.
It follows that the difficulties of producing a dual purpose CT are accentuated when
high accuracy is required for measuring purposes or a when a high accuracy limit factor is
needed for protective purposes or both.
EXCITING CURRENT
KNEE
POINT
S
E
C
O
N
D
A
R
Y

V
O
L
T
A
G
E
Protective CT
Characteristic
KNEE POINT
Meetering CT
Characteristic
27
CHAPTER-II
The question of using a single CT for the dual purpose of protection and measurement
may be decided by considering all relevant factors such as design, cost, space and the capability
of the instruments of withstanding high currents.
A CT for the dual purpose of protection and measurement will have both a protection
and a measurement rating.
When dual purpose CTs are used it should be ensured that under maximum fault current
no damage is caused to meters and instruments. When such a CT is used for both purposes
simultaneously and the rated burdens for measurement and protection differ, the total
connected burden shall not exceed the lower of the two rated burden.
Rated accuracy limit primary current
The value of the current assigned by the manufacturer as the highest primary current at
which the CT will comply with the appropriate limits of composite error under specified
conditions.
Accuracy limit factor The ratio of the rated accuracy limit primary current to the rated
primary current.
The standard accuracy limit factors shall be 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30.
Accuracy class
5P 10P 15P (P means protection)
3. RATED BURDEN
The burden on a protective CT is composed of the individual burdens of the associated
relays or trip coils, instruments (when used) and the connecting leads.
When the individual burdens are expressed in ohmic values, the total burden may be
computed by addition. This total ohmic burden should then be converted to a VA burden at the
rated secondary current.
When the individual burdens are expressed in terms of VA, it is essential to refer the
VA values to a common base before they can be added together to form the total computed
burden. This common base shall be the rated secondary current of the CT.
Normally the standard VA rating nearest to the burden computed should be used, but
attention is drawn to the fact that a device may have an impedance with one or more of the
following characteristics.
28
CHAPTER-II
1. The impedance is constant, regardless of the current setting subject to 4 below (for example
untapped relay coils).
2. The impedance changes with the current settings (notably in trip coils and relays with
tapped coils)
3. The impedance decreases when the current passing through the coil exceeds the current
setting.
4. The impedance changes with the changed position of the armature of the relay or trip coil.
For correlation of Burden and Accuracy limit factor refer IS 2705 (Part III) 1964. Also IS
4201/1967.
All accuracy considerations require knowledge of the CT burden. The external load
applied to the secondary of a CT is called the burden.
The error of a CT increases with the resistance of its secondary external circuit.
Therefore its rated secondary burden in ohms or rated capacity in VA is usually indicated by
the manufacturer.
The rated secondary burden of a CT is the maximum resistance that can be connected to
its secondary winding without exceeding the permissible error specified for the given class of
accuracy.
The number of electrical measuring instruments that can be safely connected to a single
CT is determined by the total resistance of the instruments and the connecting leads. This value
should not exceed the burden of the CT.
EXAMPLE NO.1
Determine, whether an ammeter having a resistance of 0.2 ohm and the current winding
of a wattmeter having a resistance of 0.2 ohm can be connected to a single 0.6 ohm CT if
copper conductor leads of 20 meter length and 4 sq mm cross section are used for connecting
the instruments.
i) The resistance of lead r = P l/s
= 0.0175 X 20/4
~ 0.09 ohm.
The impedance (z) of the secondary external circuit of CT is equal to the geometric sum
of impedances of the current windings of the connected instruments and the leads.
For an approximate solution it is sufficient to add the impedances arithmatically ie.
neglect the comparatively low reactances of the windings.
29
CHAPTER-II
Thus, the total resistance of the secondary external circuit is found to be
= 0.09 + 0.2 + 0.2 = 0.49 ohm.
This resistance (0.49ohm) is less that the rated burden of the CT (0.6 ohm) consequently
quite allowable.
EXAMPLE NO. 2
CALCULATE the V A output required for a CT of 5 A rated secondary current when
burden consists of relay requiring 10 VA at 5A plus loop lead resistance 0.1 ohm suggest
choice of CT.
VA required to compensate } = I
2
R = 5 X 0.1
loop lead resistance } = 2.5 VA
Relay burden at 5 A : = 10 VA
-----------
TOTAL VA output
required = 12.5 VA
--------------
Hence a CT of rating 15 VA and secondary current 5A may be used.
4. COMMON PRACTICE TO USE 1A CT RATHER THAN 5A CT
If the distance between CTs and measuring instruments or relays are appreciable, it is
common practice to use the CT whose rated secondary current is equal to 1A. In this case, the
secondary circuit resistance of a CT may be 25 times that of the CT whose secondary current is
equal to 5A.
This will be explained as below:
Saturation of the CT may cause no inconvenience and may even be desirable for its
limiting action in the case of switch board instruments (ie. CTs for metering) but obviously it
could seriously upset the performance of a time current relay or any form of comparator relay
such as differential relay or a distance relay during heavy faults. Saturation can be avoided
either by increasing the cross section of iron cores of CT or by reducing the burden. The first
method is expensive and the second may be difficult. The burden on the CT is due to the
resistance of the relay, the CT secondary and the leads. For a given performance, the relay
burden can not be reduced except by changing its design. On the other hand the lead burden
can be reduced by using a lower secondary current rating.
For instance in a large station with long runs from the switch yard to the relay panel
(like ERODE 110/22 KV GRID STATION), the lead resistance may be as 6 ohms.
30
CHAPTER-II
With a 5A CTs the normal burden imposed by the 6 ohm leads is
I
2
R = 5
2
x6 = 150 VA
In order not to saturate with a fault current, twenty times normal, the iron circuit would
have to be large enough to avoid saturation below. 600 V.
(IR = 20 x 5x6 = 600 Volts). This would require quite a large CT, on the other hand with a 1 A
CT secondary rating, the lead burden would be I R = 1 x 6 = 6 VA. The resistance of the
secondary of the 1 A CT would be about 5 ohms compared with 0.2 ohm for the 5 A CT.
5 A CT 1 A CT
Resistance of the Resistance of the
Secondary of 5A CT = 0.2 ohm secondary of 1A CT = 5 ohm
lead resistance = 6.0 ohm lead resistance = 6 ohm
---- ----
Total = 6.2 ohm total = 11ohm
---- ----
Total burden = I
2
R total burden = I
2
R
= 5
2
x6.2 = 1
2
x 11
= 155 VA = 11 VA
Maximum voltage = 20 x IR Maximum voltage = 20x IR
= 20x5x6.2 = 20x1x11
= 620 Volts = 220 Volts
Actually for mechanical reasons, the size of the CT wire is not scaled down in
proportion to the current and the maximum voltage would be nearer 150 Volts.
CT. REQUIREMENT:
NOTE: To ensure that the relay operating times are not unduly affected by CT
saturation, they should be capable of developing a kneepoint voltage sufficient to circulate 20
times the plug setting current through the relay for phase and earth faults.
VT. REQUIREMENT:
The residual voltage transformers (RVT) for voltage polarised directional earth fault
relays should confirm to an accuracy class 10.
It is important that for the correct reproduction of residual voltage across the broken
delta winding of the voltage transformers either three single phase VT or one three phase, five
limb VT should be used.
31
CHAPTER-II
5. CTs PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION OF CTs.
The performance of a CT is normally related to the rated primary circuit, but if there is a
significant difference, the effects of this on the performance need to be studied, particularly on
the fault setting and on stability. On systems where the fault current is high and full load
current is low, it may be necessary to choose CTs with primary current ratings related to the
fault current rather than ratings related to full load currents.
6. FAILURE OF CTS
CTs are unlikely to fail in themselves, but they may be inadvertently short circuited by a
test link having been left in the wrong position during maintenance testing; also a CT insulation
may breakdown if the secondary circuit is accidently opened.
It is therefore important to design test gear and switch board components so that there is
no risk of open circuiting the secondary of a CT because in this condition it can produce an
extremely high secondary voltage which may breakdown the insulation and destroy CT. This
is because although the CT iron may saturate at a sinusoidal secondary voltage of a few
hundred, the rate of change of flux near the zero points of the cycle can produce enormous
voltage peaks.
CAUTION:
If there is any inadvertent opening in the secondary circuit of a CT, the CT should be
checked for its magnetising characteristic and for its insulation.
ABB Ltd: Current Transformer oil minimum type
Make Type IMB 145 KV
Tan Delta Measuring Terminal.
The outer shield of primary insulation is brought out through a bushing in the secondary
terminal box and earthed. This is designated as D3 terminal.
32
CHAPTER-II
For periodical preventive check tan delta of complete primary insulation can be
measured by opening earthing link of D3 terminal and connecting tan delta measuring bridge at
this point. This measurement will give total picture of health of Primary insulation.
There are three cores. One is class 1.0 and the other two PS Class. Class 1.0 is
metering core. PS class core are protection core. This should be ensured by conducting
magnetising characteristic. Metering core will have a very low knee point voltage (say 65 V).
Whereas the protection core knee point voltage will be > 750 V.
CAUTION:
1) Relays should be connected to the protection core and Ammeter should be
connected to the Metering core.
2) Secondary winding not being used must be short-circuited and grounded.
3) Secondary terminals must be short-circuited before the burden is disconnected.
4) Ensure D (Tan delta) Bushing connection with earth.
5) Higher CT ratio means higher knee-point
Voltage For 600/1 780 V For 300/1 = 390 V
For 150/1 = 195 V
CTs TESTING
The following tests are carried out on CTs.
1. Polarity check
2. Ratio check
3. Magnetization curve.
4. Measuring insulation resistance of C.T. secondary windings (Caution: only 500 V
megger should be used)
33
CHAPTER-II
1. POLARITY CHECK:
Polarity check is necessary to see the relative polarity of the primary and secondary
terminals when terminals are not marked or to establish the correctness of the marking if
already marked. In otherwords the polarity checking consists actually in making sure that the
designations P1 and P2 made on the leads of the primary winding and S1 and S2 made on the
leads of the secondary winding corresponds to the winding start and Finish ends.
34
CHAPTER-II
The d. c. source, a dry cell or storage battery of 4-6 V is connected in series with the
primary winding of the CT through switch. The positive pole of the battery is connected to the
beginning of the primary winding and the negative pole to the end of the primary.
While closing and then opening switch, watch the indicating instrument connected
across the secondary winding to see in which direction its pointer deflects. If, when the
primary circuit is closed, the pointer deflects to the right and then deflects to the left when the
circuit is broken. It is a sign of like polarity (and correct marking) of the CT primary and
secondary terminals, one of the which connected to the positive pole of the battery, the other to
the positive terminal of the indicating instrument.
2. CHECKING CURRENT RATIO:
The ratio of the CT is checked by dividing the value of the primary current I
1
, by that of
the secondary current I
2
and comparing it with the rated value.
35
CHAPTER-II
IDENTIFYING AND MARKING OF BUSHING CTs.
When bushing CTs are being checked, it is also necessary to make sure that their tap
leads are correctly marked. This can be done while checking the current ratios.
In cases when the tap leads have no markings, the simplest circuit for identifying and
then marking them is that shown in Figure
A voltage from the auto transformer (AT) (Variac) is applied first to any two of the tap
leads. Then by measuring the voltage between each pair of the CT tap leads, the pair with the
greatest voltage will be extreme (beginning and end) leads corresponding to the largest current
ratio. The voltage from the auto-transformer is now applied to the two extreme tap leads,
following which the voltage between one of the extreme leads and all the other leads is
measured to check the voltage distribution along the winding. When the lowest voltage is
obtained, it corresponds to the position for the least current ratio. According to the voltage
obtained above all the leads can be marked and then compared with the manufacturers diagram
for the distribution of the turns between the taps.
NOTE: The ratio check is also usually carried out during the primary injection test described
later. The ratio of the readings of the ammeters in the primary and secondary circuit of the CT
under test is taken which should approximate to the ratio marked on the CT.
36
CHAPTER-II
3. MAGNETIZATION CURVE:
CTs intended for different purposes will have different magnetization characteristics.
On a single bushing there may be several CTs of the same ratio, but differing characteristics to
perform different duties such as protection, metering or operation of ammeters only. A
magnetization test is a convenient method for identification of the different CTs which will
have differing knee points.
The curve showing the voltage across the terminals of the secondary winding in a CT as
a function of the current in the winding, known as the Magnetization characteristic is therefore
of prime importance.
To obtain the data for plotting the magnetization characteristic the primary circuit is left
open circuited and an ac voltage is applied across the secondary winding with the aid of testing
auto transformer (AT) Figure ..
By raising the voltage one step at a time, readings of the corresponding current are
taken with the ammeter. When commissioning, data for 10-12 points are thus obtained for
plotting the characteristic. During all subsequent scheduled checks during service, data for 3-4
points are obtained to make sure that the characteristic has not changed and the points coincide
with the curve of the first characteristic. It is best to take the characteristic upto saturation i. e.
to a point where further increase in the current passed through the winding is not accompanied
by noticeable rise in the voltage.
CAUTION:
Prior to taking the readings for the characteristic and after they are obtained, the core of
the CT should be demagnetized by slowly raising the voltage to a high value and then slowly
reducing it to zero two or three times.
HOW TO FIND CTS WITH SHORTED TURNS.
If some of the turns in the secondary are shorted, the characteristic will be much lower
than normal. This defect is detected by comparing the characteristic just obtained with the one
plotted at an earlier date or with that of an identical CT. Deviation from normal in the case of
shorted turns is most noticeable in the magnetization characteristics over the initial range of
magnetization where the current from 0.1 to 1A. See Figure
37
CHAPTER-II
MAGNETIZATION CHARACTERISTICS OF A NORMAL CT AND ONE WITH SOME
OF THE TURNS SHORTED.
200V
1 2 3 4 5
EXCITING CURRENT
S
E
C
O
N
D
A
R
Y
V
O
L
T
A
G
E
NORMAL CT
CT WITH SHORTED TURNS
38
CHAPTER-II
PHASE ANGLE ERROR.
The phase angle error for the protection CTs is not normally measured as the burden
on the secondary of the CT is generally of such highly lagging power factor that the
secondary current is practically, in phase with the exciting current and hence the
effect of the exciting current on the phase angle accuracy is negligible.
THE REQUIREMENT OF CTs FOR OVER CURRENT PROTECTION FOR HV
FEEDERS LIKE 11 KV, 22 KV, 33 KV, AND 66 KV FEEDERS AND
TRANSFORMERS:-
The requirement of CTs for over current protection for HV feeders, is normally met by ISS: IS
2705 Part III.
The following are the major requirement.
1. Burden
2. Accuracy class
3. Rated Accuracy limit factor.
39
CHAPTER-II
1. BURDEN:
The impedance of the secondary circuit expressed in ohms and power factor. The
burden is usually expressed in volt-ampere absorbed at a specified power factor and at rated
secondary current. The impedance of the secondary circuit is normally vectorial addition of
burden of relay, cable leads and any meters, connected in series.
2. ACCURACY CLASS:
Standard accuracy classes are 5P, 10P, and 15P and their details of error are as noted
below:
Sl. Class Ratio error phase displace- composite
No. at Rated ment at rated error at
primary current primary current rated accuracy
limit primary
current.
1. 5 P 1% 60 minutes 5%
2. 10 P - 3% 10%
3. 15 P 5% 15%
3. RATED ACCURACY LIMIT FACTOR:
The value of the accuracy limit factor for which the accuracy requirements of this
specification are met at rated burden.
SPECIFICATION OF CTS FOR HV FEEDERS:
Normally for 11 or 22 KV feeders, the specification of CTs is as below:
400-200 /1 Amp 15 (or 30) VA 5P 15
It means that when primary current 200 Amps flows, the secondary current will be 1
amp and can feed a burden of 15 ohms (30 ohms). When primary current reaches 15 times
(during fault conditions) it can be still feed the burden of 15 ohms and the composite error will
not exceed 5 percent in the transformation.
40
CHAPTER-II
HOW DOES THIS SPECIFICATION OF CTS REALLY MEET UNDER
PRACTICAL SITUATION:-
In Tamilnadu Electricity Board, it is normal practice to provide two over current IDMT
relay and one earth fault IDMT relay with instantaneous element as drawn in the diagram.
The burden of the IDMT relay at 100% plug setting is 3 VA. For one 1 amp rated relay
it is equal to 3 ohms. For over current relay it is normal practice to adopt 100% and for earth
fault relay it is 40% plug setting.
For O/L element the burden is 3 ohm (z)
For E/L element I
2
z = 3
(0.4)
2
z=3
z = 3/(0.4)
2
= 3/0.16 = 18.7 ohm
The burden of instantaneous element is 5 VA or 5 ohm.
Hence the total burden in series for an earth fault will be
= Z O/L inst + Z O/L IDMT + Z E/L inst + Z E/L IDMT
= 5 + 3 + 5 + 18.7 = 31.7 ohms.
The current practice in TNEB is to use CT of 30 VA 5P 15 capacity. The CT will
develop 450 volts as its output. (ie. 30x15 = 450). The impedance (Z) and current can vary so
that the product should not exceed 450 V. In a sub-station, where 3 Nos. 110 KV/22 KV 10
MVA transformers with 10% impedance are provided, the fault MVA will be 300; when
infinite Bus is assumed on H. V. side (110 KV). Under actual condition the fault MVA will be
about 2/3 of this value ie. 200 MVA. The fault current (I
f
) on L. V. side (22 KV side) will be
about 5200 Amps.
(3x22xI
f
= 200x10
3
KVA)
I
f
= 200 x 10
3
/3 x 22 ~ 5249A
When 300/1 amp CT is used, CT secondary current will be 17.3 amp [5200/300 = 17.3]
Apparantly it may look that with 31.7 ohm burden, CT will not develop sufficient voltage to
drive this current.
31.7 x 17.3 = 548.4V
But in case of IDMT relay as current increases, core in the relay saturates and the
relay burden will reduce to 40% of its value at 10% times the current setting. So the O/L
and E/L burden (of IDMT relays) (3+18.7) = 21.7 ohms will be reduced to
41
CHAPTER-II
3 x 40/100 + 18.7 x 40/100 = 8.68 ohms.
and the total burden of IDMT and instantaneous relays will be 8.68 + 5+5 = 18.68 ohms.
The CT will have to develop 18.68 x 17.3 = 323-16V only. The relay will correctly act.
OPERATION:
In a current transformer the primary ampere-turms must be equal the sum of the
seconddary ampere-turms and the magnetising ampere-turms (I
e
)
N
1
I
1
= N
2
(I
2
+ I
e
)
OPEN CIRCUTED CURRENT TRANSFORMER
If the load (Burden) impedances R
b
+jX
b
is very high, then the voltage calculated from I
2
(R
2
+R
b
+jX
b
) would be very large, (Where R
2
is secondary winding resistance) Well above
Knee-point voltage (as a rough guide the knee-point voltage is the product of the VA rating and
the accuracy limit factor / the rated secondary current) and I
e
would become significantly large
in the ampere-turn balance equation N
1
I
1
= N
2
(I
2
+I
e
) and I
2
would be reduced. The limiting
value is when the CT secondary winding is open circuited and I
2
= 0. All the input ampere-
turns will be used as magnetising ampere-turns and will drive the current transformers into
saturation the greatly increase magnetising current will not cause much increase to the average
voltage. However the change in flux from 0 to the knee-point value is not accomplished in th
cycle but in perhaps 1/100 of this time thus the ratio of change of flux and, therefore the
induced voltage during this period would be about hundred times the knee-point voltage.
Insulation can be damaged by this high short duration voltage and overheating caused by the
great increase of iron losses.
R
Y
B
CT
CT
CT
E/L
IDMT
INST IDMT
O/L
INST
IDMT INST
O/L
42
CHAPTER-II
B.2.4. CURRENT TRANSFORMER
TESTS CHECK LIST
ALL CTs ARE TO BE TESTED FOR THE FOLLOWING TESTS.
1. INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST IS DONE WITH 500 VOLTS MEGGER.
2. C.T INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND LEAD RESISTANCE IS MEASURED WITH
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE.
3. POLARITY TEST OR FLICK TEST WITH A SIMPLE BATTERY.
4. PHASE IDENTIFICATION OF CT CABLES BY INJECTING A SMALL D.C
VOLTAGE DIFFERENT FOR ALL THREE PHASES.
5. MAGNETISATION TEST.
IT IS DONE TO CHECK KPV (KNEE POINT VOLTAGE) WHICH IS DEFINED AS
THE SECONDARY VOLTAGE AT WHICH AN INCREASE OF 10% IN VOLTAGE
WILL RESULT IN AN INCREASE OF 50% IN THE MAGNETISING CURRENT.
43
CHAPTER-III
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
Er. K. MOUNAGURUSAMY
Design of a Potential transformer is similar to that of a power transformer, but the
loading of the Potential transformer is only a few VA. Accuracy in design is more important
than efficiency.
Due to short circuit fault, the transient D. C. component in the line voltage is less and
that too occurs when the A. C. component is low, therefore a Potential transformer is not
required to be oversized to handle the transient conditions.
Voltage drop in the secondary leads should be well taken into account. This can
seriously falsify the accuracy of measurement. Take the case of V. T. with burden of 300 VA
in 57.7 V secondary and the lead resistance (for Exp. 100 m, double core 2.5 mm
2

R
L
= 1.44 ohms)
Current in P. T. = 300/57.7 = 5.2 A

Voltage drop = 5.2 x 1.44 = 7.5 V.
This accounts to 13%
Such drops will make the distance relays over reach by equal percent. A serious
problem. Hence 6 Sq.mm cables are advised for P. T. circuits.
CAPACITANCE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
PERFORMANCE POINT OF VIEW:
The transient response of the CVT depends on the following :
1. Point on the primary voltage wave where the fault occurs.
2. The value of equivalent capacitance, which is dependent on three items namely
Capacitor rating, Tap position, Turns ratio of the Intermediate voltage transformer.

3. Magnitude and power factor of the burden.
Composition and connection of the burden for the same burden and power factor the
burden can be made up of parallel and series components.
44
CHAPTER-III
4.Type of ferro resonant damper circuit.
For well designed transformer the exciting current of intermediate transformer is
purposely kept low of the order of 2 to 3 ma and does not adversely affect the response.
To see the effects of various important parameters, it is assumed that a single phase
ground fault occur at the CVT location itself. Only resistance burden is considered. Two
extreme conditions (a) fault at peak of voltage and (b) fault at zero point on the primary
voltage wave.
i
1
(O) = V
1
max/R
4
V
c

(O) 1 0
On analysis, the following conclusion are arrived.
For fault at the peak of voltage the transient component decays very fast.
For fault at zero point on the voltage wave transient will decay slowly.
The magnitude of the transient output voltage (for fault on zero point of voltage wave) will
decrease with increase in equivalent capacitance value but duration will be increased due to
corresponding decrease in value of equivalent conductance value. With the increase in burden
(decrease in the magnitude of the resistine burden) CVT performance will further worsens for
faults at the zero point of the wave.
The voltage transformers are normally connected phase to earth. In the event of
disturbance in the network the voltage across the VTs (CVTs ) will be increased in the
healthy phases.
IEC specifies the voltage factors:
19 for systems not having solidly earthed
15 for solidly earthed system.
The saturation is specified to be 30sec. for systems with tripping earth fault protection and 8
hours if no earth fault tripping protection is used.
The VTs must not be saturated at the voltage factor.
For metering cores a high accuracy for voltages in range (80 - 120%) of nominal voltage is
required.
45
CHAPTER-III
For protection where disturbance information must be transferred to the secondary side, a lower
accuracy is required but a high capability to transform voltages to allow the protection to
operate and disconnect the fault. Class is 3p.
The 3p class will have measuring error of 3% and an angle of 120 min.
The voltage transformer winding can be given a continued class ie 0.5/3p which means
that metering accuracy is fulfilled for 80-120% of nominal voltage but the requirement for 5%
of nominal voltage and the transient response requirement from protection cores is also
fulfilled.
A good transient response is required to the protection transformers and this is a
problem for CVTs where the energy stored in the capacitive voltage divider and the
interposing voltage transformer will result in a transient voltage oscillation on the secondary
side. The transient oscillation consists of a low frequency components. (2-15Hz) and high
frequency oscillation (900-4000Hz). The time constant for the high frequency part is short
where as the low frequency part has long time constants. The amplitude is decided by the fault
inception angle. Higher capacitances in the voltage divider gives lower amplitude of the low
frequency oscillation. The secondary value, one cycle after the short circuit should be lower
than 10%.
Ferro resonance can occur in circuits containing a capacitor and a reactor incorporating
an iron core (a non-linear inductance). Both the CVT and a magnetic VT can be involved in
Ferro resonance phenomenon.
Ferro resonance in a magnetic VT is an oscillation between the inductance of the VT
and the capacitance of the network. Ferro resonance can only occur at ungrounded networks,
but note the risk that some part becomes ungrounded under certain circumstances.
An oscillation is normally triggered by a sudden change in the network voltage.
Ferroresonance phenomenon can occur both with sub-harmonic frequencies or with harmonic
frequencies. Generally it is difficult to state when a risk of ferro resonance occurs but as soon
as a system with a voltage transformer is left ungrounded under some circumstances,
preventive actions should be taken (also consider the risk of capacitive charged systems with a
VT). The damping of Ferro resonance is normally done with a 27 60 ohms 200 W resistor
connected across the open delta winding. The resistor value should give a current as high as
possible but a current below the thermal rating of the voltage transformer.
The CVT with its capacitor and IVT is by itself a ferro-resonance circuit. The
phenomenon is started by a sudden voltage change. A sub harmonic oscillation can be started
and must be damped to prevent damage to the transformer. The CVTs must be provided with
ferro resonance damping devices, normally this consists of a saturating reactor and a resistor in
each phase.
46
CHAPTER-III
COMMISSIONING INSTRUCTION FOR CVTs:
Test Equipments :- Meggar 0.5 or 1 KV
Battery box (with atleast three voltage levels).
Multimeter class 1.5
Phase sequence meter
Test leads etc.,
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:-
The transformer to be tested is to be checked for primary earthing before commencing
the test. If it is not earthed, disconnected bus bars and lines can attain dangerous high voltage
levels due to induction from energised parallel tying busbars or lines.
TEST PROCEDURE:-
1. Data and serial numbers, given in the rating plates of the transformer are to be
entered in test record. Ensure that the serial number of each unit of the capacitor voltage
divider is the same as that given on the main rating plates of the each respective transformer.
The accuracy classes given for the transformers apply only if the units, that are jointly trimmed
at the workshop are mounted together at the site.
Check the oil level in the VT.
Check the connection to the voltage direction of any carrier frequency equipment. The
coupling unit of the PLC equipment should be connected to the terminal HF which is the low
voltage terminal of the capacitor stack. On delivery of the transformer this terminal normally
earthed.
If PLC equipment is to be connected to the line, the direct earth connection is to
removed and the voltage divider earthed via the connection unit.
When a transformer is energised, the earthing switch must be closed before any work is
done in the marshalling kiosk. It is extremely dangerous to open the low voltage earth
connection of an energised transformer. If no PLC equipment is connected, make a check to
ensure that the low voltage terminal is earthed.
The secondary terminal box is to be visually checked for
1. That any spare winding that are not connected to the common marshalling kiosk, are open
and earthed at one point.
2. That the correct terminals and connected in the core of multi terminal secondary windings.
3. That in the core of multi terminal windings, the unused terminals are left free is not earthed.
4. The terminals of damping circuit are connected to each other checking polarity.
47
CHAPTER-III
POLARITY CHECK:-
The check is made by connecting a battery having predetermined polarity, for short
between transformers primary terminal and earth. The polarity of the voltage, induced in the
secondary, is checked with the aid of a directionally sensitive voltmeter. The test is similar to
the polarity test of CTs. ie by checking the deflection of the pointer in the secondary connected
voltmeter when the switch is operated in the primary side.
CHECKING INSULATION RESISTANCE:-
Checking the insulation resistance of the windings and of the voltage circuits between
the transformers and the marshalling kiosk.
Check the phase to earth and the phase to phase insulation values when checking the
phase to earth resistance, only the earthing terminal block, if the winding being tested os to be
open. All phase terminal blocks of the voltage transformers are to be closed.
CHECKING PHASE RELATIONSHIPS:-
To be performed when the new voltage transformer and the voltage transformer of the
reference group have separate infeed on the primary side if they are not connected together.
To be performed when the new voltage transformer and the voltage transformer of the
reference group is connected together on the primary side in the sub station.
48
CHAPTER-IV
PRECOMMISSIONING TESTS
Er. K. MOUNAGURUSAMY
CE/P&C
There are debates and difference of opinions about the demarcation between
pre-commissioning and commissioning tests. Many feel that there can be only one test either
pre-commissioning or commissioning.
It is suggested that there should be a demarcation between them. During
pre-commissioning, every one can work together and separately people like GCC,
Contractors, Civil and Protection Wing. But, during commissioning tests, all others except
protection wing should clear the area. This means that once pre commissioning test done,
nobody should touch anything except protection people. In this way, pre-commissioning
include :-
- Visual inspection
- Checking the installation, circuits cabling, wiring connections, etc.
- testing the equipments, relays as individual components
- Meggering of A.C, D.C., C.T., P.T., circuits
- Checking of equipment operations like closing and tripping.
- Adopting relay settings
- Conducting secondary injection
- Corrections in Scheme drawings
- Function & tests
Commissioning tests include:
- Primary injection tests
- Energising of individual equipments, step by step
- Energising and commissioning the total system
- Conducting on load tests
These will be discussed item by item in detail.
49
CHAPTER-IV
I. Pre-commissioning Tests:
1. Visual inspection to confirm that the equipment has not been damaged during transit
2. Installation, Cabling and Wiring
- Capacity of cable leads to be checked
- Proper laying of cable to be confirmed
- Cable tags to be provided as per cable schedule
- Spare holes for future cable should be provided in panel plates.
- Care to be taken in glanding the cables the sheath wires should not end within the
gland. Atleast 5 mm should protrude out and they should be bent towards outside so
that they will not prick the inner jacket and cause/insulation failure.
- The cable jacket should be removed only by skilled people without damaging the
lead insulation. This is a common mistake done by unskilled persons without
knowing the implications.
- The jacket over the inner leads should protrude out from the gland finishing atleast
by 2 Cms. Gland mouths should not be covered with insulation tapes to conceal
unskilled finishing.
- Cable cores shall be identified at both ends and ferruled properly. In cables with
same colour leads, clockwise anti-clockwise method shall be used for easier
identifying.
- Lead to lead meggering between all leads individually should be done at this stage
itself without fail.
- Any joints to make up short length of one or two cable leads should be prohibited
altogether.
- If lead connections are done without lugs, the end loop should be made clockwise
only so that the round loop will not open while tightening screw or stud.
- Only proper lugs should be used. Dispensing with one or two strands of the cores to
accommodate in the undersize lug should be avoided. Likewise the eye of the lug
should not be developed to accommodate the screw or stud.
- Use snugly fitting ferrules
50
CHAPTER-IV
- Each lead should be lugged separately. More than one lead should not be clubbed, in
one lug.
- Lugs should not be taped or covered with anything.
- When two lugs are put in one TB, they should face back to back so that there is
good meshing.
- Lugs should be crimped only with correct size crimpers.
- Use correct size screw drivers; use only star screw drivers where star screws are
provided
- use washers always
- Another person should make 100% check of the connection with the drawing and
also the tightness of the lug and screw.
- Bunch spare cores separately and leave their full length; put the cable number as
ferrules; unconnected individual wire should not be left strayed
- Dress everything neatly.
- Plug out the spare cable holes for vermin proof.
- Clear the loose screws, washers, iron filings dust etc. from the panels.
3. Testing individually:
a) Breakers
- Closing and opening time of main and auxiliary contacts.
- Meggering of H.V. terminals, (a) To earth individually (b) Between poles with
breakers open.
- Meggering of A.C D.C. P.T. and C.T. circuits individually and in between each of
them.
- Measuring the contract resistance.
- Checking the interlocks.
- Checking the minimum operating voltage level of closing (80%) and trip coils
(70%).
51
CHAPTER-IV
b) Isolators:
- Control circuits
- Checking of simultaneous closing of main contacts
- Checking auxiliary contact
- Meggering of limbs
(Isolators should not be used to break currents in load circuits like PARALLEL
TRANSFOMERS AND UNLOADED LINES.)
c) P.Ts:
- Meggering of HV windings, secondary windings between H.V. and each secondary
winding
- Measuring the resistance of secondary winding with multimeters.
- Polarity tests.
- Ratio test.
- Checking the earthing.
- After wiring is finished, do the secondary injection in each phase at rated secondary
voltage ensuring that the test voltage does not reach the P.T. secondary.
- Checking the transfer schemes if more than one P.T. are available.
d) C.Ts:
- Meggering between each windings in secondary
- Meggering of H.V.Points
- Meggering between H.V. and Secondary
- Measuring the D.C. resistance of secondary cores
- Polarity test
- Magnetising test upto knee point is a must. It should be ensured that the applied
voltage is slowly reduced to Zero after reaching the knee point. This is to avoid high
rate of change of flux causing high induced voltage damaging secondary insulation.
- Ratio test at rated primary current for all the taps in secondary. This test shall be
done after magnetising test.
- Unused cores shall be shorted
- Unused portion of a core shall never be shorted
- All the C.T. secondary circuits shall be earthed at only one point, preferably nearer
to C.T. end.
- After making the connections to load point, megger the entire secondary circuit and
then do the secondary injection from the terminals at the C.T. end. The secondary
injection shall first be done without the grounding and it shall be repeated with the
grounding done. Now, the voltage burden at each terminals from the CT terminal
upto the load shall be measured and promptly recorded for the rated secondary
current of the C.T. When current is injected in one phase, it should be ensured that
there is no current in other phase at any point. Secondary injection is a very very
52
CHAPTER-IV
important one. In multi secondary CTs, there is frequent possibility of protection wiring
done to a metering secondary. ONLY secondary injection can reveal this fault. Primary
injection will not reveal.
e) Metering instruments:
- Calibration
- Checking the readings during secondary injection on P.Ts and CTs and checking the
burdens in current coils
- Checking the selector switches
f) Control Circuits Check points:
- Meggering
- Energising the panels with auxiliary supply
- Voltage across fuses should be clear zero
- Indication circuits
- Annunciator points
- Semaphores
- D.C. auxiliary relays to be checked for 60% voltage pick up
- Interlocks
- Inter trip
- Functional tests
- Closing circuits and trip circuits
- Trip supervision cicuits to be checked
- Trip healthy lamps the lamps should be shorted several times and to be ensured
that the trip Plunger does not move
- Auto reclose
- Protection trip circuits it should operate even when the breaker control is in local
or remote
g) Relays:
- Megger wherever allowed
- Test the relays for all P.U. settings
- Adopt the final settings and test
- See the operation during secondary injection wherever possible
53
CHAPTER-IV
h) Power equipments like Generators: Transformers
1. Generators:
- Winding D.C. resistance of stator and rotor
- Meggering of stator and rotor
- H.V. test on stator and rotor
- Pole drop test on rotor
- Tan o test
i) Transformers:
- Meggering
- Vector group
- D.C. resistance, S.C. test, Ratio test in all taps
- Tap changer operation
- Polarity check
- Control panel checks
- Thermometers calibration
- Buchholz relay test
- Oil B.D.V. test
- Tan o (delta) test on bushings
- If there are C.Ts in transformer bushings these CTs should be checked before
erection of bushings.
- Check oil levels.
- Check breathers and silica gel.
- Fan operations, oil pumps, C.W.system
- Control schemes of OLTC
- Earthing
54
CHAPTER-V
COMMISSIONING TESTS
Er. K. Mounagurusamy
CE/P&C
After completion of precommissioning works, the protection wing only should proceed
with further commissioning tests. The area protection engineer at the level of Assistant
Executive Engineer will be the commissioning in charge. Others should not be allowed to do
any work anywhere. Any modifications thereafter will be done only by protection wing. If all
the precommissioning tests are done perfectly, no problem will be there during the
commissioning tests and actual commissioning. If there are any major problems, the services of
the other wings shall be called for.
Primary injection tests:
This test is included under the commissioning test because, all the other people should
have completed their jobs before going for this test. This test should be done only after
finishing the secondary injection test from the output terminals of the C.T.
A comprehensive table should be prepared indicating the point or terminal of current
and voltage measurements, expected value of current at each point etc. The entire protection
wing should sit together and discuss in detail so that every one should understand what is being
done. The complete secondary current path should be well known. For example, if current is
injected in R Phase in the star side of a transformer there will be current in the R and Y phases
or R and B phases in the delta side. If confident, three phase injection can also be done. Even
the helper should participate in the discussion since he will be normally handling the probes of
meters and any open circuit in a C.T. would cause high voltage in the secondary circuit.
As many meters should be made available and atleast one person should be ready at the
point of each C.T. to measure the parameters. Multimeters shall not be used to measure the
C.T. secondary current. The reasons are (1) They have only plugs for lead connections. They
may be loose or they may get disconnected at any moment (2) some meters have overloading or
protection cutout, the measuring circuit may get open circuit inadvertently. Now-a-days, very
low range tongue testers are available. They can be procured.
One person should be ready at the ammeter point. There should be some way of
communication from each one with the person who injects the primary current.
55
CHAPTER-V
If current is injected using a loading transformer the primary current leads should not
cross with the leads of the ammeter leads measuring the C.T. secondary current of loading
transformer or any other C.T. under primary injection since the ammeter readings will be
erratic in such cases. If it is found difficult to drive current through a simple bus bar
arrangements, it can be understood that some C.T. secondary is open.
First a very low current should be injected and be ensured that there is limited voltage
burden across all the concerned C.T. secondaries. This is the indication that current circuit is
through. If high voltage burden is noticed, the current circuit might be open. This is not always
the case. In the case of high impedance circulating current relays, there will be high voltage
noticed comparing with low burden circuit loads. After passing a small current every one
should give clearance to go ahead after also checking the current in each C.T. secondary. It is
preferable to keep connected ammeters in each secondary current if possible.
The current can be raised now. There is no need to go upto rated current. The point is
that it should be possible to measure the currents clearly. In the cases of primary injection on
transformers only very small primary injection currents are actually possible.
Record all the values. The stability of the differential relays if any in the circuit should
be confirmed at this stage itself by measuring the spill current. By reversals in wiring, spill
currents can be created and confirmed.
Injections shall be completed in all phases.
Series injection to ensure that all the CTs are tested for correct polarity, erected for
correct polarity, and secondary wired for correct polarity. There will be three times the current
in the neutral circuit and therefore suitable precautions should be taken to avoid failure of E/F
relays, ammeters etc.
The test circuits for such tests are wantonly avoided since too much spoon feeding will
be unhealthy. The habit of searching for knowledge should be cultivated among the protection
engineers.
Details of such a test conducted on machine-1 at Kadamparai PH on 26-7-87 are
detailed below:
A lay out of the Kadamparai power House is given in figure-5.
There are more than 25 CTs in all in each machine. All the CTs were covered in one
stroke by planned primary injection.
When primary injection is done in the system which has power transformer also, the
injection current is normally derived by applying 3 phase L.T. supply voltage directly to the
H.V. winding making a short in the L V.side. An approximate value of short circuit
56
CHAPTER-V
57
CHAPTER-V
current in the H.V. side should be first arrived at to ensure that the L.T. supply available in the
test site can cater it.
A simple method without paper, pen calculator is as below:
- Look at the transformer nameplate and find out the H.V. Voltage, H.V. rated current, L.V.
rated current and percentage impedance.
Percentage impedance is the percent of H.V. voltage required to pass the rated current
through the H.V. and L.V. of the transformer when the L.V. is shorted.
Example: H.V. voltage = 230 KV
H.V. rated current = 300 A
L.V. rated current = 6200 A
% percent impedance= 10%
Hence, 23000 volts are needed to pass 300 A through HV and 6200 A through L.V.
with L.V. shorted.
If 400 V is applied, the expected HV at
400/23000 x 300 = 5 Amp.
This can be arrived at by mental calculation in two minutes. Approximately 1/60 th of
voltage is applied. Hence 1/60 of 300 A is 5-A. Similarly 1/60
th
of 6200 is 100 Amps. Looks so
simple.
It was decided to inject three phase 400 V at the point shown as (A) in the figure-5.
Since the reactance of the generator winding is very high we will not be getting any short
circuit current at all for injection. Hence, the stator windings were bypassed by temporary
jumpers as indicated.
The travelling distance by road from the point of injection in the yard to the generator is
nearly 4 KM.
One engineer was posted inside the Powerhouse cavern near the relay panel where all
the C.T. wirings are terminated.
One person was posted in the B/B relay panel in the control room at yard.
One person was at the marshalling box in the yard.
One person was there to switch on the 400 V supply and to measure the current injected
at 230 KV side.
58
CHAPTER-V
- The supply was switched on.
- Current injected at 230 KV point was 3.5A
- Current obtained in 11 KV side was 82 A
- The C.Ts in the yard are 400/1
- The CTs in the Generator at 8000/5
- 8 mA was obtained in the 230 KV CT secondaries.
- 50 mA was obtained in the 11 KV CT secondaries.
- Stability of the transformers Generator Differential relay, 230 KV cable differential relay
and generator differential relay were established.
- Currents measured O.K. in all the CT secondary circuits.
- Fault simulation was done by creating a short between R and B phases of the 11 KV
terminals of the transformer i.e. fault within the Generator transformer differential relay.
Expected spill current was measured O.K. in the R and B phases of the Generator
transformer differential relay. There was no spill current in Y Phase. The STABILITY of
REF relay was confirmed thro the single loading current in 230 KV side.
- A three phase short was made after unit auxiliary transformer which is also in Generator
transformer differential relay zone. There was no spill current as expected since the short
was outside the relay zone.
- A fault was created within the cable differential zone by introducing a 2000 W heater as the
fault source. Spill current was measured O.K. in the cable differential relay.
Since the secondary injection was done to the full satisfaction, there was absolutely no
problem in the primary injection test and the test was completed in one stroke in less than two
hours. These tests are normally done by Assistant Executive Engineers.
FAULT SIMULATIONS
It is our practice to create faults in the generator transformer system and building up
current slowly from zero to rated value in the generators and to confirm that all protections are
working satisfactorily. These will be done before building up the full voltage on the generator
for the first time. Executive Engineer and Superintending Engineer from Protection wing will
be present.
Such a test done in machine 2 at Kadamparai on 25-2-88 is explained below:
- A short was made between the 11 KV terminals (three phase) at the output point of the
generator but after the generator differential CT at the output terminal.
- Excitation was slowly built up.
59
CHAPTER-V
- A short circuit current of 2400 A (Full load current of the generator is around 6000 A) was
slowly achieved.
- Spill currents were measured in the generator differential relay
- Removed the current from one side C.T taking precaution to short the concerned C.T
secondaries. The generator differential relay operated O.K.
- Two phase currents to the negative sequence relay were interchanged and the relay picked
up O.K. at around 1900 A.
- A short was made is within the zone of the generator transformer overall differential relay.
When the current level reached the pick up limit, the relay operated O.K. at around 1340A.
- Short circuit characteristic of the generator was taken by recording field volt, field current
against the shorted generator current.
- The above short was removed and a short was then made at the yard after the 230 KV CTs.
- Built up a current of 2000 A through the generator and the stability of the cable differential
and Generator transformer differential relays were confirmed.
- R phase was earthed at yard and the stability of REF was confirmed.
- The R phase 11 KV terminal of the generator were grounded by a short and the 95% stator
earth fault relay operation was confirmed at around 11 volts across the relay input. Machine
voltage was 1.4 KV in the ungrounded phases and the field voltage was 13.4 v.
- After these tests, full voltage was built up slowly. The open circuit characteristic of the
generator was taken by recording the main field voltage for each KV step.
Next step is the synchronism check.
CHECKING THE CORRECTNESS OF SYNCHRONISING EQUIPMENTS
CONNECTIONS:
This is included under commissioning tests since this can be done only after energising
the main equipments.
This is somewhat a complicated subject. Mistakes can very easily creep in. In depth
knowledge is essentially required for the protection engineer to finalise things. But, the job will
be very interesting once one gets involved.
In my experience, the scheme of connections supplied by even reputed agencies need
modifications at site in most cases. The burden falls at the very last moment on the shoulders of
the protection engineer to finalise the correct connections.
There is an instance in TNEB itself where one thermal generator was wrong synchronised
during commissioning causing some damages.
60
CHAPTER-V
1. Synchronising of Grid feeders in Sub-stations:
This is not much complicated. The scheme can be derived easily but the practical
confirmation is laborious.

Normally, the P.T. voltages are taken from Y phase of Bus and the Y phase of single
phase P.T. in the line. Both are phase to ground voltages. The bus P.T. is normally star/star
connected. The line P.T. is phase to earth connected. Only possible point of mistake is in the
polarity of PT connections.

Physical correction has to be done in some cases in a round about way. For example,
take the case of 110 KV PH-5 Sandynallah line.
Tudialur Singara
S
Bus 1 Bus2
PT 1 PT 2
Geddai Kundah Kundah
PH 1 PH 5
When it is needed to synchronise the new line between Kundah PH-5 and Sandinallah,
we cannnot depend upon the 12 O clock position of the synchroscope only. The
synchroscope will give 12 Oclock position even if only Y phase connections of grid lines are
correct. This will not reveal the defect if R and B phase are interchanged in the new line.
Sandinalla
h
61
CHAPTER-V
The physical correctness can be checked by energising bus 2 at Singara through PH-5
Sandynallah Singara lines, keeping the established grid in Bus 1 at Singara. When the clock
at PH-5 or Sandynallah is showing 12 Oclock, the R1 R2, Y1 Y2, B1 B2, voltages
measured between the Bus PT-1 and Bus PT-2 should be zero. R1 Y2, R1 B2, Y1 B2, Y1
R2 B1 R2, B1 Y2 voltages should be 110 V. These should be confirmed.

If suitable hot line equipments are available the confirmation can be done either at PH 5 or
Sandynallah end.

The phasing out of 230 KV Udumalpet Kadamparai feeders 2 and 3 was done on 28-
7-87 as below:

The main bus and auxiliary bus at Udumalpet was split.

Kadambarai Bus was from Udumalpet main bus via feeder No. 2.

Udumalpet Auxiliary bus was charged then via feeder 3 from Kadamparai.

The R-R, Y-Y, B-B voltages were confirmed tobe zero between the P.Ts of main bus
and Auxiliary Bus at Udumalpet.

This was done since there was not established synchronising scheme at Kadamparai.
2. Synchronising of Generators:
This is more complicated since there is normally a star delta transformer in between
causing a thirty degrees or sixty degrees shift depending upon the vector group of the
transformer.

We experienced some very interesting problems worth mentioning when Kadamparai
units were commissioned. They are discussed below:

Refer figure: 6
62
CHAPTER-V
63
CHAPTER-V
First check on synchronism scheme was started in machine 1 on 3-8-87. Unlike in most
of the generators, provision is available to delink generator stator winding from 11 KV take off
system. (Generally stator windings are solidly connected to 11 KV take off system). The stator
was delinked and the 230 KV Bus transformer of machine-1 was back charged from 230 KV
Bus and 11 KV reached up Generator 11 KV PTs. Synchroscope was switched on. It showed 6
Oclock instead of 12 Oclock. Traced out that the 11 KV PT secondary outputs were reversed.
Set right and synchroscope showed 12 Oclock O.K. R-R, Y-Y, B-B voltages were measured
between the 230 KV Bus P.T. (Running) and 11 KV machine 1 P.T. (incoming) secondaries.
They were around 25 V as expected. This is due to the 30 phase shift existing between the P.T
secondaries due to YD 1 power transformer. This means that there is always an inherent phase
shift of 30 between the generator and the running bus though the synchroscope connections
are made up by manipulations to show that they are in phase and this is done for practical
purposes to enable synchronising without confusion.
Machine 1 was put on test run on 14.10.87. With the field breaker open, the voltage at
the 11 KV output terminals of the generator was carefully measured with multimeter. It was
just 50 V only. Checked the phase sequence. It was not RYB. It was BYR to everyones
surprise. It is impossible to interchange two phases to make it RYB upto the output of 230 KV
breaker. When the BHEL people were discussing about modifying the stator end connections,
which work could take a minimum of 2 months, we, the protection department of TNEB,
decided to rename and treat everything upto the 230 KV breakerr output terminals as BYR. The
interchanging of R and B Phase were done only at the dropper jumpers of 230 KV bus.
There were more than 25 CTs and 9 PTs. All the secondary connections were modified
from yard to Generator in all the junction boxes by interchanging R Phase and B Phase wires.
Even now, Red colour lead indicates Blue Phase and blue colour lead indicate red phase in the
PT and CT circuits of all machines inside the PH and in case of machine 1 & 2 at yard. The
yard wires of machine 3 & 4 indicate Red as red, yellow as yellow and Blue as blue.

The YD 1 transformer of the generator has now become YD 11 and the delta
connections of the auxiliary CTs of the Generator transformer differential relay were
modified to YD 11 connection. Necessary corrections were done in the YD 1 auxiliary PT
connections of the synchronising scheme after studying through vector diagrams. Complete
primary injection was repeated in all the 25 and odd C.Ts and stability of the three differentials
(including cable differential relay) relays were established. All these works were started at 5
AM on 15-10-87 and were completed before 12 AM on the same day with the help of dedicated
AEs of Kadamparai Power House. The machine was synchronised O.K. The modified
synchronising scheme is shown in Figure-7.
64
CHAPTER-V

65
CHAPTER-V
The experience in Machine 4 at Kadamparai is more teaching.

The tests done on 3.8.87 in Machine.1 was repeated on Machine.4 on 15.12.88. The
synchroscope showed 6 O clock instead of 12 O clock and the R-R, Y-Y, B-B voltages were
120V against the expected value of around 25V for 30 phase shift in YD11 transformer:
What? How? Why? Rechecked all the circuits upto 1 AM on 16.12.88. Nothing could be traced
out.

Next day, Machine.1 was electrically coupled to 230 KV Bus. 1 (Both dead) and
Machine.4 was connected to 230 KV Bus.2 (Both dead). The 230 KV Bus coupler was open to
segregate the two buses. Parallelling connections were done in the 11 KV terminals of both
Machines using test wires and a three phase supply of 2 volts derived from a 3 phase variac was
injected at 11 KV terminals to both parallelled machines.

Refer figure 7 again.

Machine.4 power transformer was also of vector group YD11. Under the circumstances,
the voltage should have been zero in the voltmeters VR, VY and VB. But, the voltage was 35
volts:

After further struggling, it was found that the physical position of the 11 KV terminals
of Machine.4 (BHEL Transformer) was opposite to that of machine.1 transformer (TELK).
66
CHAPTER-V
67
CHAPTER-V
2.1 2.2 2.2 2.1
1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2
Machine.1 (TELK) Machine.4(BHEL)

Top view of transformers
1.1, 1.2 230 KV Terminals
2.1, 2.2 11 KV terminals.
Thus, for the same bus duct connections of 11 KV and 230 KV cable terminations in 1.1
and 230 KV side neutral in 1.2, the Machine.4 transformer has become YD5. It should be
understood that there is no flexibility in the connections anywhere to interchange phases etc. 11
KV connections are by insulated bus ducts and they can not be modified.
When the Grid Relay Test has done the polarity tests, 1.1 corresponded to 2.1 and 1.2
corresponded to 2.2 in both the transformers and hence the problem was not revealed by this
test.
The important lesson is here. When short circuit run was made in Machine.4 at 2500
Amps, there was no spill current in the differential relay of Generation-Transformer. How? The
delta was made in the auxiliary CTs of this relay for YD11 transformer. Even then, no spill
current for YD 5 transformer. The reason is: During the stability check done by Grid Relay
Test by primary injection, spill current was noticed at double the value. Without probing into
the problem, they just interchanged the C.T. output leads to SOLVE the problem. Had this
been probed on that day itself, the culprit could have been identified.
The riddle of 120 V was thus solved and the machine was synchronised confidently at
18.02 Hours on 16.12.88 after inter-changing the leads 83 and 85 to makeup for YD 5 group
and to get 12 O clock at synchronism.
BHEL. Engineers later interchanged the terminals in 4/90 inside the transformers of
Machine.3 and Machine.4 (BHEL) to make the terminal configuration as in TELK transformer
of Machine 1 & 2, since there was no possibility to interchange anywhere else i.e in the fixed
11 KV Bus ducts or 230 KV cable pot head location.
We used to experiment with other methods. When machine.2 was first synchronised,
the synchronism check was done on 25.2.88, as below:
68
CHAPTER-V
230 KV Bus coupler kept open. Eastern Bus on Grid. Its P.T. supplied the
RUNNING voltage to synchroscope. Western bus was connected to machine.2 by closing its
breaker. When the synchroscope was showing 12 O clock, zero voltage was confirmed across
R-R, Y-Y, B-B of both Bus P.T. secondaries.
Another type of synchronism check was done on 18.3.91 in machine.1 when
recommissioning after fire accident. This was done by dummy charging one 230 KV Bus.1
from Machine.1 and checking the R-R, Y-Y, B-B voltages of both Bus PTs. with 230 KV Bus-
2 on grid and confirming that the voltages were zero when the synchroscope showed 12 O
clock.
The lessons are:
1) Dont assume things and any abnormality should be viewed seriously and probed
thoroughly.
2) Correct procedure for synchronism scheme checking are:
a) First establish that synchroscope gives 12 O clock for correct inputs. This could be
done, by giving same voltage in both side inputs and confirm.
b) The machine should be dummy tied to a system where the other reference P.T. voltage
is available and R-R, Y-Y, B-B voltages compared in between machine P.T. and Bus
P.T secondaries for 12 O clock position of synchroscope. The expected voltage should
be around 25 V in case of YD 1 and YD 11 transformers and 120 V in respect of YD 5
or YD 7 transformers.

OK- How to identify the vector group of a transformer by just looking at the connection
diagram? There is a nemonic secret.

If R phase winding of star side feeds to R-Y in the delta side, it is a YD 1 transformer.
Remember this RRYYD 1. First R denotes star side. RY denotes delta etc. This can also
represent YD 7 but such groups are normally non existing.
69
CHAPTER-V
Similarly Y-YR-YD 11 for YD 11 group.

How to deduce the relationship between the group symbol and winding connections?

Take DY 11 for example (equivalent to YD 1)

CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF DY 11
VECTOR SYMBOL OF DY 11
In the vector diagram r, y and b represent the phase voltages of the supply. Let the HV
terminals of the transformer A2, B2 and C2 be connected to these supply voltages r, y and b
respectively. Then the voltage applied to HV windings between the terminals A2-B2, B2-C2
and C2-A2 will be r minus y, y minus b and b minus r which form a closed delta represented by
the triangle A2, B2, C2. The HV winding between the terminals A2 and B2 in this case and the
L.V. winding between the terminal a2 and neutral are on the same limb. Therefore, the voltage
induced in the L.V. winding between a2 and n measured with a reference positive from n to a 2
is a vector parallel to A2-B2 and is represented by a2 n as shown. This gives the a phase L.V.
voltage. On the same line the L.V. voltage of the other two phases can be drawn. Comparing
the vector position of corresponding HV and LV voltages in the diagram, it can be seen that the
L.V. voltage vector is ahead of the HV voltage vector by 30 degrees which is the same as the
angle between the hour hand and minute hand on the clockface at 11 O clock.
a1
b1
c1
a2
b2
c2
N
B2
C2
A2
a2
b
b2
y
r
B2
C2
A2
c2
70
CHAPTER-V
INTERPRETATIONS OF SYNCHRONISING SCHEME
I. GENERATING STATIONS:
a) When the synchronising equipment is switched on in a generator panel, the
running means the bus and incoming means generator.
b) If the synchroscope runs in the anticlockwise direction (i.e. SLOW), the generator is
running at a lower speed than the grid frequency. The generator speed has to be increased to
match for proper synchronising.
If the synchroscope runs in the clockwise direction (i.e. FAST), the generator is running
at a higher speed than the grid frequency. The generator speed has to be decreased to match for
proper synchronising.
Sometimes, the pointer may be at 12O clock position without rotating but vibrating.
This shows that there is complete mismatch of frequencies. When the difference goes high, the
pointer cannot rotate at that corresponding speed and get stalled. This may not be construed as
matching. If the frequency meters are read now, they will indicate different frequencies and
matching may be done based on the frequency levels first as a course action and when the
synchroscope starts rotating again, matching may be done using synchroscope rotation.
As a general guideline, synchronising can be effected at 11O clock position when the
pointer is rotating in clockwise direction. But this has to be learnt precisely on experience.
Synchronising when the pointer is rotating in the anticlockwise direction can be done at 1O
clock position but this shall generally be avoided. Reverse power relays may operate sometimes
if the matching is not close if synchronized in SLOW direction.
II. SUBSTATIONS:
a) Take the case of 230 KV Arasur Substation. Assume that there was grid collapse and
subsequently Kundah Complex supply is available upto Arasur bus. Mettur complex supply
is available upto Arasur on Gobi feeder.
The synchroscope is switched on in Gobi Feeder. Kundah Complex is now in
RUNNING and Mettur complex is now INCOMING.
The pointer rotates in clockwise direction. This means that the machines at Kundah
Complex are running at a higher speed than the Mettur Complex.
71
CHAPTER-V
To get matching the possibilities are :
(i) to increase the frequency of Mettur machines by contacting the Mettur people if the
frequency of Mettur machines is less than 50 Hz and the frequency of Kundah machine is
nearer to 50 Hz.
(ii) to decrease the frequency of Kundah machines by contacting the Kundah people if
the frequency of the Kundah machines is more than 50 Hz and the frequency of Mettur
machines is nearer to 50 Hz.
(c) The pointer rotates in anticlockwise direction. This means that the machines at Kundah
Complex are at lower speed (frequency) than the Mettur Complex. To get matching, the
possibilities are:
i) to increase the frequency of Kundah machines by contacting Kundah people if the
frequency of Mettur is nearer to 50 Hz and the frequency of Kundah machine is less than 50
Hz.
ii) to decrease the frequency of Mettur machines by contacting Mettur people if the
frequency of the Kundah machines is nearer to 50 Hz and the frequency of Mettur machines is
more than 50 Hz.
d) The other points mentioned in I (b) are also applicable in these cases also.
III. EFFECT OF WRONG SYNCHRONISING :
If a generator is synchronised at 180 apart i.e. when the pointer is at 6 clock, it is
equivalent to a three phase short circuit on the machine.
The impact is less severe when the clock position is nearer to 12 clock.
Any out of step synchronising with severe grunt on the machine may cause severe
strains on the machanical parts also damaging the end lashings of stator windings.
PRECAUTIONS WHILE ENERGISING AN EQUIPMENT:
1. For the first time to be done in the order.
2. Get clearance from all wings
3. Keep the fire extinguishers ready.
4. Keep away from the equipments atleast for 5 minutes after energising.
5. Switch off the equipment if any abnormality is noticed.
72
CHAPTER-V
6. Release the air from transformers frequently for a few days.
7. Keep a close watch on the panel meters of all other equipments which are already in service
to observe for any voltage dip or flow of fault currents etc. at the particular time of energising
the new equipment.
8. Keep the control of L.T. change over schemes of generators in Manual mode.
AFTER COMMISSIONING:
- Confirm that currents are equal in all the three phases.
- Measuring of P.T voltages and their phase sequence.
- for P. T. supply change over between two P. Ts, ensure that the distance relays do not
operate.
- Check for availability of P.T secondary voltage on all the loads like relays, voltmeters,
energymeters, other panel meters etc.
- Measuring the voltage burden of CTs and recording.
- Checking of all meters for correct direction display and energymeters for correct directional
rotation.
- Energising the station supply from the new generator commissioned and check for the
voltage and phase sequence.
- Watch the performance of bearings in generators very closely atleast for 24 Hours.
- Watch for any abnormal temperature rise in bearings, stators, transformers.
- Watch for any abnormal vibrations in the generators while loading for the first time.
- Watch for any arcing in the commutator brushes of D.C machines.
- Measure the shaft voltage in generators.
- Generators should be under close watch for atleast 72 Hours of first running.
- Carryout directional on load test on distance relays, directional over current relays.
- Simulate and check for directional feature of Earth Fault relays.
73
CHAPTER-V
GENERAL CHECK LIST BEFORE ENERGISATION:
AS A FINAL CHECK BEFORE ENERGISATION, THE FOLLOWING POINTS ARE
ONCE AGAIN CONFIRMED.
i) ALL CT AND VT CIRCUITS ARE THROUGH.
ii) ALL DC SUPPLIES TO THE RELAYS ARE NORMAL.
iii) ALL WIRES AT THE BACK OF THE RELAYS ARE TIGHT.
iv) NO ABNORMAL FLAG OR INDICATIONS IS EXISTING ON ANY RELAY
OR ANNUNCIATOR.
v) ALL AC SUPPLIES TO C.Bs, ISOLATORS etc., ARE NORMAL.
vi) THE RELAYS LIKE AUTO-RECLOSURE etc., ARE SELECTED TO THE
DESIRED MODE OF OPERATION.
vii) CONFIRM THAT ALL THE NECESSARY PROTECTION TESTS HAVE
BEEN DONE.
viii) CONFIRM THAT HIGH VOLTAGE TEST HAS BEEN DONE FOR EACH
EQUIPMENT AS PER REQUIREMENTS OF THE RESULTS.
ix) CONFIRM SATISFACTORY TESTING OF ALL SAFETY SYSTEMS AND
S/S EARTHING SYSTEM etc.,
x) CONFIRM THAT ALL OPERATING PROCEDURES ARE BEING
PREPARED AND INSTRUCTIONS WITH REGARD TO PROTECTION SYSTEM
ARE INCORPORATED.
ENERGISATION
i) CARRY OUT NECESSARY TRIP/INTERTRIP TESTS OF THE INVOLVED
CIRCUIT BREAKERS IN THE TEST POSITION WITH RELEVANT
PROTECTION.
ii) ENERGISING THE FEEDERS AND TRANSFORMERS.
iii) CARRY OUT NECESSARY PHASING BY USING V.TSECONDARY AND
FINALLY MAKE PARALLELING.
74
CHAPTER-V
ONLOAD CHECK:
PURPOSE:-
i) TO PROVE CORRECT CT & VT CONNECTIONS.
ii) TO PROVE STABILITY OF UNIT PROTECTION.
iii) TO PROVE CORRECT DIRECTION OF DISTANCE RELAY AND OTHER
DIRECTIONAL RELAYS LIKE DEF(Directional earth fault) AND
DIRECTIONAL O/C RELAY etc.,
METHOD:
i) ALL THE CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES ARE RECORDED AND THE
BURDEN OF CT CIRCUITS MEASURED AND RECORDED.
ii) ALL THE DIRECTIONAL CHECKS ARE CARRIED OUT IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE MANUFACTURERS PRESCRIBED
PROCEDURE.
CAUTION: No Protection is to be put in service unless its directionality is
proved.
75
CHAPTER-VI
TESTING OF CIRCUIT BREAKER AT SITE
Er. P. PONNAMBALAM
EE/SS Erection
1. MEASUREMENT OF INSULATION RESISTANCE:
(a) MAIN CIRCUIT:
The measurement shall be made with an Insulation Tester (Megger) power operated of
not less than 1000 volts capacity.
The value measured shall not be less than 2 (Two) Megaohm per KV rating.
(b) CONTROL CIRCUIT
The measurement may be made with a 500 V hand operated Megger or at the most 1000
volts Megger. The value so obtained shall be not less than 5 (Five) mega ohms.
2. OPERATION TEST:
After satisfying the pre-conditions such as Gas pressure, Air pressure etc., the circuit
breaker may be operated in the following manner :-
(i) Manual closing and tripping
(ii) Local electrical closing and tripping at normal control voltage.
(iii) Remote electrical closing and tripping at normal control voltage.
(iv) The above operations at the minimum control voltage. (i.e. at 80% of normal voltage for
closing and 70% of normal control voltage for tripping).
(v) Measurement of trip coil current & voltage dip during coil energisation the values so
obtained shall be comparable to the coil rating specified by the manufacturer.
3. MEASUREMENT OF SPEED OF OPERATION:
The measurement may be made at normal control voltage and the values obtained shall
be not more than the ones given below: -
(a) Closing time = around 100 milli seconds.
(b) Tripping time = 40 milli seconds.
The above values are applicable to minimum oil, SF6 and vacuum circuit breakers.
In the case of Bulk oil circuit breakers, however, a tripping time of upto 100 milli
seconds is permissible.
76
CHAPTER-VI
4. MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE OF MAIN CIRCUIT (CONTACT RESISTANCE)
As per I.E.C. Publication 694 which has been adopted in toto by I.S.S. 13118 of 1991
the measurement of contact resistance shall be made by voltage drop method by passing a
direct current (d.c.) of not less than 100 Amps through the Circuit Breaker (in closed position)
and measuring the voltage drop across the breaker terminals (incoming outgoing).
This procedure is, however, not practicable at site. Therefore the following methods are
suggested: -
(i) Milli-volt drop method by passing an alternating current of not less than 100 amps
and measuring the voltage drop and calculating the A.C. resistance. This value when
divided by factor of 1.2 will give the exact resistance of the contact.
(ie) V x 1.2
I
(ii) Direct measurement of resistance by using MICRO OHM METER
As regards bench mark value, it stated that the I.E.C. 56, 694, as also the I.S.S. 13118 of
1991 are silent about it.
It is suggested that a value of upto 100 micro ohms for new breakers and upto 200
micro ohms for fairly old ones be permitted.
5. TEST FOR AUXILARIES: -
(a) Anti pumping relay functioning.
(b) Spring charge motor functioning.
(c) Gas pressure switches functioning operation of switches and their contacts as per
the set values as prescribed by the manufacturers.
(d) Air pressure switches functioning operation as per set values.
(e) Compressor motor functioning.
(f) Gas leak test. } by the use of leak detector or by applying
(g) Air leak test. } soap solution.
77
CHAPTER-VI
The voltmeter lead should be
connected inside the current
applying zone.
78
CHAPTER-VII
TESTING OF RELAYS
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
This manual is generally prepared for those who are already have some experience in
protection department. Basic test circuits of each relay will not be given. General guide lines
which are not normally available in relay catalogues / Books only are given.
6.1: Over current, Earth, fault, over voltage relays:
Adjust zero in time setter to close the contacts at this position.
Pass rated P.S. current. The disc should start to rotate. This test is for bearing check.
This is not the pick up value. Find out the value when the contacts make. This is the pick up
value. The disc may take some time to get back to starting point. Do not force it manually to
get back, since this may deform the disc, spoil the bearings.
Time may be taken for three or four currents, 2 times, 4 times, 10 times, 20 times are
better. Adjust the time needed only for 4 times current. Let this be a uniform procedure
everywhere.
While doing the tests at 1.3 times the current, reduce the CT to 85% at 85% travel of the
disc. The disc should return without making contact. This is overshoot test. Resetting current
after closing the contact 50% PS.
Permissible errors:
Operating current error + 30% PS
Time error : 40 ms
Routine tests shall be done only for the adopted settings
6.2: Differential relays:
- Minimum pick up of operating coil should be determined 5% error

- Find time for twice value of P.U.current
79
CHAPTER-VII
- Restraint characteristics 3 points on curve at 2,4 and 10 times to be done
determining the pick up current also.
- Harmonic restraint test shall be done as prescribed by manufactures using diode
circuit or using frequency generator. Percent 2nd harmonic
0.472 x I
dc
= ------------- x 100
I
ac
+ 1.11 I
dc
- Every time, the burden voltage at the C.T. end shall be taken after normalising the
L.C. and recorded with the corresponding load current. This will reveal any loose
connections in the terminals in due course.
6.3: Voltage restraint over current relays:
When the test current is injected in these type of relays of EE make using a simple
variac and loading transformer combination, the relay behaves erratically. If suitable resistance
is included in the current circuit, the results are O.K. Using standard test kits is therefore
preferable.
6.4: Instantaneous and armature attracted relays:
The test current should be applied suddenly to determine the pick up. Results will differ
if current is raised slowly to find out the pick up value.
6.5: Adjustments:
If adjustments are made in the mechanical parts of a relay, all the tests like P.U., reset
should be repeated.
6.6: Distance relays:
Each relay manufacturer and every distance relay testing kit (like ZFB, TURB, TURH,
etc.) give in detail the testing circuits and procedures. Hence, they need not be elaborated here.
The protection engineer testing distance relays has to get a good and thorough knowledge of
the relay scheme, test procedures before proceeding to test the relay. AEE should be present
during the test.
During routine maintenance,
- pick up voltage and current levels (for the MTA) of the Zone 1, Zone 2, Zone 3,
Zone 4, Starter, Reverse reach, powerswing have tobe determined for the adopted
settings and for all the phase combinations.
- Timings of all zones (including 1st zone) need be taken for any one phase test/phase
to neutral test.
80
CHAPTER-VII
- A minimum of two times the relay current shall be applied to get better results.
- Test current should be switched on only after test voltage is applied while testing
otherwise the relay will misbehave.
- Testing kits are available to carry out static tests and dynamic tests. Dynamic tests
are more preferable. Even when static tests are done as routine, dynamic tests shall
be done if recurring mal-operations are experienced.

- Testing done for line angle is more preferable than testing for relay angle
- No need to plot R-X diagram for routine tests. This may be done only during initial
commissioning.
- In case of armature attracted type starters, pick up and drop off shall be checked
- Non operation for reverse faults should be confirmed even in annual tests.
6.7: Buchholz relays:
- Electrical check by shorting top and bottom float terminals

- Oil draining to check operation of top and bottom floats during only
precommissioning tests.

- Air pumped to check the operation of top and bottom floats using cycle pump or
pressurised air from compressor. This is an essential maintenance test.

- During mal-operations, checks should be made for entry of oil into the floats
(recently experienced at Singara PH) entry oil into the mercury switch (recently
experienced in Kundah PH-2) puncturing of diaphragms frequently occurring at
Kundah PH-3.
81
CHAPTER-VIII
PROTECTION OF NON GRID FEEDERS
Er. M. Varadarajan
EE / O&M.
INTRODUCTION:
The greatest threat to a secure power supply is the shunt fault better known as short
circuit which causes large currents to flow from the power source to the point of fault,
accompanied by the localized release of considerable quantity of energy. This can cause
mechanical damages to electrical equipments, equipment failure and fire unless otherwise there
is a reliable and sensitive protective gear to sense and isolate the fault at the right speed.
Protective gear is a collective term covering all the equipments used for detecting, locating and
initiating the isolation of the fault and relays are the major player in this. Graded over current
relays, one of the simplest form of relays are used in the protection of H. T. Radial lines that
in-turn offer protection of power transformers against external faults.
Protection against excess current was naturally the earliest protective system to evolve.
From this basic principle has evolved the graded over-current system, a discriminative form of
protection. This is not to be confused with Over load protection, which normally makes use
of relays that operate in a time, related in some degree to the thermal capacity of the plant to be
protected. Over-current protection, on the other hand, is directed entirely to the clearance of
faults, although with the settings usually adopted, some measure of overload protection may be
available which in that case has to be treated as a bonus and not as one of the basic features of
the protection.
When a fault occurs, the protection is required to select and trip only the nearest circuit
breaker/breakers. This property of selective tripping is called discrimination. In the
protection of H. T. radial lines, discrimination by both time and current is employed.
H. T. radial lines and the feeding Sub Station may be at different voltages, i.e. 11 or 22
KV to feed H. T. distribution network, the intermediate 33 KV and 110 or 66 KV. In this
section, 11 KV is chosen as the H. T. distribution feeder and 110 KV as the Sub Station EHT
voltage for the explanatory notes. Similar treatment applies to other voltages.
THE NEED FOR SELECTIVE TRIPPING:
Consider the single line diagram of substation in fig., (1). This is a non-grid station
receiving power at 110KV. 2 Nos. of 10 MVA, 110 /11KV Power Transformers feed 11KV
distribution networks through 11KV feeders. 1No, 16 MVA, 110/33KV Power Transformer
feeds 2Nos, 33/11KV Substations situated elsewhere through 2 Nos. of 33KV feeders.
82
CHAPTER-VIII
83
CHAPTER-VIII
Suppose there is a fault at location P in the 11KV line No (1). Power Transformer (1)
and (2) will feed power into the fault at current values many times their rated current. This flow
of fault power has to be stopped to protect the power transformers and can be stopped in three
ways.
(1) By the opening of 11KV feeder CB1 Protection (1)
(2) By the opening of 11KV, LVCB 1 & LVCB2 Protection (2)
(3) By the opening of the 110KV GCCB. Protection (3)
Any one of the above three operations will cause the flow of fault current to cease. But
obviously No. (1) is the best method because, faulty 11KV feeder No. (1) alone is isolated and
loads fed through 11 KV feeders (2) to (4) and 33 KV feeders (1) and (2) continue to have
power. Selective tripping takes place here.
No. (2) is the next best. Here power to all the 11 KV feeders are cut off while the loads
of the two 33/11KV substations are continued to be fed. However, protection (2) is needed if
protection (1) fails for some reason.
No. (3) is the last of the three options. This is so because power is shut off to all the
11KV and 33KV feeders. But the importance of this cannot be ignored because, this will be the
last resort to prevent destruction should protection (1) and (2) fail for some reason.
So, for line faults, protection (1) is primary protection, Protection (2) is the first back-
up and protection (3) is the second back up.
For faults in the 11KV bus bars or any where in the zone between the LV breakers and
feeder breakers, protection (2) will be primary protection and protection (3) will be the backup.
For faults in the 110KV bus bars or any where in the zone from the 110 KV GCCB to
power transformer HV bushings, protection (3) will be primary protection and protection in the
110 KV line at the grid station feeding this station will be the backup.
Generally, Primary protection offers selective tripping and back-up protection does not
in the radial mode of operation of sub-stations.
The protection system is designed for selective tripping which is achieved by relay
coordination, also known as relay grading.
84
CHAPTER-VIII
FAULTS AND FAULT CURRENT ANALYSIS:
There are four major types of faults that can occur in the HT lines and sub station
busbars.
1. Three phase fault
2. Double phase fault (fault across two phases not involving ground)
3. Double phase to ground fault.
4. Single phase to ground fault.
Except for the first, the other three are unsymmetrical faults. It is essential to know the
fault current distribution, maximum fault current for a fault at the relaying point for the
different kinds of fault to design correct relay settings if the fault is to be cleared with
discrimination. Load currents can be neglected and the faults are assumed to be through zero
impedance at the point of fault.
The ideal method to calculate the fault currents for the different types of faults is from
the symmetrical component networks and the positive, negative and zero sequence voltages and
impedances. However, this elaborate method is seldom required to choose adequate relay
settings for sure clearance of faults and discrimination. The approximate method of choosing
the settings from the three phase symmetrical bus fault MVA gives satisfactory results.
TYPE OF RELAYS PROVIDED:
Over current relays with an IDMT element (inverse definite minimum time) with or
without High set instantaneous element are provided. The IDMT element, irrespective of the
current flowing through the relay has a minimum time of operation below which the time
cannot be reduced for a given time setting. Actual time of operation depends on the magnitude
of the current, the current setting of the relay and the time multiplier setting (TMS). The relay
takes less time for heavy faults and a higher time for faults of low magnitude to let the fault
clear itself incase it is a passing fault and follows a current-time inverse characteristics. The
time multiplier setting can be set at any value from 0.05 seconds to 1 second to suit the
protection need. The relay operating current can be set using the plugs provided, usually from
50% to 200% in steps of 25% for phase fault protection and from 20% to 80% in steps of 10%
for earth fault protection. The high set element is meant for instantaneous operation at high
values of fault current to limit the stress on the power transformer and may have an operating
time of about 20 milli-seconds.
In TNEB, as of now, almost all the relays in use are of electromechanical type with
induction disc for IDMT element and an attracted armature type of relay for the high set
element. The present TNEB standard for normal current rating of relays is 1 A. Most of the
relays in service in TNEB have this rating though relays with a normal rating of 5A are still in
use. The treatment in this section is based on 1A rated relays.
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CHAPTER-VIII
The IDMT relays usually have an operating time of 3 seconds at 10 times rated relay
current at 100% plug setting and 1 sec TMS. For convenience, these relays may be said to
follow a 3 sec graph or simply called 3 sec relays. However, some of the older relays in use
may have an operating time of 1.3 seconds at 10 times rated relay current at 100% plug setting
and 1 second of TMS. These relays may be said to follow a 1.3 sec graph or simply called 1.3
sec relays. The relay current divided by the per unit plug setting is called the Plug Setting
Multiplier (PSM)
PROTECTION SCHEME:
FEEDERS: The feeders are provided with 3 over current relays and one Earth fault relay all
with both IDMT and High Set instantaneous elements.
LV BREAKERS: The LV breakers are provided with 3 over-current relays with IDMT
elements but without High set elements. High set instantaneous elements if any provided are to
be kept disconnected. Earth fault relays are not provided for LV breakers. Earth fault relay if
any provided are kept disconnected. However, now there is a rethinking on this subject and
future L.V. Protection may have earth fault protection also, with a higher time setting to serve
as backup for future earth fault protection.
GROUP CONTROL BREAKERS: The Group Control circuit breaker on the HV side of the
Power Transformers is to be provided with 3 Nos. Over-current relays and 1 No. Earth fault
relay all with both IDMT and High Set instantaneous elements.
The current transformers on the secondary side have a standard rating of 1A, though
with some of the older breakers in service, the current transformers may have 5A Secondary
Current rating.
The Standard IDMT elements usually have a burden of 3VA at 100% plug setting and
the High set elements impose a burden of about 5VA. These amount to 3 Ohms and 5 Ohms
respectively for 1A relays. (3/5
2
= 0.12 ohm and 5/5
2
= 0.2 ohm respectively for 5A relays).
In the IDMT elements, as current rises in the relay coil, relay core saturates and the
relay burden gets reduced to about 40% of its value at rated current when the current rises
above 10 times rated current. No such phenomenon takes place in High Set elements and the
burden is more or less the same at different values of current.
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CHAPTER-VIII
FAULT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON THE PRIMARY SIDE OF TRANSFORMER
The Power Transformers in the TNEB Substations belong to the Vector group of Dynll.
That is, the primary windings are delta connected and the secondary windings, star connected
with the neutral brought out and solidly earthed. The Secondary Phase to Phase voltage vector
leads the primary phase to phase voltage vector by 30 degrees. Considering a Single 10 MVA,
110/11KV Power Transformer at principal tap, the current distribution on the primary side for
different types of faults on the secondary side will be as shown in figure.
a) Transformer delivering full load, condition normal fig (2)
b) 3 Phase fault on the SY side (Load current neglected) fig (3)
c) Single Phase to ground fault on the SY side fig (4)
(Load current neglected)
d) Phase to Phase fault on the SY side fig (5)
(Load current neglected)
e) Two phase to ground fault on the Secondary side fig (6)
(Load current neglected)
Two important points to note are that
i) A single phase to ground fault on the LV side is reflected as a phase to phase fault on the
primary side.
ii) Phase to Phase fault and two phase to ground fault on the secondary side are both
reflected as three phase faults on the primary side with primary current distribution of the form
1:2:1 and 1: 3:1 respectively.
TWO VERSUS THREE OVER CURRENT RELAYS
Over current relays are provided for clearing three phase faults and double phase faults. As
these faults involve a minimum of two phases, two over current relays are enough for clearing
these types of faults. The relays are usually provided in the red and blue phases. The scheme of
two O.C + E.F relay may still be in vogue in some of the older stations. As seen from fig (5),
for a phase to phase fault on the LV side of the Power Transformer (DY11), the HV side relays
see a three phase fault of the current distribution 1:2:1, which phase in the HV side carries
current twice that on the other two phases depends upon which two phases are under short
circuit on the LV side. So, when the relays on the HV side gives backup protection during
protection failure on the LV side, fault clearance time depends on which two phases are under
short circuit on the LV side. Though this protection scheme is acceptable, the present standard
is to have 3 O.C + E.F protection scheme both on the LV and HV sides.
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CHAPTER-VIII
30.3A
30.3A
30.3A
88
30.3A
CHAPTER-VIII
89
CHAPTER-VIII
90
CHAPTER-VIII
CT REQUIREMENTS
The CT requirement for over current protection is met by IS:2705 Part .III. The major
requirements are (1) Burden (2) Accuracy class and (3) Rated Accuracy limit factor.
The Burden is the impedance of the secondary circuit expressed in ohms and power
factor. It is usually expressed in Volt-amperes absorbed at rated secondary current. The
available burdens are 15 or 30 VA. for H.T. Feeders and LVCBs. CTs with higher burden may
be provided for the 110 kv GCCBs.
Normally the VA burden is specified. However if not specified for a particular ratio, it
is assumed for the maximum ratio. If there is no series-parallel arrangement for ratio change in
the primary and taps are provided in the secondary only, the VA burden has to be reduced
proportionally for lower ratio. Alternatively Knee point voltage (V
k
) of Intermediate current
ratio taps can be measured and VA burden found out from
1.2 x VA (burden) x ALF
V
k
= -------------------------------
Rated current
Accuracy class 5P is normally used in TNEP for over current protection. For this
class, the ratio error at rated primary current is 1% and composite error at rated accuracy limit
primary current is 5%.
An accuracy limit factor of 15 is normally used for over current protection in TNEB. So
specification of CT for H.T feeder may be generally Ratio: 400-200/1A, Burden: 30 VA,
Class: 5P15, Ratio Adopted: 200/1A.
This means that when a primary current of 200A flows, the secondary current will be 1
ampere and can feed a burden of 30 ohms. When the primary current is 15 times the rated value
(ie., 15x200 = 3000A) the CT can still feed the burden of 30 ohms and the composite error will
not exceed 5%.
Normally, the IDMT elements of over current relay of feeders are set at 100% and that
of the E.F. relay at 40%. The burden of the IDMT relay at 100% plug setting is about 3VA
which is 3 ohms for 1 ampere relay. The burden of the High set Inst. element is about 5 VA, ie.,
5 Ohms for 1 ampere relay. For an earth fault on one phase say U-Phase, the U-phase CT
secondary current flows through the U-phase O.C relays (IDMT and HS) and the earth fault
relay (IDMT and HS) all in series.
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CHAPTER-VIII
IDMT relay burden at 100% setting = 3 Ohms.
-do- at 40% setting = 3/(0.4)
2
= 18.7 Ohms.
-do- at 20% setting = 3/(0.2)
2
= 75 Ohms.
HS Inst. element burden = 5 Ohms.
Total burden Z = Z O.C(HS)+Z O.C(IDMT) + Z E.F(HS)+Z E.F(IDMT). Hence the
total burden for an earth fault with 40% setting on E.F. relay will be Z = 5+3+5+18.7 = 31.7
Ohms. The present practice in TNEB is to use a CT of class 5P15 with 30 VA burden. So the
CT can develop 30x15 = 450 V at its output without saturation. The Z and I can vary but IZ
should not exceed 450V.
Consider a Substation with a high 11KV fault level and a solid earth fault at the out going
line AB Switch. Assuming an earth fault current of 6000A. CT ratio of 200/1A, Accuracy class
of 5P15 and a burden of 30 VA.,
CT Secondary Current = 6000/200 = 30A.
Setting on phase fault relays = 100%
Setting on Earth fault relay = 40%
Z = 5+3+5+18.7 = 10 + (3+18.7) Ohms
As the current in the IDMT element rises, relay core gets saturated and IDMT relay burden gets
reduced to about 0.4 (3+18.7) = 8.68 Ohms. Z = 10+8.68 = 18.68 Ohms.
CT will have to develop IZ = 30x18.68 = 560 V.
CT cannot develop 560 V due to saturation and relay will not operate currently.
If the CT ratio is raised to 400/1 A, IZ = 15x18.68 = 280 V. CT will have to develop only
280 V which it can and relay will correctly operate.
This is more of a theoretical case and the need to raise HT feeder CT ratio to such a
high value as 400/1 with 40 % E.F relay setting is seldom required. However, the following has
practical implications. Also refer to an old article by Er. Srinivasaraghavan, Divl. Engineer,
reproduced elsewhere in this manual.
Earth fault current = 2500 A.CT ratio = 200/1 (5P15, 30 VA). Phase fault relays set at
100%. E.F relay set at 20%.
IZ = 12.5 {10+0.4 (75+3)} = 515V. Relay will not correctly operate due to core saturation. The
remedy is to raise EF setting to 40%.
Another problem with 20% setting in E.F relay instead of 40% is that in a station with
high fault level in the LV bus, the earth fault IDMT relay burden will now increase four fold. In
this case, not only that high burden may cause CT saturation but may also result in over heating
of the relay coil due to excessive burden, resulting in damages to the relay.
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CHAPTER-VIII
The CTs and relays for TNEB Substations are standardised. So, saturation of C. Ts
during faults is very rare. If at all this occurs it will be in 110 KV station with heavy
concentration of short circuit MVA in the HT busbars and for a close earth fault. If it is found
that the CT gets saturated, the following suggestions can be considered to avoid saturation.
1. Increase CT ratio.
2. Disconnect the instantaneous element in the O.C relay.
3. Avoid paralleling of Power Transformers on LV side to reduce the fault current so that each
Transformer will feed certain number of feeders in a Substation.
4. Disconnect the instantaneous element in the earth fault relay
5. Change the CTs
6. Go in for a static E.F. relay
EFFECTIVE SETTING OF EARTH FAULT RELAY:
The IDMT element of the earth fault relays impose a far higher burden on the CTs than
the phase fault relays because of the lower settings adopted. For instance, a relay with a 20%
setting will have an impedance of 25 times that at 100% setting. Not only is the exciting current
of the energizing current Transformer proportionally high due to the large burden of the earth
fault relay, but the voltage drop on this relay is impressed on the current transformers of the
parallel group, i.e., on the other two phases, whether they are carrying current or not.
The total exciting current is therefore the product of the loss on one CT and the number
of current transformers in parallel. The summated magnetizing loss can be appreciable in
comparison with the operating current of the relay and in extreme cases where the setting
current is low or the current transformers are of low performance, may even exceed the output
to the relay. The effective setting current in the secondary terms is the sum of relay setting
current and the total excitation loss. Strictly speaking, the effective setting current is the Vector
sum of the relay setting current and total exciting current, but, for electro magnetic relays at
least, the arithmetic sum is near enough, because of the similarity of power factors.
The effective setting for a range of setting values of an earth fault relay (1A relay) in the
protection scheme of 3-phase fault relays + an earth fault relay is calculated and tabulated.
Relay burden: IDMT = 3VA, Highset = 5VA
Knee point voltage of CT = 24OV
Exciting current at Knee point = 150 milli Amps.
93
CHAPTER-VIII
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Relay P.S Relay Ohms Voltage Exciting Effective
----------- IDMT+H.S. Developed current setting
----------------------------------------
% A V I 31 Current %
A
(milli Amps)
(1) (2) (1)+(2)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10 0.10 300+5 30.5 57 161 0.261 26
20 0.20 75+5 16.0 30 90 0.29 29
40 0.40 18.8+5 9.52 18 54 0.454 45.4
60 0.60 8.3+5 8.16 15 45 0.645 64.5
80 0.80 4.7+5 7.8 13.5 40 0.84 84
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The above excitation characteristic (voltage versus exciting current) is taken from that
of 11kv CTs in service in a feeder in Trichy metro circle. It may be seen that reducing the
earth fault setting to 20% my not serve the purpose as the effective earth fault setting is much
higher than 20%. On the other hand, reduction of Earth Fault setting to this level brings in its
wake the problem due to increased burden as already explained.
In TNEB, the neutral of the Star connected Secondary windings of the Power
Transformer is solidly earthed. As there is no impedance in the neutral to limit the earth fault
current, earth fault current due to earth faults closer to the station will be considerably high, and
the relay coil may experience considerable heating during severe earth fault. The lower the
setting, the higher the resistance of the relay coils. So the heating at lower setting tap is
correspondingly higher. So an earth fault setting of 40% is suitable for the majority of
applications and should be used unless it is known that service conditions are such that lower
settings are necessary. In territories where the earth resistance is higher and the short circuit
MVA in the HT busbars is not enough to deliver sufficient earth fault current for relay
operation, lower earth fault settings could be adopted. This however should be attempted after
ensuring that earth faults close to the stations causing maximum earth fault currents will not
cause C.T. saturation at the lower setting.
STATIC RELAYS
Static O.C. and E. F relays offer many advantages. The one relevant to the above
discussions is the very low burden that they impose on the CTs, negligible burden when
compared to that imposed by electro mechanical relays. Static IDMT relays with both 3 sec and
1.3 sec and in 1A as well as 5A versions are available. Current setting ranges from 50% to
200% in steps of 10% for the O.C relays and 5 to 80% in steps of 5% for E.F relays with TMS
of 0.1 to 1.0 sec in steps of 0.01 may be available. High set instantaneous elements offer setting
ranges of 2 to 30 times rated current in steps of 2 for O.C relays and 0.5 to 8 A in steps of 0.5 A
for E.F relays. The standard relay burdens may be as follows.
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CHAPTER-VIII
O.C : 1A -- 0.03 VA (max) at rated current at all settings.
5A -- 0.075 VA (max) at rated current at all settings.
E.F : 1A -- 0.2 VA (max) at rated current at all settings.
5A -- 0.5 VA (max) at rated current at all settings.
Because of their very low burdens irrespective of the current settings, the static relays
are CT friendly and CTs with lesser burden and a consequent lesser dimension and cost than
that of those in service are enough. But the many thousands of electro mechanical relays in the
sub stations giving excellent performance cannot be done away with because protective
practices are also economy oriented and it will take some years to phase out the existing
electromechanical ones.
TYPICAL SETTINGS:
Short circuit current set up severe mechanical stresses in the Transformer winding and
its structure and produces enormous heat in the winding copper, raising the hot spot
temperature. The mechanical stresses as well as the heating are proportional to the square of the
current.
A Transformer is designed to withstand the stresses and the heat produced in it when it
feeds short circuit. And yet, over a period of time, heavy short circuits can weaken the
Transformer, its strength will be equal only to the strength of the weakest component in a
complex structure. It is therefore necessary to isolate heavy short circuits instantaneously
through High set element instead of following the current-time characteristics of the IDMT
element. But a low setting on the High set element can defeat the purpose of the IDMT element
ie, to allow time for a light or medium and temporary fault to die out so as to avoid an
interruption of supply. So, in choosing the setting for the High set element, a balance has to be
struck.
The high-set element makes possible a reduction in the tripping time at high fault levels
and improves the over all system grading by allowing the discriminating curves behind it to be
lowered.
95
CHAPTER-VIII
11KV FEEDERS:
CT ratio : 400-200/1A
Accuracy class : 5P15, Burden = 30 VA
CT ratio adopted : 200/1A
Plug setting on phase fault relays : 100%
Plug setting on Earth fault relay : 40%
High set instantaneous element:
110/11KV SS : Phase fault relay: 8-10A
Earth fault relay: 3-4A
33/11KV SS : Phase fault relay: 4 to 6A in low fault level station
6 to 8A in high fault level station.
Earth fault relay : 2 to 3A
LV BREAKERS (CT ratio selected should permit over loading of the power
transformer by atleast 10%)
i) Power Transformer : 110/11KV, 16MVA
CTs, provided : 1200-600/1A, 5P15, 30VA
CT ratio adopted : 1200/1A
Phase fault relay setting : 75%
ii) Power Transformer : 110/11KV, 10MVA
CTs, provided : 800-400/1A or 1200-600/1A, 5P15, 30VA
CT ratio adopted : 800/1A or 600/1A
Phase fault relay Setting : 75%(800/1A) or 100%(600/1A)
110 KV GC BREAKER (CT ratio should permit simultaneous over loading of all
power transformer by atleast 10 %)
CT ratio : 600-300-150-75/1A
Accuracy class : 5P20. Burden:50VA
CT ratio to be adopted :
96
CHAPTER-VIII
2x16MVA Power Transformers : 300/1
2x10MVA or 1x 16MVA or 1x10MVA = 150/1
Plug setting on phase fault relays : 100% or 75% as the case may be.
Plug setting on Earth fault relays : 40%
High set instantaneous element:
Phase fault relays: A minimum setting of 120% of the through fault current on the 110KV
side for the maximum 11KV fault current for a 3-phase fault determined by the 11 KV bus fault
level, assuming that the Power Transformers are at maximum tap.
Eg.: 110KV CT ratio adopted: 150/1A.
Power Transformer tap limit on the + side 15%
11KV bus fault level: 200MVA
Maximum 11KV fault current: 10500A
Maximum 110KV through fault current: 10500x1.15/10 = 1210A
CT Secondary current: 1210/150 = 8A

Minimum setting of High Set Inst.element: 8x1.2 = 9.6 or say 10A.
The operating time of the High set instantaneous element is usually of the order of 20
milli seconds. The fault current transient in 11/22/33 KV systems will normally die out within
this time. However, if a fault occurs when the system voltage wave is passing through zero, the
fault current wave will be fully offset. The fault current wave will initially contain a d.c
component dacaying rapidly, with the current reaching steady state in about a cycle. During
such times, the High set element in the GCCB may over reach i.e, it may act for the through
fault on the LV side of the Transformer even though the steady state through fault current is
well within the setting on the High set element. Such an occurrence will warrant a higher
setting on the High set element.
Earth fault relays: High Set element is not a must. If provided, its setting will have no
bearing on the maximum earth fault current on the 11KV side for the reason that earth fault on
the LV side is seen as phase to phase fault on the HV side. As the TMS of the IDMT relay will
be set at minimum and as any earth fault in the zone from the 110KV GCCB to the Power
Transformer HV busing will cause a very high value of earth fault current, the IDMT element
will act in minimum time making the Highset instantantaneous element almost redundant.
97
CHAPTER-VIII
A CT ratio of 75/1 is not to be adopted for the 110 KV GCCB even if the power
Transformer capacity permits this and a minimum CT ratio of 150/1 is to be adopted to limit
the CT secondary current during 110 KV Bus fault, which may otherwise cause severe strain to
the elements in the CT secondary circuit.
OVER CURRENT RELAY CO-ORDINATION:
Over current relay co-ordination between adjacent levels of protection is necessary for
selective tripping.
There are two basic rules for correct relay co-ordination which may be generally stated
as follows.
i) Whenever possible use relay with the same operating characteristic in series
with each other.
ii) Make sure that the relay closest to the load has current settings equal to or less
than or at the most equal to the relays upstream, that is the primary current required to operate
the relay downstream is always equal to or less than the primary current required to operate the
relay upstream.
The time interval between the operation of two adjacent relays depends upon three main
factors.
i) The fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker.
ii) The relay over shoot time.
iii) Errors
CIRCUIT BREAKER INTERRUPTION TIME:
The circuit breaker must have completely interrupted the fault current before the
discriminating relay ceases to be energized.
OVER SHOOT
When the fault is interrupted and the relay deenergized, operation may continue for a
little longer until the stored energy if any is dissipated. In the induction disc relay the kinetic
energy of the motion of disc causes this overshoot. Though relay design is directed to
minimising and absorbing this energy, some allowance is necessary.
98
CHAPTER-VIII
ERRORS
All measuring devices such as relays and current transformers are subject to some
degree of error. The operating time characteristic of either or both relays involved in the
grading may have positive or negative error and some allowance has to be made.
RELAY GRADING FOR SELECTIVE TRIPPING
A minimum time interval of 0.3 seconds (0.1 second for each of the above three factors)
is allowed between adjacent relays for the maximum fault current, determined by the LV bus
fault level and also for the fault current determined by the setting on the High set element
(primary setting). For 11 KV and 22 KV feeders, a minimum TMS of 0.05 second for the 3
second relays and 0.1 second for the 1.3 second relays may be adopted for both the phase
fault and earth fault relays.
Suppose the maximum 11 KV fault current determined by the 11 KV fault level is
3000A. and the CT ratio is 200/1A and setting on the high set element is 8A. The Primary
setting of the High Set element is 8x200 = 1600 A. The grading margin is to be maintained for
1600A as well as 3000A.
For a fault current on the 11 KV feeder of magnitude higher than the sum of the primary
current setting on 11 KV LVCBs, the relays in LVCBs also see the fault and pick up. When the
fault current is more than the primary setting of the High set element, the feeder CB gets
tripped by the operation of the High set element. Till the fault current is fully interrupted, the
LVCB relays will continue to have operating torque. Though the High set element of feeder
relay operates in about 20 milli seconds, some allowance is necessary for the LVCB relays so
that they will not operate to trip the LV breaker. So a time of 0.3 Sec at the maximum fault
current may be allowed between the feeder relay and LVCB relays.
The TMS of the over current relays in the LV breaker/breakers is chosen such that the
LV breaker/breakers in parallel, trip atleast 0.3 seconds later if the fault is not cleared by the
feeder breaker with the highest setting. The TMS of the over current relays in the 110 KV
Group control breaker is chosen such that the 110 KV GCCB will trip atleast 0.6 seconds later
if the feeder breaker and LV breaker/breakers do not clear the fault. The time multiplier of the
earth fault relay in the 110 KV GCCB can be set at minimum as the earth fault on the LV side
of the transformer is seen as phase to phase fault on the HV side.
The over current relays of 33 KV lines are graded with the relays in the 11 KV feeders
of the 33/11 KV SS in a similar way, depending on the number of stages in between. The Earth
fault relay in the 33 KV feeders can be set at minimum. When gradation is done for a 110KV
33KV 11KV system and if maximum stages are involved (11KV Feeder CB, 11KV LVCB,
33KV GCCB, 33KV Feeder CB, 33KV LVCB, 110KV GCCB) some sacrifice by way of over
lapping of some adjacent protections in the grading process generally at the intermediate level
have to be made so as not to increase the TMS of the 110KV GCCB to a very high value.
99
CHAPTER-VIII
In stations where both 11 and 33 KV ratios are available, the TM settings of 110 KV
GCCB is calculated from the TMS of the 11 KV LVCB and 33 KV LVCB and the higher of
the two calculated Values is adopted as the TMS for the 110 KV GCCB.
SAMPLE GRADING:
Gradation of IDMT relays in single ratio Sub stations like 110/11 KV SS or 33/11 KV
SS is straight forward and simple. In stations with multi ratio say a 110/33-11 KV SS, gradation
is a tedious process if not a difficult one. Gradation is required only for over current relays.
Time multiplier settings are calculated by maintaining a grading margin of 0.3 sec
between adjacent breakers both at the primary setting current of the High set element and the
maximum fault current. This will ensure the minimum grading margin of 0.3 sec between
adjacent breakers at all fault currents from the relay pick up level right upto the maximum fault
level. If grading is done based on the primary setting of highset element only, the relay
operating time differential between adjacent breakers may fall below 0.3 sec at certain other
values of fault current with the possibility of non selective tripping. A grading margin of 0.4
sec will ensure correct discrimination in the latter method i.e single gradation process. As the
former, i.e the double gradation process though tedious, helps comparatively faster clearance of
faults through the IDMT element, when the relay current is below the setting on the High set
element, the same is the preferred method.
Consider the 110/33-11 KV Substation [Fig: 7 (c) & 7 (d)]. The fault levels of the
busbars of the 110 KV SS and the two 33 KV substations [Fig: 7 (a) & 7 (b)] fed by the 110
KV SS, capacity of the Power Transformers, the maximum tap available in the power
Transformers, the CT ratio adopted in the various breakers are indicated. The TMS of both the
over current relays and earth fault relays of all the 11 KV feeders at all the three substations are
set at minimum, i.e. at 0.05 see for 3 second relays and at 0.1 see for 1.3 second relays.
Similarly the TMS of earth fault relays in the 33 KV feeders and the 110 KV GCCB are set at
minimum. The grading of IDMT over current relays is done as follows. Grading is done with
the feeder having the highest primary current setting i.e. the lowest PSM for a given fault
current.
In this example, the bus fault levels, breaker configuration, power transformer
capacities and CT ratios are taken from the actual values of a 110/33-11 KV and 33/11KV rural
sub stations in Tiruchy Region.
I . 33 KV S.S.1 (Refer Fig. 7-A).
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CHAPTER-VIII
11 KV FEEDER
C.T ratio : 200/1
IDMT relay setting : 100%
Relay graph : 3 sec
High set element : 6 A
TMS adopted : 0.05 sec
PSM = 6 x (100/100) = 6
Time from graph = 3.85 sec
Operating time = 3.85 x 0.05 sec = 0.193 sec
33 KV GCCB
(a) BASED ON HIGHSET ELEMENT OF 11 KV FEEDER:
C.T ratio : 300/1
Plug setting : 75%
Relay graph : 3 sec
Primary setting current = (6x200) x (11/33) x 1.09 = 436 A
(The factor 1.09 is related to the maximum tap in the Transformer, +9% in this
case)
PSM = (436/300)x (100/75) = 1.94
Time from graph = 10 sec
Time required = 0.193+0.3 = 0.493 sec
TMS = 0.493/10 = 0.049 or say 0.05 sec
(b) BASED ON MAXIMUM FAULT CURRENT:
11 KV fault level = 39 MVA
Maximum 11 KV fault current = 39000 / (\3x11) = 2047 A
High set element operates. Operating time = 0.02 sec
33 KV through fault current = 2047 x (11/33) x 1.09 =744 A
PSM = (744/300) x (100/75) = 3.3
Time from graph = 5.8 sec
Time required = 0.02+0.3 = 0.32
TMS = 0.32/5.8 = 0.055 or say 0.06
Higher of (a) & (b) = 0.06
TMS of 33 KV GCCB = 0.06.
(c) High set element :
33 KV through fault current = 744 A
CT secondary current = 744/300 = 2.48A
Highset element has to be set atleast at 3 A
Maximum fault current for 33 KV bus fault
= 50000/ (\3x 33) = 875 A
CT secondary current = 875/300 = 2.92 A
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CHAPTER-VIII
So no meaningful setting can be adopted on highset element. High set element to be
kept disconnected.
33 KV FEEDER -I (AT 110 KV SS)
(a) BASED ON 11 KV FAULT LEVEL:
33 KV through fault current = 744 A
PSM of 33 KV GCCB at 33 KV SS - 1 = 3.3
Time from graph = 5.8 sec
TMS of 33 KV GCCB = 0.06
Relay operating time = 5.8 x 0.06 = 0.35 sec
Graded time of 33 KV feeder .1= 0.35+0.3 = 0.65 sec
PSM of 33 KV feeder .1 = (744/300) x (100/100) = 2.48
Relay graph of 33 KV feeder .1 = 1.3 sec
Time from graph = 2.95 sec
TMS of 33 KV feeder .1 = 0.65/2.95 = 0.22
(b) BASED ON MAXIMUM 33 KV THROUGH FAULT CURRENT:
(for 33 KV bus fault at 33 KV SS-I)
33 KV through fault current =875A
PSM of 33 KV GCCB = (875/300) x (100/75) = 3.9
Time from graph = 5.05 sec
Operating time of 33 KV GCCB = 5.05x0.06 = 0.3 sec
Graded time of 33 KV feeder .1 = 0.3+0.3 = 0.6 sec
PSM of 33 KV feeder = (875/300) x (100/100) = 2.92
Time from graph = 2.6 sec
TMS= 0.6/2.6 = 0.23
Higher of (a) & (b) = 0.23
TMS of 33KV feeder-1 = 0.23
(c) High set element:
Maximum 33 KV through fault current = 875 A
CT secondary current = 875/300 = 2.92 A
33 KV bus fault level at 110 KV SS = 218 MVA
Maximum 33 KV line fault current = 218000/(\3x33)= 3814 A
CT secondary current = 3814/300 = 12.7 A
High set element may be set at 8 A
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CHAPTER-VIII
II. 33 KV SS II (Refer fig. 7-B)
11 KV FEEDER
CT ratio : 300/1
Plug setting : 75%
Relay graph : 1.3 sec
High set element : 6 A
TMS adopted : 0.1 sec
PSM = 6x(100/75) = 8
Time from graph = 1.42 sec
Relay operating time = 1.42 x 0.1 = 0.142 sec
33 KV FEEDER-2 (AT 110 KV SS)
(a) BASED ON HIGH SET ELEMENT (11 KV feeder)
11 KV fault current = 6x300 = 1800 A
33 KV through fault current = 1800 x (11/33) x1.15 = 690 A
(The factor 1.15 is related to the Transformer maximum tap of +15%)
Relay operating time of 11 KV feeder = 0.142 sec
Grated time = 0.142 + 0.3 = 0.442 sec
CT ratio of 33 KV feeder = 200/1
Plug setting = 100%
PSM = 690/200 =3.45
Relay graph = 3 sec
Time as per graph = 5.5 sec
TMS = 0.442/5.5 = 0.08
(b) BASED ON 11 KV FAULT LEVEL:
11 KV fault level = 37 MVA
11 KV fault current = 37000/ (\3 x 11) = 1942 A
33 KV through fault current = 1942 x (11/33)x1.15 = 744 A
High set element of 11 KV feeder operates
Relay operating time = 0.02
Graded time = 0.3 + 0.02 = 0.32 sec
PSM = (744/200) x (100/100) = 3.72
Time as per graph = 5.2
TMS = 0.32/5.2 = 0.06
Higher of (a) & (b) = 0.08
TMS of 33 KV feeder 2 = 0.08
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CHAPTER-VIII
(c) High set element :
33 KV fault level of 33 KV SS 11 = 49 MVA
Maximum 33 KV through fault urrent = 49000/(33x \3) = 857A
CT secondary current = 857/300 = 2.86 A
33 KV bus fault level at 110 KV SS = 218 MVA
CT secondary current = 3814/300 = 12.7 A
High set element may be set at 8 A
III. 110 KV SS (GRADING FROM 33 KV SIDE ) (Refer fig.7.c)
33 KV LVCBS
Graded with 33 KV feeder.1
(a) BASED ON HIGH SET ELEMENT:
Primary setting = 2400 A
PSM of 33 KV feeder.1 = (2400/300) x (100/75) = 10.7
Time from graph : 1.27 sec
TMS = 0.21
Operating time = 1.27 x 0.21 = 0.27 sec
Graded time of LVCBS = 0.27 + 0.3 = 0.57 sec
PSM = (2400/2x300) x (100/100) = 4
Time from graph = 5 sec
TMS = 0.57/5 = 0.114 = 0.12
(b) BASED ON MAXIMUM 33 KV FAULT CURRENT:
33 KV fault level = 218 MVA
33 KV fault current = 218000 / (\3 x 33) = 3814 A
PSM of 33 KV feeder-1 = (3814/300) x (100/75) = 16.95
Time = 1.07
Operating time = 1.07 x 0.21 = 0.22 sec
Graded time of LVCBS = 0.22 + 0.3 = 0.52 sec
PSM = (3814/2x300) x (100/100)= 6.36
Time = 3.65 sec
TMS = 0.52/3.65 = 0.142 = 0.15
Higher of (a) & (b) = 0.15
TMS of 33 KV LVCBs = 0.15
104
CHAPTER-VIII
105
CHAPTER-VIII
110/33-11 kv s.s
33 kv SIDE:
110KV
GCCB
FIG-7C
2
1
33 KV
218 MVA
300/1
100%
Pr.TR.2
16 MVA
-5to+15%
200/1
100%
300/1
100%
33 KV
FDR-1
300/1
75%
33KV
LVCB
33 KV
FDR-2
110KV
716MVA
300/1
100%
Pr. TR. 1
16 MVA
-5to+15%
106
CHAPTER-VIII
200/1
100%
110 KV
GCCB
10 MVA 300/1
100%
110 KV
716MVA
600/1
11 KV
LVCB
11 KV
feeder
11KV
CB
11 KV
109 MVA
Pr.Tr
11 KV SIDE
FIG-7D
107
CHAPTER-VIII
110 KV GCCB
(a) BASED ON H.S ELEMENT OF 33 kv FEEDER.1:
PSM of LVCB = 4
Time from graph = 5 sec
Operating time = 5 x 0.15 = 0.75 sec
Graded time of 110 KV GCCB = 0.75 + 0.3 = 1.05 sec
PSM = (2400/300) x (33/110) x 1.15 x (100/100) = 2.76
Time from graph = 6.8 sec
TMS = 1.05 / 6.8 = 0.154 Or say 0.16
(b) BASED ON 33 KV FAULT LEVEL:
PSM of LVCBs = 6.36
Time from graph = 3.65 sec
TMS of LVCBS = 0.15
Operating time = 0.548 sec
Graded time of 110 KV GCCB = .548+0.3 = 0.848
PSM = (3814/300) x (33/110) x 1.15 = 4.39
Time from graph = 4.6 sec
TMS = 0.848/4.6 = 0.184 Or say 0.19
Higher of (a) & (b) = 0.19
TMS of 110 KV GCCB = 0.19
110 KVSS: GRADING FROM 11 KV SIDE
11 KV FEEDER
CT Ratio : 200/1
Plug setting : 100%
Graph : 3 sec
High set element : 8 A
TMS : 0.05 sec
11 KV fault level : 109 MVA
Maximum 11 KV fault current = (109000 / \3 x 11) = 5721 A
(a) PSM = 8
Time from graph = 3.35 sec
Operating time = 0.05 x 3.35 = 0.168 sec
(b) PSM = 5721/200 = 28.6
Time from graph = 2.2
Operating time = 0.05 x 2.2 = 0.11 sec
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CHAPTER-VIII
11 KV LVCB
CT ratio : 600/1
Plug setting = 100%
(a) PSM = (8x200/600) x (100/100) = 2.67
Time from graph = 7 sec
Graded time = 0.168 + 0.3 = 0.468 sec
TMS = 0.468/7 = 0.067 = 0.07
(b) PSM = (5721/600) x (100/100) = 9.54
Time from graph = 3.1
Graded time = 0.3 + 0.11 = 0.41 sec
TMS = 0.41/3.1 = 0.132 Or say 0.14
Operating time = 0.14 x 3.1 = 0.434 sec
Higher of (a) & (b) = 0.14
TMS of 11 KV LVCB = 0.14
110 KV GCCB
CT ratio = 300/1
Plug setting = 100%

(a) PSM = (8x200) x (11/110) x (1.15/300) = 0.61
Relay will not pick up.
(b) PSM = 5721 x (11/110) x (1.15/300) = 2.19
Graded time = 0.434 + 0.3 = 0.734
Time from graph = 8.9 sec
TMS = 0.734/8.9 = 0.082 Or say 0.09
TMS = 0.09
TMS as from 11 KV side = 0.09
TMS as from 33 KV side = 0.19
Higher of the above two = 0.19
TMS of 110 KV GCCB = 0.19
(c) HIGH SET
Maximum 11 KV fault current = 5721
Maxmum 110 KV through fault current = 657 A
CT secondary current = 657/300 = 2.19 A
Maximum 33 KV fault current = 3814 A
Maximum 110 KV through fault current = 3814x(33/110) x1.15=1316 A
CT secondary current = 1316/300 = 4.39 A
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CHAPTER-VIII
Higher of the above two = 4.39 A
Maximum 110 KV bus fault current=(716000/3x110) = 3758 A
CT secondary current = 3758/300 = 12.53A
High set element may be set at 6 A
As seen under Faults and fault current analysis, the relay settings have been
calculated based on the maximum three phase symmetrical bus fault MVA. This generally
gives satisfactory results. However, the fact is that unsymmetrical faults such as phase to
ground and phase to phase faults are the ones that occur more than 90% of the times with
the former being the most common of the faults. So there may be occasions, though rare, when
non-selective tripping occurs. For instance, the GCCB may trip along with the LVCB for a
phase to phase fault on the LV side. When such a non-selective tripping occurs, the GCCB
relay settings may have to be revised suitably, in this particular instance based on the maximum
phase to phase fault current (to be worked out), instead of the 3-phase fault current, keeping in
mind that the phase to phase fault on the L.V. side is seen as a 3-phase fault on the HV side
with a current distribution of the form 1:2:1 (Ref. Fig. 5) for theDY Transformer and that as
such the reflected. Fault current on the H.V. side at maximum tap must be multiplied by the
factor 1.15 (i.e; 23).
REVISION OF SETTINGS:
The 110 KV symmetric fault level for the grid stations for maximum generation
conditions and with all transformation equipments in service is provided by the Head Quarters
branch at periodical intervals from which the MRT Engineer is to calculate the fault level for
the various bus bars of the 110 KV, 66 KV and 33 KV substations. Revised fault levels have to
be determined as and when warranted for changed conditions like addition of Transformer
capacity, upgradation of substation etc. Relay settings have to be revised for change in bus fault
levels and as and when there is change in CT ratio and breaker configuration in the substation.
BREAKER RUPTURING CAPACITY:
As and when there is an upward revision of fault levels in the various busbars, the MRT
branch should check and see whether the short circuit withstanding capacity of the breakers are
enough. If not, replacement of the existing breaker with a breaker of higher rupturing capacity
must be recommanded in writing.
ANNUAL TESTS:
Primary injection tests are done during commissioning and as and when required. These
are not part of the Annual tests. This test in one stroke determines the healthiness of overall
protection.
Secondary injection tests are done on relays during commissioning, annually and as and
when the need arises i.e., when the relay settings have to be revised, in correct operation of
relay is observed etc. Relay testing procedure is detailed elsewhere in this manual.
110
CHAPTER-VIII
During annual tests, the CT Secondary circuit should be meggered and the I.R. Value
recorded. Opening time of the circuit breaker in all poles must be checked and noted. The Open
Circuit D.C.Voltage, the current drawn by the trip coil and the voltage available at the trip coil
terminals when current flows through the trip coil should also be measured and recorded.
Comparison with the previous values will confirm whether the trip coil as well as the entire
D.C. Circuit from the battery through the D.C. Panel, Control and relay panels down to the trip
circuit are in perfect health. The Trip Coil plunger and tripping mechanism, the breaker
auxiliary contacts etc., should be given a thorough examination. The Station battery also needs
careful examination and readings should be taken by the MRT branch and recorded. The
Station earth pits should be checked and the earth pit resistances measured and recorded. A
combined value less than 0.1 Ohms may be considered as being very good.
The D.C.Panel also needs inspection and examination. All the alarm and trip circuits of
the power transformers and common station alarms must all be checked for correct operation.
All the D.C. fuses and links must also be checked individually. The Master tripping relay is to
be initiated and tripping of the GC and LV breaker, checked. The tripping Register is to be
carefully reviewed.
Any lack of maintenance work on the part of the substation staff that may have an
adverse impact on protection of substation equipments must be taken to the knowledge of the
substation controlling Engineers for corrective steps.
Non selective tripping if any should be carefully studied and analysed. Revision of relay
settings if required should be done.
The MRT branch plays the most vital role in the well being of the distribution circle.
The MRT Engineer should shurg off tendencies if any to do annual tests in a routine way and
being complacent. It is important to keep in mind that the annual tests are not a routine task but
a part of the preventive maintenance for keeping the protection system of the sub-station in
perfect working order. Mere MRT skill is not enough. The leader at work should keep his eyes
wide open and tune his mind to the job on hand and ensure that the technical staff carry out the
works to a good degree of perfection. He must also be on the look out for things that have the
potential to create protection problems in the immediate or near or distant future and should
one be identified, corrective measures should be taken. Works should be properly planned and
haste should be avoided but speed is important. When power through an equipment is switched
off for rectification/testing works, the Board loses some revenue during the period of outage
but the worse thing is that a lot many consumers are deprived of electricity, the absence of
which puts them to a lot of inconvenience and hardship. The quicker the power supply is
resumed the better for the consumer as well as the Board. The ability to restore supply with the
least interruption without sacrificing the quality and standard of works is the hall mark of a
quality MRT Engineer. An MRT man taking pleasure in doing that kind of work doesnt expect
accolades from any quarter but does his job with pride and job satisfaction.
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CHAPTER-VIII
CASE STUDY
1) TRIPPING FOR NO FAULT.
One fine morning, an Assistant Engineer from a Rural O&M Section who made a visit
to the MRT Office, casually mentioned to the Asst.Executive Engineer/MRT that the 11KV
feeder feeding his area had been tripping frequently on E.F.relay indication and the fault had
not been located yet. When grilled, he mentioned that the line had been tripping on earth fault
relay indication for the past four days, that the main and spur lines had been thoroughly
patrolled and doubtful insulators, changed and that the line every time was test charged OK but
tripped after feeding loads for some time. The weather had been clear, no wind and the days
were bright. There was still no word yet from the Asst.Engineer of the adjacent section under
whose control the 33/11KV Substation concerned was in.
By then, the AEE/MRT was fairly certain of what was going on. A couple of hours
later, the MRT gang was in the Substation. Primary injection test established that the Secondary
circuit of the blue phase C.T. was open. The CT ratio was 150/1 with 40% earth fault setting.
With one CT not delivering secondary current, there was residual current flowing through the
E.F. relay under normal load Conditions and no wonder the line tripped on Earth fault relay
indication, every time the load current rose above 60A (150x40/100= 60A). Refer fig 8(B). The
Ammeter crack switch in that old Kiosk did not have a provision to read the residual current.
It was one of those old breakers and there were two single phase energy meters in the
two outer phases for energy measurement by two wattmeter method. The Current leads in the
energy meter on blue phase were found released, separated and taped. The pressure leads were
also found released but the two leads had been shorted and taped. Needless to add that the
pressure circuit fuse was found blown.
When enquired, the Asst.Engineer incharge of the S.S. innocently stated that on finding
the energy meter stuck, he had released the leads making through the current connections and
isolating the pressure leads, applying insulating tape to the exposed wire ends and that he was
to have sent the defective meter to the MRT Section for rectification. As an Electrical Engineer,
the A.E had remembered that the CT Secondary should not be kept open circuited but in his
enthuciasm had mistaken the pressure leads as current leads and vice versa.
The AEE/MRT was tempted to take the A.E./S.S to task for the frequent interruption of
supply in the feeder for five days. Instead he felt that the better course of action would be to
support and educate the A.E. for the initiative and interest shown by him though he ended up
making a mistake.
Years later there was another case similar to that above in a different S.S and the
problem was reported to the MRT branch within a couple of days. Again that was an old kiosk
and the sub station staff appeared to have dislodged the wire when they replaced the oil in the
OCB two days earlier.
112
CHAPTER-VIII
113
CHAPTER-VIII
In both the cases the CTs were found healthy. Such occurrences of CT secondary
getting open circuited are extremely rare. Should a thing like that happen, ratio and secondary
excitation tests should be conducted and the condition of the CT, ascertained before putting it
back in to service.
2) NO TRIPPING FOR FAULT.
Here also, a CT is involved but the effect is just the opposite. One evening, the MRT
gang while returning from work entered a way side sub station to attend to a minor problem in
the station reported a few days back. As the A.E/MRT was at work, the A.E.E/MRT was going
through the tripping Register when he found some thing odd with the trippings in a particular
feeder. All the trippings were through the O.C. relays, there was no tripping through the Earth
fault relay for the past six months. Annual relay test was still a good four months away. Acting
on a hunch, the A.E.E. got the A.E. to take L.C. on the breaker and megger the CT Secondary
circuit, releasing the earth connection. Energy measurement in that feeder was also by two
wattmeter method and the current coil of one of the two meters was found to have got earthed.
That was originally a 2.5A rated energy meter, the original current coil had been released at
MRT Lab and current coil, rewound with thinner wire for 2.5 times the original number of
turns for converting the meter for 1A operation. The thin leathoroid paper provided over the
iron core as insulation had given way earthing the current coil.
With the neutral of the CT Secondary solidly earthed, if a second earth develops, the CT
Secondary current during an earth fault on the line, takes the least resistance path by passing
the residual circuit. The E.F. relay will not operate and the fault will be cleared by the o.c. relay
concerned provided the fault current is more than the primary setting of the o.c. relay. Refer fig
8(c).
3) This happened more than 10 years ago. A new substation with a single 110/11KV, 10 MVA
Power Transformer was comissioned in a neighbouring distribution circle which was formed
out of the parent circle in the late seventies. HBB make differential relay was provided for
Transformer protection. The compliant was that that differential relay was mal-operating once
in a while. The A.E/SS had mentioned that casually to the AEE/MRT of the parent circle one
day.
The A.E/SS was informed that wrong differential CT/relay connection could trigger
differential relay operation when the load on the transformer exceeded a certain value and was
advised to get the connections checked by the territorial MRT branch. An year later, based on
the report that the transformer differential relay at that substation was kept disconnected on
account of relay defect, the E.E/MRT of the parent circle (No territorial E.E/MRT in the
neighboring Circle concerned) was directed by the Head-quarters branch to inspect the
substation concerned and sort out the problem. The E.E/MRT took his MRT gang with him for
the inspection.
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CHAPTER-VIII
CT secondary circuit of w Phase has got earthed @ P
(Load current on feeder neglected)
For an earth fault on the u-Phase line, the CT secondary current flows as marked, bypassing
the earth fault relay.
Similar will be the current flow, for earth faults on the other phase lines also.
Earth fault relay will not operate for earth fault on any phase.
Fig. : 8-c
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CHAPTER-VIII
It was found that no provision had been made to measure the three differential currents
and provision for measuring only the secondary pilot currents of the HV and LV differential
CTs had been made. The transformer was taken out of service and work was started for
providing three current terminals for measuring the differential currents returning from the
relay. In the meanwhile the cables from the bushing CTs were physically traced down to the
terminal block in the marshalling box. It did not take more than ten minutes to identify the
problem. The HV yellow phase bushing CT secondary lead was found pitted against the LV
blue phase CT Secondary and vice-versa. For that wrong sequence, currents would flow
through the operating winding of the yellow and blue phases of the differential relay under
normal load conditions and the HBB differential relay would act when the load on the
transformer exceeded 20% of its full load. The wrong connections were corrected, additional
current terminals were provided in the control room for measuring the differential currents, the
transformer was put on short circuit and the nine currents, (3 HV CT Pilots + 3 LV CT pilots +
3 differential) were measured and found correct. The transformer was put back into service
with the differential relay and there were no further differential trippings.
The Asst.Exe.Engineer and Asst.Engineer/MRT of the Distribution Circle concerned
were both men of known sincerity. Though both had been in that MRT branch for some time,
that was the first time that they had to commission Transformer differential protection.
Obviously, they were not aware of the most vital check in commissioning Transformer
differential protection viz putting the Transformer on Short circuit and measuring the
differential currents besides the currents from the HV and LV bushing CTs. This test in a single
stroke can confirm all that are to be confirmed, i.e., correctness of sequence of CT secondary
connections, correctness of CT polarity and ratio, correctness of the delta formation of the CT
secondary on the star side of the Transformer, correctness of differential relay connections,
healthiness of the differential CT/Relay circuitry and the absence of an earth connection in the
CT secondary differential relay circuitry except for the earth connection of the neutral point of
the star connected CTs on the delta side of the Transformer. Perhaps there were none around
during commissoining time experienced enough to guide the inexperienced Engineers.
4) 125 % CORRECT :
When some one is very correct it may be said that that person is one hundred percent
correct or even 110% correct. But never is it said that one is 125% is correct. In CT terms one
can say 125% is correct. This is just to mean that a C.T. can be continuously operated at 125%
rated current. There have been instances when loads were restricted to avoid tripping of feeder
on overload. To cite a case, due to addition of loads in 11 KV line fed off a 33/11 KV SS, the
33KV line at the 110 KV SS which was already loaded to the brim during peak hours was
tripping on overload. Load shedding at the 33/11 KV SS was done to prevent the overload
trippings of the 33 KV line eventhough the Power transformers at either station had margin.
The substation Engineer was asked to raise the plug setting of o.c. relays on the 33KV feeder to
125% by the MRT branch as higher ratio was not available in the CTs. The concerned S.S.
Controlling Officers were concerned about the well being of the CTs, a needless concern. The
CTs are designed to accept such contingencies. The only problem will be that the Ammeter will
be off scale when the line current goes above 100% during which time the Ammeter crack
switch is to be kept off.
116
CHAPTER-VIII
However, this is not to mean that the plug settings can be raised to 125% and the matter
left at that. Action must be taken to replace the CTs with ones with a higher ratio at the earliest
and till then the plug setting will be 125% correct.
5) NO TO GAS LOCKOUT AND NO TO SS LOCKOUT TOO:
The Annunciator announced SF6 gas lockout condition in the 110 KV Group Control
breaker at an important 110 KV Substation about 2 hours drive from the MRT Head-quarters.
The annunciation came around 7 AM and thanks to the phone with the AEE/MRTs neighbour,
the A.E.E. incharge of the SS could talk to the MRT man within fifteen minutes of the
annunciation. The A.E.E. in control of the SS gave the message to the MRT Man and said that
he would get a blink on the 110KV line feeding his SS, open the incoming isolator and
safeguard his equipment to which the MRT Man replied that the right thing to do would be not
to do anything and that the substation could continue to be fed till the arrival of the MRT gang.
The substation AEE wasnt too sure and it took some convincing on the part of the MRT man
to have the other man accept the proposal. Around 11 AM, the MRT Van drove into the SS and
as the MRT man got down, the incoming 110KV isolator kept opened and securely locked
greeted him. He starred at the station A.E.E. who ducked saying that the boss didnt want to
take chances. So the MRT man thought he would mind his own business which was to find out
and set right what was wrong. As it were, there was no SF6 gas leakage, the gas density was all
right and the trouble was with the magnetic contactor which was set right. The breaker was put
back into service there by freeing the substation from an unnecessary power lockout. Before
leaving, however, the Station A.E.E. and A.E. were taken aside and told why the station could
have been kept in service with the incoming breaker in gas lockout condition.
With low gas density, the breaker is not to be operated but then the condition had
already locked out the breaker. The breaker would not operate but would remain like a simple
switch in closed position. Power could flow through the breaker with no harm done. The only
thing of some relevance would be that the breaker would not offer protection to the
transformer. But then what if an incoming breaker like this fails. Dont we make through the
jumpers and feed load through the station till another breaker is provided which may take a few
days. The Transformer of course will lose local Highspeed protection through the differential
relay. On Buchhloz alarm the incoming line would have to be got tripped through the grid
station operator or before that the protection at the feeding end might see the fault and trip the
grid station breaker. It would be a calculated risk worth taking and which is an accepted
practice in the Board in an emergency condition.
6) WHICH/WHO IS AT FAULT? THE TRANSFORMER OR THE TESTING KIT?
THE MRT WING OR THE TRANSFORMER REPAIR WING?
ANYTHING/ANYONE CAN BE. IT ALL DEPENDS .
The Buckholz relay of one of the two 66/11KV. 5MVA, AEG make Transformers in a
substation acted accompanied by the actuation of the E.F. relay of the 66 KV GCCB. The MRT
test results were all satisfactory. But the results of the two tests on the gas collected in the
Buchholz chamber were positive. An arcing fault was suspected and the transformer was
declared defective. Another 5 MVA was allotted and commissioned in place of the defective
unit. The transformer was moved out for examination and repair.
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CHAPTER-VIII
Later it was learnt that the transformer was declared healthy and erected elsewhere. On
charging, the Buchhloz relay had again acted. Again the transformer was moved to the repair
bay and on that occasion the bushing CTs were also examined and one of the HV bushing CT
was found to have arced to the frame at the neck. The defect was attended to and the
transformer successfully commissioned.
So, satisfactory MRT test results alone cannot be taken as being conclusive in declaring
a transformer as being healthy when the Buchholz relay acts with gas collection. Adverse
results on gas analysis invariably points to a fault inside the transformer.
A few years earlier to the above occurrence a failed transformer, repaired and serviced
at the repair bay was sent to an adjacent distribution circle for erection and commissioning. The
MRT Wing on testing the transformer declared it as being defective. The E.E./Transformer who
was once an MRT man himself wont buy it. He called for a second test on the transformer and
again the same declaration by the MRT Wing. Again the E.E/Transformer wont accept it. He
perhaps thought enough was enough and traveled for 300KMs from Madras to see the testing
for himself. He witnessed the test, checked the transformer testing kit declared that the
transformer testing kit was defective and not the transformer and indeed that was the case. The
transformer was satisfactorily commissioned. So there can be no substitute for experience.
There have been occasions when the MRT Wing was stumped by the results of DC
resistance test on the transformer secondary winding. For values being in the milli ohm range,
the test has to be done carefully taking precautions. The ideal way to measure this value is by
using a Kelvins bridge. In conducting this test through a wheatstone bridge or by Ohms law,
sufficient care must be taken to eliminate contact resistance. Strictly speaking that ofcourse
cannot be eliminated altogether but can be brought down from milli level to micro level.
Otherwise spurious D.C. resistance values will be indicated.
Whether a defective unit is declared as healthy or a healthy unit is declared as defective,
it is the reputation of the MRT Engineer that gets a beating. So one has to be that extra bit
careful in coming to a conclusion. But that doesnt mean that one could take his own time in
coming to a conclusion. A totally involved MRT Engineer devoted to his craft learns fast. An
experienced, alert and thoughtful one always arrives at right conclusion in quick time.
7. IS INDEPENDENT POLE OPERATED 110 KV BREAKER IN A SUB-STATION
WITH 30V DC ACCEPTABLE?
During March 90, the 66/11 KV Karur SS was upgraded to 110/11 KV SS. An
Independent pole operated HBB make SF6 breaker was erected as 110 KV Group control
breaker to control one 110/11 KV, 10 MVA Power Transformer initially, with a second 10
MVA unit to be erected there after. An S & S make 11 KV outdoor type VCB was erected as
the LV breaker. 2 Nos 30 V, 64 AH batteries were erected one set for the 11 KV feeders and
another set for the 110 KV GC and 11 KV LV breakers and Power Transformers. A new D.C
panel was erected and the dc supply to the 110 KV GCCB was found taken through 4x2.5
sq.mm cables with two leads per terminal, i.e., 5 sq mm leads, effectively.
118
CHAPTER-VIII
It was suggested by the MRT wing that the independent pole operated 110 KV GCCB
might be replaced with a gang operated 110 KV breaker to reduce the breaker tripping current
from (3x7) Amps (Trip coils rated to draw 7A at 30 V DC) to (1x7) A thereby reducing the
drop in the dc supply cable and at various locations between the battery and breaker. The MRT
wing was also concerned over the reliability of 110 KV GC and LV breaker trippings during a
master relay initiation at a future date with the 30 V battery having to deliver 21 Amps (3x7A)
to the GC breaker trip coils and 16 A (2x8A) to the two nos 11 KV LV breakers,
symultaneously. The matter was taken upto Head Quarters level but in view of the S.S, having
to be upgraded before 31.03.90 and the non availability of a ready 110 KV gang operated 110
KV SF6 breaker, instructions were given to go ahead and commission the substation as erected.
During precommissioning tests on the 110 KV GCCB, the following observations were
made.
1. Breaker tripping currents measured by individual energisation.
2x2.5 sq.mm cables for DC + and DC -. Battery charger off.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase Trip coil No.1 Trip Coil No.2
------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------
Open T.C. T.C. Open T.C. T.C.
Circuit current voltage Circuit current voltage
DC volts DC volts
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
R 30 V 5.6 A 21.5 V 30 V 5.5 A 21.0 V
Y 30 V 6.0 A 20.0 V 30 V 5.9 A 21.0 V
B 30 V 5.8 A 20.5 V 30 V 5.9 A 21.0 V
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total 3 phase trip coil current measured by symultaneous energisation of trip coils.
Open circuit D.C volts : 30 V
Total trip coil current (TC1) : 10.5 A , i.e., 10.5 / 3 = 3.5A per coil
Trip coil volts : 15 V each
Values not accepted by MRT wing.
2. The DC supply cables were reinforced by S.S Erection branch and test repeated.
DC + : 4x2.5 Sq.mm
DC - : 4x2.5 Sq.mm
Battery charger ON and in trickle charge.
Open circuit D.C volts : 33 V
Total trip coil current (TC1) : 15 A , i.e., 15 / 3 = 5A per coil
Tripcoil volts : 20 V. each
Values not accepted by MRT wing.
119
CHAPTER-VIII
3. The DC supply cables were further reinforced by S.S Erection branch and test repeated.
DC + : 8 x 2.5 Sq.mm
DC - : 8 x 2.5 Sq.mm
Battery charger ON
Open circuit D.C volts : 35 V
Total trip coil current (TC1) : 20 A , i.e., 20/3 = 6.66A per coil
Trip coil voltage : 25 V, each
The values were passed by the MRT branch.
The breaker opening time was to be 28 milli sec as per Manufacturers specifications.
In the first case, the opening times were 50 milli seconds in each pole.
In the third case, the opening times were 30 milli seconds in each pole and accepted.
Tests were repeated for TC2 of all poles and results were satisfactory.
The Board has now changed the DC supply norm for 110 KV radial substation from
30V, 64AH to 110V, 120AH, so matters as above may not be of concern to the MRT branch.
But in old 110 KV stations where 30 V, 64 AH DC supply is in vogue and where such
independent pole operated 110 KV breaker may be in service, the substation and MRT wing
must give the highest priority to maintaining the battery and the 110 KV GC/11 KV LV breaker
trip circuits in perfect working order and there shall be no complacency whatsoever in the
matter of protection.
120
CHAPTER-VIII
Annexure
Sample fault MVA calculation for a 110/11kV substation is provided for guide lines.
110kV
10 MVA
10% 11kV
The fault MVA level at the sending end i.e., at the 110kV bus of a nearing 230 kV substation is
taken as 2000MVA and the distance is taken as 10km from 230kV S/S
The source impedance at 110 kV bus on 230/110kV S/S = (KV)
Fault MVA
Source impedance =110 x 110 = 6.05 ohms
2000
Impedance of the line= 4.75 ohms/km (ACSR Leopard)
For 10 km = 47.5 ohms
Total impedance upto 110 kV bus of 110/11kV S/S = 47.5+6.05
= 53.55 ohms
Impedance of the transformer = 10 x kV
2
100 MVA
10 x 110 x110
100 10
= 121ohms
Total impedance up to transformer = 53.55+121 = 174.55 ohms
Total impedance converted to11kV side of the Transformer
Z
2
= Z
1
(kV
2
/kV
1
)
= 174.55 (11/110)
= 1.746ohms
Fault MVA level at 11kV bus = 11/1.746 = 69.3MVA
Fault current =3637 amps
121
CHAPTER-IX
DISTANCE RELAYS
Er. M. Arunachalam
EE / GRT
The distance relay responds to input quantities as a function of the electrical circuit
distance between the relay location and point of faults. Basically the distance relay compares
the current and voltage of the power system to determine whether the fault exists within or
outside its operating zone. The pioneer beam-type distance relay can be used to illustrate the
operating principle. The relays zone of operation is a function of only the protected line
impedance, which is a fixed constant, and is relatively independent of the current and voltage
magnitudes. Thus, the distance relay has a fixed reach, as opposed to over-current units, for
which reach varies as source conditions change.
Line section representation

A line section is represented in the power system as below:
A ZE B
s ZL
Zs source n
Balance point or reach Zu source

In the above figure, ZL is the impedance of the line to be protected from the bus A to
bus B. Zs is the equivalent source impedance up to bus B, and Zu the equivalent source
impedance up to bus B . ZE represents the equivalance of the interconnecting system between
buses A and B except for line ZL.
Representation of a line section and the R-X diagram.
B
source Zs
Bus voltage
Blance point
source Zu
A
n
122
CHAPTER-IX
The distance relay is applied to the bus A line terminal. The system can be plotted on an
R-X diagram. With O as the origin, the phasor impedance ZL. Of the line is drawn in the first
quadrant.
Either per unit or ohms can be used, although secondary or relay ohms are generally
preferred. The CT secondary formed in star (wye) is connected to distance relay.
Zsec = Zrelay = Zpu*Rc/Rv
Rc and Rv are the ratios of CTs and PTs respectively. Zs is the source impedance, can
be plotted from A in to the third quadrant at B, the source impedance Zu can be extended, both
impedance at their respective magnitudes and angles. In applications involving several line
sections, Zu would be the remote line section beyond bus B; Zs would be the line section
behind the A line relay or to the left of bus A(if we assume there were no other lines or sources
at either bus A or B)
A number of distance relay characteristics plotted on the R-X diagram may be a circle,
ie., whenever the phasor ratio of V/I falls inside the circle, the distance unit operates. By
modifying either the restraint and/or operating quantities, the circle can be shifted as shown
below:





Offset
MhoZsr
Zu
Z
L
B
X
B
R
X
Long reach ZsR
Line
short reach ZsR
Zsr=0
Directional unit
NZL
X
X
nzl
Impedance
Mho
123
CHAPTER-IX
Load can be represented on these R-X diagrams as an impedance phasor, generally
lying near the R axis (depending on the power factor of the load current on the line).The phasor
lies to the right(first quadrant of the (R-X diagram) when flowing into the protected line from
the bus and to the left (third quadrant of R-X diagram) when flowing out of the line to the bus.
Load is between 0 and 5 A secondary at or near rated voltage; faults generally produce much
higher current levels and lower voltages, so that the load phasor usually falls outside the
distance operating circles.
Historically three zones of protection have been used to protect a line section and
provide back up for the remote section. Each of the three zones uses instantaneous operating
distance relays. Zone-1 is set for 80% of the line impedance. Zone-2 is adjusted for 100% of
the line, plus 50% of the shortest adjacent line off the remote bus incase adjacent shortest
feeder being a double circuit 50% of any one feeder. Zone-3 is set for 100% of the line, plus
approximately of the adjacent longest line off the remote bus incase adjacent largest feeder is of
double circuit 110% of any one of the feeder. If the coverage overlaps because of long lines
followed by shortlines, time gradation shall be provided. These classical settings define the
protective zones only if there are no infeed effects. In practice, there is almost always an infeed
effect at the buses, which reduces the reach. The settings guidelines are as per the Instructions
in the memo No:
CE/P&C/SE(D)/P&C/EPCII/AEE5/F.Protn/D.34/2k dt 13.11.2k
Since zone-1(Z1) tripping is instantaneous, the zone must not reach the remote bus,
hence the 80% settings. The 20% margin provides a safety factor for security,to accommodate
differences or inaccuracies in relays, current, potential transformers and line impedance. The
20% end zone is protected by the z0ne-2 (Z2)
relay, which operates through a timer T2, set with one step of coordination time
intervals for overcurrent relays. Two zones at each terminal are required to protect all of the
line section,with 60 to 80% of the line having the simultaneous instantaneous protection. This
protection is independent of system changes and loading.
The backup zone-3 also operates through a timer T3 , set as shown to coordinate with
the zone-2 unit of the remote bus. Coordinating distance relays, with their fixed reach and time,
is much easier than coordinating the over current relays.
Phase Mho Distance
The reach setting (replica line impedance) is the phase impedance. Steady state characteristic:
Circle with a diameter that is equal to the reach setting and passes through the origin at an angle
equal to the line characteristic angle, with respect to the resistance line.



R
Ziang
Zrelay
R
124
CHAPTER-IX
Ground Mho Distance
The reach setting is the loop impedance. The characteristics are the same as the Phase Mho
distance elements.
Dynamic Characteristic
The circle that passes through the replica line impedance and the source impedance.
Reactance characteristic
The reactance relay does not vary in the presence of are resistance, because it is
designed to measure only the reactive component of the line. Any increase in the resistive
component of the fault impedance will have no effect upon the relay reach, as the relay will
continue to measure the same value of the reactance. However, when the fault resistance is of
high value that load and fault current magnitudes are of the same order, the reach of the relay is
modified by the value of the load and its power factor and may either over-reach or under-
reach.
Ground Quadrilateral Distance
The reach setting is the loop impedance. The resistance element that
extends from the resistance axis at an angle equal to the line characteristic angle.
X
Zsource
Ziang
Zrelay
nZL X
X
R
Zlang
32QFDirec.elem
m
125
CHAPTER-IX
COMMISSIONING AND TESTING OF
DISTANCE RELAYS
1. INSPECTION AND INSTALLATION.
A visual checks of the relay to be done for any transport damages at the site. The relay
should be checked for its auxiliary voltage rating as per the data stated and its connection for its
correct polarity. Check also that all units , possible extra auxiliary relays, etc., are included in
the equipment in accordance with the apparatus list.
2. PROGRAMMING AND SETTINGS.
The modern relays are having a large number of programming features and are to be
done as per the programming manual of relay. The modern numerical relays will start
functioning correctly only with proper programming. The relay manufacturers will supply the
necessary software for the programming through computers, which will check up the relay
system. For programming of the relays of static versions , making of jumpers and positioning
of programming switches should be done in each of its printed boards. While doing the
programming in the static relays, the D.C supply should be switched off.
The distance relay is always set in accordance with the selectivity plan for the network.
The positive sequence, zero sequence impedance of the network should be found from datas of
the line configuration. In short line applications the possibility to cover enough fault resistance
will be a major consideration. Load encroachments are not so common. Individual setting of
resistive and reactive reach are features which will improve the situation. For lines shorter than
8-10 Km, over reaching schemes are more suitable than understanding schemes in most cases.
Errors in measuring transformers and line data combined with the influence of load transfer
makes an under reaching scheme less suitable. The use of an over reaching scheme will
improve the resistive coverage. In some applications, the ultimate solution is to add a
directional comparison ground-fault relay to the line protection system. In short line
applications parallel lines are frequent. The likely hood to have fault current reversals in the
system must thus be considered when selecting settings and communication scheme.
The phase fault relays are based on a unbalance measurement, which gives a cross-polarized
mho characteristic. As with any cross polarized mho relay, the effect of source impedance is to
offset the mho circle to include the origin in case of forward faults. Figure below shows the
mho characteristic for phase to phase faults with zero source impedance and the effect of
increasing the source impedance.

Zs-/Zm=5
Z
3
Z
1
Z
2
Zs-/Zm=0
126
CHAPTER-IX
The operating characteristics for phase-ground and 3-phase faults are a composite
characteristics, may be made by combining mixed polarized mho and quadrilateral
characteristics operating in a logical arrangement. The two characteristics are selected to ensure
both speed and sensitivity. The mho characteristic will provide a limited resistive reach
compared to the quadrilateral characteristic in short lines applications. On the other hand
approximately 4-5 ms in operating time is gained. In long line applications the margin to the
load impedance will be a major consideration.
Since the phase-phase measuring relays are based an unbalance impedance
measurements, they do not operate for three phase load or power swing conditions. Therefore,
no precautions are necessary to limit the relay settings to avoid load encroachment.
For parallel lines or double circuit lines, the negative and positive sequence mutual
impedance between the different branches will be only 2-3% of the positive sequence and will
be very little effect on measurement. Whereas the zero sequence mutual coupling impedance
can not be ignored, since the value can be 70% of the zero sequence impedance. The mutual
impedance will influence the distance measurement of ground faults, and cause either an
extension or a reduction of the reach relative to the set reaches.
The line impedance is converted to the secondary side of the instrument transformers
with the formula
Z sec = CT ratio/ VT ratio x Z prim
Z sec = VT sec x CT prim x Z prim
VT prim CT sec
The impedance actually seen by the relay might differ from the calculated values due to
errors such as
a) Errors introduced actually by CTs and VTs, under transient conditions.
b) Inaccuracies in line zero sequence impedance data and the effect of zero sequence
compensation setting.
c) The effect of infeeds between relay and fault location including influence of different
X0/X1 ratios of the various sources.
d) The effect of load transfer between the ends of the protected lines especially when
appreciable fault resistance must be recognized.
e) Zero sequence mutual coupling from parallel lines.
f) The fact that the phase impedance of untransposed lines is not equal for all fault loops.
The difference between the impedance of different phase-phase loops can be as much as
5-10%.
Because of the errors above Zone-1 reach is normally limited to 80% of the calculated line
section impedance.
For the same reason the Zone-2 reach should be set to at least 120% of the calculated line
section impedance to ensure that it will always over reach the line section.
127
CHAPTER-IX
Zone-2 reach can be set longer but it should never exceed 80% of either of the following
reaches:
1) The reach corresponding to the impedance of the protected line section plus the first zone
reach of the shortest adjacent line section.
2) The reach corresponding to the impedance of the protected line plus the impedance of the
maximum number of transformers in parallel on the bus at the remote end of the protected
line.
Zone-3 is mostly used as a back-up zone:
i) set to 150-200% of the line section to provide backup forZone1 and Zone2.
ii) Set in the reverse direction to provide back up for the bus bar protection.
Zero sequence compensation
The measuring loop at single-phase to ground faults consists of two impedance. Z1 the positive
sequence impedance in the phase conductor and Zn the ground return impedance Zn is defined
as Z0 Z1
3
The ground return impedance is set by the zero sequence compensation factor Kn and the
ground return impedance (Zn) angle n.
The performance for single phase to ground faults is of great importance as normally more than
70% of the faults on a transmission line are single phase to ground. The fault resistance is
composed of two components, the arc resistance and the tower footing resistance.
Rarc = 28707 x l(in meter)
I4 I actual fault current
1 length of the arc and is approximately equal to 2-3 times the arc foot point spacing
Distance relays can not be used to detect very high resistive ground faults as the reach is
limited by the load impedance and load transfer. For faults with fault resistance higher than
what can be detected with impedance measuring an additional zero sequence ground fault relay
have to be included.
To avoid load encroachment problems and healthy phase relay operation under combined
three phase load and ground fault a maximum resistive reach in the quadrilateral characteristics
have to be adopted.
POWER SWING BLOCKING
Distance relays which respond to balanced 3 phase changes in impedance will be
affected by system power swings. These swings or oscillations occur following a system
disturbance such as load change or fault clearance. As the generators attempt to find a stable
operating angle relative to each other, they overshoot the final position and continue oscillating
until stability is achieved. The extend of the oscillations depends upon the severity of the
disturbance, and the natural stability of the system. The oscillation rate is determined by the
inertia of the system and impedance between different generators. When the generation at each
end of a line protected by distance relays oscillates, the impedance seen by the relays varies
along some locus. It will be seen that this locus can enter the distance relay characteristic, and
128
CHAPTER-IX
cause relay operation if steps are not taken to prevent this. The general practise is to block the
power swing in all zones of distance protection. The practise will be modified according to
system studies.
Power line carrier aided transfer tripping (as enclosed in separate sheet) auto Reclosing
and syrichronization.
Power line carrier aided Inter Tripping:
The zone I coverage of the distance protection will cover only the 80% of the protected
line and will not cover the end zones, about 20% of the protected feeder length. If the fault
occurs at the end zone of the protected line, one side the protection will clear the fault
constantaneously, but other side will face it as zone & fault will clear after 0.4 see.
Faults remaining on the feeder for zone 2, time may cause the system to be come
unstable. The fault will cause permanent lock out of the circuit breaker at each end of the line
section, on usage of auto re closing in the feeder. The general practice is to avoid the auto
reclosing if the carriers aided scheme is not adopted.
The unit scheme of protection is to compone the condition at both ends of the feeder.
Whenever the fault is internal or external to the protacted section. The simplerr way of
speeding up fauet clearence at the terminal which clears an end zone fault in zone 2 time is to
adopt a direct, accelerated transfortrip. The Direct transfer trip relay, scheme in which 2000 I
relay is used to send a signal to the remove and of the feeder, the receive relay contact is
corrected directly to the trip relay. The disadvantage of this scheme is the possibility of
considered tripping by accidented operation or mal operation of signalling equipment.
The scheme is more secure by supervising the receive signal with the impedance zone 2
measurement operation before allowing tripping and the scheme is known as permissive under
reach transfer trip scheme.
The accelerated transfer trip scheme is similar to Permissine under reach transfer trip
scheme. In its principle of operation but it is applicable only to zone suitched distance relays
which shares the same measuring which for both zone 1 & 2 and.
In the above relays the under reach zone 1 unit is arranged to send a signal to the remote
end of the feeder in addition to tripping the local breaker. The receive relay contact is arranged
to operate the range change relay which extends the reach of the measuring unit from zone 1 to
zone 2. Immediately instead of at the end of the zone 2 time delay. This accelerate the fault
clearance as the remote end.
129
CHAPTER-IX
Permissive under reach scheme general arrangement in distance relay.
Z1 - Zone Trip Contact
Z2M - Zone 2 measuring element contact
Z2T - Zone 2 timer / Contact
Z3M - Zone 3 measuring element contact
Z3T - Zone 3 timer / contact
TR - tripping relay.
Z
3
M
Z
2
M
Z
3
T
Z
2
T
Z
1
Z2T
Z3T
TR
130
CHAPTER-IX

RR
RR = Receive relay contact in carrier set,
RRX = Receive and relay at Distance relay
Reclosing and synchronizing:
The large majority of the over head line faults are transient and case can be cleared by
momentarily de energising the line. It is therefore, feasible to improve service continuity by
automatically reclosing the breaker after relay operation. The automatic reclosing will improve
continuity of service and increase the availatility of transmission line, but certain pre cautions
are to be taken.
1. The generator should never be connected to a system on automatic reclosing,
time the angle of voltages across the breaker in the vicinity of the generator is an inadequate
measure of the possible hazard associated with closing the breaker. The sudden change in
power in the generator following closure is however a key indicator.
2. When a transformer is subjected to a substantial through fault severe forces are
developed within and between winding, which produce motion. Repetitive motion can produce
failure of transformer.
RR
Z
3
M
Z
2
M
Z
2
M
RRX
Z
3
T
Z
2
T
Z
1
TR
Z
2
T
RRX
Z
3
T
131
CHAPTER-IX
The desired attributes of a reclosing system vary with user requirements. In an area
with high level of transient fault, (lightning incidences) more transmission time breakers will be
successfully re closed on the first try. Single short re closing relays those which produce only
one reclosure until reset are entirely satisfied.
Multiple shot reclosing relays are warrented on disribution circuits with significant free
exposure, where an unsucessful reclosure would generally mean a customer outage.
The speed of tripping is a significant factor in the success of a reclosure on a
transmission circuit. The faster the closing, the loss fault damage and/or degree of arc
ionization, the less the shock to the system on reclosure and greater the likelihood of re
energization with out subsequent tripping. The probability of sucessful reclosing is improved it
reclosing occurs only after a high speed pilot trip. The high speed of pilot tripping is achieved
with the help of communication channels like power line carrier communication protection
couplers. Such a system will eliminate the high of probability of unsuccessful re-closure on
non pilot trips, particularly for end-zone faults in which clearing OCCURS sequentially and the
de energized time is short. The general practice of utilization of single shot re-closing is with
the assistance of PLCC network, and on failure of PLCC network the function of re-closing is
blocked in the relay.
A sample calculation to be adopted for re-closure for dead time and re-claim time is
tabulated below. The longer death time is required because of the fact that the two phases
remain energized tend to keep the arc conducting longer.
ASPER GENERAL PRACTICE ONE SHOT RECLOSE IS ADOPTED
DEAD TIME
Dead time should be able to ensure complete deionization of arc
A study of a larger, period on operating experience has formulated the minimum dead
time as
t = 10.5 = KV
34.5
Where KV is the phase to phase voltaged the system.
Assuming arc deionization time as typical 0.17 sec for a 230 KV system
Recommended dead time setting is as below
= 0.17 sec + 0.02 sec. (margin) = 0.19 sec.
Hence, the adopted setting should be more than 0.19 sec
Adopted at 0.25 sec.
132
CHAPTER-IX
RECLAIM TIME
The reclaim time is the time to be allowed, for the permanent opening of all for pole after one
shot of single pole re-closure, if the fault persists.
Recommended time = CB closing mechanical reset + 5 sec + gas pressure recovery time
Now, CB closing mechanical reset = 60 sec (max assumed) to be checked with
BKR test result
Gas pressure recovery time : 30 sec. (max-assumed) to be
checked with BKR test result.
Re claim time = 60 + 5 + 30 = 95 sec
Note: Reclaim time can be checked with breaker duty cycle and can be modified
Suitably, if required.
Factors governing application of Reclosing:
1. For instantaneous reclosing, the protective relay contact must open in less than
the breaker re-close time.
2. The breaker latch check and when applicable the low pressure switch should be
used to avoid operating the breaker if the mechanisms is not prepared to a accept closing
energy or gas pressure is inadequate.
For instantaneous re-closing, arc deionizime time must be considered.
Synchronizing:
Synchronization check has to be made to sense the voltage on the two sides of the
breaker are in exact Synchronism i.e. the angular difference between the two voltages and the
frequency difference is below the present value. The check is required to minimize the shock
to the system when breaker closer. The angular difference between the voltages does not
determine the transient to which the system will be subjected upon closure. Rather, the shock
to the system is related to the voltage across the breaker contacts, the phasing voltage is the
critical quantity in determining whether the breaker is allowed to close.
The system is in Synchronization the single shot reclosing doesnot required the
Synchronization. The Synchronization check is an essential system of unattended or attended
locations for automatic Synchronization or supervision for manual Synchronizing.
133
CHAPTER-IX
SAMPLE SETTING CALCULATION FOR DISTANCE RELAY
1. PRIMARY VALUE
The line data which is to be protected comprises of a small length of
Cable on one side , with O/H line in between the feeder is .
LINE LENGTH = 14.877 Km of OHL(GTACSR ,1x 402/phase)
+ 0.5 Km of 900 sq.mm XLPE at one side,
+0.5 km of 900sq.mm XLPE at the other end
OHL (Z1) = 0.0901+ j 0.4604 ohms/km
OHL (Z0) = 0.114+ j 0.501 ohms/km
XLPE cable (Z1) 1200 sq.mm = ( 0.02032+j0.2773) O/Km
XLPEcable (Z1) 1000 sq.mm = (0.0235+j0.2452)O/Km
XLPE cable (Z0) = (0.1984 +j 1.938) O / km
TOTAL (Z1L) = (1.3684 + j 7.0895) O
= 7.2204 Z79.075
TOTAL (Z0L) = (1.8944 + j 9.3914) O
Line impedence of adjacent = 7.005 Km of Cable 1200 sq.mm
short line (Z2L)
= (0.1423 +j 1.9425) O
=1.9477 Z85.81
Line impedence of adjacent = 27.440 Km of OHL+0.425Km
Longest line (Z3L) 0f1000sq.mm cableAt one end+0.034Km
of 630sq.mm0FC
= (2.4818 + j 12.7436 ) O
= 12.9830 Z78.98

Fr = 0.263 ohm per loop
S = 151 MVA (Maximun Load Transfer)
F = 50Hz
134
CHAPTER-IX
Where
Z1 = Positive sequence impedance
Z0 = Zero sequence impedance
Fr = Additional fault resistance (arc and tower
footing resistance)
S = Apparent power (maximum power Transferred)
Iprim./sec. = 1200 / 1 A
U prim./U.sec. = 110000 / 110V , 50Hz
\3 \3
The relay shall work with following setting
Zone 1 = 80% of the line
Zone 2 = 100% of the line + 50% of Adjacent short line
Zone 3 = 100% 0f the line +110% of the adjacent longest line
Transformation Ratio = CT/PT = (1200/1) / (110000/110) = 1.2
STARTER REACH: V/S = 110/151 = 80.132 Ohms(primary value)
= 80.132*1.2 = 96.16 Ohms
Maximum permissible reach of the start relay Zmax = 0.5*96.16 = 48.08 Ohms
The starter relay setting is determined by the Zone-3 reach and the load impedance. The
radius of the start relay circle is determined by setting the Zone-3 reach by over
reaching about 35%.
Z1L (secondary) = Z1L (primary) x Transformation ratio
= (1.3684 + j 7.0895) O x 1.2 = 1.6421 +j 8.5074 O
= 8.5074 Z 79.08
Z2L (secondary) = ( 0.1423 +j 1.9425) x 1.2
= 0.1488 +j 2.0307 = 2.0362 Z85.81
Z3L (secondary) = (2.4818 + j 12.7436) x 1.2
= 2.5945 + j 13.3222 = 13.5725 Z78.98
Starter reachZ5 = 1.35 x 13.5725Z78.98 = 18.32 Z78.98
Z0L (secondary) = (1.8944+ j9.3914 ) x 1.2 = 1.9804 + j 9.8178
= 10.0155 Z84.02 ohm/phase
135
CHAPTER-IX
2. ZONE-1 SETTING:
Zone 1 impedance = 0.8 Z1L
= 0.8x 7.5482 Z79.08 ohm/phase
= 6.0386 Z79.08 ohm/phase
In case of numerical relays the value calculated shall be programmed directly In the case of
static/ magnetic relays the relay manual shall be referred for setting the calculated values by
way of selections
2. ZONE-2 SETTING:
Zone-2 settings =100% of the line + 50% of the adjacent shortest line
= 0.2625 +j 1.4571 + 0.5 x (0.2207 +j 1.6141)
= 0.3729 + j 2.2641
= 2.2946 Z
According to the relay manual the settings are to be adopted for the Zone-2 reach. Similar to
the Zone-1 the numerical relays shall be fed with the value.
3. ZONE-3 SETTING:
The relay can be set with Zone 3 in reverse looking blocking mode or on
forward reach,
Required Zone-3 forward reach = 100 % of Z1L +110% of Z3L
= 0.2625 +j 1.4571 + 1.1 x (1.4876 + j 7.6049)
= 1.6364 + j 8.3654
= 8.524 Z79.17 ohm / phase
As per relay manual the relay settings shall be calculated for the selection of relay
constants for the value calculated above. For the numerical relays the value calculated shall be
programmed directly.

The above setting shall be programmed in case of numerical relays. If the relay is of
static type, the availability of reverse zone shall be detected first and setting shall be set as per
procedure given by the manufacturer.
Starter reach :
= 1.35 x 8.524 Z79.17 ohm / phase
= 11.5074 Z79.17 ohm / phase
136
CHAPTER-IX
5. EARTH FAULT COMPENSATION SETTING
KN = Z0L Z1L = (0.3124 + j 2.439) - (0.1416 +j 0.9458)
3Z1L 3x (0.1416 +j 0.9458)
= 0.5239 Z1.99
ZNL = KN x Z1L = 0.5239 Z1.99 x 1.4805 Z 79.78
= 0.7756 Z81.77


6. RELAY CHARACTERISTIC ANGLE SETTING

Z1L = 1.4805 Z 79.78 ohm , therefore u PH = 80
ZNL = 0.7756 Z 81.77 ohm, therefore uN = 82

7. POWER SWING BLOCKING
In normal scheme, where Zone-4 elements will be reverse looking , the Zone-5 forward reach
should be set to the starter forward reach , and the Zone-4 reverse reach , should be set to the
reverse reach.
Thus Zone-5 forward reach = 11.5074 Z79.17 ohm / phase
Zone-4 reverse reach = 1.5094 ohm

Proportion of Z0ne-4 reverse reach =
Zone-4 reverse reach
Zone-5 forward reach + Zone 4 reverse reach

= 1.5094 = 0.1160
11.5074+1.5094

The reaches are set so that
The total reach to be set = 1.3 (Z5 forward +Z4 reverse)
Set the timer for identifying the fault condition to 40ms
137
CHAPTER-IX
7. ACCURACY OF IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT
Zone-1 accuracy is +5% for System Impedance Ratios (SIR) of upto 30 and +10% for SIR of
upto 60. If +5% of accuracy of Zone-1 is required, then the operate in voltage for earth faults
and phase faults need to be more than the minimum required voltage of the relays.
Minimum Fault Level at 110KV bus of S/S 8066 = 2237.8 MVA
Assuming that the Zero sequence source impedance equals the positive sequence.
ZS1 = ZS0 = 110 = 7.786 ohm
2237.8
Sequence source impedance :
ZSE = ZS1 + ZS2 + ZS0 = 7.786 ohm
3
Line positive sequence impedance to Zone-1 reach point
= 80% of 1.4805 Z79.78 = 1.1844Z79.78 ohm
Therefore relay voltage for a phase fault
= Z1L x E = 1.1844 x 115 = 18.37 V
ZS1+Z1L 7.786+1.1844
Line zero sequence impedance to Zone-1 reach point
= 80% of 7.1862 Z81.08 = 5.7489Z81.08 ohm

Line fault loop impedance
ZLE = Z1L+Z2L+Z0L = 1.1844+1.1844+5.7489 = 2.706 ohm
3 3

Therefore relay voltage for an earth fault
ZLE x E = 2.706 x 115 = 17.12 5V
(ZSE + ZLE )\3 (7.786+2.706)\3
138
CHAPTER-IX
8. COMMUNICATION CO-ORDINATION TIME
tp = Signalling channel p/u time + margin

= 20ms (assumed) +20ms
= 40ms
td = 20ms (signalling channel reset time)
Assuming signalling channel reset time as 10ms
td = 20ms 10ms = 10ms
9. TIME LAG
It is decided to set T2 = 400ms and T3 = 1000ms
To set on the relay
T2 = (32 + 8)10 = 400 ms
T3 = (32 + 16 ) 20 = 960ms
139
CHAPTER-IX
TESTING PROCEDURES
The testing engineer should be supplied with all the required settings for the relay.
Some specific information about using the testing kit should be known to understand how to
perform the tests using the specified testing kit or other suitable equipments.
TESTING EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
1) ZFB or TURB or TURH or FERAJA or any other make testing kit
2) 2 multi meters(20000O/V on DC range)
3) 1 high impedance digital voltmeter
4) 1 variable auto transformer for rated current capacity
5) 1 variable resistor 0-2000 for rated current capacity.
6) 3 double pole switches
7) 1 d.c power supply (if panel supply unavailable)
8) Test plugs according to the type of relays
9) Any monitoring point box is available for the relay
10) 1 phase angle meter
11) 1 electronic insulation tester(if panel wiring is to be checked)
SECONDARY INJECTION TEST:
ISOLATION:-
All the relay contacts can be prevented from operating while the rest of the relay functions
normally and gives indications. It is however necessary to check the operation of contacts
during commissioning, so alternative trip isolation must be obtained.
INITIAL CHECKS:
DC supplies to the panel should be checked for its polarity and if the panel is not
equipped with DC supply, a suitable supply should be connected to the relay terminal/test
block. On power up the observations as per the instruction manual of the relay should be
checked and the relay inoperative alarm contact should be in open position.
In the case of numerical relays, on power on , the enable target display illuminated and
the relay contact for power on indication should open. Front panel LED and LCD screen should
be checked . The relay should be checked for its self test status and the LCD screen of the relay
should show the status ok display. By using the up and down arrow buttons to view the specific
relay self-tests and should come out from status display.
140
CHAPTER-IX
CHECKING UP OF VOLTAGE DETECTORS: Each phase to ground input voltage is
monitored and the pick up of the voltage detector is to be fixed., say 44.5V (10) The
monitor selection should be selected ( The protection schemes are fully functional when in
monitor options). Apply voltage in turn to each voltage input and determine the pickup and
drop off of each level detector . The pick up will be indicated by an indication and the drop off
should be with in 20% of pickup.
FIXED CURRENT LEVEL DETECTORS:
1. LOW SET: Each phase current is monitored, and the pickup of the level detector is
dependant on the setting of the impedance the most sensitive value being 5% of In.
The pickup is given by 5 x In amps 10%
100 x Zph
select monitor option , inject current in turn into each pair of phase terminations and determine
the pick up and drop off of each level detector. The drop off should be with in 20% of the
pickup.
2 HIGH SET:
Current setting is given by 7.5 xIn amps 10% select monitor option and
100 x Zph determine the pick up and
drop off value
BIASED CURRENT LEVEL DETECTORS (HIGH and LOW SET)
Biasing only comes into action when a minimum phase difference current is exceeded. The
residual signal is derived by summing the vectors of the voltages in the relay which are
proportional to the currents. The operation level when biasing varies directly with the highest
phase difference current until a limit is reached. The minimum operate level varies inversely
with Zph. In commissioning it is only necessary to check this level.
Low set: The minimum operate current level is given by = 5 x In amps 20%
100 x Zph
select monitor option . By injecting current in to each phase input and determine the pickup and
drop off which should be with in 20% of each other.
High set: The minimum operate value is given by :- 16 x In amps 20%
100 x Zph
select monitor option . By injecting current in to each phase input and determine the pickup and
drop off which should be with in 20% of each other.
REACH AND FAULT LOCATION CHECK:
The relay should be connected with three current source and voltage sources and should be in
positive direction. The relay should be provided with trip isolation before commencing the tests
but the operation of the contact should be checked for all measurements.
Before starting the testing of the relay the engineer should make himself familiar with the
relays programming techniques and the menu if it is a numerical relay
141
CHAPTER-IX
The testing equipment must be able to supply phase to ground volts and currents in the correct
phase relation for a particular type of fault on the selected relay characteristic angle. The
facility to alter the loop impedance (phase-ground compensation or phase-phase) presented to
the relay is essential, this may be a continuos adjustment or steps of around 1% in the voltage
or current.
The testing equipment should be connected to the relay terminal through the test block taking
care not to open circuit the CT secondary. Care must be taken to isolate other circuit in series
connected to the distance relay like LBB relay by blocking its operation. VT supervision
should be set TO ALLOW TRIP, if possible giving indication only. It will be more useful if
START INDICATION is ENABLED which will speed up the process of determining the
reaches.
Commence with connections for an R-N fault. Apply an impedance slightly greater than the
calculated first zone reach (or the equivalent voltage and current to the value of impedance with
line angle setting in the testing kit) momentarily to the relay will indicate start RN (for the
enabled forward zone) DEF start will also be optained if fitted and enabled. Make small
adjustments, say 1% to the impedance and reapply to the relay until the highest impedance,
which gives the indication Z1, RN occurs.
Note: If the circuit Breaker open condition is connected through optical isolator input or by
some other means then all faults can appear as SOTF. Appropriate action must be taken to
prevent the condition to appear in the relay.
If the relay is provided with fault locator feature also, sufficient time should be given to accept
the relay indication for calculation of fault location.
The measured impedance should be with in 10% of the calculated value assuming the angle of
the impedance presented is with in 5degrees of the angle set for Ph-Ground. Check the
appropriate contacts operated for single or three phase tripping as selected. In particular check
the trip contact and the block autoreclose contact.
Change the direction of the current and ensure that the relay does not operate (check with a
close up fault briefly applied)
Repeat the above tests for the other two phases i.e., Y-N and B-N. The test should be done for
zone-1, zone-2 and zone-3 reaches.
Carry out the tests as for ground faults for R-Y, Y-B and B-R faults. Under commissioning
conditions the measured value should be with in 10% of the calculated values. The test should
be repeated for all Zones of measurements.
Note: If test kit similar to ZFB is used
The phase to neutral voltage not involved in the selected fault does not maintain the correct
phase relationships and the reach for slightly off angle faults may be affected due to movement
of the relay characteristic angle on the impedance plane.
Resistive reaches check (If Quadrilateral characteristic is applicable)
Checks are done using resistive faults, thus in the forward direction all zones will operate at the
same loop impedance. The checks should be done for all phase to ground faults and results
should be with in 15% of the selected settings.
Operation time check:
142
CHAPTER-IX
Applying a fault at 50% (approximately) should check zone-1 operation time of Zone-1 reach.
An interval meter should be started when the fault is applied and stopped by a suitable pair of
contacts.
To obtain correct operating times, it is essential to use dynamic tests starting with all phase to
neutral voltages above the level detector setting (the test sets when connected for phase faults
do not have resistors fitted which tie down the neutral point. Check Ph-N voltages with 100%
potential setting). If this is not done, filters in the voltage and current circuits will already be
switched in and operation times will be slower by upto 20ms.
If the polarizing quantities are not correctly provided by the test set, some slower times may be
measured. This may be noticed when doing phase-phase faults on the test kits.
When test kits connected for phase faults and 110V-phase/f selected with 100% potential
setting the phase to neutral voltages are not balanced it is only necessary for them to be greater
than about 45V.
Times vary with the point-on-wave of fault application. It is thus suggested that number of
operations be done for each type of fault and the mean value recorded.
Times vary with the type of characteristic, typical times being
Shaped Mho 15-30ms
Quadrilateral 20-35ms
If the polarizing quantities are not correct or if the voltage filters are in initially times may
increase by 10-20ms.
The time measurement should be done for all Zones of measurements.

Simulation of power swing in the relay
Fault loop selected is R-Y
Apply an impedance just outside Zone-2or 3 as appropriate and reduce it with out switching off
(say 1% steps) until power swing indication, check that the PSB alarm contact also closes.
Apply the fault again in to just inside Zone-2 or 3 as appropriate and then move the fault again
to inside zone-1 in less time than the lowest time delay setting. Only the Zones not blocked by
the PSB feature will change to measuring the condition as fault.
Voltage transformer supervision
Operation occurs when zero sequence voltage above a set level is detected without any zero
sequence current being detected above a set level. The relay is set to block and the blocking can
take place simultaneously. The relays have the facility for self resetting of the VTS contact for
alarm and blocking.
Switch on to fault condition
The feature is enabled when all poles have been dead for a specified time.
If busbar VTs are used, breaker open input condition should be energized
Memory feature (synchronous polarization)
This can only be done with a dynamic type of test equipment. The memory is mainly to deal
with three phase close up faults but is made to run out when any voltage level detector resets or
when any comparator operates. There is nominally 16 cycles of memory polarizing which is
normally derived from phase volts. We thus have to satisfy the above condition and make the
relay behave as though it is seeing a three phase close up fault.
143
CHAPTER-IX
Signalling channel check
This test should be applied to any scheme using a signaling channel when the channel in
service is available and in service. An engineer will be required at each end of the protected
line and some form verbal communication is necessary.
During checking up of transfer top scheme, the distance relay test kit should be connected to
the relays at both ends and the communication channel connected to the relay. At one end the
zone I reach should be set to the kit and at the other and the zone 2 measurement / starter reach
should be set in the kit. On verbal communication both end testing kits should be instituted and
the relay tripping should be watched simultaneously. The relay at both ends should indicate the
trip signal immediately on initial on of the test kit. The test should be repeated for setting the
other end on 2001 and 2042 at receiving end.
Live system check
Trip test
Trip isolation should be obtained if breaker operation is not wanted
Auto reclose should be blocked
Final setting check
The checklist should now be referred to, and used in conjunction with that of the setting list. If
the VTS is to block tripping check this is set.
On load checks
With the line energized check the voltage input to the relay across each pair of phases and
between each phase and neutral. Check for correct phase rotation with a phase rotation meter.
CT/VT phasing check (for numerical relay)
To ensure that the corresponding voltage and current go to a given relay element it is necessary
to check the phase angle between them agrees with the known load power factor. If the
information is available is in terms of import /export MW and MVAR.
Directional check
The test must be carried out with the relay energized from the voltage transformer and current
transformer with the load current above the minimum sensitivity of the low-set current level
detectors (20% of In) and preferably lagging power factor in the tripping direction.
The relay should be selected for low set current level for its most sensitive settings, the angle to
the minimum value and zone-1 to a straight-line directional characteristic. All contacts will be
disabled and the relay inoperative alarm will close.
A check must be performed with the fault in the opposite direction, which is achieved by
reversing the current input to the relay, and the relay should give appropriate message.
144
CHAPTER-IX
COMMISSIONING TEST RESULT SHEETS
DISTANCE RELAY TYPE:
SERIAL NUMBER:
STATION DATE
CIRCUIT
SCHEME TYPE
TEST RESULTS
1. PRILIMINARY CHECKS
a) Rating details
b) CT shorting contacts
c) DC supply
d) Power up
e) Wiring
f) Relay inoperative alarm contact
2. VOLTAGE LEVEL DETECTORS
Level
P
3 PHASE CURRENT LEVEL DETECTORS (LOW SET)
Level
P
HIGH SET
Level
Detectors
Relay Terminal
Injected Pick up Volts Drop off Volts
Drop off %
Pick up
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Level
Detectors
Relay Terminal Pickup current
Injected
Drop off
Current
Drop off %
Pick up
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
145
CHAPTER-IX
HIGH SET
Level
P
BIASED LOW SET
Level
P
BIASED HIGH SET
evel
Level
Detectors
Relay Terminal
Injected Pick up Current
Drop off
Current
Drop off %
Pick up
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Level
Detectors
Relay Terminal
Injected Pick up Current
Drop off
Current
Drop off %
Pick up
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Level
Detectors
Relay Terminal
Injected Pick up Current
Drop off
current
Drop off %
Pick up
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
146
CHAPTER-IX
ZONE REACH MEASUREMENTS (PHASE FAULTS)
FAULT REQUIRED NOMINAL RELAY RELAY EQUIV. % OF
TYPE REACH LOOP VOLTS AMPS Z OHMS Error
IMPEDANCE
REQUIRED
A-B ZONE 1
B-C
C-A
A-B ZONE 2
B-C
C-A
A-B ZONE 3
B-C
C-A
147
CHAPTER-IX
ZONE REACH MEASUREMENTS (GROUND FAULTS)
FAULT REQUIRED NOMINAL RELAY RELAY EQUIV. % OF
TYPE REACH LOOP VOLTS AMPS Z OHMS Error
IMPEDANCE
REQUIRED
A-N ZONE 1
B-N
C-N
A-N ZONE 2
B-N
C-N
A-N ZONE 3
B-N
C-N
148
CHAPTER-IX
IF uPH and uN differ by 5 the vector sum of phase fault and ground fault impedance should be
found out to give u and the basic ground fault loop impedance
FAULT LOCATION (IF FITTED)
Z1 = ------------------------- ZF = ----------------------------
LINE LENGTH = -----------------
MUTUAL COMPENSATION ENABLED/DISABLED
Phase Location given for Zone-1 reach Location given for Zone-1 reach
% or Km or Miles( No mutual) % or Km or Miles(With mutual)
Expected Actual
A-G
B-G
C-G
A-B
B-C
C-A
OPERATION TIME
Zone-4 (RR) Starter Reach
Phase Zone-1 (ms) Zone-2 (sec) Zone-3 (sec) Seconds Seconds
A-B
B-C
C-A
A-G
B-G
C-G
Note: for switched relay for one measuring court can be taken for time measurement.
149
CHAPTER-IX
POWER SWING
Zone Boundary
Required forward loop impedance :
Measured forward loop impedance :
Required Reverse loop impedance :
Measured Reverse loop impedance :
Measured Time :
Simulated Power swing
Blocking and contact check
Zone-1 block
Zone-2 block
Zone-3 block
All zone block
PSB alarm
VOLTAGE SUPERVISION
Operation on zero sequence volts --------------- V
Operation time ---------------- sec
Indication
Instantaneous Operation
Indication
Self-resetting Enabled/ Disabled
150
CHAPTER-IX
Operation checked
SWITCH ON TO FAULT
SOTF indication
Trip time
MEMORY FEATURE (SYNCHRONOUS POLARISING)
Zone-1 trip alarm contact dwell time ------------------- ms
PERMISSIVE TRIP
Aided trip check
Signal sends check
TDW timer (if applicable)
Three pole trip
ON LOAD CHECK
CT Burden check
Voltage correctness check
Phase rotation check
CT/VT phasing correct check
Forward directional check
Reverse directional check
NEGATIVE - SEQUENCE DIRECTIONALELEMENT TEST USING SINGLE PHASE
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT : (If the relay is with Negative-sequence directional
characteristics)
Select output contacts for indicating the operation of Forward unbalanced fault and Reverse
unbalanced fault elements.
151
CHAPTER-IX
The relay-unbalanced element operates based upon the magnitude and angle of negative
sequence voltages and currents. The magnitude and angle of negative sequence voltage (V2)
and negative sequence current (I2) have to be calculated using the equation below
V2 = 1/3 (VA + a.VB + a. VC )
I2 = 1/3 ( IA + a.IB +Alice )
Using single phase signals simplifies the V2 and I2 calculations.
VB = VC = 0 volts
IB = IC = 0 amps
V2 = 1/3 . (VA)
I2 = 1/3 .( IA )
Assume that you are applying a test voltage VA =18Z180 Volts secondary. The test angle of
A- phase current should be taken from the relay setting angle. The negative sequence
impedance will be positive when I2 lags V2 by the angle of line impedance and negative if I2
leads V2.
Turn on the voltage source
Apply , say., VA =15VZ180 , IA = 0.0Z96
Slowly increase the magnitude of IA with out varying the phase angle The magnitude of the
current is determined by calculating the negative sequence impedance. The negative sequence
impedance for a forward single line ground fault will result in a negative value of negative
sequence impedance and for a reverse fault it will be positive. If the value of the forward
threshold value of negative sequence impedance is less the fault is in the forward direction and
the relay set to forward unbalanced fault condition.
The relay multiplies the measured +ve sequence current magnitude by a setting, then compares
the result to the measured magnitude of the ve sequence current. The magnitude of ve
sequence current must be greater than the magnitude of the +ve sequence current multiplied by
a setting for the directional element to operate.
When increasing the current at a particular limit the reverse unbalanced fault element will
asserts , indicates that the ve sequence impedance is greater than the reverse threshold
impedance of the system. If the current is increased beyond that limit the forward unbalanced
element asserts, indicating that the negative seq. Impedance is less than the forward threshold
value.
Verify the performance described above by calculating negative sequence impedance with the
above tested quantities.
When performing the test other protection elements may assert , causing the relay to close other
output contacts and assert relay targets. This is normal and is not a cause for concern.
152
CHAPTER-IX
CASE STUDIES
CASE:1
Analysis of the tripping at Sriprumbudur - Koyambedu feeder on
10
th
Feb. 2000.

Koratoor 230 kvs/s
230kv NCTPS fdr.
230kvETPS fdr.
Sriperumbudur400 kv s/s Koyambedu230kvs/s
Relay indications.
Koyambedu feeder.
Main 1. RAZFE
TN
Main2. SIEMENS 7SA511
BN Z1
Observations at Sriperumbudur
Heavy flash over seen on Koyambedu feeder with jumper cut at line switch. The breaker of
Koyambedu feeder tripped
AT Koratoor s/s the NCTPS fdr. And the ETPS feeders are not in service. There was a fault at
KTR-SPR feeder A conductor snapped , but the line was not tripped for the fault. The KOY
feeder at SPR was tripped with heavy flash over and with a jumper cut at the SPR end. There
was no tripping at KOY ,the Koyambedu operator has noticed a supply failure both from
Korattoor and SPR. The known fault at KTR-SPR feeder was not cleared but causes over flow
of current in one single path causes the heavy flash over and the operator at SPR has opened the
LV breakers of the Auto transformers.
The KTR-SPR and SPR-KOY feeders are running parallel up to some point , and the mutual
compensation effect might have caused the over reaching of the setting. So, the tripping of
KTR-SPR feeder might have been delayed and causing the KOY feeder jumper cut . The
relays at KTR and SPR in the feeder of KTR-SPR was verified and the compensation factor
was reduced to 0.7 to have the sufficient reach.
153
CHAPTER-IX
CASE:2
Deails of trippings atKortoor, NCTPS ,Sriperumbudur on 30
th
Jan 2000
SPK
KLPM
KDP To TVLM GDDI
MOSR TVLM
TRNI KOY
Arni KTR ETS MYL NCTPS
SPR TPT
Under line clear
On 30
th
Jan 2000 the units at NCTPS, ETPS and GMR were tripped resulting in a blackout in
Chennai area. The ETS-KTR and NCTPS- KTR feeders were on line clear.
There was a line fault in NCTPS-SPR feeder 2 and tripped at both ends on BE Z1 and
subsequently the feeder 1 was also tripped on same indication. At the time tripping the NCTPS
units are generating 630 MW and the following feeders are in service. The NCTPS- MOSUR,
NCTPS-GDDI and the NCTPS TPT feeders. The Mylapore feeder is in radial from
TondiarpetS/S.The GMR Vasavi generating machines and the TCPL unit in parallel with the
110 kV bus of Gummidipoondi were tripped.
NCTPS units trippings are
Unit1 on Over voltage
Unit 2 on house load and subsequently on condensor pressure high
Unit 3 on house load and subsequently on Drum level low
ETPS units tripped on
Unit 2 Boiler protection
Unit 1 Under Voltage
Unit 5 RH system protection
GMR Vasavi units were tripped on Under speed.
The TCPL unit tripped on ID fan tripping
154
CHAPTER-IX
ANALYSIS:
The tripping of generating units are unwanted for the feeder trippings which is normal. The
NCTPS after tripping of SPR feeders feeding the loads in TPT feeder , MOSUR feeder and the
radial load of Gummidipoondi.
The units are to be stable after the actuation of house load condition with the load of
about300MW in TPT S/S.GDDIS/S and the local loads. On detailed analysis the house lead
turning up for the units at NCTPS was checked and found that the valves are not func;tioning
properly. After the studies conducted at Neyveli, the improvement in the terminal units are
under progress. System, which is unwarranted. The feeding arrangements and the load
distributions are to be studied. There are generating stations on 110kV bus system inter linking
the 230 kV system, the operation of the system is in low frequency condition of about 48Hz.
Due to the operation of the system under low frequency conditions the machines are facing
electromechanical thrust to move the machine to the oscillating condition and causing the
tripping. The tripping are unwarranted and are to be avoided. The system has to be studied for
its stability.
CASE.3
GMR SBM KTR
VYD
CNPT BBGTPS
The 110 kV system links GMR private power project tripping frequently for external feeder
faults. The feeders were provided with numerical distance relays of AEG make PD521. The
cause for tripping of the machines on over current was found to be that they have adopted the
high set value as 2.5 times with instantaneous setting and the same was corrected. For external
fault conditions the feeder were tripping on over current indication. On examination of the
distance relay if the measurement is not done by the relay the relay will actuate through over
current if the current exceeds the setting value. The non-measurement of the distance relay was
checked and found to be there is a programming error. During commissioning of the feeders it
was noticed that the polarity of the CTs was wrongly selected, the relay was selected through
programming for reversal of polarity. The relay is having a programming for the selection of
phase rotation; it was selected for positive sequence phase rotation, which is anti clockwise.
Due to selection of polarity reversal and phase rotation the current was shifted to 180 degree
causing the measurement.
155
CHAPTER-IX
CASE.4
TTPS PSQ
CKNI MYD TDLR
Kundah
KYR PGLR
Whenever the under frequency islanding takes place for two blocks seperation of the whole
block of the system, the feeders at Chekanoorni towards Meyvadi , Pugaloor feeder and
thudialoor were tripping with three phase indication. The feeders are protected with
THR3PE18 relays which is having the power swing blocking removal on completion of 3
rd
Zone time. The power system on two block will be seperated with TTPS-KUNDAH as one
block and rest of the system as one block. The TTPS-Kundah block generators are swinging
and the swing settles after about 1.7 sec and so the 3
rd
Zone time was set at 1.7 sec . After that
the tripping was not there and M/S Easun Reyrole was requested to provide a deblocking
facility for 2 sec. The provision was made in Chekanoorni S/S only. The relay of MM3T also
having the same problem but with de blocking time of 1 sec and the relay also requires change.
Due to the islanding conditions the electrical center of the system shifted due to outages. The
ABB make relays are provided with 2 sec. Deblocking, the system with that relays are holding
the condition.
156
CHAPTER-X
POWER TRANSFORMER
TESTING AND PROTECTION
Er. M. Varadarajan
EE / O&M
CLASSIFICATION:
Transformers in use in T.N.E.B. may be classified into four major groups.
1. Transformers in Radial stations for distribution of power at high tension.:
a) 110/33 KV, 110/22 KV and 110/11 KV power transformers,
b) 110/66 KV auto transformers, 66/33 KV, 66/22 KV and 66/11 KV power
transformers and
c) 33/11 KV power transformers
are in this category.
110 KV power transformers are usually ordered for multi-ratios like 110/33/22 KV,
110/22-11 KV and 110/33-11 KV with a minimum rating of 10 MVA. The standard capacities
are 10, 16 and 25 MVA.
At 33/11 KV line tap substations, transformers of capacity 1, 1.5 and 2 MVA may be
available. The T.N.E.B. has decided not to have any more new line tap sub-stations in future.
At 33/11 KV substations, transformers of capacity 3, 3.15, 5 and 8 MVA may be
avalable. The board is now procuring 8 MVA transformers only in this voltage ratio and the
lower capacity transormers will be phased out.
The above step-down transformer except 110/66 KV auto transformers belong to the
vector group Dy11 with secondary neutral solidly earthed.
2. 230/110 KV Auto Transformers in grid stations. Transformers with a rating of
50, 75, 80 and 100 MVA may be available. The Board is procuring 100 MVA units only under
this category now.
These auto transformers have their main winding star connected with the neutral solidly
earthed. They also have a 11 KV delta connected tertiary winding with some specific MVA
rating to connect phase compensating devices like shunt capacitors, static var compensators etc.
When not needed, the tertiery is kept idle. However the closed delta connected winding helps
suppression of third harmonic voltages and aids flow of sufficient current for a line to earth
fault for the protective device to operate.
157
CHAPTER-X
400 KV Stations are under the control of the Power Grid Corporation. At
Sriperumbudur and Salem, the 400/230 KV auto trans formers and 400/110 KV Transformer
are under T.N.E.B. control. In the other 400 KV stations in Tamil nadu the transformers are
under power grid control.
3. Step-up Transformers in generating stations.
The generation is generally at 11 KV, phase to phase and is stepped up to 110 KV or 230
KV. Here the primary winding (11 KV) is delta connected and the secondary EHV
winding, star connected with the neutral, solidly earthed. Where the power rating of the
unit is large, 3 single-phase units maybe provided and connected externally to form a three-
phase transformer. The transformer MVA rating matches the generator rating.
4. Distribution transformers to feed L.T. distributions with primary rating at 11 KV or 22 KV.
These transformers belong to the vector group Dy11 with secondary neutral solidly earthed.
I. TESTING
The following Tests are specified in IS:2026 (Part I), specification for power
transformers, Part-I, General:
TYPE TESTS:
(a) Measurement of winding resistance.
(b) Measurement of Voltage ratio and check of Voltage Vector relationship.
(c) Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal tapping) and load
loss.
(d) Measurement of no load loss and current.
(e) Measurement of insulation resistance.
(f) Dielectric tests
(g) Temperature rise test
(h) Tests on ON-LOAD tap-changers, where appropriate
ROUTINE TESTS
(a) Measurement of Winding resistance.
(b) Measurement of Voltage ratio and check of voltage vector relationship.
(c) Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (Principal tapping and load
loss)
(d) Measurement of no-load loss and current.
(e) Measurement of insulation resistance.
(f) Dielectric tests
(g) Tests on ON-LOAD tap-changers, where appropriate.
158
CHAPTER-X
SPECIAL TESTS:
(a) Dielectric tests
(b) Measurement of Zero-sequence impedance of three phase transformers.
(c) Short circuit test.
(d) Measurement of acoustic noise level.
(e) Measurement of harmonics of the no-load current.
(f) Measurement of the power taken by the fans and oil pumps.
TOLERANCES:
(i) a) Total losses : +10% of the total losses.
b) Component losses : +15% of each component loss, provided that the
tolerance for total losses is not exceeded.
(ii) Voltage ratio at : The lower of the following values:
no-load on the (a) 0.5% of the declared ratio.
Principal tapping (b) A percentage of the declared ratio equal to
(rated voltage ratio) 1/10 of the actual percentage impedance
voltage at rated current. (This does not
apply to auto ransformer)
(Tolerances at other
tappings shall be
subject to agreement
between the manufact-
urer and the purchaser)
(iii) Impedance voltage at
rated current (Principal tap) :
a) If the principal
tapping corresponds
with the mean tapping
position or with one
of the two middle
tapping positions:
1) Two winding : + 10% of the declared impedance voltage for that
transformers tapping.
159
CHAPTER-X
2) Multi-winding : + 10% of the declared impedance voltage
transformers for one specified pair of windings.
+ 15% of the declared impedance for a second certified
pair of windings.
Tolerance to be agreed and stated for Further pairs of
windings.
b) For tappings other : If necessary, the short-circuit impedances on other taps may
than the principal be specified. If this is done the extreme
tapping. tapping impedances shall be included. The
tolerances then applicable shall be as follows:
If the principal tapping corresponds with the mean tapping
position or with one of the two middle tapping positions, the
tolerances applicable on this principal tapping shall be those
stated above and on other than principal tapping, shall be
increased by a percentage equal to half the difference in
tapping factor (percentage) between the principal tapping and
the actual tapping.
iv) Short circuit : Note less than as indicated in (iii) a
impedance for any In the other cases the tapping range shall
tapping be considered as balanced about the mid-
tapping position and the tolerances shall
be calculated as before but assuming
tolerances as above applying to the mid
tapping position in excess of that above.
For a specified tapping range, the
simplest method is to fix according to the
above calculation only the minimum and
maximum values of impedance including the tolerances.
For tapping ranges in excess of an overall 25% of where the
tolerances derived may result in unacceptable levels of
impedance, tolerances shall be subject to agreement between
the manufacturer and the purchaser.
v) No-load current : + 30% of the declared no load current.
160
CHAPTER-X
TESTS AT THE FACTORY:
Type/Routine/Special tests if any as specified by the TNEB in the P.O. specification
will be done at the factory by the transformer manufacturer in the presence of the nominated
Engineer of the TNEB. The test results will be authenticated by the Manufacturers Engineer
and the TNEB Engineer who witnessed the test and sent to the TNEB for acceptance.
Besides the above, Manufacturers test certificates in respect of the following
accessories are also to be furnished to the Board for acceptance.
(a) OLTC
(b) Bushings
(c) Buchholz relay and surge relay
(d) Magnetic Oil level gauge
(e) Winding temperature controllers.
(f) Oil temperature controllers
(g) Radiators
(h) Cooling fans (if provided)
(i) Pumps (if provided)
(j) Transformer oil
(k) Pressure relief valve.
TESTS AT SITE:
A transformer may be tested at site under the following circumstances.
(a) A new or second hand transformer to be commissioned:- Pre-commissioning tests to be
done.
(b) Tests to be conducted to determine the healthiness or other-wise of the transformer that
has been taken out of service on the actuation of Buchholz/Differential relay or on observing
some abnormal occurrence that has placed a question on the healthiness of the transformer.
The following constitutes pre-commissioning tests at site.
(a) Insulation resistance test
(b) Ratio test on all taps.
(c) Dielectric test and dissolved gas analysis (DGA) on oil which will be the basis for future
DGA.
(d) Open circuit test for measurement of magnetizing current.
(e) Short circuit test.
(f) Operation test on OLTC if provided.
(g) Operation test of protection devices and interlocks.
(h) Measurement of winding resistance of all windings, at all taps in winding having taps.
(i) Determination of Vector group and polarity test.
(j) Measurement of capacitance and tan delta of transformer bushings of EHT voltage rating.
(k) Core balance test.
(l) Tests on bushing CTs if provided.
161
CHAPTER-X
To determine the healthiness or otherwise of the transformer that has been in service,
the following tests may be done at the service tap without disturbing it.
(a) Insulation resistance test
(b) Ratio test
(c) Dielectric test on oil
(d) Measurement of magnetizing current
(e) Short circuit test
(f) Measurement of winding resistance.
(g) Gas analysis test on gas if any collected in Buchholz chamber in case of Buchholz
relay / differential relay operation.
IMPORTANT:
(1) Ensure that the service tap is not disturbed and conduct tests first at the service
tap.
(2) See that gas if any in the Buchholz Chamber is not allowed to escape. Whatever
gas is accumulated, must be preserved till the special maintenance wing gets ready for gas
analysis.
(3) The MRT and Special Maintenance Wings must have proper coordination between
themselves as not only that the cause that has brought about the outage on the transformer is
identified but also that it is done fast.
If necessary, the tests may then be done at all taps.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN CONDUCTING TESTS:
For pre-commissioning tests on a transformer, line clear will not be available. Various
agencies like transformer erection, substation erection, special maintenance etc., may be at
work on the transformer or around it. The testing branch shall first of all intimate all the other
agencies at work (Engineer/Foreman incharge of works) that precommissioning tests on the
transformer is going to be conducted that power supply will be available on transformer top as
well as at the testing kit, Power Supply Board etc. on the ground beside the transformer, that
everybody will steer clear of the transformer under test and that after tests the transformer can
be approached only after getting clearance from the Engineer incharge of testing at site.
The transformer and the area beside it needed for conducting the tests shall be
barricaded with rope all round.
Danger boards shall be provided at prominent positions at Test site making clear the test
zone to every one around including those who may otherwise happen to trespass the testing
areas.
162
CHAPTER-X
In addition to taking the above precaution, the MRT Engineer supervising the testing
work should keep an eye on the activities around so that anything that has the potential for an
accident can be spotted and preventive action taken. The Engineer should keep in mind that he
is not only to ensure correct testing procedure and high testing standard but also is to see that
his men and instruments are safe guarded. To achieve these, the Engineer should be available
at test site for the entire duration of tests and be vigilant.
In case of existing transformer, the testing Engineer shall avail of line clear from the
sub-station operator and see that the transformer is properly isolated on either side and that it is
properly discharged and earthed. After connecting the testing leads to the transformer bushing
connectors and before commencing the tests the earths provided shall all be removed taking
care not to tilt the earth rods being removed towards live parts of adjacent equipment, switches,
busbars etc. Test supply is to be switched on after being doubly sure that all the earths have
been removed and that there is no person on the transformer and after loud cautioning to all
around that supply is being switched on.
The test supply shall be through a robust triple pole switch with proper fuses determined
by the maximum test current that will be drawn. The supply cable from the supply mains to the
triple pole switch board (supply board) shall be physically secured at suitable locations enroute
so that the cable will not get disturbed. After checking the availability of correct supply at the
incoming terminals of the supply board, the tests will be started, switching on the supply.
The test will be conducted in fair weather conditions. If there is any symptom of
imminent rain or even a light drizzle, the tests shall be stopped, the test supply, switched off,
the supply cable disconnected at the mains and all the testing instruments and kits moved from
the testing site to shelter. On no account shall any of the instruments/kit be allowed to get wet.
As and when conditions permit restarting of the tests it shall be again checked and ensured that
none of the testing kit/instruments is wet.
The required tests will be conducted one by one, taking the required precautions if any
specific to the particular test. The procedure for various tests are elaborated below.
1) RATIO TEST:
In order to obtain the required accuracy a ratio meter may be used to determine the
voltage ratio of the transformer. The ratio is to be determined at all taps.
The ratio meter is used in a bridge circuit where the voltage of the windings of the transformer
under test are balanced against the voltages developed across the fixed and variable resistors of
the ratio meter. Adjustment of the variable resistor for zero deflection is obtained on the
galvanometer then gives the ratio to unity of the transformer windings from the ratio of the
resistors. The modern ratio meters incorporate the inductive voltage divider and solid state
phase sensitive null detector and ensures high measurement accuracy and operational
reliability. In addition to determining the voltage transformation ratio which is the primary
objective of this test, the polarity between the windings and phase relationship between phases
can also be easily established by the ratio meter in a single operation. Before using the ratio
meter, the instruction manual for operating the ratio meter must be carefully studied and all
precautions noted therein must be followed. Ratio test through the ratio meter should be
attempted only after getting familiarised with the instrument.
163
CHAPTER-X
When a ratio meter is not available, the ratio may be determined by energizing the HV
winding of the transformer with 3-Phase LT supply from the mains and measuring the voltage
applied to the H.V. side and the voltage induced in the LV Windings by taking measurement at
the LV terminals, keeping the LV terminals open circuited. This is not an accurate method, as
the instruments used to measure the voltage may not have the required accuracy. The ratio is to
be determined at all the taps. If OLTC is available, the test can be started from one extreme tap
and measurement taken for each tap up to the other extreme by operating the OLTC without
switching off supply voltage while operating the OLTC. For transformers not provided with
OLTC, the supply is to be switched off while operating the OFF LOAD tap switch. The
increase or decrease in the LV side voltage for each tap should more or less correspond to the
percentage mentioned for that tap in the name-plate. See table (1)
TABLE - 1
110/33-11 KV TIRUCHY S.S.
TEST CONDUCTED ON POWER TRANSFORMER NO. 3, 110/11KV, 16KVA.
RATIO TEST (DATE OF TEST: 20.11.1987)
TAP
NO.
PRIMARY
VOLTS APPLIED SECONDARY VOLTS OBTAINED
RY YB BR ry yb br rn yn bn
1 420 420 416 41.5 41.2 41.4 24.0 23.8 24.0
2 420 420 416 42.0 41.8 41.8 24.3 24.2 24.2
3 420 420 418 42.5 42.1 42.5 24.5 24.5 24.6
4 420 423 419 43.0 42.8 43.0 25.0 24.9 24.9
5 420 424 424 43.5 43.2 43.4 25.3 25.2 25.2
6 419 424 424 44.1 43.7 44.0 25.6 25.4 25.4
7 420 424 424 44.6 44.2 44.5 26.0 25.8 25.8
8 420 424 424 45.2 44.9 45.2 26.2 26.0 26.0
9 420 424 424 45.8 45.3 45.6 26.4 26.2 26.3
10 424 420 416 46.3 45.9 46.0 26.9 26.6 26.6
11 424 420 416 46.7 46.4 46.8 27.2 27.0 26.9
12 424 420 416 47.5 47.0 47.4 27.5 27.4 27.3
13 424 420 416 48.3 47.9 48.2 27.9 27.6 27.7
14 424 420 416 49.0 48.5 48.9 28.3 28.0 28.0
15 424 424 420 49.6 49.2 49.5 28.8 28.3 28.3
16 424 424 420 50.2 49.8 50.2 29.2 28.9 28.9
17 424 424 420 50.9 50.5 50.8 29.6 29.3 29.3
164
CHAPTER-X
PRECAUTIONS
In doing this test, voltage injection should be only on the High voltage side so as to
limit the voltage on the other side (LV side) to a safe, directly readable level. The neutral in the
star side may be kept isolated from ground. Test leads selected should be strong with good
insulation and the soundness of the leads should be checked before connecting them. colour
codes may be used for the three phases and neutral. The leads used for the HV side and LV side
should be distinctly identifiable. The leads should be connected solidly to the transformer
bushings and firmness of the connections should be checked. The free ends of the leads from
the HV and LV sides should be brought down separately in two bunches and connected to the
appropriate terminals of the testing kit. Free ends of the leads from the LV side should be
securely connected to dummy terminals in a wooden/Hylum Board (Transformer Board) for
taking voltage readings if ratio meter is not used.
Preferably a 3 phase 4 wire board with a sturdy 3 pole iron clad switch may be used
(fig-1). By keeping the switch off in the transformer board, the voltage readings can be taken.
PVC insulated, 7/16 leads may be used for testing.
For auto-transformers, the ratio between HV and IV (Intermediate voltage) and HV
and LV should be noted separately.
In the star side, the phase to neutral reading shall be taken. Phase to phase voltage
readings may also be taken.
The readings should be recorded in the site register along with the date and time of test,
mentioning also the instruments used and the range selected in the instrument for reading the
voltages.
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST
Before commencing the test, the short circuit current is to be calculated for the
available mains voltage from the percentage impedance of the transformer.
e.g.: (1) Power transformer, 33/11KV, 5MVA, 87. 5A/262.5A
Z = 6.81% at principal tap, mains voltage : 372V
6.81% of 33KV = (33000 x 6.81/100) = 2247.3V
2247.3V will deliver rated current of 87.5A on short circuit.
372V will deliver a short circuit current of (372 x 87.5 / 2247.3) = 14.48A
At principal tap, short circuit current on HV side = 14.48A.
Short circuit current on LV side = (14.48 x 33/11) = 43.45A
e.g. (2): Power transformer: 110/11KV, 10 MVA, 52.5A/525A
z = 8.93% at principal tap, Mains voltage = 400V
8.93% of 110KV = (11000 x 8.93/100) = 9823 V
9823V will deliver 52.5A in short circuit.
400V will deliver: (400 x 52.5/9823) = 2.14 A
HV Short circuit current at principal tap = 2.14A.
LV short-circuit current = 2.14 x 110/11 = 21.4A
165

CHAPTER-X
166
CHAPTER-X
Based on the calculated short circuit currents for the available mains voltage, the instruments to
read the HV and LV currents and the range to be selected can be decided for the short circuit
test.
The transformer Board used in the voltage ratio test can be used for the short circuit
test by keeping the switch ON which short circuits the LV windings and the neutral.
The test can be commenced by keeping the transformer tap at one extreme position. All
precautions mentioned for the ratio test apply to this test as well. Usually, the HV short circuit
current can be read directly through Ammeter/multimeter if the short circuit current at
maximum tap will be less than 10A. Else, a precision CT and Ammeter or a low range fairly
accurate tong tester may be employed to read the HV short circuit current.
The LV short circuit current is usually read with a Tong tester. This instrument does
not give accurate readings but a good quality tong tester with the right range will be good
enough for the short circuit test. If, however accurate readings are needed, a precision CT with
an accurate Ammeter/multimeter must be used to read the secondary short circuit current.
The spill to the neutral should also be read. To select the instrument for the purpose, the
neutral current may be checked with a low range tong tester first. If the spill current is lower
than 1A which will be the case in almost all the healthy new transformers, when balanced
3-phase voltage is available at the mains a 1A Ammeter may be used initially. If the neutral
Current is found to be below 0.1A, a milli-ammeter/Multimeter in milli-amp range may be used
to read the spill current to the neutral.
For each tap, the applied voltage, H.V. and L.V. short circuit currents and the LV spill
current should be noted and recorded. If OLTC is available, the test can be continued without
switching off Mains supply and by moving to the next tap by operating the OLTC. The
readings will be taken for all the taps.
As per the present TNEB specification, the spill current is not to exceed 2% of the short
circuit current on LV side for step down transformers. If the spill is more than 2% when read
with accurate instruments in testing a new unit, the matter may be referred to the Manufacturer.
However this limit cannot of applied to a second hand unit for commissioning.
Results of short circuit test conducted on a Power Transformer are in table 2 (a) & (b).
167
CHAPTER-X
TABLE 2 (a)
TIRUCHY 110 KV S.S. (110/11 KV. 16MVA)
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST: (DATE OF TEST: 20.11.87). LV WINDINGS AND LV
NEUTRAL SHORTED AND VOLTAGE APPLIED TO HV WINDINGS (3 ph. 432 V)
Tap
Primary current in Amps
IR IY IB
Secondary Currents.
======================
Ir Iy Ib
Neutral
Current
In AMPs
IN
1 2.70 2.70 2.68 28.5 28.0 28.0 0.50
2 2.80 2.80 2.75 28.7 28.0 28.2 0.52
3 2.80 2.80 2.75 28.5 28.0 28.2 0.50
4 2.85 2.85 2.83 28.5 28.0 28.5 0.53
5 2.90 2.85 2.85 29.0 28.0 28.0 0.50
6 2.95 2.95 2.90 29.0 29.0 28.5 0.50
7 3.00 3.00 2.95 29.0 28.0 28.5 0.50
8 3.05 3.03 3.00 29.0 28.5 28.5 0.53
9(b) 3.05 3.05 3.05 29.0 28.0 28.5 0.50
10 3.10 3.10 3.10 29.0 28.0 28.5 0.53
11 3.13 3.13 3.10 28.8 28.0 28.5 0.50
12 3.18 3.18 3.20 28.5 28.0 28.5 0.53
13 3.22 3.20 3.20 28.5 28.0 28.5 0.49
14 3.25 3.25 3.22 28.5 27.5 28.0 0.52
15 3.30 3.25 3.25 28.5 27.5 28.0 0.47
16 3.30 3.30 3.30 28.0 27.5 28.0 0.52
17 3.40 3.40 3.40 28.0 27.5 28.0 0.47
VECTOR GROUP TEST: - (Date of test: 20.11.87)
3 phase, 430v applied to HV windings and one phase voltage to HV windings cut off in turn
and secondary voltages measured.
Tap at No.1 (-5%)
Primary
phase
voltage
out in
Secondary Volts measured.
rn yn bn ry yb br
R - ph (V-YB=430) 13 22 7 38 30 6
Y - ph (V-BR=430) 4 18 23 16 43 25
B - ph (V-RY=430) 23 20 4 43 18 24
The Vector group of DY11 is thus established.
168
CHAPTER-X
TABLE 2 (b)
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST
110 KV MANAPPARAI S.S. (PR.TR.:110/33 KV. 16 MVA)
THEORITICAL SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT CALCULATION
110 KV MANAPPARAI SS, 110/33 KV. 16 MVA, HHE, 9.93%, 84/280 A.
For (110000 x 9.93/100) volts, the s.c. current in Primary will be 84 A at normal Tap.
For 385 V. primary S.C current = (385x100x84)/110000x9.93) = 2.96 A
S.C. current in secondary = (2.96 x 100/33) = 9.85 A
The secondary terminals including neutral were short circuited and 3 phase voltage
was supplied to primary terminals.
Instruments used:
Primary volts by A.C voltmeter, 0-600 V range
Primary current by A.C Ammeter, 0-5 A
Secondary current by Tong tester, 0-25 A range
Neutral current by Motwane Multimeter
All currents are in Amps.
TAP
No.
Primary Volts
Applied
VRY VYB VBR
Primary current
IR IY IB
secondary currents
Ir Iy Ib In
1 385 385 385 2.59 2.58 2.62 9.0 8.7 9.0 0.06
2 2.65 2.64 2.68 9.4 9.1 9.2 0.06
3 2.75 2.70 2.76 9.5 9.4 9.4 0.06
4 2.83 2.79 2.85 9.7 9.3 9.4 0.06
5 2.88 2.85 2.90 9.8 9.3 9.6 0.06
6 2.97 2.93 2.99 9.9 9.5 9.7 0.07
7 3.04 3.00 3.05 10.0 9.5 9.7 0.07
8 3.09 3.07 3.14 10.0 10.0 10.0 0.08
9 3.17 3.13 3.19 10.0 10.0 10.0 0.08
10 3.29 3.26 3.30 10.50 10.0 10.20 0.095
11 3.38 3.34 3.41 10.75 10.0 10.25 0.10
12 3.45 3.43 3.48 11.0 10.0 10.25 0.10
13 3.54 3.50 3.56 11.0 10.25 10.25 0.11
14 3.62 3.57 3.64 11.0 10.25 10.50 0.11
15 3.68 3.62 3.69 11.0 10.75 10.75 0.11
16 3.73 3.69 3.74 11.0 10.75 10.75 0.11
17 3.78 3.74 3.79 11.0 10.75 10.75 0.105
169
CHAPTER-X
TABLE 2(C)
TIRUCHY 110 KV S.S.
(110/11 KV, 16 MVA POWER TRANSFORMER)
POLARITY TEST (DATE OF TEST: 23.11.87)
Primary phase R and secondary phase b were shorted and 3 phase LT Voltage was
applied to primary.
The following voltages were measured and compared with the expected values.
Voltage across primary phases = 445 V (applied)
Voltage across Secondary phases = 51 V (induced)
(Transformer at maximum tap, i.e., + 15 %)
==================================================================
Voltage Voltage expected Voltage
across measured
==================================================================
V (Y- y) 445 + j 51 = 448 V 450 V
V (B-y) 445 + 51 COS 30 = 489 V 490 V
V (B-r) 445 + 51 COS 30 = 489 V 490 V
==================================================================
It is therefore established that the polarities and vector group-Dy11 are correct.
WINDING RESISTANCE:
The DC resistance of HV windings on all taps and the LV windings are to be measured.
In case of Auto-transformers, DC resistance of HV, IV and LV windings have to be measured.
Winding resistance of all phases has to be measured.
The best instrument of measuring the DC resistance of LV windings that is in fraction
of an ohm is the Kelvins double bridge as the measurement is not affected by lead resistance.
The HV winding resistance, IV Winding resistance in case of auto-transformer and LV
Winding resistance of higher value can be measured with a Kelvins bridge or a wheat stone
bridge. If one is not very familiar with the instrument, the instruction manual of the instrument
must be studied before attempting measurement.
Where suitable bridge instrument is not available for measurement, the winding
resistance may be measured by connecting it to a battery and reading the voltage applied and
the current drawn and applying ohms law. An automobile battery or a set of released substation
battery cells with adequate strength may be used.
170
CHAPTER-X
For the winding with taps, the winding resistance for all taps has to be measured. For
Transformers with OLTC, the OLTC may be operated starting from one extreme tap and taking
measurement at each tap without breaking the circuit. For transformers with off load tap
changer the DC supply is to be switched off before moving on to the next tap.
CAUTION:
(1) The transformer winding is highly inductive. When DC supply is switched off, a heavy
back emf will be induced which can damage instruments and cause accident to personnel
coming into contact with the back emf. So, sufficient caution should be exercised while
carrying out this test. Voltmeter/multimeter in the voltage range must be disconnected before
breaking the circuit to prevent damage to the instrument.
(2) As the windings, particularly the 110KV and 230 KV Windings have a large time
constant, sufficient time must be allowed for the current to stabilize to get true resistance
values. This applies to measurement using bridge instruments also. If it is desired to reduce the
current stabilization time, series resistance may be introduced to reduce the time constant in
which case the voltage should be read at a point beyond the resistor so as not to include the
voltage drop across the resistor in the voltage measurement.
(3) Unless the resistance measurement is made using a Kelvins double bridge, the measured
resistance includes lead resistance also which must be subtracted from the measured value to
get true resistance of the windings. Resistances of Windings of the order of Milli ohms like that
of 11KV Windings for instance will be affected by contact resistance. So due care must be
taken to eliminating the contact resistance or atleast to reduce them to micro level before taking
measurement.
The date and time of measurement, weather condition, winding/oil temperature, the
instrument used for measurement must all be recorded. Refer table 3.
If voltage conditions warrant change of tap in a power transformer with off load tap
changer, in service the dc resistance of the winding after changing the tap must be measured. In
old transformers, long years of service may have caused coating of oil sludge in the tap switch
contact, resulting in some deviation of the d.c. resistance from the expected value. Any hasty
conclusion will be ill advised. Instead, the tap switch may be operated a number of times and
then the winding resistance measured at the set tap. This should clear the contact surface giving
the true value of winding resistance. The tap switch should be locked in the new position.
171
TABLE 3 (A)
MEASUREMENT OF D.C. RESISTANCE: TIRUCHY 110 KV SS
H.V. WINDING: Date of Test: 20.11.1987
BY WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: (including lead resistance of 0.11 ohm) winding temperature
40 C.
=====================================================================
TAP NO. RY OHMS YB OHMS BR OHMS
=====================================================================
1. 4.600 4.613 4.610
2 4.511 4.562 4.554
3 4.497 4.511 4.505
4 4.444 4.456 4.453
5 4.393 4.404 4.402
6 4.344 4.354 4.350
7 4.291 4.302 4.294
8 4.239 4.253 4.244
9(b) 4.185 4.192 4.192
10 4.239 4.250 4.243
11 4.290 4.303 4.295
12 4.341 4.360 4.345
13 4.391 4.411 4.397
14 4.441 4.461 4.448
15 4.492 4.511 4.499
16 4.546 4.561 4.551
17 4.596 4.610 4.604
=====================================================================
172
CHAPTER-X
L.V. WINDING: (Date of Test: 20.11.87)
(By V/I method. This method was resorted to as the wheatstone Bridge developed some
defect.)
=====================================================================
Phase Volts Current DC Ohms DC Ohms
DC DC including lead of winding.
resistance
=====================================================================
rn 0.70 5.1 0.137 0.027
yn 0.69 5.1 0.135 0.025
bn 0.69 5.1 0.135 0.025
ry 0.82 5.0 0.164 0.054
yb 0.80 5.0 0.160 0.050
br 0.80 5.0 0.160 0.050
=====================================================================
Caculation of lead resistance:
Let R be the total lead resistance
R + yn = 0.135 - (1)
R + bn = 0.135 - (2)
2R + yn + bn = 0.270 - (3) = (1) + (2)
R + yb = R + yn + bn = 0.160 - (4)
R = 0.270 0.160 = 0.110 ohms - (3-4)
Winding temperature : 50 C
Oil temperature : 50 C
173
CHAPTER-X
TABLE - 3 (b)
110/33-11 KV MANAPPARAI S.S.
(PR. TR.: 110/33 KV, 16 MVA, HHE) Date of Test : 20.1.93
DC RESISTANCE
Instruments used : Volts by Philips digital Amps by Meco digital
Yard Temperature : 30 C
Oil/Winding Temperature : 29 C
(A) PRIMARY SIDE : (OHMS) (Including a lead resistance of 0.1 Ohm)
==================================================================
Tap DC resistance in Ohms
No. ------------------------------------------------------
Ry YB BR
==================================================================
1. 4.099 4.106 4.124
2. 4.056 4.062 4.080
3. 4.005 4.014 4.033
4. 3.957 3.967 3.987
5. 3.919 3.922 3.937
6. 3.860 3.873 3.893
7. 3.817 3.825 3.843
8. 3.769 3.778 3.797
9. (a) 3.722 3.727 3.743
(b) 3.720 3.727 3.743
(c) 3.721 3.727 3.747
10. 3.672 3.680 3.703
11. 3.625 3.633 3.655\
12. 3.580 3.587 3.604
13. 3.535 3.533 3.560
14. 3.485 3.488 3.514
15. 3.440 3.441 3.464
16. 3.390 3.391 3.419
17. 3.344 3.342 3.364
==================================================================
(B) Secondary side : (OHMS)
(Including lead resistance of 0.1 ohm)
ry = 0.3522 rn = 0.2259
yb = 0.3482 yn = 0.2239
br = 0.3503 bn = 0.2226
174
CHAPTER-X
MAGNETIZING CURRENT:
The magnetizing current drawn by the transformer at LT mains supply voltage may be
measured for both the HV and LV Winding for all phases. For Delta-Star transformers, it is
essential to measure the magnetizing currents on the star side. As the middle limb has a lower
nett reluctance (as the fluxes traverse a shorter distance), the magnetizing current drawn by the
middle limb Winding will be lower.
IMPORTANT:
When measuring on the starside, the neutral point of the star connected windings should not be
connected to supply neutral and instead should be kept floated, as otherwise third harmonic
currents on the three phases which will be phase coincident will flow through the neutral back
to the supply source thereby giving higher values which will not be a true measure of the
magentizing currents.
Abnormal value of magnetizing current can indicate inter turn short in the windings or
problem in the core like core shifting etc., So magnetizing current is a very important parameter
to be taken not only for commissioning a new unit but also for comparison with future values
of the transformer during its life period.
While measuring the magnetizing current, if only one set of readings are taken, the
transformer tap must be kept at minimum to include 100% of the winding irrespective of the
side from which measurement is taken. The measurement can as well be made for all the taps
during precommissioning test.
CAUTION:
When magnetizing current is measured on the LV side at LT mains voltage, the HV
induced voltage will be high. For instance it will be of the order of 4KV across the phases for a
110/11KV Power Transformer. The testing leads from the HV bushings must be removed
before switching on supply for LV side measurement of magnetizing current.
The magnetizing currents may have different values for different transformers though the
voltage and MVA ratings may be the same, depending upon the individual characteristics of the
core material and construction feature and also depending upon the supply voltage. However
the values will be within a close range for transformers of the same voltage rating and capacity.
Typical values of magnetizing current are in Table 4(a) & (b).
Measuring and recording the magnetizing current with accurate instruments as and
when opportunity arises and building up a record of values in a transformers life time is a very
welcome preposition as review of the values with due allowance given for the voltages at
which the measurements were taken, can throw light on changes taking place in the transformer
core and forewarn a potential trouble brewing in the transformer.
175
TABLE 4(a)
110/33-11 KV MANAPPARI S.S
(P.R.TR.: 110/33 KV, 16 MVA, HHE)
MAGNETISING CURRENT (Date of test: 20:01:93)
(A) HV Side measurement, LV side kept open
Instruments: Volts by Phillips Digital multimeter
Current by - do
=====================================================================
Tap Primary volts applied Magnnetizing current in milli amps
No. -------------------------- ------------------------------------------
VRY VYB VBR IRM IYM IBM
===============================================================
1. 396 401.4 400.7 2.87 2.92 3.44
2. 2.88 2.92 3.44
3. 2.88 2.92 3.44
4. 2.87 2.92 3.42
5. 2.87 2.94 3.41
6. 2.87 2.94 3.38
7. 2.87 2.92 3.38
8. 2.87 2.92 3.38
9. 2.88 2.92 3.38
10. 2.88 2.94 3.36
11. 2.87 2.93 3.34
12. 2.88 2.92 3.36
13. 2.88 2.93 3.32
14. 2.87 2.92 3.34
15. 2.88 2.93 3.32
16. 2.88 2.94 3.32
17. 2.87 2.94 3.32
================================================================
(B) LV Side measurement, HV side open.
(LV neutral floated)
Instruments: Volts by Phillips Digital multimeter
Amps by Motewane Analog multimeter.
===============================================================
Tap Seconndary volts applied Magnnetizing current in milli amps
No. ------------------------------ -------------------------------------------
VRY VYB VBR IRM IYM IBM
================================================================
1. 390.8 394.2 394.2 17 14.5 22.0
================================================================
CHAPTER-X
176
CHAPTER-X
TABLE 4 (b)
MAGNETIZING CURRENT (TYPICAL VALUES)
(Dyll transformers, excited from the LV side, i.e., starside with neutral floated, HV open)
===============================================
SL. Exciting current in milli
NO. 3PhVoltage amps
Date of Test Sub-station Pr. Tr applied ====================== Remarks
(Volts) I2U I2V I2W
===============================================
1 26.9.92 33/11KV, THENNUR 33/11KV, 405 76.8 41.2 61.8 New
8MVA, INDO Transformer
TECH
2 23.3.91 33/11KV, THENNUR 33/11KV, 373 20.0 14.5 22.0 New ( 1 )
5MVA, ANDREW
YULE No.1
3 23.3.91 33/11KV, THENNUR 33/11KV, 385 25.0 20.0 27.0 New ( 2 )
5MVA, ANDREW
YULE No.2
4 17.12.92 33/11KV, MAYANUR 33/11KV, 460 29.3 16.6 29.5 S.H. (1978)
3.15 MVA
APEX
5 11.7.89 33/11KV, MAYANUR 33/11KV, 418 95.0 63.8 78.2 S.H.
2 MVA
6 ------ 33/11KV, AZAD ROAD 33/11KV, 408 80.0 64.8 80.0 S.H.
L.T.S.S., 2 MVA
KIROLOSKAR
7 4.9.92 110KV, KARUR 110/11KV, 422 54.2 33.8 67.5 New
10 MVA
HHE
8 19.03.90 110KV, KARUR 110/11KV, 370 68.0 59.5 84.0 New
10 MVA
HHE
9 26.3.91 110KV, TIRUCHY 110/33KV, 380 13.5 13.0 18.5 New
16 MVA
BHEL
10 10.10.90 110KV, AYYERMALAI 110/33KV, 388 25.5 15.5 30.0 In Service
16 MVA
IMP
11 22.02.89 110KV, AYYERMALAI 110/33KV, 430 27.0 15.0 19.5 New
16 MVA
IMP
12 04.12.89 110KV, TIRUCHY 110/11KV, 375 82.0 57.0 93.0 New
16 MVA
HHE
13 15.2.93 110KV, KAMABARA- 110/11KV, 396 81.3 53.2 84.2 New
SAMPETTAI 16 MVA
VOLTAMP
==============================================================================================
177
CHAPTER-X
POLARITY AND VECTOR GROUP:
In the ratio test with a ratio meter, null deflection can be obtained only if the polarities
are correct. So correctness of polarity can be confirmed by successful completion of the ratio
test with a ratio meter.
When a ratio meter is not available, correctness of polarity and the Vector group can be
determined in the following way.
The connections made for ratio test by voltage measurement can be used for this test. The
primary and secondary windings are connected together at one point as indicated in fig 2(a) &
(b). 3 Phase L.T. supply is applied to the HV terminals. Voltage measurements are then taken
between various pairs of terminals as indicated in the diagrams and the readings obtained
should be the vector sum of the separate voltages of each winding under consideration.
178
CHAPTER-X
179
Primary phase U and secondary phase W were shorted and 3-phase L.T Voltage was
applied to HV side.
Voltage applied to HV side 445 (Ph Ph)
Voltage across Secondary : 51 V (Ph Ph)
The following voltages were measured and compared with the expected values for DY 11
Connection
Voltage across Voltages expected for DY 11 Voltages obtained
1V 2V
1W 2V
1W 2U
445 + J51 = 448 V
445 + 51 COS 30 = 489V
445 + 51 COS 30 = 489V
450 V
490 V
490 V
CHAPTER-X
180
Fig : 2(b) (b)
Hence vector group and polarities are correct. (See fig 2(b)(b) for vector diagram)
Establishing correctness of polarity and vector group are illustrated through
examples for power and Auto transformers. Also see fig 2 (c) and table 2 (a) (ii)
for alternative way of establishing the vector group of Dy11.
CHAPTER-X
181
CHAPTER-X
CORE (MAGNETIC) BALANCE TEST:
This test is done to find out whether the magnetic paths of the transformer core are
balanced. Single-phase voltage is applied across one phase and neutral on the star winding and
the voltage developed across the other two phases are read. Ideally for voltage applied to the
middle phase, the voltage in the two outer phases should be equal to half the voltage applied to
the middle winding. However there may be some difference due to variation in the magnetic
paths. The measured values may be used as a parameter for future comparison. Results of test
conducted on two transformers are furnished below:
(1) 110/11 KV Kamparasampettai SS.
110/11KV/6MVA Power Transformer, DY11,
Make : Volt Amp.
Date tested : 15-2-93
Supply given to LV side, HV kept open.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sl. No. Voltage applied Voltage obtained
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. 2U-N: 228.4 V 2V-N: 174.0 V
2W-N: 53.8 V
2. 2V-N: 224.3 V 2U-N: 114.2 V
2W-N: 109.3 V
3. 2W-N: 223.4 V 2U-N: 55.3 V
2V-N: 169.7 V
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) Trichy 230/110 KV SS:
New Auto Transformer, 100 MVA.
Make: EMCO Transformers Ltd.,
Date tested: 23.10.99
Single phase Voltage was applied to HV Side.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sl. No. Voltage applied Voltage obtained
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) 1U-N: 228.5 V 1V-N: 154.4 V, 1W-N: 85.5 V
2) 1V-N: 230.5 V 1U-N: 138.4 V, 1W-N: 102.0 V
3) 1W-N: 228.5 V 1U-N: 83.5 V, 1V-N: 166.0 V
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Single phase voltage was applied to IV side.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sl.No. Voltage applied Voltage obtained
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. 2U-N: 228.0 V 2V-N: 167.0 V, 2W-N: 69.4 V
2. 2V-N: 229.4 V 2U-N: 122.0 V, 2W-N: 113.3 V
3. 2W-N: 228.6 V 2U-N: 51.8 V, 2V-N: 189.8 V
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
182
Connect for opencircuit test Remove fuse in Red Phase supply in supply Board. Now,
full LT. Ph to ph voltage is available across (1v-1w) only; i.e, middle phase winding for Dy11.
So, in Secondary side, V(2V-N) must be the full induced ph to neutral voltage and so on.
Eg: 33/11 KV, MAYANUR SS : APEX, 3.15 MVA
Date tested : 17:12:92 Tap: Normal
L.T Mains
Ph-Ph supply 2U-N 2V-N 2W-N 2U-2V 2V-2W 2W-2V
across
1V 1W 32.2 84.6 52.6 116.5 137.3 21.0
440 V
1W 1U 19.5 70.5 84.6 59.3 154.2 100.5
440 V
1U 1V 85.1 67.3 19.8 152.1 51.1 103.2
Hence Vector group is Dy 11.
Hence Polarities are correct.
CHAPTER-X
183
CHAPTER-X
INSULATION RESISTANCE AND POLARISATION INDEX:
A 2.5 KV, mains (or motor) operated megger may be used. First, zero correction is to be
made. If the transformer has been under hot oil circulation, the insulation resistance has to be
measured after the transformer has sufficiently cooled. The transformer neutral is to be
disconnected from ground. It should be ensured that there are no jumpers connected on to the
transformer bushings. The megger may be preferably kept on a flat wooden board or stool.
Megger leads should be strong and have a very good insulation. The line lead of the megger is
to be connected to the bushing of the winding under test and the earth lead, connected to one of
the earth terminals of transformer tank. The line lead between the transformer bushing
connection and megger terminal must be kept suspended in the air by holding with a
sufficiently long and good and flexible insulation tape (glass tape or dry cotton tape for
instance) so that no part of the line lead comes into contact with the earth or transformer body.
The one minute insulation value is to be taken and recorded. A minimum IR value of 2 mega
ohms per KV is expected.
For two winding transformers, HV to earth, LV to earth and HV to LV insulation
resistance values are to be taken.
For three winding transformers, HV to Earth, IV to earth, LV to earth, HV to IV, HV to
LV and IV to LV values have to be taken.
Along with the IR values, the winding/oil temperatures at the time of test, Date and
time, details of the megger used and the weather condition are to be noted.
The polarization index is the ratio of the IR value at the tenth minute to the IR value at
first minute and may be taken and recorded for all the windings to earth separately and also
across the windings. A PI value around 1.5 is good for oil immersed windings like the
transformer. PI value will be an important parameter for future comparison. The Winding/Oil
temperature readings must of course be noted.
CAUTION:
Before commencement of the meggering, all the Engineers and Staff of different wings
around must be cautioned that the transformer is going to be meggered and none is to come into
contact with the megger leads or any part of the transformer. Release the jumpers from the
transformer if already provided before commencement of meggering.
Refer tables 6(a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g) & (h) for results of tests conducted on
230/110KV Auto transformers.
184
CHAPTER-X
TEST OF TRANSFORMER OIL:
The dielectric strength (BDV) of the transformer top oil and bottom oil samples have to
be tested at site before and after circulation. Oil sample taken from the OLTC chamber is also
to be tested. The acidity of the oil is also to be checked. These tests can be conducted by the
special maintenance branch.
Besides, tests as per IS 335 for new oil may be got conducted at the Head-quarters R&D
lab and test results obtained and recorded to have bench mark values for future comparison.
Refer to Annexure-VII of the proforma for transformer oil test result of the code of technical
instructions for details.
DISSOLVED GAS ANALYSIS:
Gases are formed in oil in the transformer due to natural aging and at much greater rate
as a result of faults and incipient faults. The type and severity of a fault may often be inferred
from the composition of the gases and the rate at which they are formed. In the case of an
incipient fault, the gases formed remain partly dissolved in the oil and only in special cases will
free gases be formed. Periodical sampling of oil from transformer and analysis of the dissolved
gases assist in the detection of faults at an early stage of development and may enable serious
future damage to transformer to be prevented.
The gases involved are hydrogen, some hydrocarbons, carbon oxides and atmospheric
gases. Some of each of these gases will be formed during normal operation and these amounts
are classified as norm. Fault conditions produce gases in higher quantity and in different
proportions which vary from the norm, the type and energy of the fault altering the carbon to
hydrogen ratio of oil molecules in specifically related ways and producing variation in the
carbon oxide ratios when solid insulation is involved.
For details refer to item No. 3.07.03, Analysis of dissolved gases of the code of
technical instructions.
Dissolved gas analysis may be got conducted at the R&D Wing on the Oil samples
taken after filling but before commissioning of new trnasformers to have bench mark values
and at yearly internvals there after and also as and when there is action of Buchholz relay or
transformer differential relay for a genuine reason to take further action as per the interpretation
of the test results.
185
CHAPTER-X
CONDENSER BUSINGS:
Bushing of transformers at EHT level are of sealed Condenser type. Before
commissioning, the capacitance and tan delta values must be got measured by the R&D Wing.
During service, it is worthwhile to check the tan delta value at yearly intervals. Any increasing
trend will be an indicator of the development of potentially destructive condition and the
bushing must be replaced to avoid failure during service thereby preventing it from being a
source of possible harm to the transformer itself. Refer to Annexure-VIII of the code of
Technical instructions for the limiting tan delta values for different types of Condenser
bushings.
OLTC:
The present practice of the Board is to have OLTC for all power and Auto transformers,
irrespective of the capacity of the transformer. The OLTC operations must be checked.
Manual operation of OLTC must be first checked. Before switching on supply to OLTC
control circuit, the IR value of the entire OLTC circuits must be checked with a 500v megger
for satisfactory value. Then the OLTC control supply may be switched on and the operation of
the Motor protection relay must be checked. OLTC operation by Local electrical control
must be checked for all taps ensuring that the limit switches at both the extremities operate
correctly. Tap changer mechanical indicator at the Driving mechanism and the electrical
indicator at the remote panel at the control room must be checked for correct indication. Then
operation through Remote independent control is to be checked. If the operation and tap
indication have been satisfactory this far, then the OLTC control in the remote panel is to be
looped to the OLTC control of the existing transformer/transformers if the new unit is a
second/third one to be paralleled with the existing transformer/transformers in the station.
Operation of the OLTC of the new unit along with those of the existing units must then be
checked both in Master as well as Follower mode for successful operation. Out of step
condition for the new unit must be simulated and it should be ensured that Out of step
annunciation with alarm comes. See Annexure-1, Also see section 3.04, ON LOAD TAP
CHANGER of Code of technical instructions and under the heading On-load tap changer
in section 3.03 maintenance procedures.
BUCHHOLZ RELAY:
Correct operation of the buchholz top and bottom floats must be checked. See section
3.03.20, Buchholz relay of the code of technical Instructions. Buchholz relay is a very
reliable device for protection of transformers against internal faults and it seldom malfunctions.
Actuation of buchholz relay while in service must be taken seriously and the transformer must
be taken out of service even for top float action. The gas accumulated in the buchholz chamber
must be collected and analysed by the special maintenance branch as early as possible.
See instructions under Annexure-IV of the code of technical instructions for testing of
gas accumulated in Buchholz Chamber. A positive result surely indicates problem inside the
transformer. The transformer should be declared as defective even if the MRT results are OK
and kept isolated permanently and the transformer erection branch informed for arranging
examination of the transformer and rectification at site or at the transformer repair bay.
CHAPTER-X
186
ANNEXURE 1
TIRUCHY 110 KV S.S. (PR.TR.: 110/11 KV, 16 MVA)
ON LOAD TAP CHANGER (Date of test: 25-26:11:1987)
(1) Manual operation of OLTC checked for tap raise and lower. OK. Tap indication at Driving
mechanism found OK.
(2) Local electrical operation of OLTC checked for tap raise and lower for all taps. OK.
(3) Tap changing from Remote control panel tried and found OK for both tap raise and tap
lower, with independent control. Tap position indicator at Remote control panel was found
not functioning properly. Transformer erection was informed for rectifying or replacing the
defective tap position indicator. Remote tap position indicator since rectified and tested OK
on 28.11.87.
(4) OLTC (3) control was looped to the existing OLTC (1) & (2) group, keeping unit (2) as the
first unit of the group, unit (1) as the second and unit (3) as the last in the group.
Operations of OLTCs of power transformers-1,2 & 3 as a group were checked, keeping the
controls of OLTC (3) in Master and the rest in Follower, and OLTC (2) in Master and
the rest in Follower and lastly OLTC (1) in Master and the other two in Follower.
All the operations were found satisfactory.
(5) Operation of motor protection relay, checked OK.
(6) Functioning of tap raise, Lower limit switches was checked. OK.
(7) Functioning of out of step buzzer checked, OK.
(8) OLTC operation signaling at control panel was checked and found OK.
(9) IR value of all OLTC (3) Circuits to earth = 50 Meg Ohms.
COOLING FANS/OIL PUMPS:
If the transformer is provided with forced air cooling, the fan motor operations must be
checked. First the IR value of all fan control circuits and fan motors must be checked with a
500v megger for satisfactory values. Then the operation of the fans must be checked first by
manual control and if OK by the switch in the Winding temperature indicator for auto
start/stop. The currents drawn by the individual pump motors must also be measured and
recorded. See Annexure-2.(a) (ii)
If the transformer is provided with Oil pump motors, they must also be checked for
operation after meggering the circuits and motors. Operation of the oil pumps must be checked
first by manual control and if OK by the switch in the Winding temperature indicator for auto
start/stop. The currents drawn by the individual pump motors must also be measured and
recorded.
187
CHAPTER-X
TEMPERATURE INDICATORS:
All Power and auto transformers are provided with oil as well as Winding temperature
indicators. During testing of Transformer/Transformer bushing CTS, the winding temperature
CT is also to be tested for current ratio and passed. Both the Oil and Winding temperature
meters must be calibrated using a standard thermometer and a heated oil bath. If the radiators
are provided with fan motors, automatic starting of fan motors at the set winding temperature is
to be checked. The temperature setting may be made as per the manufacturers
recommendations. If the temperature setting is not specified, the temperature may be set at 65
C to start the cooling fans. The temperature for fan stopping may be set 5 C below the
corresponding start setting.
The oil and winding temperature alarm may be set as suggested under the sub section
Transformer Protection. If winding temperature trip is provided, the same has also to be set
as per the recommendation.
ALARM AND TRIP CIRCUITS:
Simulate and check the following for flag indication/annunciation with audible alarm.
(1) Conservator low oil level
(2) Oil temperature high
(3) Winding temperature high
(4) Buchholz top float
(5) Any other device connected for audible annunciation.
Simulate and check the following for flag indication/Annunciation with master trip.
(1) Buchholz bottom contact.
(2) OLTC surge relay contact
(3) Differential relay contact if provided
(4) Pressure relief value contact
(5) Winding temperature trip if provided.
(Ref. Annexure 2(a)(i) )
188
CHAPTER-X
ANNEXURE 2 (a)
TIRUCHY 110/33-11 KV S.S.
(i) POWER TRANFORMER ALARM AND TRIP CIRCUITS (TESTED ON 25.11.87)
1. 110/11 KV, 16 MVA Power Transformer (3) alarm with flag indication at control room was
connected up for high winding / oil temperature, Conservator low oil level and Buchholz top
float action.
The initiating contacts were closed and alarm and flag indications at control room
checked Ok.
2. Buchholz bottom float contacts, OLTC oil surge relay contacts and differential relay
contacts were connected up for flag indication at control room and Master tripping of the
concerned breakers. The operation of the flag relays and master relay were checked by closing
the circuits. OK.
3. The master relay contacts were connected to trip 110 KV GC OMCB and Pr. Tr. L.V.
VCBs (1), (2) & (3). The master relay was initiated and the trippings of these breakers were
checked and found OK. (Done on 29.11.87) during station total shut down.
4. The alarm and trip circuits were meggered with 500 v megger to earth. IR value = 100 Meg.
Ohms.
(ii) POWER TRANFORMER (3) COOLER CONTROL : (DONE ON 27.1187)
1. All the three cooling fan motors were meggered with 500 v megger.
IR value of Motor 1 = > 100 M Ohms.
- do - Motor 2 = > 100 M Ohms.
- do - Motor 3 = > 100 M Ohms.
2. All the fan control and signalling circuits were meggered with 500 v megger. IR value = 50
meg ohms.
3. Automatic starting / stopping of fan motors by temperature control was checked and found
OK.
4. Cooler motor starting/stooping signalling at control room was checked. OK.
189
CHAPTER-X
BUSHING CTs :
Detailed tests on current transformers mounted in the transformer bushings must be
carried out whether the CTs are to be connected or not. Usually two CT cores, one for
differential protection and the other for backup over current protection will be provided in each
phase. Class PS CTs will be connected for differential protection and the backup protection
core will in majority of cases be kept idle as relays for over current protection are usually
connected to the CTs in the LV breaker. If the CTs are not required, their secondary terminals
must be kept shorted and earthed. See elsewhere in this manual for testing of CTs. Also see
table (7) for results of tests conducted on power Transformer bushing CTs.
LV BREAKER:
Precommissioning tests on the transformer LV breaker, LV CTs and relays have to be
conducted as per norms. See elsewhere in this manual for testing of breaker, CTs and relays.
The over current relays in the LV breaker have to be graded with the HT feeder relays and the
Group control breaker. Refer Annexure 2(b)
COMMISSIONING CHECKS:
Refer to Annexure I, checklist for commissioning of power Transformers under
section (3), code of technical instructions for details.
When the transformer is ready for energisation, a final check is to be made to ensure
that all protective devices are in and that DC supply for the transformer is cut in. L.C must
be returned if not done already. The Operator at the feeding substation is to be informed of the
proposed energisation of the transformer and asked not to charge the line feeding the station
without concurrence in case it trips. It is every ones duty to check that all the earth rods have
been removed from the transformer and its breaker. When the transformer is really ready and
safe for energisation, other transformers in service if any in the station may be cut-off and then
the new transformer may be energized through the Group Control breaker. If it is a small
station with no group control breaker, the transformer AB Switch on the HV side may be
closed first and the transformer, energized by closing the station incoming AB Switch.
If everything is normal on energisation, the transformer humming may be carefully
heard. For any abnormal noise from inside the transformer it should be deenergised
immediately. On satisfactory energisation the transformer is to be kept idly charged for a few
hours. The transformer may be initially stitched on to the HT bus making sure that other units if
any are off and OLTC may be operated observing the voltage and voltage change through the
HT bus PT or station service transformer. The phase sequence as seen at the Station
transformer LT main fuses for the existing transformer and as well as the new transformer must
be the same. After idle charging for a few hours, the new transformer may be directly put on
load or paralleled with the other transformers and put on load as the case may be.
The next day the transformer may be switched off, LC availed of and air if any
collected in the Buchholz Chamber may be released. It is quite likely for any trapped air in the
oil to have come up and get accumulated in the Buchholz Chamber.
190
CHAPTER-X
Annexure 2(b)
Power Transformer (3) L.V. Breaker and relays:
(1) Relay tests: (Date of test: 16.10. 87).
Relay Details:
3 O/L and 1 E/L relays, Easun Reyrolle make.
1 A, S1.Nos. HR.822124/822181; Type TJm 11.
(a) 3 O/L Relays.
Tested at a plug setting of 100% and a TLS of 0.2 Secs.
The O/L relays are graded with the 11KV feeder relays and 110 KV GCOMCB relays.
All instantaneous elements disconnected.
(b) E/L Relay
Tested at a plug setting of 40% and a TMS of 0.3 seconds.
The E/L relay is graded with the feeder. (E/L relay has since been disconnected as per
Boards revised norms)
Instantaneous element disconnected.
(c) IR Value of all relay terminals to frame = 100 Meg ohms (500V megger)
(2) Breaker tests: - (Date of testing : 23.11. 87)
(a) The 30V tripping and closing coils supplied along with the breaker were released, rewound
for 110V DC and put back in place.
(b) Breaker opening time checked:
R-Phase -- 0.04 Secs.
Y-Phase -- 0.04 Secs.
B-Phase -- 0.04 Secs.
(c) Trip Coil current - 3.5A
DC Volts = 122V
Dip in circuits = 4V
Minimum tripping voltage for an O.C.B. opening time of 0.04 Secs = 58V.
Corresponding trip coil current: 1.85A.
(d) Power transformer
LV bushing CTs (5P20) used for L.V. Breaker relays. CTs mounted in the breaker released.
CT ratio adopted = 900/1 Amp.
IR Value of protection CT Secondaries including cable leads and relays = 50 Meg. Ohms.
(500V megger)
191
CHAPTER-X
(e) IR Value of DC control, protection and alarm circuits = 100meg ohms. (500V megger)
(f) Power transformer (3) put on short circuit and CT secondary currents at relaying point
measured.
Power Transformer H.V. current : 3.55A.
-do- L.V. current : 30A.
CT Secondary currents.
Phase R = 33 Milli amps.
Phase Y = -do-
Phase B = -do-
Residual = Zero.
(g) LV Breaker closing and tripping operations via Manual control, Local control switch and
remote control Switch checked and found O.K.
Tripping through key interlock and relay contacts checked and found O.K.
Signaling at breaker panel and control room and alarm at control room checked and found
O.K.
Trip circuit supervision lamp checked and found O.K.
(h) IR value of breaker ac circuit leads including cable leads with 500V megger: 100 Meg
ohms.
Heater operations checked and found OK.
(i) Breaker panel Ammeter calibrated.
MF for Ammeter = R X 0.75 (Top scale)
(j) Power transformer HV bushing CTs (Core : 5P20)
Were used for current indication at control room.
Ratio adopted : 90/1 Amps.
Power transformer put on short circuit.
Transformer HV Current = 3.55A
Transformer LV Current = 30A
CT Secondary currents at control room Ammeter measured.
Phase R = 38 milli amps.
Phase Y = -do-
Phase B = -do-
Neutral = Zero.
Control room panel Ammeter calibrated. MF for Ammeter
= R X 0.9.
IR value of CT Secondary including cable leads and meter by 500V Megger = 50 meg.
Ohms.
192
CHAPTER-X
ANNEXURE 4
TIRUCHY 110/33-11 KV S.S.
CHECKS DURING COMMISSIONING OF POWER TRANSFORMER 3 ON
30.11.87.
1. With Power Transformer (3) energised and kept idly charged from the HV side, the
current in the following terminals were measured at differential relay. (DTH 31, E.E.)
Current in milli-amps.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ph Relay Current ph. Relay current ph Realy current
HV Terminal Diffl. Terminal LV Terminal
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
R 7 22 R 8 21 R 10 0
Y 11 19 Y 12 18 Y 14 0
E 15 21 B 16 21 B 18 0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2) Power Transformer-3 alone energised, connected to 11 KV bus and on no load, the L.T
voltages of the station supply Transformer was checked.
Phase sequence checked, OK.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tap No Tap % Voltage Tap No Tap % Voltage
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17 + 15% 427 11 + 7.5% 394
16 + 13.75% 421 10 + 6.25% 390
15 + 12.5% 417 7 + 2.5% 376
14 + 11.25% 411 5 Normal 367
13 + 10% 405 3 -2.5% 358
12 + 8.75% 400 1 -5% 352
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
193
CHAPTER-X
3. With Power Transformer-3 alone on load, the currents at the following terminals of the
differential relay were measured.
a) Power Transformer No. 3 : H.V. Current = 4.05 A |
| Both increasing.
- do - : L.V. Current = 338 A |
- do - : Tap: 16, + 13.75%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ph. Relay Current Ph. Relay Current Ph Relay Current
HV Terminal Amps Diffl. Terminal Amps LV Terminal Amps
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
R 7 0.525 R 8 0.101 R 10 0.45
Y 11 0.545 Y 12 0.103 Y 14 0.47
B 15 0.530 B 16 0.100 B 18 0.46
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4) Power Transformer-3 and Power Transformer No. 1 were put in parallel and load sharing
checked and found OK.
5) Switching stability check of the differential relay: This is to be done by keeping the LV of
the new Power Transformer open and charging it from the H.V side several times and the
differential relay must not operate during this exercise. However, as the differential relay now
provided in Power Transformer-3 has already been checked for switching stability during the
Transformer magnetizing current in rush period during the commissioning of Power
Transformer No-2, this check was dropped.
194
PARALLEL OPERATION:
The satisfactory parallel operation of transformers is dependent upon the following five
principal characteristics.
(1) The same inherent phase angle difference between the primary and secondary terminals.
Same vector group will ensure this.
(2) The same polarity
(3) The same phase sequence
(4) The same voltage ratio
(5) The same percentage impedance.
A very small degree of latitude may be allowed with regard to the fourth characteristic
ie., percentage impedance. But the first three requirements must be absolutely fulfilled.
Any voltage difference will cause a circulating current to flow between the secondary
windings of the transformers adding to the losses and heating. Hence it is best to have identical
voltage ratios.
Difference in percentage impedances will cause unequal load sharing with the
transformer having the lower percentage impedance sharing proportionately more load. If the
disparity in outputs of any two transformers exceeds three to one, it may be difficult to produce
the correct loading conditions for each individual unit. So, 3:1 in MVA rating is the limit for
parallel operation.
When two transformer of unequal percentage impedances are operated in parallel, the
load sharing and the maximum load transfer without overloading the transformers may be
calculated as follows:
Transformer-1, 16MVA, Z = 10%
Transformer-2, 10MVA, Z = 8.93%\
When operated in parallel, transformer-2 having lower percentage impedance will share
a proportionately higher load.
Let P be the total load that can be transferred without over loading transformer-2. Let
base MVA be 16.
Let P1 & P2 be load shared by transformers 1 & 2 so that P = P1 + P2
Z1 = 10
Z2 = (16/10) x 8.93 = 14.29
P2 = P (Z1/Z1+Z2) = P (10 / 10 + 14.29)
ie., 10 = 0.412P.
Therefore P = 10/0.412 = 24.3 MVA
P1 = P (Z2/Z1+Z2)
= 24.3 X (14.29 / 10+14.29)
= 14.2 MVA
(P1 = P - P2 = 24.3 - 10 = 14.3)
195
CHAPTER-X
So a maximum of 24.3 MVA can be transferred without overloading transformer2 and
the load shared by the transformer-1 will be 14.3 MVA (against 16MVA rated capacity) and by
transformer-2, 10MVA (Full capacity)
Before commissioning, paralleling test must be conducted by paralleling the new unit
with the existing unit on the HV side leaving the LV sides open and applying 3 phase LT mains
voltage to the HV side. The voltage across like and unlike phases on the LV side may be
measured for all taps. With both the transformers at the same tap, voltage across like phases
will be zero or of negligible value and those across unlike phases will be the expected phase to
phase LV voltage for that particular tap. For conducting this test, L.C must be availed of on the
existing unit and the usual precautions taken. See table-5.
When one transformer has OLTC and the other, off load taps, it is better to have the two
transformers feed loads independently by splitting the LV bus. If however it is felt that the two
transformers must be operated in parallel for better flexibility of managing the loads, the tap in
the Transformer with off load taps may be chosen and set considering the station voltage
profile and the tap in the transformer with OLTC may be set at the matching tap. If no exact
matching tap is available, one tap in the transformer with OLTC, with voltage ratio closest to
that set in the other transformer may be chosen. The OLTC supply cable must then be
disconnected and the handle for manually operating the OLTC must be removed and kept under
lock and key with the AE/SS.
The two transformers can be operated in parallel in the taps chosen as above.
For instance, to parallel a new unit with OLTC having 17 taps (5% to +15%) with an
existing unit with off-load tap changer with 5 taps (-3 to + 9%), the tap in the existing unit may
be set at No.5, ie +9% and that in the new unit set at No.12 ie., + 8.75%. There will be
circulating current between the two transformers on the LV side due to the unequal voltage
ratio which cannot be helped.
CAUTION:
Before energizing the new Transformer and paralleling with the existing unit, it should
be physically checked and ensured that the HV and LV dropper connections to the two
transformers from the strung buses are alike. Wrong dropper connections will virtually act as a
short circuit when the transformers are paralleled causing undesirable results. There have been
unfortunate incidents of this kind for want of carrying out this simple and elementary visual
check.
196
CHAPTER-X
TABLE 5
POWER TRANSFORMER PARALLELING TEST -- DATE OF TEST :08.09.92
110/11 KV KARUR S.S. (PR.TR.:2, 110/11 KV, 10 MVA, HHE, NEW)
(PR.TR.:1, ------ do ------, EXISTING)
Both the Transformers were parallelted on HV side and secondary volts were measured.
Primary Volts applied: VRY = 430 V;VYB = 428 V;VBR = 428 V; ND means No
Deflection
=============================================================================
Tap No.
Power
Tr 1
Tap No.
Power Tr 2
Vr1r2 Vr1y2 Vr1b2 Vy1r2 Vy1y2 Vy1b2 Vb1r2 Vb1y2 Vb1b2
=============================================================================
11 11 ND 49 49 49 ND 49 49 49 ND
10 11 0.46 48.5 48.5 48.5 0.47 48.5 48.5 48.5 0.46
10 10 ND 48 48 48 ND 48 48 48 ND
10 9 0.45 47.5 47.5 47.5 0.44 47.5 47.5 47.5 0.45
9 9 ND 47 47 47 ND 47 47 47 ND
8 8 ND 46.5 46.5 46.5 ND 46.2 46.5 46.2 ND
7 7 ND 45.8 45.8 45.8 ND 45.6 45.8 45.6 ND
6 6 ND 45 45 45 ND 45 45 45 ND
5 5 ND 44.5 44.5 44.5 ND 44.2 44.5 44.2 ND
4 4 ND 43.8 43.9 43.8 ND 43.6 43.9 43.7 ND
3 3 ND 43 43 43 ND 43 43 43 ND
2 2 ND 42.5 42.5 42.5 ND 42.3 42.5 42.3 ND
1 1 ND 41.5 41.8 41.5 ND 41.5 41.8 41.5 ND
1 2 0.34 42 42 42 0.35 42 42 42 0.34
2 1 0.35 41.8 42 41.8 0.34 41.8 42 41.8 0.35
===============================================================================
Note: Voltage measurement across like phases with the transformer at different taps is
deliberately done to ensure that No deflection in the voltage reading instrument, read
across like phases with the transformers of identical taps is genuine and not due to any
temporary defect in the instrument.
197
TABLE: 6(a)
TIRUCHY 230/110 KV S.S.
Precommissioning test on 100 MVA, Auto Tr.fr.
I. RATIO TEST
Instrument Used : ELTEL Transformer Ratio Meter ( MODEL : TRM 200 )
(a) HV/IV Date tested: 5.11.99
TAP PHASE M.F READING % DEVIATION MEASURED EXPECTED
NO. RATIO CENTI RAD. RATIO RATIO
1. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
11.50
11.50
11.50
+0.00
+0.06
+0.10
+0.05
+0.07
+0.02
2.300
2.301
2.302
2.300
2.300
2.300
2. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
11.37
11.37
11.37
+0..5
+0.10
+0.14
+0.05
+0.07
+0.03
2.196
2.197
2.198
2.195
2.195
2.195
3. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
11.24
11.24
11.24
+0.00
+0.05
+0.10
+0.06
+0.08
+0.03
2.169
2.170
2.171
2.169
2.169
2.169
4. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
11.11
11.11
11.11
+0.02
+0.07
+0.11
+0.07
+0.07
+0.03
2.210
2.212
2.212
2.210
2.210
2.210
5. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
10.97
10.97
10.97
+0.08
+0.07
+0.11
+0.05
+0.07
+0.03
2.197
2.197
2.197
2.195
2.195
2.195
6. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
10.84
10.84
10.84
+0.10
+0.15
+0.20
+0.05
+0.07
+0.07
2.171
2.172
2.173
2.169
2.169
2.169
7. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
10.71
10.71
10.71
+0.05
+0.10
+0.15
+0.05
+0.09
+0.05
2.144
2.145
2.146
2.143
2.143
2.143
8. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
10.58
10.58
10.58
+0.09
+0.12
+0.19
+0.05
+0.08
+0.03
2.119
2.120
2.121
2.117
2.117
2.117
9B. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
10.45
10.45
10.45
+0.04
+0.09
+0.14
+0.07
+0.09
+0.05
2.092
2.093
2.094
2.091
2.091
2.091
10. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
10.32
10.32
10.32
+0.08
+0.12
+0.18
+0.07
+0.09
+0.05
2.067
2.067
2.069
2.065
2.065
2.065
11. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
10.19
10.19
10.19
+0.02
+0.07
+0.12
+0.05
+0.10
+0.05
2.038
2.039
2.040
2.038
2.038
2.038
CHAPTER-X
198
CHAPTER-X
12. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
10.06
10.06
10.06
+0.06
+0.01
+0.15
+0.08
+0.10
+0.05
2.013
2.012
2.015
2.012
2.012
2.012
13. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
9.93
9.93
9.93
+0.01
+0.04
+0.10
+0.07
+0.09
+0.04
1.986
1.987
1.988
1.986
1.986
1.986
14. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
9.80
9.80
9.80
+0.04
+0.08
+0.12
+0.07
+0.09
+0.05
1.961
1.962
1.962
1.960
1.960
1.960
15. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
6.67
6.67
6.67
+0.01
+0.02
+0.08
+0.08
+0.10
+0.05
1.934
1.934
1.936
1.934
1.934
1.934
16. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
9.54
9.54
9.54
+0.04
+0.06
+0.10
+0.08
+0.10
+0.05
1.909
1.909
1.910
1.908
1.908
1.908
17. U
V
W
0.2
0.2
0.2
9.41
9.41
9.41
+0.02
+0.01
+0.06
+0.08
+0.10
+0.06
1.882
1.882
1.883
1.882
1.882
1.882
(b) HV/LV
--------------
TAP PHASE M.F READING % DEVIATION MEASURED EXPECTED
NO. RATIO CENTI RAD. RATIO RATIO
1. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
13.28
13.28
13.28
+0.18
+0.13
+0.08
+0.18
+0.17
+0.16
13.304
13.297
13.291
13.28
13.28
13.28
2. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
13.13
13.13
13.13
+0.20
+1.501
+0.10
+0.18
+0.17
+0.15
13.156
13.327
13.143
13.13
13.13
13.13
3. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
12.98
12.98
12.98
+0.17
+0.10
+0.06
+0.18
+0.18
+0.14
13.002
12.993
12.988
12.98
12.98
12.98
4. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
12.83
12.83
12.83
+0.20
+0.12
+0.08
+0.18
+0.18
+0.15
12.856
12.845
12.840
12.83
12.83
12.83
5. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
12.68
12.68
12.68
+0.15
+0.09
+0.04
+0.18
+0.18
+0.15
12.699
12.691
12.685
12.68
12.68
12.68
6. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
12.52
12.52
12.52
+0.261
+0.18
+0.15
+0.18
+0.18
+0.15
12.553
12.543
12.539
12.52
12.52
12.52
7. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
12.37
12.37
12.37
+0.221
+0.15
+0.10
+0.18
+0.17
+0.16
12.397
12.389
12.382
12.37
12.37
12.37
199
CHAPTER-X
8. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
12.23
12.23
12.23
+0.18
+0.10
+0.06
+0.18
+0.18
+0.15
12.252
12.242
12.237
12.32
12.23
12.23
9. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
12.07
12.07
12.07
+0.20
+0.13
+0.10
+0.18
+0.18
+0.15
12.094
12.086
12.082
12.07
12.07
12.07
10. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
11.92
11.92
11.92
+0.24
+0.16
+0.12
+0.18
+0.18
+0.16
11.949
11.939
11.934
11.92
11.92
11.92
11. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
11.77
11.77
11.77
+0.20
+0.12
+0.08
+0.19
+0.18
+0.15
11.794
11.784
11.779
11.77
11.77
11.77
12. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
11.61
11.61
11.61
+0.32
+0.24
+0.20
+0.18
+0.18
+0.16
11.647
11.638
11.633
11.61
11.61
11.61
13. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
11.47
11.47
11.47
+0.20
+0.10
+0.06
+0.19
+0.19
+0.16
11.493
11.481
11.477
11.47
11.47
11.47
14. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
11.32
11.32
11.32
+0.22
+0.13
+0.09
+0.20
+0.19
+0.16
11.345
11.335
11.330
11.32
11.32
11.32
15. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
11.16
11.16
11.16
+0.261
+0.16
+0.14
+0.20
+0.19
+0.16
11.189
11.178
11.176
11.16
11.16
11.16
16. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
11.02
11.02
11.02
+0.22
+0.12
+0.08
+0.20
+0.20
+0.17
11.044
11.033
11.029
11.02
11.02
11.02
17. U
V
W
1.0
1.0
1.0
10.87
10.87
10.87
+0.18
+0.06
+0.03
+0.20
+0.20
+0.16
10.890
10.877
10.873
10.87
10.87
10.87
200
CHAPTER-X
TABLE 6(B)
II. OPEN CIRCUIT TEST
Instrument Used : METRIX Digital Multimeter for Voltage
: MOTWANE Digital Multimeter for Current
a) Between HV & IV
1. 3 Phase Voltage Applied to HV
2. IV & LV kept open
TAP
NO
Voltage Applied in volts Voltage measured in volts
1U-1V 1V-1W 1W-1U 2U-2V 2V-2W 2W-2U 2U-N 2U-N 2W-N
1 408.4 406.8 404.6 177.5 177.5 177.3 102.5 102.7 102.7
2 408.1 407.7 408.6 179.6 179.5 179.0 103.6 103.8 103.6
3 408.0 407.3 408.1 181.9 181.4 181.8 104.7 105.2 105.1
4 401.7 406.8 407.9 183.2 183.1 183.5 105.9 106.1 106.0
5 406.2 406.1 406.9 185.5 185.1 185.5 107.0 107.1 107.0
6 404.5 405.4 405.4 186.7 187.1 187.1 107.9 108.2 108.2
7 404.7 404.6 404.8 189.0 188.8 189.1 109.0 109.7 109.3
8 399.0 399.9 399.8 191.4 191.1 191.4 108.7 109.1 109.2
9a 399.6 399.4 399.7 191.6 191.7 195.5 110.5 110.8 110.6
9b 400.7 400.3 400.1 191.7 191.5 191.8 110.7 110.9 110.9
9c 404.9 403.8 405.8 194.0 193.3 194.5 112.2 111.9 112.0
10 404.7 403.4 404.7 196.0 195.6 196.5 113.3 113.5 113.3
11 404.9 403.7 404.7 199.0 198.0 199.0 114.7 115.0 115.1
12 403.8 402.5 403.7 201.0 200.5 200.0 115.8 116.0 116.0
13 404.0 403.0 403.3 203.7 203.0 203.0 117.4 117.7 117.7
14 404.4 404.0 404.5 206.5 206.2 206.2 119.2 119.5 119.5
15 405.3 404.6 405.1 209.3 209.0 209.3 120.9 121.2 121.2
16 404.8 404.3 405.6 212.5 212.2 212.9 123.0 122.0 123.0
17 405.1 405.0 405.7 216.3 215.5 216.4 124.6 124.5 124.7
201
CHAPTER-X
b) Between HV & LV
1) 3 Phase voltage applied to HV
2) IV & LV kept open
TAP
NO
Voltage Applied in volts Voltage measured in volts
1U-1V 1V-1W 1W-1U 3U-3V 3V-3W 3W-3U
1 423.8 422.8 422.0 18.5 18.5 18.5
2 423.9 423.1 421.8 18.7 18.7 18.6
3 424.1 423.7 421.9 19.0 19.0 18.9
4 424.5 422.6 422.0 19.2 19.2 19.1
5 423.8 423.2 421.6 19.4 19.3 19.3
6 424.4 423.2 421.7 19.6 19.6 19.6
7 424.1 423.5 422.1 19.9 19.9 19.8
8 423.2 422.6 421.2 20.1 20.2 20.0
9b 423.7 423.1 421.2 20.3 20.3 20.2
10 423.6 422.7 421.1 20.5 20.6 20.5
11 424.3 423.4 421.3 20.8 20.9 20.8
12 423.1 422.4 421.3 21.1 21.1 21.1
13 424.6 423.1 421.3 21.4 21.5 21.4
14 424.1 422.5 421.3 21.6 21.7 21.6
15 424.1 423.0 421.2 22.0 22.1 21.9
16 424.2 423.6 421.2 22.2 22.3 22.2
17 421.7 420.5 419.5 22.4 22.5 22.6
c) Between IV & LV
----------------------
1) 3 Phase voltage applied to IV
2) HV & LV kept open
TAP
NO
Voltage Applied in volts Voltage measured in volts
2U-N 2V-N 2W-N 3U-3V 3V-3W 3W-3U
9b 235.5 235.7 234.5 41.1 40.7 41.1
202
CHAPTER-X
TABLE 6(C)
III. SHORT CIRCUIT TEST
Instrument Used : METRIX Digital Multimeter for Voltage
: MOTWANE Digital Multimeter for Current
a) Between HV & IV
1. 3 Phase Voltage Applied to HV
2. IV shorted including Neutral
3. LV kept on
TAP
NO
Voltage Applied in V HV CURRENT in Amps IV CURRENT in Amps.
1U-1V 1V-1W 1W-1U 1U 1V 1W 2U 2V 2W N
1 395.0 393.6 392.5 3.567 3.596 3.644 8.228 8.239 8.362 0.16
2 394.8 393.6 393.5 3.582 3.613 3.658 8.186 8.145 8.290 0.134
3 393.6 392.1 392.0 3.595 3.614 3.663 8.087 8.023 8.175 0.133
4 393.0 391.5 391.6 3.594 3.625 3.667 8.005 7.995 7.113 0.163
5 394.5 393.5 393.4 3.600 3.621 3.678 7.937 7.900 7.036 0.120
6 394.4 393.1 393.4 3.606 3.620 3.675 7.838 7.778 7.932 0.175
7 394.1 392.8 393.4 3.585 3.624 3.670 7.710 7.715 7.826 0.160
8 394.1 392.5 393.0 3.589 3.617 3.580 7.612 7.608 7.724 0.13
9a 393.6 392.4 393.2 3.575 3.600 3.641 7.501 7.464 7.578 0.12
9b 393.3 392.2 393.0 3.580 3.597 3.633 7.506 7.479 7.559 0.133
9c 393.6 392.0 393.2 3.607 3.589 3.619 7.555 7.445 7.548 0.05
10 393.3 391.5 392.5 3.592 3.570 3.606 7.448 7.323 7.422 0.5
11 393.2 391.5 393.0 3.569 3.551 3.584 7.294 7.193 7.285 0.042
12 387.9 387.6 388.0 3.497 3.491 3.418 7.059 6.982 7.089 0.05
13 386.7 386.1 386.9 3.472 3.468 3.500 6.919 6.823 6.927 0.046
14 386.6 386.0 387.0 3.493 3.502 3.520 6.919 6.832 6.900 0.072
15 393.9 393.8 394.1 3.481 3.479 3.498 6.743 6.682 6.750 0.08
16 393.6 392.4 393.1 3.448 3.445 3.463 6.608 6.526 6.594 0.06
17 395.1 393.6 394.6 3.432 3.420 3.441 6.442 6.381 6.442 0.06
203
CHAPTER-X
b) Between HV & LV
1. 3 Phase voltage applied to HV
2. LV shorted
3. IV kept open
TAP
NO
Voltage Applied in V
HV CURRENT in
Amps
IV CURRENT in Amps
1U-IV 1V-1W 1W-1U 1U 1V 1W 3U 3V 3W N
1 423.5 422.0 420.9 0.600 0.640 0.640 15.46 15.48 16.18 0.160
5 417.8 416.9 416.7 0.600 0.650 0.640 15.01 15.10 15.77 0.134
9B 422.9 421.5 420.3 0.650 0.670 0.680 14.97 15.12 15.80 0.135
13 421.8 421.9 419.4 0.660 0.700 0.690 14.60 14.68 15.23 0.163
17 422.0 422.3 421.0 0.700 0.720 0.700 14.06 14.28 14.61 0.120
204
CHAPTER-X
TABLE 6(d)
IV. MAGNETISING CURRENT
Instrument Used: METRIX Digital Multimeter for Voltage
: MOTWANE Digital Multimeter for Current
(a) HV Magnetising Current
1. Voltage applied to HV
2. HV & LV kept open
3. Neutral floated
TAP
NO
Voltage Applied in Volt Current measured in ma
1U-1V 1V-1W 1W-1V 1U 1V 1W
1 400.0 397.0 399.0 1.497 1.436 1.855
2 399.0 398.6 399.6 1.522 1.450 1.872
3 398.3 397.0 398.0 1.552 1.440 1.886
4 398.0 396.6 397.5 1.574 1.483 1.900
5 398.0 396.6 397.0 1.625 1.456 1.922
6 398.0 397.0 397.0 1.660 1.515 1.937
7 399.0 397.3 398.0 1.664 1.546 1.963
8 398.0 395.5 398.0 1.708 1.500 1.987
9b 397.9 395.3 397.5 1.741 1.555 2.014
10 396.8 395.0 397.0 1.780 1.563 2.023
11 396.1 395.5 387.2 1.832 1.590 2.064
12 396.0 395.5 397.3 1.863 1.625 2.080
13 396.0 396.0 397.5 1.914 1.638 2.106
14 396.0 396.0 397.5 1.967 1.647 2.134
15 396.4 396.0 396.5 2.000 1.680 2.160
16 396.4 396.0 396.5 2.050 1.725 2.210
17 389.7 388.5 390.0 2.100 1.740 2.250
205
CHAPTER-X
(b) IV Magnetising Current
1. Voltage applied to IV
2. HV 7 LV kept open
3. Neutral floated
TAP
NO
Voltage Applied in volts Current measured in ma
2U-2V 2V-2W 2W-2U 2U 2V 2W
9b 407.0 407.7 407.7 4.41 2.85 3.58
(c) LV Magnetising Current
1. Voltage applied to LV
2. HV & IV kept open
TAP
NO
Voltage Applied in Volts Current measured in Amps
3U-3V 3V-3W 3W-3U 3U 3V 3W
9b 414.2 414.4 413.9 0.20 0.17 0.130
TABLE : 6(e)
V. DC RESISTANCE :
Instrument: ETEL Transformer Winding Resistance Meter (Mode): TWRM 5
Applied Current: 5 Amps.
1. HV/LV WINDINGS
TAP U V W
NO.
1U-N
Ohms
2U-N
Ohms
1V-N
Ohms
2V-N
Ohms
1W-N
Ohms
2W-N
Ohms
1. 0.694 0.247 0.696 0.249 0.692 0.248
2 0.687 0.248 0.687 0.249 0.686 0.248
3 0.676 0.248 0.677 0.249 0.676 0.248
4 0.668 0.248 0.669 0.249 0.668 0.248
5 0.659 0.248 0.660 0.249 0.660 0.248
6 0.649 0.248 0.651 0.249 0.651 0.248
7 0.642 0.248 0.642 0.249 0.643 0.248
8 0.634 0.248 0.634 0.249 0.633 0.248
9 0.626 0.248 0.625 0.249 0.626 0.248
10 0.635 0.248 0.635 0.249 0.634 0.248
11 0.644 0.248 0.643 0.249 0.642 0.248
12 0.654 0.248 0.650 0.249 0.651 0.248
13 0.663 0.248 0.660 0.249 0.660 0.248
14 0.670 0.248 0.669 0.249 0.668 0.248
15 0.679 0.248 0.677 0.249 0.677 0.248
16 0.687 0.248 0.686 0.249 0.686 0.248
17 0.696 0.248 0.696 0.249 0.695 0.248
206
2) LV WINDING
Tap
No
3U-3V
m ohms
3V-3W
m ohms
3W-3U
m ohms
17 14.55 14.55 14.55
TABLE : 6(F)
VI. MAGNETIC BALANCE TEST
Instrument Used: : METRIX Digital Multimeter (Date of Test : 5.11.99)
1. HV Side
Voltage
Applied
Voltage
1U-N
Measured
IV-N
In Volts
1W-N
1U-N
1V-N
1W-N
228.5
138.4
83.5
154.4
230.5
166.0
85.5
102.0
228.5
2. IV Side
Voltage
Applied
Voltage
1U-N
Measured
IV-N
In Volts
1W-N
2U-N
2V-N
2W-N
228.0
122.0
51.8
167.0
229.4
189.8
69.4
113.3
228.6
3. LV Side
Voltage
Applied
Voltage
1U-N
Measured
IV-N
In Volts
1W-N
3U-3V
3V-3W
3W-3U
395.0
163.1
50.1
332.0
394.0
356.4
73.1
233.0
396.0
CHAPTER-X
207
CHAPTER-X
TABLE : 6(g)
VII POLARITY AND VECTOR GROUP
Instrument Used: MOTWANE Digital Multimeter. (Date of Test : 5.11.99)
a) Between HV & IV (Yyo)
1. 1U & 2U shorted.
2. 3 Phase Voltage applied to HV.
Voltage Applied in Volts. Voltage Measured in Volts.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1U--1V = 406.80 2U--2V = 404.70
1V--1W = 410.10 2V--2W = 188.30
1W--1U = 410.10 2W--2U = 183.10
1UN = 234.40 2UN = 233.70
1VN = 244.10 2VN = 108.70
1WN = 230.70 2WN = 105.00
1U2U = 0.32
1U2V = 304.00
1U2W = 308.00
1V2U = 405.40
1V2V = 136.50
1V2W = 305.90
1W2U = 409.60
1W2V = 293.70
1W2W = 125.30
208
CHAPTER-X

1V 2V = 1W 2W
136.5 = 125.30
IV 2V < 1V 2W>
136.5 <305.90
1W 2W< 1W 2V
125.3 < 293.7
1U,2U
1V
1W
2V
2W
209
b) Between HV & LV (yd)
1. 1U & 3U shorted
2. 3 Phase Voltage applied to HV
Voltage Applied in Volts. Voltage Measured in Volts.
1U1V = 407.50 3U3V = 17.90
1V1W = 407.90 3V3W = 17.90
1W-1U = 409.40 3W3U = 18.10
1UN = 238.30 1U3U = 0.00
1VN = 235.10 1U3V = 17.80
IWN = 235.20 1U-3W = 17.90
1V-3V = 407.90
1V-3U = 393.20
1V-3W = 409.00
1W-3U = 410.00
1W-3V = 394.80
1W-3W = 394.00
1V 3W > 1W 3W
409 > 394.6
1V 3W > 1V 3V
409 > 393.2
1U,3U
1V
3V
3W
3W
210
CHAPTER-X
TABLE : 6(h)
VIII. PI VALUE
Instrument Used: 5 KV WACO POWER OPERATED IR. TESTER (Date of Test : 27.10.99)
Applied Voltage: 5 KV
TIME IR Value Measured in M Ohms.
(Minutes)
HV - E LV E HV LV
0.5 1250 1500 2000
1.0 1300 1900 2500
2.0 1390 2400 2800
3.0 1400 2600 3000
4.0 1450 2800 3500
5.0 1500 2800 3800
6.0 1600 2800 4000
7.0 1700 2800 4100
8.0 1700 2800 4200
9.0 1700 2800 4500
1.0 1700 2800 4500
1) PI Value (HV-E): = 1700
------ = 1.30
1300
2) PI Value (LV-E): = 2800
------ = 1.473
1900
3) PI Value (HV-LV): = 4500
------ = 1.8
2500
211
CHAPTER-X
TABLE: 7
BUSHING CTSOF POWER TRANSFORMER
Date of testing: 22-2-1990
1) Ratio Test: Instruments used: (HHE Make, New Unit for
Motwane AVO meter (Karur 110/11 KV S. S, 10 MVA)
Precision current
Transformer 1No.
a) HV/ busing CTs (Core 1 Differential 60/1A;
Core-2 - Backup 60/1A.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Primary Secondary Secondary Secondary current obtained
Current Terminals current in Amps.
injected expected - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Amps. Amps. IU IV IW
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
60 IS1 IS2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
30 - do - 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
60 2S1 2S2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
30 - do - 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(B) LV Bushing Cts.
Core (1) : Differential . . 600-300/0.577A.
Core (2) : Back up. . . 600-300/1A
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Primary Secondary Secondary Secondary current obtained
Current Terminals current Amps.
Injected expected ----------------------------------------------------------
Amps. Amps. 2U 2V 2W.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
600 1S1 1S3 0.577 0.58 0.58 0.58
300 - do - 0.288 0.29 0.29 0.29
300 1S1 1S2 0.577 0.58 0.58 0.58
150 - do - 0.288 0.29 0.29 0.29
600 2S1 2S3 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
300 - do - 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
300 2S1 2S2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
150 - do - 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2) Polarity Test:-
Instrument used: (1) 6V Battery.
(2) Centre Zero. 0-30/, DC, Voltmeter.
212
CHAPTER-X
Polarity, checked and like terminals marked thus below:
(a) HV Bushing CTs .
1U
1s
1
1s
2
2s
1
2s
2
1W
1s
1
1s
2
2s
1
2s
2
1s
1
1s
2
2s
1
2s
2
1V
213
CHAPTER-X
(b) LV Bushing Cts:
2N
2U
1s
2
1s
1
1s
3
2s
2
2s
1
2s
3
2N
2V
1s
2
1s
1
1s
3
2s
2
2s
1
2s
3
2W
2N
1s
2
1s
1
1s
3
2s
2
2s
1
2s
3
214
CHAPTER-X
3) DC resistance:
Instrument used: Agronic digital Ohm meter.
(a) HV Windings.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Secondary DC resistance DC resistance obtained in Ohms
Terminals. expected in 1U. 1V. 1W.
Ohms.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1S1 1S2 - - 0.5 0.5 0.5
2S1 - -2S2 - - 1.2 1.2 1.2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) LV WINDINGS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Secondary DC resistance DC resistance obtained in Ohms.
Terminals expected in 2U 2V 2W
Ohms.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1S1 1S2 - - 1.9 1.9 1.9
1S1 1S3 - - 3.6 3.6 3.6
2S1 2S2 - - 2.4 2.4 2.4
2S1 2S3 - - 4.6 4.5 4.5
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4) IR Value.
Instrument used: 500V megger.
(a) HV CTs
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Terminals IR Value in meg. Ohms.
1U 1V 1W
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1S1 to Earth 50 50 100
2S1 to Earth 50 50 100
1S1 to 2S1 50 50 100
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) LV CTs
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Terminals IR Value in meg. Ohms.
1U 1V 1W
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1S1 to Earth 100 100 100
2S1 to Earth 100 100 100
1S1 to 2S1 100 100 100
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
215
CHAPTER-X
(5) Secondary excitation.
Instruments used: Motwane Avo meter - - 2 No.s
V in volts and I in Milli Amps.
(A) HV CTs
(i) Phase U Differential (1S1 1S2).
Ascending
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 10 20 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 75 100
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. mA 50 70 88 95 110 118 128 140 150 170 240
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 120 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I.mA 310 355 385 420 465 515 620 760 920
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Knee point voltage (V
K
) = 140 V.
I mag at VK/4 (35V) = 95 Milli amps.
I mag. at 55V. = 140 Milli amps.
Descending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 160 155 150 145 140 120 100 60 55 20 10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I mA 600 515 460 420 385 292 230 138 135 50 20
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase U Backup (2S1 2S2).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 10 30 50 75 100 125 150 200 250
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
mA
I. 30 55 75 100 120 142 165 210 262
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) Phase V, Differential (1S1 1S2).
Ascending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 10 20 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 75 90 100
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I mA 35 55 70 80 87 92 100 107 115 135 155 170
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 120 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 167.5
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I mA 210 235 250 270 305 335 415 560 790 1020
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Knee point voltage (VK) =140V.
I mag at VK/4 (35V) =80 Milli amps.
I mag at 55V. =107 Milli amps.
216
Descending.
CHAPTER-X
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 160 155 150 145 140 120 100 80 60 55 40 20 10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. mA 560 380 330 280 250 200 165 135 105 100 75 40 15
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase V Backup (2S1-2S2).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V 10 30 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I.mA 25 50 65 85 100 115 130 145 165 185 210
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) Phase W Differential (1S1-1S2).
Ascending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V 10 20 30 40 45 50 55 60 75 90 100 120
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I mA 35 45 72 80 87 95 100 110 128 145 160 180
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V 130 140 145 150 155 160 165 170
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. mA 215 240 257 280 310 360 465 690
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Knee point voltage (VK) =145V.
I mag at VK/4(36V) =77 Milli amps.
I mag at 55V. =100 Milli amps.
Descending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V 165 160 155 150 145 140 120 100 80 60 40 20
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I.mA 400 310 280 255 240 225 185 150 128 100 75 40
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase W Backup (2S1-2S2).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V 10 30 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I mA 30 55 75 100 120 142 165 187 210 235 262
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
217
CHAPTER-X
b) LV CTs.
i) Phase U Differential. 300/0.577A (1S1-1S2).
Ascending. (V in volts and I in milliamps)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V 10 20 30 40 50 55 60 70 80 90 100 105
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I 5 8 10 12.5 14.5 15 16 18 20.5 23 26 27
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 30 33 36 39 43 50 58 70 90
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Knee point voltage (VK) =130 V.
I mag at VK/4 (32.5V) =10.6 Milli amps.
I mag at 110V =30 Milli amps.
Descending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V 145 140 130 120 100 80 60 55 40 20 10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I 71 48 38 33 25 20 15.5 14.5 12 7.5 4
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase U Differential. 600/0.577A (1S1-1S2).
Ascending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V 10 20 30 40 50 55 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 1 2 3 3.5 4 4.2 4.5 5.5 6.2 7.2 8.2 9.5 10.5
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 275 280 290 300
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 12 13.1 14.3 15.2 16.5 18.1 20 23 27 35 41 54
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Knee point voltage (VK) =250.
I mag at VK/4(62,5V) =4.6 Milli amps.
I mag at 110V. =6.7 Milli amps.
Descending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 280 275 260 255 250 225 200 175 150 100 50 25
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 24 22 19 18 17 14.5 12 10 9 6.5 4 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
218
CHAPTER-X
Phase U Backup, 300/1A (2S1-2S2).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 50 100 150 200 250 300 330 350 365
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 12 17.5 22.5 27 32 44 56 76 96
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase U Backup, 600/1A, (2S1-2S3).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 3 4.5 6 7.5 8.5 9.5 11 12.2 13.5
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2) Phase V Differential. 300/0.577A (1S1-1S2).
Ascending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 10 20 30 40 50 55 60 75 100 110 120
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I.mA 3 5.2 7 8.5 10 10.5 11.5 13.5 17 19 21.5
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 168
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I.mA 23 24.5 26.2 28.5 31.5 35.5 42 50 67 97
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Knee point voltage (VK) = 140V.
I mag at VK/4 (35V) = 7.7 Milli amps.
I mag at 110V. = 19 Milli amps.
Descending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 160 155 150 140 130 125 100 75 55 25 10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 41.5 35 31 26 22.5 21.5 17 13.5 10.5 5.5 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase V Differential. 600/0.577A (1S1-1S3).
Ascending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 10 20 30 40 50 55 60 75 100 150 200 225 230
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 0.5 1.2 1.5 2.1 2.5 2.7 3 3.7 4.5 6.2 8.2 9.5 10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270 275 280 285 290
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 10.2 10.5 10.7 11 12.5 14 14.5 15.5 16.2 17.2 18.5 20
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Knee point voltage (VK) = 250V.
I mag at VK/4(62.5V) = 3.1 Milli amps.
I mag at 110V = 4.8 Milli amps.
219
CHAPTER-X
Descending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 275 270 265 260 255 250 245 240 200 150 100 50 25
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 16.8 11.5 11 10.5 10.2 9.8 9.2 8.5 8 6 4.2 2.5 1.2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase V Backup 300/1A (2S1-2S2).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 50 100 150 200 250 300 325 350 360
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 11.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 42.5 50 67.5 81
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase V backup. 600/1A (2S1 2S3).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 2.5 4.5 6 7.5 8.5 10.5 12 13.5 14.5
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(3) Phase W . Differential, 300/0.577 (1S1 1S2).
Ascending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 10 20 30 40 50 55 60 75 100 110 120
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 4 6.5 8.5 10 12 12.5 13.5 16 21.5 22.5 27.5
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 125 130 135 140 145 150 155
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 29.5 32 35.5 42 48 67.5 100
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Knee point voltage (VK) = 130v.
I mag at VK/4(32.5V) = 8.9 milli amps.
I mag at 110/. = 22.5 Milli amps.
Descending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 145 140 135 130 120 100 55 25 10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 43 34.5 30.5 29 25.5 20.5 12 7 2.5
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase W, Differential, 600/0.577 (1S1 1S3)
220
CHAPTER-X
Ascending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 10 20 30 40 50 55 60 75 100 150 200 225 230 235
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.2 3.5 4.1 5.2 7.5 9.8 11.5 12 10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 240 245 250 255 260 265 270 275 280 290
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 10.5 13.1 13.8 16 18.5 21 22.5 26 27.5 29
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Knee point voltage (VK ) = 230V.
I mag at VK/4 (57.5V) = 3.35 milli amps.
I mag at 110/. = 5.7 milli amps.
Descending.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 275 270 265 260 250 245 240 200 150 100 50 25
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. 18 16 15 14 13.2 13 12 9.5 7.2 5 3 1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase W Backup. 300/1A (2S1-2S2).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 50 100 150 200 250 300 325 350
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I.mA 11.5 17.2 22 27.5 32.5 44 55 80
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phase W Backup. 600/1A (2S1-2S3).
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V. 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 445
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ImA. 2.5 4.5 6.2 7.5 8.5 10 11.2 12.5 13.5
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Winding temperature CT (Date of test: 13.03.90)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Primary current by Tong tester.
Secondary current by motwane multimeter.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
py. Amps 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 175
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
sy. Amps 0.32 0.43 0.54 0.64 0.76 0.86 0.98 1.07 1.60 1.85
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
221
CHAPTER-X
II. PROTECTION
A. External causes:
All transformers have to be protected against external causes that are sources of
abnormal stress to the transformer namely.
(a) Over load
(b) Short circuits
(c) High Voltage, high frequency disturbances.
Transformers of 400 KV rating are also protected against over fluxing caused by over
voltage/reduced system frequency.
(a) Over load causes increased Copper loss and a consequent temperature rise. Overloads can
be carried for limited periods depending on the initial temperature and the cooling
conditions. The rating of a transformer is based on the temperature rise above an assumed
maximum ambient temperature under which condition no sustained overload is usually
permissible. At a lower ambient temperature some degree of overload can be safely
applied. Short period over loads are also permissible to some extent depending on the
previous loading conditions. No precise ruling applicable to all conditions is available
concerning the magnitude and duration of safe overload. But the most important aspect is
that the winding must not be allowed to overheat, a temperature of about 95 C may be
considered as the normal maximum working value beyond which further rise in
temperature if allowed will have an adverse impact on the life of the transformer. Even this
upper limit of temperature is very much on the higher side for sustained operation and the
operating personnel must be cautioned of the high temperature of the winding at a much
lower level. This is the basis on which the high temperature annunciation is set. The type
of cooling also plays a part on the temperature settings. Refer to Section 3.02 (3.02.01,
3.02.02, 3.02.03, 3.02.04) on classification of transformers according to cooling method
and permissible temperature rise, code of technical instructions.
In TNEB generally the following methods of cooling and setting are adopted for
transformers:-
(I) Power and Auto transformers in substations:
Unless there is specific recommendation from the manufacturers, the following settings
can be generally adopted upto and excluding 16 MVA: Oil natural cooling through
radiators. Oil temperature alarm may be set at 70C. Winding temperature alarm to be
set at 80C. Winding temperature trip is not provided.
(II) Power transformers 16 MVA and above and Auto transformers upto 50 MVA: Forced
air cooling through radiators with a set of cooling fans provided which can be switched
on manually as well through winding temperature meter.
222
CHAPTER-X
Oil temperature alarm : 70C
Winding temperature alarm : 80
Winding temperature trip : 90
Cooling fans set to start at a winding temperature of 65C and set to stop at winding
temperature of 60C.
(III) 230/110KV Auto transformers, above 50MVA. Forced air cooling through radiators and
forced oil circulation.
Oil temperature alarm : 75C.
Winding temperature alarm : 85C.
Winding temperature trip = 95C.
Cooling fans set to start at 70C of winding temperature.
Cooling fans set to stop at 65C ------- do ------
Oil pump motor set to start at 75C of ------- do ------
Oil pump motor set to stop at 70C of ------- do ------
(b) SHORT CIRCUITS:
Power transformers of lower capacity i.e., below 5 MVA, 33/11 KV are protected
against external short circuits by Horn gap fuses on the HV side and the feeder protection. The
fuses will blow off for internal faults also but by that time the fault may get magnified.
Transformers of rating 5 MVA and above are protected against external faults by the feeder
protection and the over- current relays in the LV breakers protect the transformer against LV
bus faults. Over current relays in the group control breaker on the HV side of the transformer
also provides cover against heavy faults on the LV side. The earth fault and over current relays
in the group control breaker by the way may also give protection against heavy internal faults.
(c) HIGH VOLTAGE, HIGH FREQUENCY DISTURBANCES:
A high voltage transformer connected to an overhead transmission system is likely to be
subjected to steep fronted impulse voltages due to atmospheric disturbances or switching
operation. A line surge which may be of several times the rated system voltage will
concentrate on the end turns of the winding because of the high equivalent frequency of the
surge front. The surges can breakdown the internal insulation producing extensive damage to
the transformer windings, if not taken care of. The effects of these surges may be minimized
by designing the windings to withstand the application of a specified surge test voltage and
then ensuring that this test value is not exceeded in service by the provision of a suitable surge
arrester mounted adjacent to the transformer terminals.
223
CHAPTER-X
Modern practice of surge protection of transformers is aimed at preventing excessive
voltage surges from reaching the transformer as a unit, that is, not only the HV and LV
windings but also the bushings, where flash over and insulation breakdown will result in
serious damage and system disconnection. The required surge protection is given by
coordinating rod gaps in the bushings and the surge arresters. In TNEB, transformers below 50
MVA capacity are provided with an independent lightning arrester on the LV side and by a
common arrester on the HV side. 230/110KV Auto transformers are provided with
independent arresters both on the HV as well as LV side for surge protection.
B) PROTECTION AGAINST INTERNAL FAULTS:-
(a) Buchholz relay:-
This is a gas operated device fitted to transformers having conservator tanks and is installed
in the pipe line between the transformer and its conservator tank. This device consists of an
oil-tight container fitted with two internal elements one below the other which operate mercury
switches connected to external alarm and trip circuits. Normally this device is full of oil and
the elements due to their buoyancy can rotate on their supports. An incipient fault within the
transformer generates small bubbles of gas which in passing upwards towards the conservator,
get trapped in the buchholz relay there by causing the oil level to fall as a result of which the
upper element rotates and when sufficient oil has been displaced the mercury switch contacts
close thus completing the external circuit which is connected to audible alarm. In the event of a
serious fault within the transformer, the gas generation is more violent and the oil displaced by
the gas bubbles flows through the connecting pipe to the conservator. This abnormal flow of
oil causes the lower element to be rotated thus actuating the contacts of the second (bottom)
mercury switch thereby completing the external circuit which is connected to trip the circuit
breaker/breakers to isolate the transformer.
Some of the faults against which the buchholz relay will give protection are
(i) Top contact (alarm):-Acts for minor faults.
Core-bolt insulation failure.
Short-circuited core laminations.
Bad electrical contacts/faulty joints.
Inter turn faults or other winding faults involving only lower power infeed
resulting in local over heating,
Loss of oil due to leakage,
Ingress of air into the oil system.
(ii) Bottom contact (trip). Acts for serious faults.
Short circuit between phases,
Winding earth fault,
Winding short circuit,
Puncture of bushings.
224
CHAPTER-X
The buchholz relay is an invaluable and most reliable device for protection of
transformer against internal faults, whether required as a main protection or as a supplement to
other protection schemes and it seldom malfunctions.
Its action on a live transformer calls for immediate attention and action on the part of
the substation/MRT and special maintenance Officers and Staff.
On actuation of the relay, gas within the device can be collected from a small valve at
the top of the device for analysis and from the results obtained a rough diagnosis of the trouble
inside the transformer can be made. Refer to Annexure-IV, instructions for testing of gas
accumulated in Buchholz relays and item No. 3.03.20, Buchholz relay Examination of gas of
Section-3, Code of technical instructions.
(b) OLTC SURGE RELAY:
The Diverter switch forming part of the on load tap changer is housed in a separate oil
tank the oil of which does not communicate with the oil in the main tank. The diverter chamber
has its own oil conservator. A protective surge relay is provided in between the diverter switch
oil tank and its conservator. Faults in the diverter causes an oil surge which causes the surge
relay contacts (that is connected to trip the circuit breaker/breakers) to close and isolate the
transformer. Refer to subsection 3.04, on-load tap changer of the code of technical instructions.
DIFFERENTIAL RELAY:
This protection covers the complete transformer. This is basically a circulating current
system formed with carefully selected CTs on the primary and secondary sides of the
transformer. The single line diagram in fig.3(a) shows the principle of transformer differential
protection in its simplest form. Assuming the transformer at principal tap and with correctly
matched CTs on either side, no current will flow through the differential path for normal load
conditions or through faults and the relay does not operate. During an internal fault the current
balance is upset and the difference of the two currents flow through the differential path
causing relay operation.
However to apply this principle to the usual three phase transformer, a number of
conditions are to be fulfilled.
(a) Transformer ratio:
The rated currents of the transformer on the primary and secondary sides differ in
inverse ratio to the corresponding voltages. The CTs should therefore have primary ratings to
match the rated currents of the transformer windings to which they are applied.
225
CHAPTER-X
(b) Transformer connections:
If the transformer is connected delta-star, balanced three phase through current suffers a
phase shift of 30C which should be corrected in the CT Secondary leads by appropriate
connection of the CT secondary windings.
Zero sequence current flowing on the star side of the power transformer will not
produce current outside the delta on the other side. The zero sequence component on the star
side must hence be prevented from entering the differential relay by connecting the Current
transformers in delta.
The above two requirements are met in a Delta-Star transformer by connecting the CTs
on the Delta side of the transformer in Star and on the star side of the transformer in delta. If
the transformer is star-star, the CTs on both the sides are connected in delta. When the CTs are
connected in delta, their secondary ratings must be reduced to 1/\3 times (0.577) the secondary
rating of the star connected CTs so that the currents outside the delta may balance with the
secondary currents of the star connected CTs.
(c) Tap changing facility:
The current transformers are selected to balance at the principal tap. Operation at a tap
different from the principal one will create an unbalance proportional to the ratio change. At
maximum through fault current, the spill in to the differential path may be substantial.
Differential protection is therefore provided with sufficient bias to restrain relay operation
against through faults at the maximum tap. refer to fig. 3 (b), (c) & (d).
(d) Magnetizing In-Rush
When a transformer is charged, there is a magnetizing current in-rush. There is no
current on the other-side, the entire Secondary current of CT located on the side from which the
transformer was charged, flows through the differential path. The relay will see this as an
internal fault and operate unless the condition is identified as magnetizing inrush and additional
restraint provided to block relay operation. A typical magnetizing inrush current waveform is
shown in fig.4. This contains considerable second harmonic component, which may be
anything from 20% to 60% of the fundamental depending on the point in the voltage waveform
at which the transformer was energized. The second harmonic component generated may be
maximum when the transformer is energized when the voltage wave is passing through zero.
The second harmonic component is filtered from the current entering the differential path and
used as additional bias to restrain relay operation. Relay operation is usually blocked when the
second harmonic content exceeds 18 to 20% of the fundamental component.
For auto transformers, if the tertiery is not connected to any load, the transformer is
treated as a two winding transformer for differential protection ignoring the tertiery winding.
The protection will however act for faults in the tertiery winding as well.
However if the third winding is connected to a load or supply, it cannot be ignored.
CTs should be provided for the third winding also and suitably connected in the differential
protection scheme Single line diagram illustrating this is given in fig.3 (b) & (c).
226
CHAPTER-X
227
Restraint through current in multiples of rated current
(When the differential current exceeds a certain percentage of the through current, relay
operates. This percentage is settable in the relay. Hence this relay is called percentage
differential relay)
PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY:
Fig : 3 (d)
CHAPTER-X
228
CHAPTER-X
229
CHAPTER-X
The differential relays are provided with a high set instantaneous element for high speed
protection against terminal faults in the transformers. Such faults involve very high fault
currents and if this causes the CTs to go into partial saturation, the resulting harmonies may
slow down relay operation. To take care of such a contingency, the differential relay is
provided with an unrestrained high set element.
Static differential relays of different make are in service in TNEB. The relays usually
have a basic setting and a pick-up of 15 or 20% of relay rated current is adopted. The bias
setting may have certain specific values from 15% and 50% depending on the make of the
relay. Suitable bias setting based on the max transformer tap in percent has to b adopted. The
available setting in the High set instantaneous element may be some specific value from 8 to 20
times relay rated current. The relay operating time may be 30 to 50 milli seconds for restrained
operation and 10 to 20 milli seconds for unrestrained operation. For each make, relay
instruction manual gives features of the relay, settings available, recommended settings, testing
procedure etc., Generally the following tests have to be done.
a) Pick up check
b) Bias check
c) Second harmonic check
d) High set element check
For relay testing procedure see elsewhere on testing of differential relays in this manual.
Class PS CTs are used in differential protection and the CTs are usually provided in
the transformer bushing themselves with the required ratio based on the power transformer
voltage and power rating. The CT secondaries and relays have 1 Amphere rating as per the
present standard practice. As per standardisation the bushing CTs available in the power
transformerws can be used for differential protection without the need for any interposing
auxiliary CTs. Where differential CTs are not available in the power transformer bushings,
external CTs may be provided (with suitable auxiliary interposing CTs if required) for
differential protection. Interposing CTs may be needed when a 5A CT Secondary is to be used
for a 1 Amp relay and to reduce the pilot current to the relay by 1/\3 when 1A rated CTs are
connected in delta.
230/110 KV auto transformers have their own lightning arresters on the HV and LV
sides. To bring the LAs within the zone of protection, external CTs on either side of the
transformer are provided for differential protection though differential CTs are available in the
transformer bushings. If CTs are kept idle their secondaries must be permanently shorted.
The differential protection will correctly act only if the CT ratio, CT polarity and CT-
relay connections are correct. During precommissioning tests, these aspects must be carefully
checked. During precommissioning tests, the CTs must be tested for
Typical Transformer
Magnetizing inrush current wave
( High second harmonic content )
230
CHAPTER-X
Ratio,
Polarity,
Knee point voltage,
Magnetizing current,
Secondary winding d.c. resistance and
Insulation resistance of secondary winding (with 500V meggar only)
Refer to chapter on testing of current transformers else-where in this manual.
Finally and as the last item of check, short circuit test on the transformer at LT mains
voltage is to be done. Along with the short circuit currents on the HV and LV side of the
transformer, the HV CT pilot currents on the three phases, LV CT pilot currents on the three
phases and the differential currents on the three phases must be measured and checked whether
the values are as expected. The test may done at the principal tap and at the maximum tap.
The expected spill current must be available in the differential paths at maximum tap and Zero
or negligible current in the differential paths at principal tap. To facilitate measurement of
these nine values of currents which will be in milli amps, the leads from the CT to the
differential relay must be routed through suitable current terminals with links that can be
opened for current measurement and kept closed normally. See figure 5. Two important
points have to be noted. The neutral of the star connected CTs must be earthed at only one
location and as close to the CTs as possible. The marshaling box in the transformer tank is an
acceptable location for this purpose. The star point of the differential relay must be on the CT
side of the current terminals to facilitate measurement of the differential currents on the three
phases. Check and ensure that except for the above star, there is no other star point in the
differential relay panel or anywhere in the differential relay circuit including the relay.
The above checks through transformer short circuit test is the most important item of
precommissioning test on transformer differential protection and must be carried out carefully
and properly. Otherwise the differential relay may trip under normal load conditions or for a
through fault. There have been many instances of nuisance trippings of the Transformer
differential relay due to improper conducting of this check and in most cases the reason was
that this check was not at all done or was done in an improper way. Once this check has been
satisfactorily completed no further work should be done on the CTs or relays or in the CT-relay
circuitry. Refer Annexure-3, checking correctness of differential CT-relay connection
sequence.
Also see the following figures for current flow in the differential relay for normal
conditions, internal fault conditions and external fault conditions;
Power transformer: Fig 6 (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) & (f)
Auto transformer : Fig 7 (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e)
Also, refer to Practical guide to differential protective scheme to Power Transformer
by Er. A.S. Kandaswamy, CE/Transmission/Chennai.
231
CHAPTER-X
232
CHAPTER-X
ANNEXURE 3
CHECKING CORRECTNESS OF DIFFERENTIAL C.T. CONNECTION SEQUENCE
Tiruchy 110 KV SS. (Date of testing: 23-24/11/1987)
With the Power Transformer-3 (110/11 KV, 16 KVA) differential C. T. Secondary
connections and differential relay connections completed, with the differential relay inserted in
the relay casing in position, the power transformer was put on short circuit. That is, the Power
transformer L.V. Winding and neutral terminals were shorted and 3 phase LT Voltage was
applied to the H.V. terminals. The currents in the differential H.V. and L.V. CT secondary
pilots and in the relay differential path were measured.
Power Transformer tap at No. 17 (+15%)
-do- HV Current : 3.55 A
-do- LV Current : 30 A
Differential CT Secondary currents obtained (milli amps)
Relay: DTH 31, EE Make.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
H.V. CT Pilots Differential L.V. CT Pilots
------------------------------------- ------------------------ ----------------------------
Relay Phase Current 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3.
Terminal
1. 2. 3.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7 R 39 8 R 6 10 R 33
11 Y 39 12 Y 6 14 Y 33
15 B 39 16 B 6 18 B 33
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Power Transformer tap brought to normal and the above currents measured:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7 R 32 8 R 0.6 10 R 32
11 Y 32 12 Y 0.7 14 Y 32
15 B 32 16 B 0.7 18 B 32
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It is therefore confirmed that the differential CT and relay connection sequences are
correct.
(6) IR VALUES: - (Date of test 24.11.87)
Checked with 500V Megger.
(a) IR Values of differential CT
Secondaries including cable leads and relay : 50 meg Ohms
(b) IR Values of D.C. circuits of differential
Relay including cable leads. : 50 meg Ohms
233
CHAPTER-X
234
CHAPTER-X
235
CHAPTER-X
236
CHAPTER-X
237
CHAPTER-X
238
CHAPTER-X
239
CHAPTER-X
240
CHAPTER-X
241
CHAPTER-X
242
CHAPTER-X
243
CHAPTER-X
244
CHAPTER-X
WHEN DIFFERENTIAL RELAY ACTS:
A differential relay is expected to act only for a fault inside the transformer and for
faults anywhere in the differential protection zone. But in the last 20 years, action of the
differential relay for a wrong cause has been predominant in the substations. In fact in well
over 90% of the cases of action of differential relay connected to power transformer, the action
has been for wrong reasons like lack of through fault stability in the relay, lack of stability for
magnetizing in-rush, defects arising in the CT circuits and wrong CT-relay connections. When
the differential relay acts, the transformer is isolated and the MRT/Special maintenance wings
are to be informed. If relay action is accompanied by buchholz relay action, analysis of the gas
collected in the buchholz chamber will confirm whether the tripping is for a fault in the
transformer or not. Even if the buchholz relay has not acted, the buchholz chamber has to be
examined for gas collection and gas analysed if collected. If the differential relay has acted not
accompanied by gas collection, then the MRT branch has to carefully and accurately determine
the reason for differential relay action.
Short circuit test may be conducted on the transformer and the differential CT pilot
currents and differential currents measured. This check will confirm whether there is any defect
in the CT-relay connections including wrong connection or not and action is to be taken
accordingly.
If the connections are healthy and correct and if the differential relay action was during
a through fault and there is no gas collection, the relay would have acted due to lack of through
fault stability. If the relay has acted during charging of the transformer and if there is no gas
accumulation in the buchholz chamber, the relay would have acted for lack of magnetizing in
rush stability. Defects in the relay could also be the reason in the above two cases. Careful
testing of the relay will confirm whether it is defective or not and action is to be taken
accordingly.
If the transformer is found healthy, the differential relay is tested OK and if the CT-
relay connections are healthy and correct and if no specific cause could be attributed to
differential relay action, then the relay may be interchanged with that in the adjacent
transformer to study the future behavior of the relay. If there is no adjacent unit for
interchanging the relays, the relay may be retained in the transformer. However if there is
repeated action of the particular differential relay without any apparent cause the relay may be
replaced and the released relay, referred to the manufacturer.
As stated earlier, action of differential relays in power transformers of TNEB has been
for the wrong reasons in well over 90% of the cases in the last 20 years. So it will be ill
advised to keep a healthy transformer out of service just because the differential relay has
acted. When a transformer is kept out of service for any length of time forcing load
restrictions, the Board loses revenue and a large number of consumers stand of Suffer. The
onus is on the MRT Engineer to give a clear verdict. For this one must be confident and
decisive. Confidence and taking correct decisions come from a good knowledge of the
transformer and a thorough understanding of the various aspects of differential protection and
being meticulous and methodical in executing protection works and having the ability to put the
knowledge gained from experience in to practice. In short the MRT Engineer must know his
job well.
245
CHAPTER-X
The following may be taken as general guidelines on the action to be taken against
action of the transformer differential relay.
CASE (a)(i)
Differential relay operates when a new power transformer is energized. Buchholz relay
may or may not have acted. Gas collection in Buchholz Chamber is present.
Test the gas. If result is positive, declare transformer as defective. If gas test result is
negative, test the transformer. If results are satisfactory, declare transformer as being OK. Test
the differential relay particularly the high set element. If results are not satisfactory, disconnect
and remove the differential relay. Install a healthy relay if readily available after testing it.
Proceed to energize the transformer again. If a differential relay is not readily available, the
transformer may be charged with buchholz protection. If the differential relay test results are
satisfactory, the transformer may be charged with the same differential relay. If it acts again
and the transformer is declared OK, discard the differential relay. If the transformer is charged
OK on the second occasion with the same differential relay, keep the differential relay in for
future observation. If similar behavior is observed in any of the future energisation of the
transformer, the relay can be considered as not possessing magnetizing inrush stability when
conditions at the instant or charging cause maximum inrush current. Relay can then be replaced
and the released relay, referred to manufacturer.
CASE (a)(ii)
Same operation as in (a.i) except that the transformer is an existing one that has been in
service in that station for some length of time.
If gas is present in buchholz chamber, test the gas. If result is positive declare
transformer as faulty. If result is negative, or no gas has accumulated and if there have been
previous operations of the differential relay during transformer energization, consider that the
differential relay does not possess magnetizing in rush stability. Transformer can be considered
as healthy and put back into service. Differential relay may be got replaced at the first
opportunity. If differential relay operation is first occurrence, test the transformer. If OK
disconnect the differential relay and charge the transformer. Then turn attention to the
differential relay. Test it. If not OK, replace it. If OK, put the differential relay back into service
and watch its future performance.
CASE (b)
Differential relay operates during a through fault.
If the tripping during through fault is the first occurrence for the differential relay, If
there is gas collection, test the gas and act accordingly. Even if there is no gas collection
suspect the transformer as well as the relay. Test the transformer. Check the CT pilot and
differential currents, conducting Transformer short circuit test. If OK, test the relay. If relay is
defective, replace the relay. If relay is also OK put the transformer and relay back into service
and watch the relays future behavior. If transformer is OK and relay is OK but CT/differential
currents measured during transformer short circuit test are not OK, check and find out whether
246
CHAPTER-X
any of the CTs is defective and act accordingly. If CTs are OK, check the CT-relay circuits,
locate the problem, attend to it, repeat the short circuit test, confirm that everything is OK and
put the transformer and relay back into service.
(i) If the differential relay has a history of previous operations during through fault, and if
there is no gas collection, consider that the differential relay lacks through fault stability. Put
the transformer back into service. Test the relay. If not OK, replace it. If OK, decide whether to
put the relay back into service or not depending on the number of previous such operations
during through fault. Generally avoid keeping relays with such misbehavior in service and
instead replace the relay with a healthy one.
CASE (c)
Differential relay acts under normal conditions. When the transformer is in service. No
through fault.
If there is gas collection, act accordingly. Even if there is no gas collection, suspect the
transformer, relay, CTs and connections. Concentrate on the transformer first and test it. During
short circuit test check the differential CT Pilot/differential currents. Determine whether the
transformer or CTs or circuits is defective. If one is defective, act accordingly. If the results are
OK, then test the relay. If not OK, release it, put the transformer back into service. Replace the
relay with a healthy one. If the relay is OK and no cause could be determined, transfer the
differential relay in the adjacent transformer to the transformer in question and vice-versa. Act
according to future observations. If this is not possible, if the differential relay action for no
apparent cause is the first occurrence, give the relay another chance. If there is a second
occurrence replace the relay.
The above are to be treated as general guidelines only and not as something to be
followed to the hilt. The idea is that if the differential relay action is not due to any defect in the
transformer or bushing CTs, but due to other reasons the transformer is to be brought into
service at the quickest possible time. To that extent, the above aim of not keeping a healthy
transformer off line for more than the minimum time required the above guide lines are meant
to help the engineer to achieve the above to clear it.
400 KV TRANSFORMERS:
The following protections provided for 230/11KV Auto transformers are provided for
400/230 KV Auto transformers and 400/110 KV Power Transformers also.
a) Buchcholz Protection
b) Differential protection
c) OLTC surge relay
d) Thermal, overload protection (Winding temperature trip)
e) Over current protection in breakers on either side.
247
CHAPTER-X
The following additional protections may also be provided in view of the importance
and very high cost of the transformer.
f) Differential protection based on high impedance.
g) Under impedance relay
h) Overfluxing relay
Power frequency over voltage causes both an increase in stress on the insulation and a
proportionate increase in the working flux of the transformer. Increased flux causes an increase
in the iron loss and a disproportionately great increase in magnetizing current. The spurt in
iron loss can overheat the core. Flux is diverted from the core structure into steel structural
parts. Under over excited core condition, the core bolts which normally carry little flux may be
subjected to a large component of flux diverted from the highly saturated and constricted region
of core alongside the core bolt. Under these conditions of operation, the core bolts can get over
heated rapidly with an adverse effect on their own insulation. If the conditions are allowed to
continue the coil insulation may get affected.
Reduction of frequency has an effect on the flux density similar to that of over voltage.
An over voltage accompanied by lower frequency will be the worst operating condition for a
transformer with regard to over fluxing.
The basic principle involved in over fluxing relay is to monitor V/F and the relay has a
time delay characteristic related to V/F as instantaneous tripping for over fluxing condition is
not required.
CASE STUDY:
1. Defective bushing CTs:
During precommissioning tests on the new power transformer bushing CTs for
upgradation of 66 kv Ayyermalai SS to 110 KV, certain defects were noticed. Report from the
MRT branch to the Distn. Circle S.E is produced below.
Sub: 110 kv Upgradation of Ayyermalai SS New IMP make 110/33-11 kv
Power transformer under erection Bushing CTs Test results defects
noticed Reg.
* * * *
The bushing CTs of the 110/33-11 kv, 16 MVA, IMP make Power
Transformer supplied against Chief Engineer/Transmission P.O.No.854, dt: 18.09.87 and now
under erection at the 66 kv Ayyermalai sub-station were tested by the MRT branch on 10-
14:02:89. Certain defects and deviation from the P.O specification observed are reported
hereunder.
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CHAPTER-X
i). H.V.CTs
A) Backup Protection core
Tested and found satisfactory.
B) Differential protection core, Class PS
The CTs were tested and found satisfactory except for the following deviation
from the P.O specification.
As per the P.O specification, the magnetizing current at VK/4 (VK = knee point
voltage) should be less than 50 milli amps. The actual values obtained are furnished hereunder.
Phase VK measured VK / 4 Magnetizing current at VK/4 in
Milli amps actually measured
U 80 V 20 V 69
V 80 V 20 V 62
W 80 V 20 V 70
ii) L.V. CTS
c) Differential protection CTs (class PS) CT Ratio : 300/0.577 A (For use with 110/33 kv
ratio of Power Transformer)
As per the P.O specification, the minimum knee point voltage shall be as under.
V
k
= 40 I (R
CT
+ R
L
) where,
I = Relay rated current (1 Amp in this case)
R
L
= Lead resistance (1 ohm in this case)*
R
CT
=CT secondary winding resistance.
The test results indicate that the actual knee point voltages are less than the
minimum values expected as furnished here under.
Phase R
CT
I R
L
Min. V
k
V
k
obtained
In ohms in amps in ohms expected actually.
U 1.555 1 A 1 102 V 83 V
V 1.542 1 A 1 102 V 80 V
W 1.556 1 A 1 102 V 93 V
The CTs are otherwise tested and found satisfactory.
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CHAPTER-X
C) Backup protection CTs (class 5P20)
Initially the ratio test results and DC resistance of Phase V CT were not
satisfactory while that of phases U and W were satisfactory.
Later, during the secondary excitation tests, all the three phase CTs
behaved erratically. Even at low voltages the exciting current was jumping, varying when
the voltage was kept steady and shooting up beyond 1A. This wild behavior of these CTs
generally indicates that the inner layer winding insulation of the CTs has given way. All the
three CTs are hence declared defective.
The matter may please be arranged to be taken up with the supplier for replacement of
the defective CTs.
Note:
In response to the above, the differential CTs were replaced by the firm, tested and
found satisfactory in all respects. One of the LV backup CTs was rectified at site and the rest
were replaced by the firm, tested and found satisfactory in all respects.
- R
L
is 2 ohms as per present norms.
2) During the late nineteen seventies 110KV, 10MVA power transformers in service were
provided with static differential relays. Twelve such relays were provided in Power
Transformers in the then composite Trichy Elecy. System. In the early nineteen eighties some
of these relays were acting for magnetizing inrush condition once in a while. The High set
elements in these relays had a setting of 10A. On testing, the High set elements were found
acting for 5 to 6 Amps. The problem was well beyond the guarantee period. However as a
number of relays were involved, the problem was referred to the manufacturer. The
manufacturers Engineer, after examination of the relays at site changed a few resistances in the
relays and the relays were tested and found OK. The suspected resistances in other relays for
which no problem was reported were also changed. The defect in all these cases was that the
original ohmic value of some of the resistances have got changed during service. It was later
learnt that poor quality control in the firm which supplied the resistances to the relay
manufacturing company was the reason behind the ohmic shift in the resistances after just a
few years of service. Since rectification, there had been no further operation of the differential
relays during transformer charging.
In the above cases the relays would have acted whenever the maximum amplitude of the
transient current during the magnetizing inrush period was of very high level. Various factors,
the prime being the point in the voltage waveform at which the transformer was changed would
have determined the maximum transient current amplitude.
250
CHAPTER-X
3) One day in the mid eighties, the differential relay of the 11OKV, 10MVA, Power
Transformer No. 1 at the 110/11 KV Thiruverumbur SS had acted under normal load
conditions. The transformer, differential relay, differential CT and connections were checked
and found satisfactory. There was no apparent cause for the relay operation. The relay in
question and the identical relay in the identical transformer No-2 were interchanged. About a
month later, the same differential relay then in transformer No.2 again acted for no apparent
reason. Definitely there was a hidden problem in the relay, which could not be identified
despite the MRT Wings brain raking session with the relay. The relay was referred to the
manufacturer who wanted it at their works at Chennai for examination. A week later the relay
was returned with the remarks that some defective component in the relay had been replaced
and certifying that the relay was OK and could be put back into service. The relay was
recommissioned in transformer No.2, after testing it and finding it OK. Some twenty days after
its recommissioning, the relay acted again under normal load conditions and again there was
no apparent reason. The usual tests on the relay and CT circuits revealed nothing adverse. The
common factor in the three relay operations was that the relay had acted one to two hours past
noon when the ambient temperatures were about maximum for the day and the season was
summer. The differential relays of both the transformers were housed in a metal box beside the
transformer in the yard. So were the identical relays in ten other transformers in different
substations.
The relay was again sent to manufacturer stating in very clear terms the above common
factor involved in the three maloperations. The relay was returned by the manufacturer giving a
clean chit to it. Obviously they could not locate the hidden cause. The relay was put back into
service in transformer No.1.
About two weeks later, it acted again for the fourth time. Needless to mention that the relay
operation was during normal conditions, about an hour and a half past noon when the yard
temperature was at its maximum for the day. The time for further trials was over and there was
no better option to the MRT Wing than discarding the relay.
The cause for the maloperation of the relay remained a mystery. The MRT Wing was
disappointed that they couldnt unravel it. But then, the relay manufacturer couldnt either and
that was some consolation. One thing was certain. The higher yard temperature past noon that
summer was the trigger, affecting some component in the relay. The static relays are supposed
to perform best in airconditioned environment but then no Electrical Utility in India can afford
to aircondition the control room of a 110KV SS. Whether the relay would not have maloperated
had it been installed in the control room where the ambient temperature would be a few good
degrees lower was a moot point. But the important observation is that all the twelve relays
supplied to Trichy Elecy system were all installed in the yard only and were all in service under
similar conditions without any such misbehavior and some of the relays are still in service now.
There is also no denying the fact that performance wise installation of such static relays in the
control room instead of the yard will be a better choice, despite the slight increase in the burden
due to lengthy cables.
251
CHAPTER-XI
GENERATOR PROTECTION
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
1. Nature of faults and means of production:
1.1 Voltage Surges:
Systems over voltages caused by direct lighting strokes on transmission lines can reach
the generator through the transformer as voltage surges. Station type lightning arrestors and
surge capacitors are provided at the output terminals of the generators for the protection against
these voltage surges.
1.2: Over currents
Due to
External faults in the system

Overloading continuously to meet demand
Unbalanced loading due to unbalanced loads or due to system problems.
Simple over current relays with normal inverse characteristics can be used Normal
pick up value is 1.5 times full load current. Time delay is set to match the thermal capability
(Curve being supplied by generator manufactures) of the generator.
Voltage restraint over current relays which can be regarded equivalent to impedance
relays are better in the sense that the relay will operate more or less independently of current
decrement and act quicker for faults causing reduction of Generator terminal voltage. Voltage
controlled over current relays have two pick up setting one for normal voltage and the
second, a low pick up with a changed pick up and characteristic when voltage goes below say
40%. These relays are most suitable when excitation is derived from the output of the generator
itself, since the excitation will itself will get reduced when generator terminal voltage is going
down, the effect being cumulative.
Generally, this protection is connected to trip the generator breaker only, without
shutting down the Unit.
If this relay is connected in the neutral side, it acts also as a back protection for the
generator itself.
252
CHAPTER-XI
Continuous overloading to meet system demands is monitored by thermal relays or by
specially connected over current relays shown as below:
RTD (Resistance temperature detector embedded in stator core)
O/C Setter
Relay
Coil
I
2
I
R
I
1
Normally, I
1
I
2
110 V I
R
O
PT
Normally, no current is flowing through the relay coil. When the resistance of RTD
increase due to increase of RTD increase due to increased stator temperature, an unbalanced
current is developed through the relay coil to pick it up. The relay has inverse characteristic.
Any contact resistance in relay input finger contacts, wiring terminals could maloperate
the relay.
Suggested to connect for alarm in manned Power Houses.
1.3: Unbalanced Protection:
Unbalance loading could be due to
Opening of one pole of the generator breaker.
Open circuit of one line in transmission systems
This will lead to negative sequence currents in the stator thereby leading to armature
field, which rotates in the opposite direction of the rotor. Hence, double frequency eddy
currents will be induced in the rotor causing temperature rise.
Setting based on the formulae I I
2 2
2 2
t = K Where k - a constant depending upon the
heating characteristic of the machine
253
CHAPTER-XI
t time in seconds
I
2
negative sequence current expressed in
per unit stator current.
Generally,
K = 30 for turbine generator, synch condensers
= 40 for hydraulic generator
If I
2
exceeds 0.25 per unit, alarm acts
If I
2
exceeds 1 per unit, trips the generator
The protective systems consists of a negative sequence current filter feeding a current
relay of I
2
t =K characteristic.
In some cases like Sholayar, an ammeter is provided in series with the over current
relay showing the value of unbalance current for continuous monitoring by the Operators.
Phase to phase faults and phase to ground faults will also be detected by this relay but
other protection will be faster than this relay.
The reason for the more time delay usually adopted is since the source of unbalanced is
in the system and with generators in the vicinity these should not be disconnected unless the
condition remains uncorrected for such a time that there is the danger of damaging the
generator.
The validity of the equation I
2
2
t = K is based on the assumption that all energy
generated by the negative sequence current, is transmitted in the form of heat to the rotor
without any losses to surroundings. In reality, a certain portion of this heat is transferred to the
stator. If the negative sequence current is of continuous nature a thermal balance will be
obtained.
In the case of salient pole generator, the eddy currents occur to a greater extent in
damper windings. On hydro units, these damper windings are in general ably dimensioned and
hence such generators will be able to withstand much higher negative sequence currents than
turbo generators of similar ratings.
Modern, direct cooled turbo generators and salient pole generators without damper
windings can be damaged and must therefore be tripped if the negative sequence current for
any lengthy period exceeds 5% of the rating of the machine.
For some hydro units, the time can be as high as 60 seconds.
254
CHAPTER-XI
1.4 Over Voltage Protection:
Sustained over voltage on a machine might be caused by
- faulty voltage regulator
- sudden load changes in the machine with
manual voltage control. Even system frequency
change could vary the generator output voltage.
Sudden loss load in a hydro generator due to any isolation could lead to 180% over speed
due to slow operating governor and turbine gates. This can cause very dangerous voltage rise if
the AVR is not there. If good AVR is available, the voltage rise could be limited to 1.5% even
for such over speeds.
Protections is by
Armature attracted type with definite time delay (OR)
Inverse voltage relay with pick up around 120%
Instantaneous elements are also used with high
pick up value upto 140%
1.5 Earthing and earth fault protection:
Earth faults normally occur in the armature slots. They are more likely to happen when
there are voltage surges or sustained over voltage at the generator terminals as explained in 1.1
and 1.4. Maintaining the AVR in good working condition can save many stator windings from
damage.
The damage at the point of fault in the core is directly related to the selected current
rating of the neutral earthing impedance i.e. to the earth fault current quantity. With fault
currents less than 20 A negligible burning of the iron core will result if the machine is tripped
within some seconds. See Fig. 1. The repair work then amounts to replace the defective coil
only without restacking the laminations.
If, however, the fault current is more, severe burning of the core will be the result,
NECESSITATING RESTACKING OF LAMINATIONS, a much more price. Even when a
high-speed earth fault differential protection is used, severe damage may be caused, owing to
the large time constant of the field circuit and the relatively long time required to completely
suppress the field flux.
Some of the grounding methods are discussed below:
a) Ungrounded systems Not in practice in T.N.E.B.
b) Resistance grounding system Used in old stations
like Singara and Moyar. Protection is by over-current
relays in the neutral.
c) Neutraliser ground systems OR Peterson coil:
255
CHAPTER-XI
256
CHAPTER-XI
The total systems capacitance to ground is cancelled by an equal tuned inductance
connected in the neutral in which case the current in the fault point is zero but there will be
current through the neutral inductance to enable to have a protection relay (Voltage relay)
across the inductance.
d) P. T. earthed System
A voltage relay across the P.T. secondary gives the earth fault protection.
e) Distribution transformer grounding:
This is mostly used. A distribution transformer is introduced between neutral point and
ground. The secondary is shunted by a resistor. This is in fact a high resistance grounded
system. The resister is to prevent the production of high transient voltages in the event of arcing
earth fault, which it does by discharging the bound charge in the circuit capacitance. For this
reason, the equivalent resistance in testator circuit should not exceed the impedance of the total
summated capacitance of the three phases. In other words, the resistive component of the fault
current should not be less than the residual capacitance current.
Earth fault protection can be obtained by applying a relay to measure the transformer
secondary current OR by connecting a voltage measuring relay in parallel with the loading
resistor.
Typical examples:
XC = Total capacitance per phase of generator winding
surge protection capacitor, lighting arrester
generator connections, Generator transformer (LV)
= 0.227 F
257
CHAPTER-XI
Total residual capacitance = 3 x C = 3 x 0.227 F
10
6
10
6
Total residual capacitive impedance = =
3eC 314 x 0.681
= 4680
Value of effective resistance needed in the neutral is 4680
[250]
2
Hence, value of R =4680 x ------- = 0.9 O
[18000]
2
This is the total resistance required, the total transformer winding resistance and
generator winding resistance, expressed in terms of the secondary circuit, should be deducted to
obtain the value of loading resistor.
Third harmonics present a problem and the relay design should take care of this.
90 to 95% of the stator can be covered by this protection.
It is better to grade the relays with the fuses of Generator line P.Ts.
If frequency dependent relays are used, the coverage at low frequencies during starting
will be reduced.
1.6 100% Earth fault protection:
In cases of large machines of 200 M.W. and above, a 100 percent stator earth fault
protection is advisable. The reason for this kind of protection is due to the mechanical damages
resulting from the insulation fatique, creepage of the conductor bars and bolts coming loose
near the neutral point, vibrations of the conductors OR other fittings of the cooling systems
which have been thought to have been responsible for the earth faults near the neural point.
There are other forms of earth fault protections which work on the basis of artificial
displacement of neutral point OR measuring third harmonic content in the generator voltage.
Yet another dependable 100% earth fault protection scheme monitors the whole stator winding
by means of a coded signal current continuously injected in the generator winding by a
corresponding coupling transformer. This scheme provides protection in any mode of operation
standstill, running up OR down and normal operations covering 100% of the winding
effectively.
258
CHAPTER-XI
1.7 Phase Faults:
Since the insulation in a slot between coils of different phases is atleast twice as large as
the insulation between one coil and the iron core, normally phase faults are rare. If occurs, large
currents flow and enormous heat will be developed leading to fire some times. Modern
machines are normally equipped with cast-resin OR similar non-flammable insulating materials
and the use of CO2 is hence not required in such machines. Phase faults normally occur on the
overhanging end portion of stator coils. If they occur in a slots of two coils, the faults will
involve earth in a very short time. If they occur in end portion, fault currents will not flow via
the core and the laminations will not be damaged. The repair work may therefore be limited to
affected coils.
Differential relay is the one used to protect against phase faults. It does not protect the
machine against earth faults in the case of high resistance or distribution transformer or P.T.
grounding of neutrals where the fault currents are limited and may not reach the pick up value
of differential relay. This relay will not protect turn to turn faults also, which will be dealt with
later.
Various kinds of the differential relays are
a) High impedance voltage differential relay:
The relays are connected between the phase and neutral leads of the paralleled CTs. For
external faults, the voltage across the relay will be low, as the current circulates between the
two sets of CTs and no current flowing through the relay. For internal faults the fault currents
must pass through each CTs exciting branch and the high-impedance, voltage relay, so that the
CTs are saturated for most faults, producing high voltage to operate the relay. During periods
when CTs are saturated by D.C. component of fault current, the AC input produces no further
flux change and there is no output. Under these conditions, the inductance of the winding
disappears and the winding appears as a resistance equal to the copper resistance only.
It follows that it is the maximum voltage required to operate the relay rather than its
current setting which determines the stability level which will be attained with given CTs. It is
seen that saturation of current transformers is permissible and correct reproduction of primary
current is unnecessary provided a satisfactory voltage setting is adopted for the relay.
High-speed relay operation is achieved by the use of CTs with saturation voltages of not less
than twice relay setting voltage.
b) Biased Schemes:
In this arrangement, the relay is fitted with two coils comprising one operating coil and
a restraint coil carrying a current proportional to any current flowing through the protected zone
producing a restraint on the relay.
259
CHAPTER-XI
During through fault conditions, the relay receives a restraint not present in the case of
an unbiased relay and consequently proportionately more current can be permitted in the
operating coil without the risk of relay operation.
APPLICATION TECHNIQUE OF DIFFERENT RELAYS:
a) Identical current transformers shall be used at both ends to minimise mismatch.
b) It is preferable not to connect any other equipment in the differential circuit.
c) It can be seen from theoretical considerations that one of the largest factors affecting overall
performance is the C.T. lead burden. This should be kept at a minimum by keeping the
cable route to the minimum, avoiding of two many terminal connections and links.
Paralleling of CTs in the scheme can be done nearer to the switchgear if possible and only
the leads of the operating circuit taken to relay panel.
d) The same neutral side CTs can be used for overall Generator transformers differential
protection in case there are no constraints.
e) Pick up at as low as 2% and a slope of 10% with 4 cycles time are normally recommended
with identical CTs in biased scheme. For higher rated machine, pick up at 1% with one
cycle operating time are recommended.
1.8: Generator Transformer Overall Differential Protection:
This is normally fed from CTs on the generator neutral side and on the H.V. side of the
set-up transformers. Also, if a stepdown station service transformer is connected to the
generator terminals this may be included in the overall protection by using CTs on the L.V. side
if unit size is small as the machine is tripped one way or another via governor oil low pressure
on the loss of station transformer.
This relay must have a restraining feature which can prevent maloperation during
magnetising in rush surges. There are opinions that harmonic restraint for these relays are only
optional as the voltage on the transformer is slowly built up. But, inrushes will also occur when
a nearby fault occurs on an adjacent feeder. During the time of fault, the terminal voltage of the
transformer fault is practically zero and at the instant of feeder fault clearance, i.e. when the CB
of the faulty feeder open, the transformer terminal voltage quickly rise causing severe
magnetising inrush currents.
These relays should always have biased schemes.
Earth fault protection of the generator may cover the transformer primary.
Bigger transformers of 50 MVA and above, have REF protection also for high voltage
winding.
Detailed description of transformer protection mentioned under transformer protection
are applicable to generator transformer also.
260
261
CHAPTER-XI
1.9: Interturn faults and Split-phase differential relay:
This protection senses turn to turn faults. It will also detect lamination failures as the
reluctance is altered and the unbalanced current between windings increases. It may also
respond to rotor shorts.
The generator differential protection described in the previous paras does not detect
inter-turn faults. Even if there is an inter-turn fault in one phase winding, there will be
circulating current inside the shorted turns path but the current at both ends of the phase
windings will be same and there will not be differential current.
There are several kinds of other inter turn protections which is not in the scope of this
manual.
1.10: ROTOR earth fault:
A single earth fault in the rotor is not very serious. Development of another fault is
serious. Hence only alarm provision for this relay is generally provided.
The conductivity of the bearing oil film and the capacitance of the filed winding are the
main aspects to be cared for. A grounded carbon brush can be provided to ride on the shaft to
combat the oil film resistance.
1.11: Some of the other protections are:
a) Loss of prime mover power:
Reverse power relays are must for turbogenerators. In Francis hydro turbines, this relay
is needed to avoid churning of water.
b) Pole slip protection:
Normally provided in bigger turbo generators for protection against out of step
operation or pole slipping.
c) Over-speed Mechanical devices are more dependable.
d) Under voltage protection is normally used in induction generators.
1.12: Loss of excitation:
When the excitation to a generator is lost suddenly, the flux does not immediately reduce to
zero since the machine is a highly inductive one. The reduction of the flux causes the rotor to
move to a larger angle so that the machine can put out the turbine kilowatt input and at the
same time, the decreased flux causes a reduction in the VAR output till it reaches zero and then
increases negatively. The terminal voltage drops rather slowly reaching a value of 70% in 5
seconds.
Fig. 2 shows the results of a test done in a machine with the use of a digital computer in
1954.
262
CHAPTER-XI
The rotor moves further to a larger angle and the synchronous machine finally slips past
the first pole, there is an abrupt acceleration of the rotor and power output decreases abruptly.
Due to this acceleration, there is an oscillation in the real and reactive power flow. Increase in
speed makes the governor to lower the input of primemover. The machine approach the action
of an induction generation but it will never reach the condition same as the induction generator
because the quadrature and direct axes sub-transient and transient paths are different. If the
system is large comparing with that of the machine, the system voltage will not decrease too
much and the excitation can be restored to the machine in trouble. If the system voltage has
decreased excessively, the machine must be tripped.
Continued operation of a generator without excitation will cause damage to the rotor,
the end fingers of stator, stator winding, all by excessive heating. The pull out limits of other
machines also get reduced. Round rotors in generators without amortisseur windings get more
over heated.
A generator can run safely above synchronous speed with zero excitation for about 2 to
3 minutes. In this time, the operator can detect a loss of field from panel meters and take
corrective action. But, it is preferable to have a protection.
Relays which operate at a specific value of field current do not give a full coverage
through under current relays which are used in some places.
The most selective type of loss of excitation relay is a directional distance type
operating from A.C. voltage and current at the main generator terminals. When excitation is
lost, the equivalent generator impedance traces a path from the first quadrant into a region of
the fourth quadrant. By encompassing this region within the relay characteristic, the protection
is accomplished.
Impedance relay in combination with a directional element can be used. Offset MHO
type is largely used. Fig.3 shows the operating characteristic on a R-X diagram. The offset
O.C. is approximately equal to half the direct axis transient reactance of the generator and O.D.
is equal approximately to the direct axis synchronous reactance. The offset O.C. is necessary to
prevent the operation of the relay for power swings.
Fig. 4 shows the terminal impedance locus. Ref: An article Loss of field protection
for generators By Sri. K. Srinivasaraghavan, superintending Engineer and Sri. E.S. Narayanan,
Assistant Engineer published in TNEB Journal June 1960.
263
CHAPTER-XI
264
CHAPTER-XI
265
CHAPTER-XI
PROTECTION OF SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSERS
These units usually operate as an unloaded motor to supply capacitive reactance to the
system. Protection is similar to Generators. The loss of field excitation relay settings should be
set with its operating circle to enclose an impedance seen at the terminals with zero excitation.
Operation to supply capacitive reactance will operate the distance unit, but tripping is
supervised by the voltage unit. No protection exists for inductive reactance in to the system
(over excited) as the directional sensing unit is open and the distance unit may or may not be
operated.
Ref: Protective relaying by
J. Lewis Blackburn.
PROTECTION OF MOTORS:
Motors must be protected against overload, unbalance supply voltage, electrical
winding faults bearing fail.
SMALL MOTORS:
Single phasing cannot be detected by a set of voltage relays connected across lines.
Since, even when one supply phase is dead, the motor maintains substantial back emf on its
faulted phase terminal to prevent dropping - off the voltage relay.
Comprehensive protection for overloading, single phasing and unbalanced supply
voltage are available in one single relay of certain companies.
3.3: LARGE MOTORS:
3.3.1 BEARINGS
Practically there is not good protection for Ball/roller bearing failures. O/L relay,
temperature relay, vibration detectors etc. cannot give foolproof protection.
Thermal detection devices work well with sleeve bearings.
OVERHEATING OF WINDINGS:
A rough estimate shows that insulation life is halved for each 8C rise in continous
operating temperature Negative sequence currents produce as much as three times the heating
produced by equal positive sequence current. Even 5% negative sequence voltage can produce
30% negative sequence current.
Overload relays cannot detect single phasing since line current under a single-phase
condition is 87% of 3 phase stall condition. Negative sequence relays can easily detect single
phasing.
266
CHAPTER-XI
- Relays should employ Heat Sink principle which can produce a thermal replica of
the motor accurate thermal protection assumes increase importance.
- Split phase protection can detect inter turn faults.
- Phase faults protection can be by differential.
- Ground fault of winding can be protected by differential protection, ground fault relay
residually connected CTs or by core balance C.T.
OTHER PROTECTIONS BEING IN PRACTICE ARE:
- Protection against reverse rotation
- Pull out protection for synch motors
- Damper winding thermal protection
- Protection against sudden restoration of supply to avoid the possibility of the supply
being restored out of phase with motor generated voltage.
- Under power and reverse power protection
- O/V and U/F protection
- Rotor winding protection.
Ref: 1. GEC measurements
2. Some notes on squirrel cage induction motor protection for abnormal conditions by Mr.
J.R.S. WILKIE, English Electric, Canada.
267
CHAPTERXII
UNDERFREQUENCY RELAYING AND LOAD
SHEDDING
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
- Load shedding is essential in emergencies to keep the system in tact.
- Effect of under frequency operation of system
- Boiler outputs reduce due to reduction of draft fan speed.
- 10% reduction in speed of feed pumps reduces output by 30% and hence
reduction of turbine generator output.
- Cooling effects of generators get reduced and hence affects the thermal limits.
- Stator voltage is proportional to speed of generator and hence MVAR output
decreases, desinged output is not feasible.
- 10% reduction in frequency reduces turbine capacity by 0.9%. Low frequency
operation may result in vibration and probable resonance of low pressure blades
leading to blade fatique.
- Pull out torque of induction motors is inversely propertional to squre of
frequency.
- 10% reduction in frequency will increase the operating time of protection relays
by 10%
- Instrument errors increase
- Accuracy of energy meters adversely affected
- Transformer core losses increase
- 10% reduction of frequency 10% reduction of KVAR output of capacitors.
- reactive power consumption increases in ballest lamps
- 10% of frequency reduction increases 16% of consumption of reactive power in
air conditioners and 63% in T.V.Sets.
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION DURING DECLININGFREQUENCY:
When there is a sudden loss of generation due to any tripping of large generator, the
system frequency immediately drops. If the tripped unit is compartively small, the system is not
affected.
If the tripped generator or loss of generation power is large, effect is serious. If there is
sufficient reserve spinning governors take up the problem.
If there is not sufficient spinning power, the frequency will go down depending on how
much generation was lost and how much was system demand.
268
CHAPTERXII
If the frequency declines much, some other generators provided with under frequency
protection to protect their machine also trip and the effect is cummulative and the system may go
black out.
If some load shedding is done when the frequency declines sufficient to keep the
frequency in limits, the system will survive. This kind of load shedding is automatically done by
the use of under frequency relays.
Soft ware package are available now-a-days to exactly arrive at the settings of these
relays in stages and if properly set and put into effect without manipulations, the system stability
will be well within the safety.
If the automatic load shedding is not effected properly, the stability of the system will
certainly be under question.
Normally the under frequency tripping scheme control wrests with the local operating
people. If trip links are provided in this system, there are possibilities of keeping the trip link
open due to the known reasons but the implications of such an action will now be understood
clearly, it is hoped.
Ref: Philosophy of under frequency relaying
Article by Er. R. Venkataraman,
Assistant Engineer,
Office of the S.E/T/E.
Published in TNEB Engineers Association bulletin
U/F SYSTEM PROTECTION IN TNEB AS ON APRIL 2001
To get separated from Southern grid during disturbance the following inter-state feeders
are tripped with RPF and Under Frequency relay combination.
1) 400KV Sriperumbudur cuddapah will trip at 100MW (Export to cuddapah) when
frequency is at 48 Hz with time delay of 0.5 sec.
2) 400KV Salem Bangalore will trip at 300MW (Export to Bangalore) When
frequency is at 48Hz with time delay of 1.0 sec.
When these 400KV feeders get tripped the TNEB with Kerala system
gets separated from Andera Pradesh and Karnataka.
II If frequency is not improving due to Generation Load mismatch, Load release
through Under frequency relays set at 47.8 Hz/Inst is obtained. Selected 110 KV feeders would
trip on Under Frequency relay to effect a load relief of about 650 MW.
III On further decline of frequency persisting sub islanding schemes to get following
block islanding will be effected.
269
CHAPTERXII
a) ETPS (combined with BBGTPS) Block:
Under this block two conditions viz.. with or without Generation in BBGTPS are
envisaged. The feeder in this block would be tripped at47.6 Hz/ 0.75 sec. When there is
no Generation at BBGTPS additional relief of Padi SS & Sembium SS is added. Operator
on duty at ETPS act depending on availability of Generation at ETPS to match the load in
the block.
b) GMR Vasavi Diesel Generation Plant Block:
This block would get separated at 47.6 Hz/0.75 sec. In this block islanding also,
two conditions ie.. for 180 MW and 100 MW generation level at M/S GMR plant are
envisaged. When Generation drops to 100 MW, additionally at chindaripet would be
tripped.
c) NCPTS (Combined with TCPL Generation) Block:
At 7.6 Hz/2 sec, the NCTPS (Plus TCPL) will go with base loads according to
Generation in two stages viz.. i) When generation at NCTPS is less than 450 MW with
TCPL Generation. This block will have Korattur, Koyambedu, Kadaperi., Tharamani,
Mosur loads according to the two conditions of Generation level.
House load operation of two units at 47.5 Hz/3 sec. Is restored. Also one unit will
go on H/L at 52 Hz/1 sec.
d) Neyveli Thermal Power Station Block:
(Generation 1700 MW load 664 MW). This islanding scheme operates at 47.6
Hz/2 sec with Generation @ TS1 & TS2 and selective 110 KV & 230 KV feeders of
Cuddalore, Perambalur, Deviakurichi, Villupuram 230 KV, Villupuram 110 KV and
Eachengadu Substations for base load. All the 400 KV feeders at TS2 will be connected
to under Frequency trip at 47.6 Hz/2 sec. The excessive Generation in this block will be
reduced by running selected units on H/L. The scheme will be supervised by Neyveli
Authorities.
e) Mettur Thermal Power Station Block:
(Generation 800 MW Load 612 MW) this block too gets islanded at 47.6Hz/ 2
Sec. This block will have Salem, Mettur, Singarapet, Hosur, Thiruvannamalai and Erode
loads as base loads.
House load operation is not possible for these units due to design problems.
270
CHAPTERXII
f) TTPS Hydro Block :
This block gets islanded at 47.6 Hz/2 Sec. Under three conditions viz., i) 5
machines availability @ TTPS plus Hydro area Generation ii) 4 machines availability @
TTPS plus Hydro area Generation iii) 3 machines availability @ TTPS plus Hydro area
Generation. Depending on load Generation study the feeders that are tripped at 47.6 Hz/2
Sec. Separately for the above three conditions are communicated.
Apart from this certain other feeders at 47.6 Hz/3 sec. Are tripped to offset
additional load within the islanded zone.
Under Frequency relay on Aliyar Power House to automatically change the
machines from condenser mode to Generator mode at 47.6 Hz/0.5 sec. Is installed.
House load operation of machines 4 & 5 in TTPS is set at 47 Hz/5 secs.
iv) Since MAPS will go on H/L at 47.78 Hz at 4 sec. Itself separate islanding is
not provided for these machines.
Kalpakkam units are connected for H/L. In stage I unit auxiliary loads of 24 MVA
will be transferred to Generator at 47.78 Hz/1 Sec. At 47.78 Hz/4 sec the unit will go on
H/L.
271
CHAPTER-XIII
POWER-LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION
Er. M. Arunachalam
EE / GRT
INTRODUCTION:
The Power Line Carrier Communication terminals are created and commissioned at
various substations. The values for the required characteristic input and output quantities for the
system are to be followed as per 1) IEC Recommendation 495-1974 and as per Indian Standard
IS 9482-1980. The tests on the terminals are to be done as per the method indicated in Indian
Standard IS 10706-1983 of latest versions.
Units and levels & Measurement methods:
The units are in Decifal, and terms used in the system are Attunation, composit loss and
Return loss. The PLCC systems is functioning in the range of 30 KHE-500 with maximum
power lost in line. The receiving equipments has little effect on transmitting end the losses are
expressed db-attenuation
Power Line: Xdb = 10 log P1/P2
Absolute power level Xdbm = 10 log P/1mw
Relative power level Xdbr = 10 log P/P ref.
Voltage level Xdb = 20 log V1/V2
Current level Xdb = 20 long I1/I2
(When the scalar ratios of currents or voltages are the square roots of the corresponding power
ratios.).
1 Mw in 600 ohm
= 0.775V
= 1.291ma.
COMPOSIT LOSS:
The input of stem having impedence Z is fed by a source with internal impedence Z1, the
composit loss in Decibel is given by 10 times log 10 Ratio of power PO meet the source would
give upto an impedence Z1, to the power P it sends through the system to its terminating
impedence Z2.
Composit loss = 10 log10 P0/P dB.
Insertion loss:
10 log10 P1/P2 dB.
Where P1 is the power available to the system without the insertion of a network.
P2 is the power at the output with insertion of network.
272
CHAPTERXIII
MISMATCH LOSS:
10 log P0/P dB
Number of decimals by which the power in the load in the matched conditions would exceed the
power actually flowing in the load.
RETURN LOSS:
10 log
10
Po/Pr dB.
Number of decibels by which the power in the load in the matched condition would exceed the
reflected (Return) power with connection to be actual load.
INTER MODULATION:
In a non-linear Network to which two or more sinusoidal signals are applied
simultaneously, a series of additional sinusoidal signal will arise, there are all Harmonics and
inter modulation produces of the applied signals.
Among the inter modulation produces of two signals = m1 t1 + m2t2, the old order
products, the two 3 order products frequencies (2 f1+f2) and (2f2-f1) are harmful, being closes to
f1+f2.
Measurement of Impedence.
V1/V2 = R+1x1/R ; V1/V2 = 10 P1-P2/20
1x1 = R. 10 P1-P2/20 R
Ex: h = 0d
B
. P2 = -43.5 dB
R = 1r
1x1 = 10
43.5/20
= 150r.
Insulation level of Line Trap:
Residential voltage by nominal discharge
0.5mH 31.5 5.4
Front-of-wave Impulse
Sparkover voltage of the arrester
P
1
dB
V
1
O
O
V
1 X 1
P
1
dB
273
CHAPTERXIII
Peal : 26 KV
Insulation levels of Tuning device and Line Trap.
Typical factory impulse voltage: 90 KV
Impulse Test voltage of L.T. 75 KV
Front of wave impulse spark over voltage of arrester .. 62 KV
The performance of Line Trap can be assessed in terms of its EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE.
Tappling loss of a line trap is a measure of the loss of power sustained by carrier frequency
signal due to the finite blocking ability of the line trap. It is defined in terms of the ratio of the
signal voltages across an impedence equal to the characteristic impedence of the line with and
without shunt connection of the line trap. It is expressed in decibels (db). Rating of the Tapping
Loss::
The value of the tapping loss as determined by the shunt connection of the resistance
component only of the line trap impedence. (Tapping loss based on blocking resistance).
Tapping Loss::
Due to R+jx = 10 log (1+0.25+N)/N
2
+P
2
db
Where N = R/Z & P = 1 x 1 /2.
Due to R only 20 log ( 1 + 1 /2N) db
Due to 1x1 only 10 log (1+0.25/P
2
) db
Band width of line trap
That frequency band V f1
Within which the blocking impedance does not fall short of a specified value.

OR
That frequency band V f2 within which the tapping loss does not exceed a specified value.
Rated band width:
Bandwidth expressed in terms of
Rated blocking impedance or rated tapping loss
V f1N or V f2N.
274
CHAPTERXIII
V f1N Band width expressed in terms of rated blocking impedence.
V f2N Carrier frequency band within which the rated tapping loss does
not exceed a specified value.
BLOCKING REQUIREMENTS:
Permissible variation of the blocking impedence and tapping loss quantities should be
within the band width of the line trap.
A maximum loss of 2.6 db for both tapping loss and rated tapping loss this corresponds to
Line trap blocking resistance 1-41 times the characterisitc impedence of the transmission line.
TYPICAL CASE:
Line trap blocking resistance: 570 ohms.
Transmission line characterestic impedence of a single conductor phase to earth impedence
400
TEST ON LINE TRAPS:
Type Tests
1) Measurement of inductance of the main civil.
2) Measurement of Temperature Rise
3) Insulation tests.
4) Short time current tests
Routine tests
Measurement of blocking impedence
Measurement of tapping loss.
Measurement blocking impedence

2b
By means of a bridge method from which Resistance and Resistive and Reactive components
may be read off.
Measurement circuit.
Measurement of Tapping Loss(A7)
275
CHAPTERXIII
2L I
V
0
At = 20 log (V1/V2) dB
Z are resistors equal to characteristic impedance of the line.
V
1
= V
O/2
V2 = V
Coupling capacitor of coupling Device coupling capacitor and compiling device from a carrier
frequency filter for efficient and connection of CF currents to high voltage line. High frequency
characteristic of coupling capacitor.
Equivalent series resistance 40 r
Stray capacitance of Low for CC
voltage terminal 200 pf and for CVT 300+0.05 Capacitance
Stray conductance of low 20 pvs for CC
voltage terminal 50 pvs for CVT
High frequency current to with stand atleast 1A ( )
value of current equival
to a power of 400 w for a terminal resistance 4400 ohm.
ROUTINE TESTS:
1. Capacitance at power frequency
a) in the standard tem. range for testing.
b) at rated power frequency
c) at sufficient low voltage to ensure No internal breakdown.
2. Voltage tests
a) Duration 1 min.
b) Test voltage between high voltage and earth terminals.
c) Low voltage terminal shall be earthed.
3. A.C. test voltage
Value corresponding to insulation level.
4. D.C. test voltage
Value twice the RMS value of the AC test voltage.
3
4
L
2L
G
V
}
}
276
CHAPTERXIII
5. Test between the low voltage and earth terminals.
AC voltage of 10 KV RMs.
Duration 1 Minute
6. Capacitance and tangent of the loss angle after the voltage tests.
a) at Rated voltage
b) at Rated frequency.
Measured capacitance shall not differ from the rated value by
more than 5% + 10%
Tangent of the loss angle.
Limits of permissible variation subject to agreement.
The purpose of measurement is to check uniformity of production.
Typical value less than 0.5 x 10
-3
Coupling Device :
Coupling Device is connected together with coupling capacitor The turning of the coupling
capacitor is to component of the coupling capacitor.
Impedence; in order to promote the efficient transmission of carrier frequent signals.
Turing device:
It matches the impedence between the power line carrier frequency connection.
TRANSFORMER
Galvanic Isolation between primary and secondary terminals of the coupling device to drain to
earth of the power frequency current devived by the coupling capacitor.
DRAIN COIL:
If limits the volt ge surges coming from the power line at the terminals of the coupling
device.
LIGHTING ARRESTORS:
Direct and efficient earthing of the system when necessary of the primary terminals of the
coupling device.
Carrier freq. requirements.
277
CHAPTERXIII
composite lost : not more than 2 dB
Return loss : preferably not less than 12dB
Nominal line 200-400 ohm
side impedence phase to earth coupling
400-700 ohm phase-phase coupling
Nominal equipment 75 ohm (unbalance)
sideimpedence 150 ohm (Balanced)
Destoration and Inter modulation Atleast 80 dB Below peak envelop power
INSULATION REQUIREMENT
Power freq. Level 5 Kvrms 1 min. isolation Transformers
Impulse level To with stand 1.2/50 impulse voltage 10 KV (peak)
(Peak value equal to twice the value of the impulse sparkover value of
the main Arrestor.
TESTS ON COUPLING DEVICE (ROUTINE/ACCEPTANCE)
1. Composit loss
2. Return loss
3. Power Freq. voltage test
MEASUREMENT OF COMPOSIT LOSS.
Z2
21 N V
0
V
CF
Generator.
Loss = 20 Log 10 V0/2v 2 dB.
278
CHAPTERXIII
MEASUREMENT RETURN LOSS.
CF Generator
Return loss: 20 log (V
1/
V
11
) dB
V
1
is the voltage measured by the Web meter (V) with switch closed.
V
11
is the voltage measured by the voltmeter (V) with switch
The line boide and equipment side return loss shall preperably he not less than 12dB.
In certain cases values less than 12 dB may require to be accepted.
DISTORTION AND INTER MODULATION TEST
Apply to the secondary terminals of the coupling device, two generator, set on two different
frequencies conveniently located within the available bandwidth of the coupling device, Measure
across an impedence equal to the line side impedence connected to the primary side by means of
test capacitor, two signals are obtained, whose power is equal to one generator of the nominal
peak envelop power. Power frequency test of Isolating transformers.
Power fre. voltage of 5 KVrms for one min.
C
J
Z1
2
2
G
V
0
V
T
C f Generator 21
G G
F
1
F
1
Selective c f
receiver
279
CHAPTERXIII
TEST ON DRAIN COIL:
Measurement of Impedence at power frequency.
Impedence at power frequency between the primary terminal and the earth terminal as
low as possible and in no case in excess of 20 ohm.
The frequency bandwidth, within which the composite loss does not exceed and the
return loss does not fall short of the specified values.
For coupling devices ICE REC 495 (1974) mentions for line side and equipment side
Impedence. A return loss greater than 12 dB Referred to the normal values, but impractice this
figure may be difficult to achieve.
For PLC terminals IEC REC 495 (1974) specified a Return loss greater than 10 dB
referred to the nominal value of carrier frequency impedance.
C.F. CONNECTING CABLE:
150 ohm balanced
Electrical characteristic
Resistance Max 23.4 ohms
Insulation Resistance Min. 10,000 M. ohm/km
Test voltage 50 H 2 min.
wire-wire 500 VRMS
wire-shiled 4000 V RMS
Mutual capacitor 31 n /km
Earthing at equipment end
Eliminates power freq. current circulation.
May cause high voltage across the wdgs of the coupling transformer which will need to be
designed for this duty. Maintenance personnel will need to take precaution against the possibility
of potential differences during faults, between cable screen and thelocal earth.
B) Coupling device ad carrier terminal not part of same earthmesh.
Earthing at earth potential differences may be high in the case of a fault and the circulating
currents in the screen may be dangerous.
Earthing at equipment end only the common practices to earth only the one side to the screen at
the carrier equipment end. By use of Balanced cables some of the above problems can be
avoided.
280
CHAPTERXIII
APPLICATION OF PLCC SYSTEM
Analogue signals of frequency variation type.
Speech
Signals
Teleprotection
Telecontrol
Teleprinting
and Telefax.
As per IEC 495, IS 492, CC, TT Dissortion per 1 H droft in FSK Channel N 0.5 at 200 Bd.
Possible utilisation 4KH
Speech 300-2400 H
Pilot 2400-2700 V
Signals - 2700 H 3660 H
V.F. Band 0.3 - 3.7 KH
Speech 0.3 - 2.4 KH
Dial tF6 2.58 KH
Signals 2.76 37
IF Freq. 16.45 KH
IF Band 12.7 16.15 KH
As approved by a national Authority the carrier frequency range
40 KH 500 KH
Basic carrier frequency Band
for a single one way channel 2.5 KH, 4 KH
Nominal CF Band.
Band for a particulars one way PLCC channel.
e .g. 2.5, 2, 7.5, 10 kh
4, 8, 12, 16 KH
Nominal Impedence 75 r unbalanced
At CF output 150 r balanced
281
CHAPTERXIII
RETURN LOSS
10 dB R/2 = 1.925
Nominal C.F. Power is the permissible Emission power for which the equipment is designed
comparable with the requirements for superiors emissions available at CF output acc resistance
load equal to nominal load impedance. Mean CF Power averaged over a time sufficiently long
compared with the cycle time of the lowest modulating freq. During which average power
assures its highest value.
Ratio between PEP and manpower depends all factors in multiple signal. Speech level,
with or without compressor. No type and level of signals, may be assumed to be between 8.5 &
10 ds. under normal service condition speech levels (Relatine)
Four wire
Transmit Receinee
Range of 0.60-17 dBr. 3.5 to + 8 dBr.
Suggestion
-3.5 dBr 3.5 dBr.
-14 dbr + 4 dbr
Two Recommendation
Transmit 0 dbr
Receive -7 dbr.
Balanced Normal Impedence 600 R
Return loss
Not less 14 db
Group delay distortion:
Suggested limits
300 3400 HZ CCITT M - 10 20
300 2400 HZ
Group delay distortion of a pair of transmitting and Receiving PLC Terminus for data
Transmission where speech channel is used for data transmission.
For 300 3400 HZ
Starts 500 HZ - 3ms
600 HZ - 1.5ms
1000 HZ to 2600 HZ - 0.5ms
2800 HZ - 3ms
For 300 2400 HZ
500 HZ - 3ms
600 HZ - 1.5ms
1000 to 1900 HZ 0.5ms
2100 HZ - 3.0ms
282
CHAPTERXIII
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL :
For a variation of CF input signal level of 30 db, the U.F receive level speech/signal
varies of db.
LINEARITY :
As a function of UF input level over all loss of the speech circuts not differ by more
than + 0.3 dbr from overall loss at 0 dbmu.
For any input level between 10 dbm & 0 dbmu
Example 800 HZ
- 3.5 dbm - -3.5 dbm )(
- 5.5 dbm - -5.5 dbm )( 0.3db
- 8.5 dBm - -8.5 dbm )(
- 11.5 dBm - -11.5 dbm )( +0.3Db
- 13.5 dBm - -13.5 dbm )(
Limiter action :-
Increase in VF signal level of +15 dBm. Increase in CF output level must be +3 dBm.
Noise generated within the terminal weighted Telephone noise not be exceed 60 dBm
op.Noise generated within the terminals has limited significance, as under operational
conditions , the corona noise is dominant, in the order of 40 dBm op under operational
conditions a more realistic value is 55 dBm op.
CROSS TALK:
Due to signal channels, either individually or collectively the system shall not give rise to
a weighted disturbance power in the speech circuit of more than 60 dBm op.
Signalling input and output , the pulse distortion should exceed 5ms.
VOLTAGE REQUIREMENTS:
Power supply : DC; 500V DC 1 mohm
(both terminal connected together and earth )
1000V 1.2 /5 pulse for terminal not isolated from earth.
AC 2000V ms power frequency 1 min both terminals connected
together and earth .
CF input and output terminals ; terminals isolated from earth, 2000V ms power frequency 1 min.
Both terminals connected together and earth Terminals not isolated from earth
3000N 1.2 /50 pulse
CHAPTERXIII
283
V.F Signalling and Alarm
Free from earth. 500V DC 1 min.
VFT channels its frequency and Tolerences :-
Channel Number
CCITT Recommendation R35 R37 R38 A
Nominal Modulation Rate 50 100 200 Bd.
Capacity of Homogenous 24 12 6
VFT channels in a standard
Carrier system with 4 KHZ spacing ;
Lowest mean frequency 420 480 600 HZ
Higher mean frequency 3180 3120 3000 HZ
Permissible deviation from the
Frequency at sending end 2 3 4 HZ
Difference between two characteristic
Frequency in the same channel 60 120 240 HZ
Maximum in PLC system :- 3 4 6
Noise in PLC system :-
Mainly caused by the power system operation..
Two main type of Noise : Substained white moisse like voltages (Random noise). Irregular
discharges across insulators and conductors. (Carona and brush discharge)
Impulse type noise:-
Shortsparks and bursts of high amplitude caused by,
1. Operation of Isolators.
2. Operation of breakers.
3. Short circuits.
4. Flash over
5. Atmospheric discharges.
Interference caused in PLC system due to HVDC system.
Other PLC system :
Sources external to power systems
Maritime Aeronautical system
Broad casting service.
System operating in MF and IF bands.
Reuse of me PLC frequencies:
284
CHAPTERXIII
Reuse at a geographically spaced distance which ensures a level difference of preferably 60db
between the useful signal and disturbing signal.
dB, dBm, dBu
10 log p1/p2 dB
20 log v1/v2 dB
Abritute Levels
1mw = 0 dBm
U = 0.7751 = 0 dBu
40 dBm 10W 600 ohm 77.5V + 40 dBu
+40 dBm 10W 150 ohm 38.7V + 34.0
+40 dBm 10W 75 ohm 27.4V + 31.0 dBu
Standard Limits for transmission quality of Data transmission. One of the most important factor
affecting the data transmission quality is the distortion in time of the significant instances
(known as telegraph distortion).
The degree of signal distortion must be kept within certain limits, the ultimate objective
being that the degree of distortion on received signals should be complaiable with the merging of
the receiving equipment.
The distortion limits,
600 Bands leased circuits - 20 - 30%
1200 Bands leased circuits - 25 - 35%
Degree of tolerable distortion (%)
Modulation rate 50 Bd 100 Bd 200 Bd
Channel spacing 120 HZ 240 HZ 480 HZ
Inherent inochronum
distortion with normal
reception level 5 % 5 % 5%
Incase of slow level variation
of +8.7 dB to 17.4 dB with
respect to normal reception
level 7% 7% 7%
Inpresence of interfrence
by a single wave freq.
equal to either of two
characteristics frequencies
with a end of 20 dB below
the signal level of the
test channel. 12 12 10
With introduction of a
frequency of the
signals. 5 5 5
285
CHAPTERXIII
Distortion in a data channel causes Loss / Frequency distortion group delay distortion
Variation with time in over all loss
Random circuit Noise
Phase filter
Single tone interference
Frequency error
Harmonic Distortion
Text distortion due to white Noise
VFT FM 240 100 Bd
Channel level 17.5 dBm
For a Noise level of 24 dB.
For 50 Bd distortion is 12.5%
100 Bd distortion is 20%
Text distortion due to frequency distortion.
48 HZ 13.5%
-8 HZ 13.5%
Distortion in series connected VFT channel for 120 50 Bd.
For 4 Nos. of Series connected VFT channel,
For the normal level distortion will be 7%
If the level is above normal, the distortion varies minimum for 4 Nos 8%
Where as for a reception level below normal about 17.4 dB.
4 Nos. of Series connected
VFT channels, distortion becomes 12%
Distortion in FSK channel due to frequency change of 1 HZ
For 120 50 Bd 2.08 %
240 100 Bd 1.04 %
480 200 Bd 0.52 %
600 600 Bd 0.31 %
Limits for maintenance of Telephone type circuits for Data transmission Telegraph distortion
limits.
Leased Switched
300 Bd 20 25 20 25 %
600 Bd 20 30 25 30 %
1200 Bd 25 35 30 35 %
Bit error rate (max) Leased Switched
300 Bd 5 10
-5
10
-4
600 Bd 5 - 10
-5
10
-3
1200 Bd 5 10
-5
10
-3
286
CHAPTERXIII
PERIOD OF MEASUREMENT IS 15 MIN
Block Error Rate:
Example: Period of measurement = 15 min
No. of Bits transmitted = 1080000
Length of sequence = 511 Bits.
No. sequences transmitted = 2113.
Maximum Permissible line loss:
Total loss planning
Value as per IEC 5 dB.
Dielectric loss in capacitance, loss in coupling devices, loss in CF cable, loss in carrier
sets operating in parallel. (0.5 1.0 dB (IEC)).
PEP = 1010 =40 dBm
Coupling loss at Max. Permissible Min.Permissible S/N Noise
One line end line loss line loss Ratio level
Min. of 2 HZ
132 KV 5 dB 43 dB - 8 dBm 25 - 33dBm
220 KV 5 dB 33 dB - 2 dB 25 - 23dBm
400 KV 5 dB 23 dB + 12 dB 25 - 13dB
Power alocation in a multi purpose PLCC system is determined by the following properties of
the sub channels.
Noise band width.
Required signal to Noise Ratio.
Method of modulation.
Assumption.
Sum of voltages of individual sub channels at carrier frequency is equal to the voltages
corresponding to the PEP. of the transmitter. The speech limits rise is 0 dB. For is used for all
signal channels. operating range for all sub channels should be the same.
S/N ratio for speech 25 dB
for signalling channel 15 dB.
Noise power in a sub channel is proportional to its Noise Band Width.
Allocation of power in various sub channels of PLC terminals for speech plus signals without
teleprotection.
Criteria: Power proportional to Noise band width in AM channels, (Speech and Pilot)
power in FM signalling channel 6 dB lower than in equal Band width AM
287
CHAPTERXIII
channels.
Sub channel Noise Band Power Voltage Level relative
Width HZ Ratio Ratio to speech
Speech 2100 2.5 10 0 dBn
Pilot dial 80 1 2 - 14 dBn
For 120 (50Bd) 80 1 - 20 dBn
For 240 (100Bd) 160 2/4 1.5 - 17 dBn
For 480 (200Bd) 320 4/4 2 - 14 dBn
Calculation of Required Level In Speech Channel.
Level in speech
+
Sum of all sub channel, equ. Channel mn
= dBm (max) 20 Log - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -
Equ. channel No. for speech
dBu (max) = Voltage level corresponding to PEP of transmitted.
PLc terminal level: 10 WATT PEP
40 dBm PEP
34 dBm / 150 n
Example of calculation
Sub channel Eq. channel No.
Speech 10
Pilot 2
-------
12
-------
Speech level = 34 20 log 12/10
= 32 4 dB/150 n
Level Pilot = -14 dBr to speech
= 18.4 dB/150 n
NOTE:
Channel No. Channel specimen Type of medulator
Amplifier Frequency
001 024 120
151 165 170
301 308 360
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CHAPTERXIII
Power Allocation:
Pr = PPEP 20 log (nsi Bsi/Br + BZS/Br + Brc/Br + A.Bs/Br)
Pr = Signal level of Reference Channel dBm.
PPEP = Peak envelope power dBm.
B = Noise Band width CHz.
Fs = Tel. Sig. Channel.
Rl = Reduced carrier.
A = 10 without compander.
1 with compander.
R = Reference channel.
Example:
PEP = + 40 dBm
Operation mod : Speech only
Suppressed carrier 300 2400 Hz.
Pr = 40 20 log (80/80 + 10 x 2100/80
= 15 dBm
with reduced carrier
Pr = 40 20 log (80/80 + 200/80 + 10 x 2100/80)
= 14.52 dBm.
Example:
PEP = 40 dBm
Operation mode : Speech + Data
300 to 2400 Hz
1-Sub channel 200 Bd
2-Sub channel 100 Bd earth
Suppressed Carrier.
Pr = 40 20 log (80/80 + 320/80 + 2 160/80 + 10 x 2100/80)
= 13.14 dBm
Reduced carrier
Pr = 40 20 log (80/80 + 320/80 + 2 160/80 + 200/80 + 10 x 2100/80)
= 12.54 dBm
Line Alternation:
Several modes of carrier signal propagation take place simultaneously on a multi
conductor line.
Main Characteristics of Natural Modes:
Each mode has its own specified propagation loss, Velocity and characteristic impedance.
The modes are independent of each other. The phase voltage at any location is the sector
sum of the phase mode voltages at that location, similarly the phase current is the vector
sum of the mode currents.
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NUMBER OF MODES:
3 modes in the case of single circuit line with 2 earth wires grounded at each tower.
7 modes in the case of double circuit line with one insulated earth wire.
Coupling arrangements should be chosen that the above transmitting power of lower loss
mode.
For practical coupling arrangements, such as phase to earth, phase to phase or inter circuit
coupling, the transmitting power is generally injected in the form of a mode mixture, part of it
much high loss (ground) ground mode, this resulting in a certain model conversion loss.
Line Alternation line
+ = L
11
+ 2 ac + aadd
aadd : Additional loss caused by discontinuities e.g., Coupling
circuit, transposition etc
L1 : alternation constent of lower loss mode
f
= 0.07 ---------- + 10.7 dB / pam
dC n
f = Frequency in KHZ
de = Diameter of phase conductor (nm)
n = Number of phase conductor in bundle.
Approx. + 10 % Upto 300 KHZ : + 20 % Upto 500 KHZ
Line Voltages above 150 KV
Earth resiotivity around 100 300 rm.
Additional alternation due fault distance.
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CHAPTER-XIV
HV AC TEST
By R&D
SOME DETAILS ON DIELECTRIC TESTS:-
The dielectrics break down due to several factors like increased voltage application,
temperature, the age of dielectric materials, presence of moisture and other contaminants.
When an arc is struck through an insulation, say of generator, it punches a pinhole
through the material. The result of the pinhole may not be felt immediately and an arc may
continue without causing damage for some time. Internal damages which take place in voids in
the dielectric erode electrical insulating materials causing serious damage. At sometime minor
faults can cause a short circuit causing considerable damage and may be leading to major shut
downs.
The following are some tests used for assessing insulation properties:
a) IR value measurement with meggers, P-I value tests (10 min to 1 min value)
b) Hipot tests (D.C and A.C):
RECOMMENDED TEXT VALUES ARE:
I. GENERATORS: (1 MIN. TESTS)
a) A.C tests for new winding or coil - 2E + 1
Subsequent test - 80% of first test.
Old machines - 0.6 (2E + 1)
Where 0.6 is the derating factor.
b) D.C. tests
A.C to D.C Conversion factor of 1.4 may be used.
i.e 11 KV A.C = 11 x 1.4 KV D.C.
c) Example I: 11 KV Old m/c: A.C Hipot value = {(2x11)+1}x0.6 = 13.8KV
d) Example: 11 KV old Gen. D.C hipot test
Value = {(2x11)+1}x0.6x1.4
=19 KV
e) Cables. (1 min)
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CHAPTER-XIV
A.C TESTS.
New Cables 2.5 x Uo Where Uo is the phase to neutral KV rating of cable.
If the Cable is 11/6.35 KV
test value = 2.5 x 6.35
If the cable is 11/11 KV (normally used in generators)
test value = 2.5 x 11 = 27.5 KV
D.C TEST:-
A.C to D.C conversion factor of 1.4 may be used. An abstract of CIGRE report 28.8.1988
given below will be interesting to go through.
The necessity for such a A.C voltage test level is since the m/c phase to Neutral voltage
may reach (1.2 x 11 KV) When a m/c is separated from grid due to some valid reason the m/c
voltage may reach 1.2 times the ratio voltage. If an earth fault occur in one phase of cable the
voltage in other phase of the Gen. may go to 11 KV to neutral in high impedance earthed
generators. The gen should withstand this value.
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293
*CHAPTERXIV
294
*CHAPTERXIV
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CHAPTERXIV
C) Tan delta and Capacitance tests on generators
For a good insulation the Capacitance is almost constant at all voltages, but for insulation
containing voids, the capacitance value increases with increase in voltage due to discharge in
void. Tan delta test is a sensitive test for delection of moisture content, voids, crack and
deterioration etc. Any steep value in the tan delta indicates some abnormal condition. Absolute
values are not useful generally. Comparison with previous test results help.
There is a correction between increase in loss tangent (tan delta) and capacitance with
voltage and the energy dissipated in discharging voids.
D) The other tests available are partial discharge test and 0.1 HZ test.
SCOPE:
This covers the high voltage AC test conducted on equipments at site to measure the
leakage current.
APPLICATION:
This test is done on the stacks of 110 KV & 230 lightning Arresters, at rated voltage.
PERIODICITY:
The test is done at the time of commissioning, thereafter yearly.
TEST PROCEDURE:
TEST CIRCUIT:
V
A
L
N
Varia Voltmeter
HV Testing
Transformer
Specimen
Under test
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CHAPTERXIV
Test equipments
HV Testing Transformer 220V/60 KV, 600 VA
Ammeter 0-10 mA with resolution of 0.1 mA
Voltmeter 0-250 V AC
Variac 230 V/0-260, 5A.
The Lightning Arrester to be tested is completely isolated both from supply end and from
ground.
The connections are given as shown in the circuit diagram. The voltage is applied
gradually on the LA under test using the variac, keeping an eye on the ammeter & voltmeter
readings. The leakage current readings are noted at say 30%, 60% & 100% of the MCOV rating
of the Arrestor. Care should be taken not to exceed the MCOV. The Voltage should be reduced
as soon as MCOV is reached. Normally the test is done on each stack separately.
Precautions:
The IR value of the LA is to be tested before conducting the HV AC test.
While testing individual stacks of a LA, it should be ensured that the stack is not kept on
the ground while testing.
The test voltage should not exceed the MCOV values for any stack. The HV leads from
the HV testing Transformer should not be very close to conducting surfaces and adequate
clearance shall be maintained.
Significance of the Test:
A surge arrestor normally acts as an insulator to normal system conditions, hence this
insulation property is, as in any insulation system, subject to certain deterioration.
Hence a power frequency leakage current test at the rated voltage of the Arrestor is a
practical field test to determine the condition of arrestors in service.
Results and Analysis:
The leakage current values have to be interpreted on a comparative basis, emphasis is on
variation from earlier recorded values than on absolute values. However a limit value of 3 mA is
taken as a criteria. Also, the leakage current value at rated voltage should not exceed the
minimum level recommended by the supplier. The readings are to be used more as trend analysis
for detecting deterioration/degradation in the Arrester components.
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CHAPTERXIV
Reference:
TNEB Code of Technical Institution/1990.
HV DC Test:
Scope:
This covers the high voltage DC test conducted on equipment at site to check the voltage
withstand capability and the leakage current.
Application:
The test is done on equipments, in which HV AC test cannot be effectively done due to
high capacitance and consequent power requirement of the testing apparatus.
Typical applications include test on Generator Stator Coils, H.T. motors, Cables, Busbars
etc.
Periodicity:
Normally the test is done after overhaul, recommissioning as per field requirements.
Test Procedure:
Test Circuit:
HV Testing
Transformer
HV
To
Specimen
t
Variac
ce
A
L
N
R
C
Ammeter
Diode
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CHAPTERXIV
Test equipments:
HV Testing Transformer - 220 V/60 KV, 600 VA
Diodes - HV Rectifier Diodes
Ammeter - 1 mA 10 mA Range
Variac - 1 phase, 5A
If the test specimen is a HT motor, the 3 phases of the stator winding terminals may be
shorted together and the High Voltage lead should be connected to it. If test can be done on
separate phases, the same may also be done. The HVDC is to be applied gradually, preventing
any overshoot of the ammeter. The leakage current may be measured at the rated voltage after
about one minute.
In the case of cables, while conducting the test on one phase, the other two phases in a 3
core cable should be earthed.
Precaution:
The HV DC test must be done only after conducting the IR value test (with a 5 KV
megger) and only if the IR value is found satisfactory.
As the capacitance of the specimen, would be normally high especially in the case of
cables, proper care should be taken to sufficiently discharge the specimen after the test.
Results and Analysis:
The normal leakage current values would be in the range of 0.05mA - 0.5mA.
Dissolved Gas Analysis test:
Scope:
This covers DGA test of Transformer oil samples using Gas chromatography technique to
detect and quantify dissolved gases in the oil.
Application:
The test is applied in case of HV Transformers mainly to detect incipient faults that may develop
inside the Transformers and generally to diagnose the condition of the Transformers in service
and to suggest future action.
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CHAPTERXIV
Description:
The Transformer in service is subject to electrical & thermal stresses resulting in
liberation of gases from the hydrocarbon mineral oil used in the Transformers. Cellulose (paper
insulation) also is involved in the formation of gases, which are dissolved in the oil. Gases may
be formed, due to natural aging and also as a result of faults. Basically, the mechanism of gas
formation in oil includes oxidation, vapourisation, insulation decomposition, oil breakdown etc.
An assessment of these gases, that are dissolved in the oil, would help in diagnosing the internal
condition of the Transformer. Operation with a fault may seriously damage the equipment and it
is useful to detect the fault at a very early stage of development.
In the case of fault, its type & severity may be inferred from the composition of the gases
and the rate of gas formation. In the case of incipient faults, the gases formed are partly dissolved
in the oil, hence periodic analysis of oil samples for the amount and composition of dissolved
gases forms a means of detecting faults.
DGA involves the following steps:
(a) Sampling of oil
(b) Extraction of gases from the oil
(c) Analysis of the extracted gases using gas chromatograph.
(d) Calculation of concentration of gases in PPM.
(e) Interpretation of results.
Periodicity:
The DGA is done on all power/auto transformer of 110KV class & above on yearly basis
and on special occasions warranted by service conditions. In the case of new Transformers the
test is recommended one month after commissioning and thereafter yearly. A DGA test one
month before expiry of the guarantee period of the Transformer is also recommended.
TEST PROCEDURE:
Equipment used:
(a) The Gas extraction plant consisting of magnetic stirrer, vacuum pump, mercury reservior,
degassing system.
(b) Gas Chromotograph.
(c) Output unit namely Integrator and PC
The Gas Chromatographic system consists of a carrier gas stream supplied by a gas
cylinder, a sample inlet /injection port, a chromatographic column, detectors, and an output
recorder.
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CHAPTERXIV
The carrier Gas Nitrogen obtained from cylinder is passed through flow regulator to the
column. The carrier gas passes through the sample inlet system where it picks up the sample to
be analysed. The carrier gas sweeps the sample being injected into its stream and enters into the
column where the separation takes place.
Absorption columns are used for the separation of gaseous mixtures. Molecular sieves
Poropak Q type absorbents are used to separate CO, CO2, H2 gases. Silica gel type absorbents
are used to separate hydrocarbon gases.
Detectors (Flame Ionisation and Thermal conductivity detectors) are used in detecting the
Gases and works on the principle of thermal conductivity (TCD) of the gases and the electrical
conductivity of gases which have been partially ionised The FID is used for hydrocarbons and
the TCD for atmospheric gases like CO, CO2, & Hydrogen.
The Gas extraction plant is first evacuated with the help of the rotary vacuum pump.
When sufficient vacuum is achieved, oil is let into the degassing vessel and stirred till complete
degassing is achieved. Using the mercury column, the evolved gases are compressed to the
known volume.
The Gases are drawn by means of airtight syringes and injected into the Gas
Chromatograph, after the Gas Chromatograph is properly set up with carrier Gas etc. The
detection and quantification of gases take place in the Chromatograph. The Chromatograph is
calibrated by means of a standard gas mixture containing a suitable known amount of each of the
gas components to be analysed to establish the calibration curve and retention time. An
Integrator connected to the output of the Chromatograph gives the proportional area in units for
different gases. The method of calibration involves measuring the area of each peak and
retention time, identifying the gases corresponding to each peak by comparison with the
chromatogram obtained by calibration & obtaining the gas values in PPM. The PPM values of
the gases are calculated by comparing with standard gas values and the quantity of dissolved
gases in PPM is than calculated for each gas.
Precaution:
The samples must be collected, labeled, stored, Transported and tested with proper
sampling, storing and testing procedures to obtain accurate results.
Analysis & Interpretation:
There are several methods for interpreting the results of the DGA test. Firstly a check is
made by comparing the concentration levels with levels that are permissible in a healthy
Transformer depending upon the service age of the Transformer. These permissible
concentration levels for gases are tabulated, for reference.
Then, in case of higher gas levels, than the permissible levels, or in cases where gas
levels show abnormal increasing trend from previous recorded values, the Rogers method of
diagnosis or the 3 ratio method prescribed in IS 10593 may be used for interpretation.
Reference:
IS 1866, IS 9434, IS 10593, CPRI Publications.
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CHAPTERXIV
LIMITING VALUES
IS 1866 1983
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TEST EQU. VOLTAGE METHOD LIMIT
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ELECTRIC STRENGTH, Min 145 KV IS : 6792 50
KV < 145 72.5 KV 40
< 72.5 KV 30
WATER CONTENT 145 KV IS : 335 25
PPM, Max < 145 KV 35
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE ALL V IS : 6103 0.1
@ 90, 10 E 12 Ohm-Cm Min
TAN DELTA 145 KV IS : 6262 0.2
@ 90, Max < 145 KV 1.0
ACIDITY ALL V IS : 1448 0.5
Mg KOH/g, Max
I F T, N/m, Min ALL V IS : 6104 0.015
FLASH POINT Min ALL V IS : 1448 125 or
Deg C, Min Max. decrease of 15
SEDIMENT AND/OR ALL V IS 1866 NIL
PRECIPITABLE SLUDGE
PERMISSIBLE GAS CONCENTRATIONS
GAS <4 YEARS 4-10 YEARS >10 YEARS
1 HYDROGEN 100/150 200/300 200/300
2 METHANE 50/70 100/150 200/300
3 ACETYLENE 20/30 30/50 200/150
4 ETHYLENE 100/150 150/200 200/400
5 ETHANE 30/50 100/150 800/1000
6 CARBON MONOXIDE 200/300 400/500 600/700
7 CARBON DI OXIDE 3000/3500 4000/5000 9000/12000
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CHAPTERXIV
Furan Analysis Test:
Introduction:
Paper is the major solid insulant in Transformers. While there are a number of tests to
monitor the condition of the oil in the Transformer, till recently there was no practical technique
available for condition assessment of the solid insulation in the Transformers.
A new testing method has emerged in which condition of solid insulation is assessed by
analysing the degradation of products of cellulose paper called furanic compounds using High
Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) or any other suitable equipment.
Application:
The test is specially applicable to Transformers that have put in more than 10 years of
service life and also in cases where the involvement of cellulose is suspected in faults that have
been detected irrespective of service age of Transformers.
Furan compounds:
Furanic compounds commonly referred to as furans, are products of degradation of
cellulosic materials and are dissolved in the oil. The furanic compounds that are detected.
quantified and analysed are
2 Furfural dehyde
5 Hydroxy methyl 2 furfural
2 Acetyl furan
5 Methyl 2 furfural
2 Furfural alcohol
of these 2 furfural dehyde is found to be the most commonly monitored furan compound.
Periodicity:
The periodicity for this has not been established but it is suggested that a reference test
value for all Transformer in the 10
th
year of service and yearly testing from the 15
th
year onwards
may be adopted presently.
Test Procedure:
Equipments:
Equipments such as High Performance Liquid Chromatograph, visible range spectrometer are
used in Furan Analysis. However the HPLC is the standard equipment used.
Method:
(a) Furanic compounds in the oil samples are extracted from a known volume of test
specimen.
(b) A portion of the extract is introduced into an HPLC system equipped with a
suitable analytical column & UV detector.
(c) Furanic Compounds in the test specimen are identified and quantified by
comparison to standards of known concentration.
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CHAPTERXIV
Result and Analysis:
The furan compounds are analysed on a trend basis. The concentration levels are
compared with previous values and the assessment of solid insulation as healthy, initial stage of
degradation, failure levels etc are made and appropriate action taken.
Reference
IEC 1198/1993
ASTM D 5837-95
CPRI Publications.
Transformer oil tests:
(a) Electric Strength (BDV)
Scope:
This covers test on oil samples of Transformers, which are inservice and use uninhibited
insulation oils and complying with the requirements of IS 335 when filled new.
Definition:
The voltage at which the oil breaks down when subjected to an ac electric field with a
continuously increasing voltage contained in a specified apparatus. The voltage is expressed in
KV.
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformers of any rating and switch gears.
Periodicity:
The test is done on an annual basis along with all other oil characteristic tests and more
frequently if condition of the oil/equipment warrants. However the BDV of oil samples from
Transformer of all voltage class & from OLTC shall be tested on a quarterly periodicity,
separately with locally available test kits.
Test procedure:
The test is done with a test cell, made by glass or plastic, which shall be transparent and
non-absorbent, with an effective volume of 300 to 500 ml and preferably a closed one. The
electrodes are mounted on a horizontal axis and shall be 2.5 mm apart.
The test procedure is begun by adjusting the sphere gap of the electrodes accurately by
the use of 2.5 mm gauge (supplied with the kit).
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CHAPTERXIV
Initially some of the oil from the sampling container is poured out to clean the tip of the
sample container. The test cell shall be cleaned by rinsing with the test oil twice before filling the
test oil for the test. The oil, then, should be poured gradually, avoiding formation of air bubbles.
The oil is filled to a height of 40 mm from the axis of electrodes. The test cell with oil is
then placed in the testing unit. A period of 5 minutes is allowed for the oil to settle. Then voltage
is applied at the rate of rise of 2 KV/second. The voltage is thus increased to a value where the
oil breaks down and the corresponding voltage is noted. The test is carried out six times on the
same oil sample filling with intervals of 2 minutes. The Arithmetic mean value of the six
readings is taken as the BDV of the oil sample.
Precaution:
The sample must not be exposed to atmosphere and should be as near to the actual oil in
the Transformer as possible, in all aspects..
The sample container may be shaken upside down to get a homogenous sample for test.
The container electrodes etc may be rinsed thoroughly with test sample, prior to the
commencement of the test.
Results and Analysis:
The test values are interpreted as per IS 335 for new oil and as per IS 1866 for oil in
service.
For oil in service the limit values are as follows:
Equipment voltage Limit (Minimum)
145 KV and above 50 KV
Between 72.5 KV and 145 KV 40 KV
Less than 72.5 KVA 30 KV
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866, IS 6792
(b) Flash Point:
Scope:
This covers test on oil samples of Transformers, which are inservice and use uninhibited
insulating oils and complying with the requirements of IS 335 when filled new.
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CHAPTERXIV
Definition:
It is the temperature at which the oil gives off so much vapour that this vapour, when
mixed with air, forms an ignitable mixture and gives a momentary flash on application of a small
pilot flame under the prescribed conditions.
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformer of all ratings.
Periodicity:
The test is done on an annual basis along with all other oil characteristic tests and more
frequently if condition of the oil/equipment warrants.
Test procedure:
The test equipments used are pensky-martin closed cup apparatus, thermometers and
variac.
The cup is cleaned well by rinsing twice with the test oil. Oil is filled upto the marking
provided and is placed in the test apparatus. The oil is heated and from about 100C onwards, a
small pilot flame is used to ignite the mixture and the temperature at which this mixture gets
ignited is noted and recorded as the Flash-Point.
Results and Analysis:
Minimum limit is 125C or maximum decrease of 15C for all voltage class.
Reference:
IS 335. IS 1866, IS 1448
(c) Neutralisation Value (Acidity)
Scope:
This covers test on oil samples of Transformers, which are inservice and use uninhibited
insulating oils and complying with the requirements of IS 335 when filled new.
Definition:
It is the measure of free organic and inorganic acids present in the oil. It is expressed in
terms of the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the total free
acids in one gram of the oil
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformers of all rating.
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CHAPTERXIV
Periodicity:
The test is done on an annual basis along with all other oil characteristic tests and more
frequently if condition of the oil/equipment warrants.
Test Procedure:
The materials used for the test are indicator bottle containing universal indicator with PH
value of 4 & 11, clean, dry glass test tubes and a color chart calibrated with neutralisation
number values.
The test procedure is, 1.1 ml. of sampling oil to be tested is accurately pipetted into a
clean dry test tube. To this 1 ml of Isoprophyl, alcohol. 1.0 ml of 0.0085 N Sodium Carbonate
solution are added. Then, to this five drops of the universal indicator are added and gently
shaked.
0.0085 N of Sodium Carbonate solution is prepared by dissolving 0.085 N of Sodium
Carbonate in 10ml of distilled water to get 0.0085 N of sodium carbonate solution.
The resulting mixture develops a color depending on the PH value of the mixture. This
color is compared with the standard chart, which gives the approximate neutralisation value
ranging from 0 to 1.0.
Results and Analysis:
Maximum limit for all voltage clause is 0.5.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866,
(d) Specific Resistance (Resistivity)
Scope:
This covers test on oil samples of Transformers, which are in service and use uninhibited
insulating oils and complying with the requirements of IS 335 when filled new.
Definition:
It is the ratio of the dc potential gradient in volts per centimeter paralleling the current
flow within the specimens to the current density in amperes per square centimeters at a given
instant of time and under prescribed conditions. This is numerically equal to the resistance
between opposite faces of a centimeter cube of the liquid. It is expressed in Ohm-centimeter.
307
CHAPTERXIV
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformers of all ratings.
Periodicity:
The test is done on an annual basis along with all other oil characteristic tests and more
frequently if condition of the oil/equipment warrants.
Test procedure
The equipments needed for the test are million megohm meter, oil cell, oil cell heater.
The oil is heated upto 90C and 500 V d.c. applied, and after one minute the megohm
indicated is noted and the Resistivity value is calculated with appropriate multiplication factors
and cell constant.
Results & Analysis
Minimum limit is 0.1x10^12 Ohm-cm at 90C for all voltages.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866, IS 6103.
(e) Dielectric Dissipation Factor (Tan delta)
Scope:
This covers test on oil samples of Transformers, which are in service and use uninhibited
insulating oils and complying with the requirements of IS 335 when filled new.
Definition:
It is the Tangent of the angle (delta) by which the phase difference between applied
voltage and resulting current deviates from 1/2 radian when the dielectric of the capacitor
consists exclusively of the insulating oil.
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformers of all ratings.
Periodicity:
The test is done on an annual basis along with all other oil characteristic tests and more
frequently if condition of the oil/equipment warrants.
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CHAPTERXIV
Test procedure:
The equipments required are Dielectric constant test kit, oil cell, oil cell heater.
The oil cell is thoroughly rinsed with the sample oil to be tested and about 35 ml of oil is
taken in the cell and heated to 90'C. Then 500V AC is applied to the terminals of the oil cell. The
Tan delta bridge is balanced by adjusting the potentiometers to get null deflection. The Tan delta
value obtained is recorded.
Results & Analysis:
The maximum limit for Tan delta at 90'C is 0.2 for voltages of 145 Kv & above and 1.0
for voltages below 145 KV.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866, IS 6262.
(f) Interfacial Tension:
Scope:
This covers test on oil samples of Transformers, which are in service and use uninhibited
insulating oils and complying with the requirements of IS 335 when filled new.
Definition:
It is the force necessary to detach a planar ring of platinum wire from the surface of the
liquid of higher surface tension that is upward from the water-oil surface. It is expressed in
dynes/cm. or N/m.
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformers of all ratings.
Periodicity:
The test is done on an annual basis along with all other oil characteristic tests and more
frequently if condition of the oil/equipment warrants.
Test procedure:
The apparatus required are tensiometer, fine platinum ring, glass beakers.
Before starting the test, all glass beakers are cleaned with isoprophyl alcohol and acetone.
The platinum ring is also cleaned with isoprophyl alcohol & acetone. The tensiometer is placed
in a horizontal plane.
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About 20-25 ml. of distilled water is taken in the sample container and is placed on the
adjustable platform of the tensiometer. The platinum ring is suspended from the tensiometer. The
adjusting platform is raised till the platinum ring is immersed in the water to a depth not
exceeding 6 mm and at the centre of the glass beaker.
Now gradually, the platform is lowered, increasing the torque of the ring system by
maintaining the tension arm in the zero position. As the film of water adhering to the ring
approaches the breaking point, slow adjustment is made to ensure that the moving system is in
the zero position when rupture occurs. The surface tension of the water is noted. The value is
normally 71 to 72 dynes/cm.
Now the tensiometer scale is brought to zero and the adjustable platform is raised until
the ring is immersed to a depth of about 5 mm in the distilled water. The sample oil to be tested
is poured slowly along the walls of the beaker over the distilled water. The platform is slowly
lowered, increasing the tension of the ring system. The IFT is the scale reading at which the ring
breaks free from the interface.
Results & Analysis:
The minimum limit for all voltage is 15 dynes/cm.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866, IS 6104
(q) Water Content:
Scope:
This covers test on oil samples of Transformers, which are in service and use uninhibited
insulating oils and complying with the requirements of IS 335 when filled new.
Description:
This test is for the determination of water content usually in the range of 0-75 ppm in the
oil.
The Karl-fisher method is used. The method is based on the reaction of water with Iodine
and Sulphur-di-oxide in Pyridine/methonol solution.
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformers of all ratings.
Periodicity:
The test is done on an annual basis along with all other oil characteristic tests and more
frequently if condition of the oil/equipment warrants.
310
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Test Procedure:
The materials required for the test are methanol with less than 0.02% water content, Karl-
fisher Reagent, Titration vessel.
The titration vessel is made moisture free.
The Karl fisher Reagent and the methanol are taken in the two sides of the burette to
levels. A certain quantity of methanol is allowed in the test vessel. The pointer will show end
point as water. The electro magnetic stirrer should rotate at a speed of 150-300 rpm. Karl Fisher
Reagent is allowed into the vessel to neutralise the water. When all the water is separted, the
pointer will show Karl Fisher Reagent-O'. A known quantity of water say 20l is introduced with
a syringe. The pointer will once again show water indication. Steadily and gradually the Karl
Fischer Reagent is added continuously so as to bring the pointer to Karl Fisher 'O' position. The
initial and final readings are noted. The difference is the volume of Karl fisher required to
neutralise 20l of water. The same procedure is repeated with sample oil and the water content
present in the oil is calculated using the formula (20 X K.F. required to neutralise the Oil X 10
3
)
/ ( 25 X 0.88 X K.F. required to neutralise water).
Results & Analysis:
The minimum limit for Transformers of voltage class 145 KV & above is 25 PPM and for
voltages below 145 KV is 35 ppm.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866, IS 2362
(h) Sludge Test:
Scope:
This covers test on oil samples of Transformers, which are in service and use uninhibited
insulating oils and complying with the requirements of IS 335 when filled new.
Description:
This test is conducted to determine the presence of sediments and perceptible sludge in
the oil.
Application:
The test is applicable to Transformers of all ratings.
Periodicity:
The sludge test is carried out when the IFT value of oil is very low say below 13 Dynes /
cm.
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Test procedure:
11 ml of the test sample oil is pipetted in a clean conical flask. 100 ml. of Hexane or N-
heptane is added to this oil. The mixture is shaken well and is kept in a dark place for 24 hours.
At the end of 24 hour, it is checked for any precipitation in the oil. If any precipitation is
observed, the sample oil contains sludge.
Results & Analysis:
For all voltage class sludge should be NIL.
Reference:
IS 335, IS 1866.
Note:
All Indian standards referred versions are the latest versions revised/amended from time
to time.
Test procedure for measurement of Tan delta and Capacitance of equipments.
1. Scope: This covers the method of measuring the dielectric loss properties of the
insulation system of equipments by measuring the Tan delta and Capacitance values.
2. Definition: Tan delta is the tangent of the dielectric loss angle of an insulation system.
It is also referred to as dissipation factor or dielectric loss factor.
3. Significance of Tan delta value in insulation systems:
In an insulation system, the dielectric loss is given by V
2
WC tan delta watts. If the
dielectric power loss is more, the dielectric strength of the insulation would be reduced. The Tan
delta is affected by moisture, voids and ionization in the Insulation. Hence it is indicative of the
quality of insulation.
4. Principle of Tan delta and Capacitance measurement for HV equipments.
4.1 The High Voltage electrical equipments have conductors HV and LV separated by an
insulating medium. It can also be a conductor or winding with an HT terminal and the LV
terminal connected to ground. These systems can be represented as two and three terminal
capacitors. An example of a two terminal capacitor is the bushing of an equipment. The central
conductor is one terminal and the mounting flange (ground) is the other terminal. An example for
a three terminal capacitor is a bushing with a Tan delta test tap. In this case the central conductor
is one terminal, the test tap is the second terminal and the mounting flange is the third terminal.
Likewise most of the HV equipments can be visualised as capacitors with simple and complex
insulation systems and these can be measured with a test set that can measure both grounded and
ungrounded specimens.
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In the ideal case, the capacitance current leads the voltage by 90'. But in practice, in all
insulation systems, there exists a loss current Ir which is small in magnitude but in phase with the
voltage, as shown above. The total current I, therefore leads the voltage by an angle which is less
than 90. The angle by which it is less than 90 is known as the loss angle delta and in all
practical cases, the magnitude of Ic and I are same as Ir is very small and the power factor and
dissipation factor tend to be the same.
In the above diagram Dissipation factor = tan delta; As the important characteristic of a
capacitor is its dissipation factor, it is measured and monitored as a diagnostic test of insulation
systems.
5. Application:
The test is conducted on the following:
(1) Power and Auto Transformer Bushings
(2) Power and Auto Transformer Windings
(3) Generator stator coils
(4) Current and Potential Transformers.
(5) CVTs
(6) Any other HV equipment where insulating condition is to be tested.
6. Periodicity:
The test is done at the time of commissioning and thereafter yearly and on actual
requirement depending on the conditions of the equipment.
4.2 The Vector Relationship:
Q
S
I
C
V Ir
I
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CHAPTERXIV
Test procedure:
There are two basic versions of testing (i.e.) Grounded specimen test and ungrounded
specimen test. The circuit diagram are shown below:
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315
CHAPTERXIV
The circuit connections are given as shown above depending on whether the specimen is
grounded or floating. The Input voltage is raised gradually through a variac till the desired HV
Voltage is reached for the specimen. The bridge circuit consists of a differential transformer, R-C
network, known standard capacitor (Cn) and the unknown specimen (Cx) under test. The same
HV voltage is applied to both the known and specimen capacitors. The currents through the two
capacitors pass through the differential Transformer, which is balanced by means of adjustment
of the bridge capacitors, which are provided with multiplication selectors. Once the bridge is
balanced for the capacitance value the capacitance selected is read directly from the multipliers.
The tan delta is then adjusted to get the balanced horizontal position in the Oscilloscope. The
value of Tan delta is also directly read from the bridge Tan delta selector with appropriate
decimals.
Precautions:
(1) It is always preferable to conduct the Tan delta test after the IR value test has been done
and found satisfactory.
(2) The test voltage should not exceed the rated voltage of the equipment, under test.
(3) Adequate safety precautions are to be taken when the test is on, Inadvertent entry to
testing area must be prevented by proper measures.
(4) Bushings etc. should be well cleaned and the test must be carried out in dry weather
condition.
(5) Make sure the input voltage variac is in the 'O' position before the start of the test.
(6) Interference from neighbouring live lines should be minimum. Modern kits with
interference suppression circuits are preferred while testing in yards etc.
(7) For Generator windings and higher capacitance specimen's the variac and the testing
Transformer should be of higher rating to carry the increased charging current.
Test value Interpretation:
In the case of Bushings the ISS prescribes a maximum value of 0.007 for oil
impregnanted condensor bushings and 0.020 for noncondenser bushings. These are values for
new bushings and for bushings, windings and other equipments that are inservice trend
monitoring is the best suggested course for proper analysis of the test results.
Reference:
1. MWBTan delta and Capacitance kit operating manual.
2. IS2099-1973.
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CHAPTER-XV
MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTION RELAYS
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
9.1 SITE VISITS:
During the site visits, the following inspection works may be done in the protection and
control rooms and arrangements may be made to coordinate with other departments for
necessary works:
1. The room should be tidy and clean
2. Sufficient lighting should be there
3. There should not be any leakage of water
4. Sun rays should not fall directly on panels.
5. The panels should be vermin proof.
6. The inside of the panels should be free from cobwebs, dust, hanging loose wires etc.
7. The room temperature should be with in limits.
8. The outside of the panels should be clean.
9. All the relay covers should be tightened and clean.
10. Fault recorders should be in working condition.
11. All the relay catalogues and drawings should be well maintained and be available in easily
traceable location. A list of these items may be readily available.
12. General condition of the batteries should be checked and reported to the concerned if any
improvement is required.
9.2. MAINTENANCE TESTING OF RELAYS:
All the protective relays have to be tested ONCE in a year and calibrated.
The procedures for testing should be well studied and understood. Latest digital relays have
self test facilities and these relays need testing once in 5 years only as per the manufacturers.
Otherwise periodic testing is extremely important, as almost all the protective equipments are
passive for most of the time. They are called upon to act only when abnormal conditions
occur.
9.3. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS ON TESTING AND HANDLING OF RELAYS:
- Examine relay coils like current coil, voltage coil, flag coil, D.C. auxiliary coil, timer coil
etc. for continuity.
- Check for burns on contacts, sticking up of moving parts, meeting surface and fixed
contacts.
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CHAPTERXV
Experience shows that moving parts normally stick to the mechanical back stop. In
armature attracted relays, there is remanence magnetic sticking up also. The starters in L3WYS
distance relays have this problem. Contacts sticking up with backstop have been experienced
frequently in EE relays. These should be cleaned each time without fail with trichloroethylene
(good to clean oil and grease), CTC (good to remove carbon), or white petrol (good to clean disc
jewel bearings).
9.4 HANDLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT:
a) A persons normal movements can easily generate electrostatic potentials of several
thousand volts. Discharge of these voltages into semiconductor devices particularly chips when
handling electronic circuits can cause serious damage, which often may not be immediately
apparent but the reliability of the circuit will have been reduced.
b) Do not remove the modules unnecessarily. However, if it becomes necessary to
withdraw a module, the following precautions should be taken to preserve the high reliability and
long life for which the equipment has been designed and manufactured
- ensure that you are at the same electrostatic potential as the equipment by
touching the case.
- Handle the module by its front plate, frame or edges of the PCB. Avoid touching
the electronic components, PCB track or connectors.
- Do not pass the module to any person without first ensuring that you are both at
the same electrostatic potential. Shaking hands achieves equipotential.
- Place the module on an antistatic surface or on a conducting surface which is at
the same potential as yourself.
- Store or transport the module in a conductive bag.
- If you are making measurements on the internal electronic circuitry of an
equipment in service, it is preferable that you are earthed to the case with a
conductive wrist strap.
- Wrist straps should have a resistance to ground between 500 K 10 m Ohms.
- If a wrist strap is not available, you should maintain regular contact with the case
to prevent the build up of static.
- Instruments used should be earthed to the case whenever possible.
- Re-soldering may affect the capacitance of the circuitry.
9.5 Take precautions to avail line clear on the equipment to be tested. Place green flags in the
panel under test.
9.6 Ensure that P.T voltages are not available to the relay under test. P.Ts in generators
should be kept isolated : otherwise back feeding of high-voltage to the Gen. is possible.
318
CHAPTERXV\
9.7. Mark down the existing physical position of potentiometer, time dial pointers etc. with a
pencil. This will help restore in case of inadvertent changes during handling.
9.8. Actuation of certain relays like Generator differential or split phase relay may release
CO
2
in generators. Hence, proper isolations of CO
2
circuits should be ensured.
9.9. Actuation of certain relays could operate LBB schemes. Precautions should be taken,
while testing LBB and BB relays, extra care should be taken to isolate the TRIPPING
Circuits. In some cases, BB relays and other relays may be in same core of C.T. Unless
care is taken, the ENTIRE SUB STATION may go BLACK OUT.
9.10. There may be necessity to change some settings during testing. Original settings should
be restored by making entries in site register.
9.11. Some wiring may need removal for testing. They should be entered in register and before
closing the job the wiring should be restored promptly. Any removal of TB. links should
be treated similarly. If ferrules are not available in the removed leads, temporary ferruling
should necessarily be done before removing.
9.12. The fuses removed should be entered in the site register to enable putting back without
fail.
9.13. Cartridge type fuses should not be checked with higher range in multimeters or for
continuity buzzer. It should give zero ohms in an accurate low range multimeter since
failed fuses also give continuity in high ranges.
9.14. Current can be injected to the relay without removing them C.T leads. Removal is not a
must but this should be judiciously done. Refer to 9.9 above.
9.15. Earth fault selection relays in some distance relays need shorting during testing to avoid
overloading.
9.16. Temporary wedges placed should be removed back.
9.17. The relay coils and the auxiliary switching relays are not continuous rated. Hence they
should not be engaged continuously.
9.18. Some operations like test closing of breakers could lead to L.T. supply changeovers
unwantedly and even they may back charge the machine. Precautions have to be taken.
9.19. Once L.C. is availed, any operation is the responsibility of the engineer who has availed
the L.C. but it shall be done with information to operator concerned.
9.20. The maintenance engineers should also witness the relay tests to the extent possible since
they are the owners of the relays.
9.21. While test tripping the breakers through the relays, the manually picked up relays should
not be released until the breaker has tripped since the relay contacts are not designed to
break the trip coil current. When the breaker trips, the trip coil current will be broken by
the breaker auxiliary contact.
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CHAPTERXV
9.22. After normalising, the availability of D.C. voltage, P.T. voltage at the relay inputs should
be confirmed. The load current passing through the C.T. should be confirmed by
measuring the voltage burden between the current coil terminals, noting down the load
current also in the register.
9.23. Do not try to do any modification to the wiring or change in settings without analysing
fully and without having consultation with superiors unless other wise situation warrants,
in which case ratification should be later obtained.
9.24. Do not assume that the scheme drawings are always correct. Some modifications could
have been done and not marked. Always have a suspecting eye.
9.25. Any modification done should be communicated to all concerned who should incorporate
them in the drawings in their offices without fail.
9.26. History of settings and trouble shooting should be entered in permanent registers.
9.27. Faulty operations or LED indications should be checked.
9.28. Wherever master relays are available, all the connected relays should be test operated to
ensure the picking up of master relay. Test tripping of breaker can be checked through
master relay.
9.29. All alarm/ annunciator points should be checked without fail.
9.30. P.T. voltage availability, D.C. aux. supply availability across all the relays terminals
should be confirmed.
9.31. Voltage burden at the relay current terminals after normalising the equipment should be
measured and recorded in the test report also noting down the load current at the time of
burden measurement.
9.32. It is preferable to note down in the glass cover of the relays the date of last test done.
9.33. LOAD ON C.Ts
The peak load on the lines, feeders and substation transformers may be reviewed for any
possible overloading of C.Ts beyond the limits once in 3 months and entered in a separate
permanent register called Peak Load on C.Ts. The C.Ts can be overloaded by 20%
continuously.
9.34. RECORDS:
An official test circuit diary for each type of relay shall be maintained in hand, containing
the test procedure, precautions to be taken, isolation to be done, model test result, settings
adopted etc. Relay catalogues should invariably be on hand.
All the testing works and results should be first recorded at site in a permanent register/ note
books with printed page numbers to avoid tampering of details later. The test results shall be
authenticated by the engineer present. Names of the testers should be entered. The test results
may then be entered in the specified form and sent to higher officers. Standardised specimen test
report form is enclosed in Annexure.2 B/A means before adjustment and A/A means after
adjustment. Changes may be done in the form if necessary to suit local conditions. Any
abnormality noticed during the testing may be recorded under the column Remarks in the test
report.
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CHAPTERXV
The test schedule with tests done date and tests due date shall be displayed conspicuously in the
office room in a Fixograph or in a board so as to review them frequently.
The details of the tests done may also be recorded in a permanent register with pagevar
allocation for each relay. A few pages together may be allocated for each relay or set of relays in
the case of 3O/L. One register may be put up for each substation or for more substations
combined.
A specimen of one page of the register for a relay is given below:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Feeder/Line/Transformer : S/S :
Relay details : (Make, Type, Model, Sl.No., rating,
D.C.aux. voltage etc.)
Settings Range available :
Settings adopted :
C.T.Ratio available :
C.T.Ratio adopted :
V.T.Ratio adopted :
Date of Commissioning :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sl. Date of Date of Remarks Signature Signature
No. Last Next of of
test test Protection Reviewing
done. Due. Engineer. Officer.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) Deails of
settings changed
with reference
letters no.
2) Details of any
defects.
3) Details of
modification
4) Details of
Obsoletion
Communicated
by the
suppliers.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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CHAPTERXV
T E S T R E P O R T
1. Name of S/S. :
2. Name of Feeder/Line :
3. (a) Relay : (Ex. Distance Relay Main 1/Main 2)
(b) Make : (ABB)
(c) Type : (Ex. RAZOA)
(d) Sl.No. :
4. Nature of Test : Special/Routine (State reason if it
is special)
5. Date of last testing :
6. Date of this testing :
7. Page No.of Test record (site) Book : (Including Volume No.)
8. Testing instruments used : (Ex: TURH KIT, WICO megger,
5A ammeter, 150 V Volmeter)
9. Test Results:
(a) Relay (Ex: For O/C relay)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Test Time Time Obtained Remarks
Current Exp.
R O Y O B O
B A A A B A A A B A A A
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
P.U. 2 Amp. 2.1 2.1 2.1 -- 2.0 --
4 A 1 Sec. 1.4 1.0 1.1 -- 1.0 -- Time dia
adjusted
8 A 0.7 Sec. 0.9 0.71 0.75 -- 0.65 -- in R
phase
20 A 0.3 Sec. 0.5 0.31 0.31 -- 0.28 -- relay.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) Checking of Flag or LED (indications of relays) and the annunciator points.
(c) Meggering
C.T.Sec. to Earth
(d) C.T.Burden (VOLTAGE MEASURING IN THE C.T.SECONDARY CIRCUTT AT REIAY
TERMINALS)
R-N = V : Y-N = V : B-N =V
Load Current:
(e) P.T.Voltage
R-Y = R-N =
Y-B = Y-N =
B-R = B-N =
(f) Trip Circuit testing (test tripping the breakers through relay)
(g) Remarks:
1) Checking of all fuses
(Sd) TESTER ASST.ENGINEER ASST.EXE.ENGINEER.
322
CHAPTER-XVI
GAS INSULATED SUB-STATIONS
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
The informations given be low are abstracted from several ASEA GIS equipment
booklets.
Gas insulated Sub-station of certain types takes up only about 10% of the area of
conventional Sub-stations.
Figure-1 shows below the comparison, for a volt level upto 170 KV.
HISTORY: Use of SF-6 gas for breakers was started in mid sixties.
GIS programmes were launched in seventies. In early 1977, first GIS was commissioned
by ASEA in Sweden upto 420 KV. Now GIS of several thousand KV are available.
At lower levels of voltage three phase systems are used.
At UHV levels single phase systems are used.
ADVANTAGES:
1) The area required is very much less
2) Quicker and simpler erection
3) Easier maintenance
4) Insensitive to influences of surroundings
GAS PRESSURE:
The higher the gas pressure (density), the higher will be the insulation strength of the gas
and smaller the dimensions of the enclosure. Normal pressure is 7 bars.
Figure-1
323
CHAPTERXVI
In some designs, the equipment can withstand the rated voltage also when the gas
pressure decreases to atmopheric pressure provided no switching is done.
COMPONENTS:
- Conductors
- Insulators
- Enclosures
- Gas
- Spacers
SPACERS: - forms a solid insulation, in parallel with gas, between the conductor in the centre
and the surrounding earthed enclosure. The earthed enclosure is in the form of metallic tube. In
the centre of this there is the conductor which is supported and held in place by insulating cones
called spacers. The space between conductor and enclosure is filled with SF 6 gas at
overpressure. See Figure 2 to 5.
324
CHAPTERXVI
FIGURE - 2
FIGURE - 3
FIGURE - 4
325
CHAPTERXVI
FIGURE - 5
FIGURE - 6
326
CHAPTERXVI
327
CHAPTERXVI
FIGURE - 6
FIGURE - 8
328
CHAPTERXVI
The spacers have to withstand mechanical forces from gravity, apparatus function,
pressure differences between gas sections, earthquakes and short circuit currents. Disc type
spares are also used.
CONDUCTORS:
Consists of aluminum tubes with joining contacts at the ends. Current is transmitted via the
spring loaded contact member to the copper parts and against which the contact member rests.
These are later welded to the aluminium parts.
JOINTS:
There are angled joints and T-Joints
EXPANSION JOINTS:
Expansion joints are provided partly to compensate for the tolerance during manufacture and
partly to allow for thermal expansion.
OTHER COMPONENTS: Like disconnectors, CTs, VTs etc. are shown in figure below:
FIGURE-9
Disconnector straight
1. Fixed contact
2. Moving contact
3. Operating devise
329
CHAPTERXVI
1. FIGURE-10
Angled and T disconnectors
Disconnectors can be operated by Motor devices.
`
T-disconector
Fig - 10
330
CHAPTERXVI
- Shows continuous position indication
- Possibility of using the earthing switches as a test probe for measuring contact resistance and
polarity of instrument transformers
- Can be located in the same housing as disconnectors but also elsewhere.
- Can be operated either manually or Motor operated
- There are two types such as fast operating and slow operating
FIGURE 12
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
- Voltage transformers can be set up where it is required i.e. on bus bars and outgoing circuits.
331
CHAPTERXVI
Figure 13
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
332
CHAPTERXVI
333
CHAPTERXVI
The bushing can be adopted to any existing oil filled or PEX cable
- Also used for High potential testing of GIS bus bars etc.
EXTENSION:
The GIS can be extended usually by lengthening the bus bars and adding more breaker
groups provided necessary space is provided in the building. Erection sequence must be checked
in detail. Another question to investigate is the procedure of testing after installation of the new
parts.
SAFETY:
The probability of anybody being injured in a GIS will 0.000025 per year or once per
1300 years. GIS is said to be 40 times safer than conventional sub-stations
TESTING OF GIS:
1) Testing of Gas:
Non return valves are provided to fix the gas density switches. After removing the switch
assembly, external gas hoses can be connected and gas filling, draining, testing can be done.
2) Breaker testings:
Since the poles are inside the gas tank, approach to do the timing tests, primary injection
through CTs were difficult. For one end, the earth switch end which is insulated before the earth
connection can be used. For the other end the earth switch cannot be used since all the three
phases are looped inside the SF-6 chamber and only the neutral is brought out. Hence, the cable
ends which was at a distance of 100 meters from S.S. were used for the above tests. The layout
of cable system is shown in Figure-17. This was also used for hipot testing the cables. D.C. hipot
testing of GIS has to be avoided.
FIGURE 16: SF-6 AIR BUSHING
334
CHAPTERXVI
335
CHAPTERXVI
336
CHAPTER-XVII
REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF TRIPPINGS
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
ALL THE TRIPPINGS SHOULD BE REVIEWED.
Analysis of the operation of protective relays or the scheme is very important for a protection
engineer.
The following types of operations need analysis:-
- Maloperation i.e False tripping in the absence of primary fault.
- Incorrect operation or unwanted operation during a primary fault.
- Failure to operate.
The protection engineer may carry out the analysis in the above lines and do the needful for
improvements. The action taken may be reported to the head office for scrutiny. There are
always possibilities for human error in the protection works and hence a scrutiny by another
agency is an Absolute Necessity.
All the trippings of transmission and sub-transmission level lines and transformers at
Substations should be reported by T.M. to the concerned head office in the form given below:
Transmission line fults:
A line fault is a condition where electric current follows an abnormal path due to failure
or the removal of insulation which normally confines it to the conductor.
Insulation is usually either air or high resisting material which may also be used as a
mechanical support. Air insulation can be accidentally short circuited by birds, rodents, snakes,
monkeys tree limbs, unintentional grounding by maintenance crew etc., or broken down by over
voltage due to lighting or weakened by ionisation due to fire. Organic insulation can deteriorate
due to heat or ageing or can b broken down by over voltage due to lighting, switching surges or
faults at other locations.
Porcelain insulators can be bridged by moisture with dirt salt or industrial pollution or
can develop a crack due to mechanical forces. In such cases the initial lowering of resistance
causes a small current to bee diverted which hastens the deterioration or ionisation causing this
current further to increase in a progressive manner until a flash over occurs.
337
CHAPTER-XVII
Overhead transmission lines are most vulnerable for lighting strokes. More than 50% of
electrical faults of overhead lines are known to be caused by lightning. As per Van C.
Warrington, all faults occur within 40 degrees before voltage maximum at lines over 100KV.
The shield wires intercept most direct strokes and allow them to be conducted harmlessly to
ground. Some time, they could reach the conductors below the shield wire. In such cases, the
lightning surge will bee distributed in all directions of the lines connected, depending upon the
point of incidence. For example, a lighting strike penetrating the shielding system and
terminating on a phase conductor would generate traveling waves of the same magnitude and
polarity propagating in opposite directions.
Some times, these waves may attenuate and die without any problems. Most of the times,
they keep on propagating on the line. Of all the line insulators are in healthy condition, the
surges reach the terminal substations and be bypassed to the ground through lighting arresters.
In this case, protection needs to operate and line will remain healthy since surge current is by
passed within micro seconds.
If any of the lines insulators re weak, it can undergo flash over due to the surge. The
possibility of even the direct stroke causing a flash over near voltage zero is minimised by the
fact that the lighting stroke lasts only one or two microseconds and, if the line voltage were near
zero at the moment, there would be nothing to sustain the flow of power after the stroke.
Although the stroke current may be upto 100,000A there is less then a coulomb in a stroke, so
there would be no cloud of ionised air maintaining a low resistance path until the voltage built
up (Van C. Warrington : vol 2). Once a flash over occurs, there will be system frequency
follow current depending upon the fault level and the arc will not extinguish till the system
voltage is interrupted by the protection. This means that both end relays of a tied line should
operate and isolate the line. A single end tripping will not suffice. Many a times, the flash over
does not damage the insulator and the line can be recharged. This is called a passing faults.
Short circulating the line insulator by snakes, birds etc., as discussed before, will also come
under this category.
But, if the insulator gets damaged by the flashover, it will not withstand the power system
voltage if reenergized and the protection will again operate. This is a kind permanent fault.
There are different types of permanent faults which are not discussed here.
The flashover may occur in more than one towers due the lighting surge wave. If one
such flashover leads to a permanent damage in the second zone of a distance relays and another
flashover causes a temporary flashover in its first zone coverage, both end relays will trip on first
zone and may cause confusion when analysing by the protection engineer.
Single end trappings should be treated in a special manner. From the discussions so far
made, at will be clear that there can not be single end trippings at all! But, they do occur. A tall
tree ay swing and touch a conductor in the second zone but may withdraw before the second
zone time of the relay. In this case, only the other end will trip on first zone. A jumper may get
open and fall on the tower arm in one side and the tripping will be single en only. A conductor
may snap and tall to ground in only one side of the lines and the result will be single end
tripping. Hence, the protection engineer shall not take granted any single end tripping which is
very rare. If the cause is not established clearly, the protection system should be checked
thoroughly in the case of single end trippings.
CHAPTER-XVII
338
Lighting need not even come in direct contact with power lines to cause problems, since
induced charges can be introduced into the system from nearby lighting strokes to ground.
Although the cloud and earth charges are neutralised through the established cloud to ground
path, a charge will be trapped on the line. The magnitude of this trapped charge depends on the
initial cloud to earth gradient and proximity of the stroke to the line. Voltage induced on the line
from the remote stroke will propagate along the line causing similar problems as that of direct
stroke.
When a lightning directly strike a tower or the earth conductor the tower has to carry
huge transient currents. If the tower footing resistance is considerable, then the potential of the
tower would rise steeply with respect to the line and consequently the insulator string would
flash over. This is known a BACKFLASHOVER. It is clear that too many trippings on
temporary faults may also indicate more tower footing resistance, needing improvements.
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TM
From To
The Superintending Engineer
Asst.Exe.Engineer/Shift Copy to the Exe. Engineer/O
110 KV/line tripping Copy to the EE/GRT (MRT)
message Copy to the AEE/GRT (MRT)
1. Name of Sub-Station :
2. Name of line :
3. Time & Date of tripping :
4. Relay indications )
at both End. )
5. Is the line radial or )
Tied at both ends )
6. Load on the line prior )
to tripping MW, MVAR, )
AMPS. )
7. Bus voltages recorded )
before tripping at )
the time of tripping - )
after tripping. )
8. Special observations )
like grunt in generators,
flickering of lamps )
oscillations in panel )
meters. )
9. Any other simultaneous )
trippings of 132 KV )
lines or distribution )
lines. )
10. Climate :
11. Time and date of )
normalisation )
12. Remarks :
Asst. Exe. Engineer / Shift.
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1) Every grid and upstream radial feeders tripping shall be reviewed monthly.
2) Even correct trippings of grid feeders and upstream radial feeders should also be reviewed
and classified as IN ORDER and reported to higher office. A correct tripping in the view
of one engineer (may be inexperienced) may be a wrong one. There are instances that single
end tripping of grid feeders have been classified as IN ORDER in some cases without
analysis. Correct single end trippings of grid lines are also possible but extremely remote a
line getting open and conductor making ground fault in only one side.
3) Review of transformers and generators shall be reviewed then and there. Our old practice is
that the review should be made within 24 hours. It is felt that this is even now very essential.
Maloperation of any equipment i.e. radial lines, tie lines, Transformers, Generators shall be
analysed within 24 Hours.
4) Correct operations shall be classified as due to
- Weather
- Lightning
- External incidents
- Failure of line or equipments
- Overload
- System disturbance
- Cause not known.
5. Incorrect relay operations shall be classified as due to
- Design limitations
- Inadequate or Incorrect settings
- Construction defect
- Maintenance defect
- Failure of relay component
- Caused by pilot channel
- Personnel errors
- Incorrect application of relays
- Unexplained.
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6. Relay tripping registers shall be maintained by protection wing as well as substations O&M
wing.
7. Protection engineers should be knowing how to calculate the fault level at any point in the
system. Fault level of local substations should be calculated by them and exhibited in the
premises conspicuously.
8. Some of the interesting review and analysis are discussed below:
I. WRONG CONNECTION OF GENERATOR ROTOR EARTH FAULT RELAYS AT
ALIYAR POWER HOUSE AND SHOLAYAR POWER HOUSE.I.
The Generator rotor earth fault relays were with wrong connections at Aliyar Power
House and Sholayar Power House.2 since their commissioning. The relays were not operating
during normal conditions though there was an earth fault existing in the rotor and were operating
Correctly for a short moment during shutdown sequences. The circumstances which warranted
the tracing of the fault and action taken to rectify the defect are narrated in the following lines:-
On 23.12.79, 27.7.80 and 1.9.80 the rotor earth fault relay of the 60 M.W. Hydro
generator at Aliyar Power House acted for a short-while during normal shutdown sequences soon
after the shutdown impulse was given.
Every time the relay was tested and found to be normal. The details of the I.R. value of
the rotor circuits meggered on 23.12.79 are not available and the I.R. value of the rotor circuits
meggered subsequent to the operation of the relay on 27.7.80 and 1.9.80 were low and was of the
order of 0.2 to 0.3 M. Ohms.
No serious thought was given for the relay operation on 23.12.79 considering it as
freakish. Only after a recurrence on 27.7.80 the matter was studied in detail.
The relay was acting just for a moment during the shutdown sequence and it was not
acting during normal running of the machine or during shutdown time and this required a deep
study of the subject.
While going through the original schematic drawing of the Generator on 30.9.80 it was
observed that the rotor earth fault relay was given wrong connection.
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The scheme as per the given drawing is shown below :
In this connection scheme, the rectifiers in the bridges of the relay will permit flow of
current when the circuit is closed by earthing the point A. This current would be due to the
D.C. source voltage available at the terminals 9 & 10 of the relay. It could be seen that the D.C.
voltage on t he rotor is in subtractive series connections with the D.C. source voltage of the
relay. Hence, if the earthing point is slowly moved from point A towards point B, the resultant
voltage across the relay coil would be V9-10 V A F. As long as V9-10 is greater than VA-F,
there would be a flow of current through the relay element R. When VAF becomes greater than
V 9-10, the resultant voltage would not be able to drive any current through the circuit since
there are the rectifiers in the bridge of the relay which will not permit any flow of current when
they are supplied with a voltage of reverse polarity. This means that only a very small zone of
the motor from the point A towards B was under protection of the relay so far. (It was confirmed
later that the relay current was zero even when the point B was earthed solidly.)
In the first look, it seemed that the problem has further confused since it was operating
during a particulars period of shutdown sequence, though it was connected in a non-operating
way. On further analysis, the wrong connection was found to be the cause for the momentary
operation of the relay during the shutdown sequence alone as explained below.
The Generator at Aliyar has de-excitation scheme during shutdown sequence i.e. as
soon as the shutdown impulse is given, the main exciter voltage is reversed rapidly to cause de-
excitation of the rotor before the tripping of the field breaker. When the main exciter output
voltage is reversed, it comes in additive series with the D.C. supply voltage of the relay i.e. the
relay gets correct connection accidently for a moment and if a rotor earth fault is persisting it
measures and indicates and this a what had occurred on all the three occassions. This was got
proved on 5.9.80. Necessary modification in the
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343
scheme was down on 5.9.80 by interchanging the internal wiring leads in the terminal 9 & 10 of
the relay, after getting oral approval of the Divisional Engineer/GRT/Thudiyalur. The machine
was running and when the relay was put back in service after modification, the relay acted
immediately. A persisting rotor earth fault was suspected. On earthing t he rotor through a 5 K
resistor, there was measured a leakage current of 0.75 m.amps. So far it was not detected by the
relay and after modification it has detected.
Even with the original wrong connection, the relay should have detected the earth fault
when the machine has come to rest i.e when the rotor voltage has come to zero. This was not
there and it could be explained as below with an example.
Let the D.C. source voltage of the relay be 55 V The setting current required for the relay
element to pickup is 1.1 m.amps.
Therefore I.R. value detected by the relay
55
= = 50000 Ohms.
1.1 ma
This much of low I.R. value will be detected by the relay if the fault is in any portion of
the rotor when the machine is shutdown.
Let the rotor voltage be 55 Volts.
Assuming that the connections are O.K, and a fault of 100000 Ohms occurs at point B
when the machine is running.
Total voltage available for the )
relay element ) = 55 + 55 = 110 V
Therefore the leakage current or )
the operating current through ) 110
the relay element ) = - - - - - - - = 1.1 ma
) 100000
Hence the relay could operate i.e a fault of 100000 ohms at point B could be detected by
the relay only when the machine is in service and the same fault would go undetected when the
machine is shutdown since the relay current in the case would be only 55/100000 = 0.55 ma i.e.
the aid voltage of the rotor is not available now.
The relay available at Aliyar Power House is of English Electric make type VME. The
same type relay was available at Sholayar Power House 2 also. When the studies were going on
at Aliyar Power House, the scheme at Sholayar Power House.2 was checked for comparison. It
was found that the very same defect was there also. That relay was also operating for a moment
several times when the machine was tripping on faults since 1971. The relay has not picked up
during normal shutdowns as was operating in the case of Aliyar Power House due to the fact that
the de-excitation scheme comes into operation only during fault trippings of the machine at
Sholayar Power House.2 and is not coming during normal shutdowns. The modification was also
carried out at Sholayar Power House 2 afterwards.
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Such defects with similar type of rotor earth fault relays could be detected only by test-
earthing both ends of the rotor while the machine is running. Any testing by earthing the rotor
when the machine is not in service or by earthing any one end of the rotor when the machine is in
service is not the complete one and will not reveal such defects.
II. ROTOR LIFT PROTECTION AT KADAMPARAI POWER HOUSE:
Top beam
Setting
Electrical Contact
Gap = 1.2 m.m
Rotor bracket beam
During over-speeds or any unbalance problems, the rotors of the generators may get lifted
up in the case of vertical machines. At Kadamparai, rotor lift protection is given to trip the
machine. When the rotor bracket beam lifts up by 1.2 mm (Original setting), the protection will
operate.
The machine was tripping frequently from 11.4.91. It was tripping.
a) before synchronism
b) after synchronism
c) When the load was changed
d) Even when the machine was running smoothly.
After struggling continuously for 8 days, the reason was found to be rather funny.
Whenever the side doors of the generator was opened for some reason or other, the entire top
platform with the beam bent and moved down by 1.2 mm due to downward suction of air caused
by all blower fans.
Prior to 11.4.91, all the blower fans could not be switched on due to problems in some
fans.
III. TRIPPINGS OF GENERATOR 2 at KUNDAH POWER HOUSE. 3 ON BUCHHOLZ
INDICATION:
Generator No. 2 at Kundah Power House 3 tripped on transformer buchholz indication
and Generator O/V relay indication. There was no air or gas in the buchholz relay and the
machine was put back in service. Though the machine was running OK, the machine was
shutdown to probe further for the tripping.
The cable coming from the transformer was found damaged. Thinking that this could be
the reason, the machine was re-serviced. The machine tripped again after one day with the same
relay indication.
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Staff who checked the Buchholz relay by dismantling it said that the diaphragm was
weak and that could be the cause.
But, it was approached from another angle. Why the Generator O/V relay has acted? Had
the Buchholz relay first acted, the machine field breaker would have tripped immediately along
with the main breaker and there could not be any reason for the machine voltage to rise.
It was decided to test the O/V relay. It was operating even for normal voltage of 11.2 KV
on the machine. And, when the O/V relay acted, Buchholz trip alarm came.
There were two culprits:
1) Wrong calibration of O/V relay
2) Wrong connection of annunciator.
IV. PERSONNEL ERROR:
The generator at one Power House was reported one day to have tripped without any
relay indication except master relay operation.
After thorough checking of Generator, transformer, Cables, Protection system nothing
could be found out. Everyone was hesitant to restart the machine but the concerned operator said
the machine can be restarted. Here was the clue:
On further interrogation with the operator, Switch Board Attendant and other staff, the
truth came out. When the operator had observed some oscillations of some meters, he thought
that something was wrong with the machine and operated the emergency push-button.
V. ANOTHER PERSONNEL ERROR:
Machine. 1 at one Power House was reported to have tripped on Generator differential relay.
When the operator on duty was contacted over phone, he said that when he wanted to shut down
unit.1, he just put his hand on the L.T. breaker switch of machine. 1 and at that instant the
machine had tripped.
Not a deliberate, but an upset boss shouted at the operator over phone :
Are you playing? How can it trip when you just touch it? Do you think that I am a fool? Do
you think that I do not know what happened?
Immediately, the operator surrendered and accepted that he had done a wrong operation by
paralleling the L.T. system of machine 1 and machine.3 after tripping he main breaker of
machine.1.
Shouting helps some times for analysis:
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VI. MALOPERATION OF TRANFORMER DIFFERENTIAL RELAY:
At one Sub-Station, both the transformers were tripping one differential relay frequently for
through faults i.e for known fault on downstream radial feeders. This was happening for many
years and several testes on transformer and relays were in vain.
The ultimate reason was very simple. The differential relay p.u. setting was 15% but the
transformer had tap range upto 17.5% with OLTC. When the tap moves to extreme, position, the
mismatch current was sufficient to operate the relay.
VII. MALOPERATION OF DISTANCE RELAYS:
When the author joined at Saudi Arabia, the first assignment was the analysis of the
frequent tripping of a double circuit feeder outgoing from a Power House for reverse faults, Er.
Arunachalam who has contributed some chapters in this Manual was the protection incharge.
Though the problem could not be identified by them so far, it was not at all a problem for both of
us.
Attacked the first point and found that the C.T. connection were opposite.
The problem was set right without availing a shutdown and also without succumbing to
the threat from the local boss that both of us would be sent to fail if anything wrong happened.
This particular analysis is so simple that it does not deserve inclusion in this manual but
this is included to show the capability and standard of the protection engineers in our board on
comparison. The problem had caused several black outs to the system there but was not given
due though for several years.
The author wishes to mention on more things purely personal:
In one committee meeting held to finalise the procedures to commission a new
substation, 10 out 12 people were from India and nine out of the ten were from Tamil Nadu.
VIII. DOWN TO THE EARTH PROBLEM
During a pre-commissioning test in a Sub-Station, a transformer differential relay type
MBCH, a static relay, was not behaving properly.
When the relay was tested by another engineer next day, the relay behaved correctly.
The reason was:
The first engineer tested the relay keeping it outside the case. That was his usual method.
The second engineer did by his method by keeping it inside the case.
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Later, on enquiry from an engineer from the relay manufacturing company, the reason
given was that the static relay will misbehave if its chassis is not earthed properly. Proper
earthing is provided in- side the case and when the relay is racked out, the earth is lost.
IX. BLIND APPROACH:
For the known fault on a distribution feeder from Sub-station in Saudi Arabia, several
feeders were tripping simultaneously even in other substations very far away.
How to approach?
One of the authors Colleagues, a distribution engineer, hailing from our board, came up
with suggestion one day. He was telling that one particular feeder which had a very high pick up
setting had never tripped on similar occasion. On that basis, he suggested to revise the settings of
all other feeders.
The suggestion looked very childish. Comparing with the peak load the settings were
more than sufficient in all feeders.
However, the subject was digged further.
A phenomenon called COLD RUSH was explained in an article appeared in the
lectures at PSTI, Bangalore. There was not much explanation but it gave a starting point.
On further searching, it was found that the Cold-Rush is a very big problem where
loads are predominant with Air-conditioners, even in United States. Several black out have
occurred.
What is a Cold Rush?
When a fault occurs at a particular location in a system, the system voltage drops. When
the voltage drops to 70% and below, the A.C. units stall. Even if the voltage is restored
immediately, they take a very high current of 5 times the full load current till the bleeding of
pressure system completes.
This takes more than a minute and hence the load on the healthy feeders suddenly shoot
up to several times the full load, causing the tripping.
The problem was solved temporarily by increasing the P.U. settings as suggested by our
colleague, though by layman approach.
The correct solution for this problem is to provide U/V tripping in all the air conditioners.
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X. DISTRIBUTION OF EARTH CURRENTS IN HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEM:
The theory of this subject is dealt in several books including GEC measurements book
and Russian books. Chances are very remote for the protection engineer to go into it deeply but
one of our former engineers, Er. Srinivasaraghavan, Disvisional Engineer (Generation) has
produced a very good article on this subject in MSEB. Journal dated June 1952. A reproduction
of the full article (since not even one word is extrawritten) will certainly help to guide our
engineers.
ELECTRICITY DEPARTMENT JOURNAL
IT IS THE GENERAL practice to earthed the neutral in high voltage transmission
systems, at one voltage transmission systems, at one point only, that is at the sending end. In case
of earth fault in one of the phases, the earth current flows from the fault to the earthed neutral
through earth and actuates the earth fault relay and trips the breakers, thus isolating the fault.
There have been instances where star/star transformers with tertiary delta have been connected at
the end of transmission system, the neutral point on the H.V. side of these transformers being
brought out and connected to earth. Thus the neutral is earthed also at a point, other than at the
sending end. In such cases, earth fault.
Current flows not only from the fault to the sending end neutral but also from the neutral
point of the star/star transformer, though this is beyond the fault. The distribution of the
fault current is as shown in diagram I.
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In this diagram G is the generator feeding into a transmission line through a
delta/star step up transformer T
1,
T
2
is a step down transformer connected to the end of
the transmission line, the connections of the windings being star/star with tertiary delta
and the neutral point on the H.V. side being connected to earth.
The effect of the current flowing into the fault not only through the faulty phase,
but also through the healthy phases from beyond the fault on the operation of protective
equipments is interesting. A few examples that have actually occurred some years black
in the Departments E.H.T. net work are mentioned here:
(i) Coimbatore Madurai-Koilpatti 66 KV line (Diagram 2).--The neutral points
of the star connected auto-transformers at Coimbatore were solidly connected to earth: in
addition, the neutral pint of the star/star transformers with tertiary delta at Koilpatti end
was earthed. For earth faults in the lines between Coimbatore and Madurai, the 66 KV
OCB on the outgoing line to Koilpatti a Madurai end used to trip out: the 66 KV fuses on
the transformers at Koilpatti end also used to blow out on certain occasions. The remedy
was either to isolated the neutral at Koilpatti or raise the setting of the earth fault relay on
the Koilpatti line at Madurai end sufficiently high to prevent its operating under such
fault condition. The former course was adopted.
(ii) Coimbatore-Prianaickenpalayam Nellitharai 11 KV line. Mettupalayam
was original fed from Nellitharai S.S. by stopping down the 66 KV voltage to 11 KV
through delta/star transforms, When Nellitharai sub-station was abolished after changing
over to feed from Coimbatore. The 66 KV/11 KV transformers were left at Nellitharai for
some time and this used to be kept energised at 11 KV from Coimbatore end and isolated
on the 66 KV side. Under such conditions, there have been cases when the 11 KV OCB
at Nellitharai tripped for a fault on the line between Coimbatore and Nellitharai (vide
diagram 3).
In both these instances the operation of the OCBs beyond the point of the fault are
evidently due to flow of earth fault current from the neutral of the transformer at the
remote end in these case at Koilpatti and Nellitharai.
XI. PROTECTION ENGINEERS PROBLEMS:
Another good article written by Er.G.A. VISVANANTHAN, in MSEB. Journal
(date not known) is also reproduced since this is also very illustrative:
IT IS NOT very uncommon to have certain unexplainable operation of relays in spite of
very careful selection of relay settings. In many such cases definite faults were found to
exist outside the sphere normally scrutinized by the protection engineer. It is, therefore,
necessary that the engineer should proceed with tan open mind to investigate such
apparent maloperations. The following occurrence is an example:-
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EARTH FAULT CURRENT
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At Tiruvarur in the Mettur Electricity System, a 11 K.V. feeder is taken for about
a mile from the Government sub-station to the South Madras Electric Supply licensees
power house from where a number of feeders are taken out to the licensees; various
stations. At the Government sub-station the feeder is protected with 2 overload and one
earth leakage relay and at the licensees Power House, the incoming and the outgoing
feeders have also 2 overload and one earth leakage relay; some four years back
complaints were being received from that station that for earth faults on any of the
licensees feeders, the relay at the Government sub-station end only would trip, thus
causing supply failure to the licensees entire area.
The testing of relays and O.C.Bs. in the Government sub-station and gradation of
settings of relays at both the ends of the feeder and those on the out-feeders at the
licensee Power House did not stop this occurrence. Finally it was decide to check up the
connections of and test the relays and O.C. Bs. at the licensees Power House.
On examinations, it was found that on each feeder, the connexions were as shown in
the sketch below with an earth connection at a
This explains the non-operations of the earth leakage relays at he licensees end for
an outside fault, while tripping the relay at the Sub-station end. This earth connexion was
removed and the relays and O.C.Bs. were tested. From then on wards the relays operated
satisfactorily.
G. A. VISVANATHAN.
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EXPERIENCES IN PROTECTION FIELD
Er.K. Mounagurusamy
CE / P&C
FEEDER TRIPPINGS DUE TO SINGLE PHASE FUSE BLOW-OUT:
(Arti cle by: Sri. S. Raghunatha Rao B.E; D.E(E) & Sri. P. Narayanan B.E; D.E(E)
The blow-out of the H.G. fuse on the H.V. side on one phase of the Delta/Star
Power Transformer at a Sub-station may cause feeder trippings on L.V. side.
There was recently an occurrence of this nature at Poonamallee Sub-station, when
the 33 K.V. H.G. fuse on the yellow phase of single 3-MVA: 33/11 K.V. Transformer in
service at the time below off. Of the four numbers 11 K.V. feeders taking off the station,
three tripped on over-load blue phase while the fourth feeder was standing.
A review has indicated that the fuse blow out should have preceded the feeder
trippings, the blow out being caused by mere over-load over a period of time during the
peak period. (Two strands of 21 SWG timed copper wire were used for the fuses in the
absence of OCB control on the H.V. side.)
The trippings of the 11 KV. Feeders are analysed with the help of vector diagrams
given below : --
With the blowing out of the H.V. fuse on the yellow phase the voltage vectors of
phases R and Y on the primary and r and y on the secondary side collapses, Y becoming
Y and r and y moving to r and y. This results in only half the normal voltage being
impressed across the windings R and Y of the primary and a single phase secondary
supply with normal voltage between the blue phase and neutral and half the normal
voltage between the red and yellow phases and neutral. Consequent upon the full
secondary voltage being available only between the blue phase and neutral there should
have been a disproportionately heavier drawal of power on the blue phase. The three 11
K.V. feeders, which were already fairly loaded at the time of occurrence all tripped on
overload blue phase, the heavier drawal on this phase, resulting in load currents
exceeding the overload settings. The fourth feeder, which was also in service at that
time, is understood to have had practically negligible load and the fact of this feeder not
tripping is perhaps explained by the failure of the load on the blue phase of this feeder to
reach the plug setting value, notwithstanding the heavier drawal of power on this phase.
EARTH FAULT RELAY:
There is a big article on this subject by ER.K.S. DORAISWAMY, Divisional
Engineer on this heading published in December 49 of MSEB. Journal. The conclusion
is given below:
The current flow in a residually connected earth fault relay in series with 2 O/L
relays, is only a fraction of the unbalanced current. The true replica of earth fault current
will not be flowing through the E/L relay particularly when it setting is very low.
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Number of tests were done in the MRT. Lab at Coimbatore and results and
tabulated. The readings show that with the E/L relay plug setting at 20% the E/L relay
sets only 40% of current in the faulty phase and the balance current flows through the
other phase relays. At 70% P.U. setting, the current sharing is 79%.
BREAKER MECHANISM FAULT:
For a fault on Aliyar Sholayar feeder.2 in 1980, all the 110 KV feeders
emanating from Aliyar tripped at remote ends. The relay had operated in Aliyar-Sholayar
feeder.2 also and the breaker had also tripped.
The system was normalised without too much digging out.
On deeper investigation next day, the relay contacts of Sholayar feeder.2 at ALR
end had burnt and damaged.
Why the contacts should burn?
Suspected the breaker and the timings were measured. Much increased. This was
due to heavy friction in the mechanism.
In cricket, the match is not over till the last ball is bowled, Kapil says. In
protection, the investigation is not over till the cause is traced out.
CONCLUSION:
It should be clearly understood that only maticulous, strict adherence to rigid
testing standards and indepth knowledge of tripping analysis go a long way in ensuring
the correct operation of protective gear and elimination of unwanted operation or minor
mishaps which often prove very costly. In spite of everything, only 80% of the faults are
still cleared correctly by the protection systems as per experts. This is why protection
is an ART where perfection is impossible.
SOME EXPERIENCES IN THE FIELD WORKS:
To start with, item 1 is reproduced from our old MSEB (Now TNEB) Journal
June 1960 an article Operation and Maintenance Problems written by
Er. S. Mohammed Ali, then Divisional Electrical Engineer.
1) Know what you are doing
In many of our potential transformers, the secondary yellow phase is connected to
earth and the neutral left insulated. A section officer look out the P.T. for routine
overhaul. While reconnecting the wires, he did his job all right but finding the neutral
was without a connection, he attached an earth wire to it as is done on any distribution
transformer. In a few minutes after energising it, the P.T. was found burnt out. This
mistake can be attributed to (i) ignorance and (ii) not marking each terminal while
disconnecting. It is a good practice that while disconnecting wires in any terminal board,
each terminal is clearly tagged.
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It is equally good practice to record the order of parts dismantled when handling
any mechanical equipment. What is dismantled in a few seconds may take hours to refit
if you have lost sight of the order of things.
2) Earthing of P.T. secondary at Moyar
Originally, the P.T. secondary Yellow phase was connected to earth and the
neutral left insulated when Moyar was commissioned in 1952.
After all the distance relays and synchronising scheme were completely replaced
and modified in the years 1992/93, the Yellow phase earth remained in Yellow phase. As
per the manufacturers of the new distance relays provided, the P.T. neutral needs earthed.
This was corrected in 1997. The implications can be set aside but the overlooked is
overlooked.
3) P.T. failure at Maravakandy:
When the commissioning tests were done on 14-6-92 at Maravakandy Mini
Hydro Power House (1 x 750 KW) in Nilgiris, at the time of building the machine
voltage to its rated value of 3.3 KV one of the two PTs of V-connected machine PT got
burnt out.
A spare P.T. was erected on 26.2.92 and it also got burnt out when energised.
When the contractor brought replacement P.T. on 20-7-92, he informed that they
have supplied 3.3 KV / 3 110 / 3 P.T. so far instead of 3.3 KV / 110 V PTs with the
name plate of 3.3 KV / 110 V ratings.
Any site done with station L.T. supply will not reveal the defect.
4) Mixing of P.T. wiring with C.T. wiring:
When the P.T. secondary circuits were meggered on 25-3-1978 in the station L.T.
supply circuit of one of the generators at Sholayar PH I (Commissioned in 1971), the
circuit was giving zero IR value. The reason was found to be the wiring mixing between
P.T. and C.T. circuits. One C.T. was actually feeding the potential coil of an energy
meter. The Polarity connections of the CTs were also opposite.
5) Mixing of A.C. supply with D.C. circuit at Sandynallah S.S.
When the routine meggering of D.C. circuits was done in 1971 at 110 KV
Sandinallah S.S. in Nilgiris it was found that there was wiring mixing between station LT
supply and station DC supply. If annual meggering was done effectively, this could have
been identified early.
6) Loss of P.T. supply at Moyar PH
The layout of the 110KV buses at Moyar Power House existed in service in 1997
is given in Figure 12.1.
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Normal operational procedures are:
- Keep 189 A PT and 189 B PT isolators closed energising the 110 KV feeder
Bus PT and taking PT loads on this P.T.
- Keep transformer bus dead
- Keep the 189 A and 189 B isolators of the generators which are running and keep
them open in idle generators.
- When LC is needed in 110 KV feeder bus P.T. close any one of the isolator of
transformer bus of running generators and avail the relay loads on Transformer
bus P.T. De-energise the feeder bus P.T. by opening both its isolators. Such L.Cs
were being availed monthly for maintenance works.
Let us assume that all the three machines are running. But P.T. is on L.C.
Transformer bus P.T. is fed from machine 1.
Suppose, machine 1 trips on fault. Its OCB trips and machine 1 voltage goes to
zero thereby the bus P.T. looses its supply. All the distance relays will trip on loss of PT
supply, causing black out at Moyar.
The same black out will happen if the operator shuts down machine 1 and opens
the 189 A and 189 B without knowing the implications.
It was told that there were many cases of all feeders tripping simultaneously
before at Moyar end only.
Another problem is the non-existence of a true bus coupler isolator. Any
inadvertent penning of one of the isolators in all the generators and PT, there is the
possibility of separation of the two buses. If Bus PT is Bus A in such an eventuality,
faults on Singera feeder 2 and Gobi feeder 2 will not be sensed by the P.T. in service
leading to possible non operation of protection.
By connecting both bus P.Ts to both buses and introducing a bus coupler 189
AB BC as shown in figure 12.2 solved all the above problems.
Even now 189 A isolators of the generators are useless since the 110 KV lightning
arrestors of transformers are connected through 189 B isolators only.
Action is being taken to remove the copper tubular bus bars of transformer bus
completely.
In the authors opinion, the design of the bus arrangement is non-standard. With
50% of the bus structure materials, a simpler bus with the same facility could have been
designed and erected. Even now, a comprehensive operation with one bus is not possible
since the feeders do not have bus selection facility. Selection arrangement can be made
but very laborious. This can be done if MUSHEP comes.
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359
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360
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7. Emergency operation with one P.T. of less V.A capacity:
When one of the 110 KV P.T. failed at Udumalpet in 1991/1992, a smaller V.A.
capacity was temporarily used till the correct capacity P.T. was arranged. All the
metering circuits were kept switched off to keep the P.T. load under capacity and the S.S.
was operated with calculated risk.
8. Emergency operation with one transformer of less capacity at Aliyar Power House:
When one single phase transformer of 24 MVA capacity failed, a transformer of
12 MVA was connected in the bank with other phase transformers of 24 MVA and the
Aliyar machine was operated for some days till the correct size transformer was arranged.
The load and the generator was limited to the capacity of the small size transformer. The
machine had negative sequence relay and it was kept in service without any problem.
9. Need to test C.T. at rated current:
Due to the non-availability of suitable loading transformer one 800 A.C.T. was
tested O.K. with 400 A and put in service but the ratio did not keep up when the load
went beyond 400 A. This shows that, the CTs should be invariably tested for its rated
current.
At Kadambarai, the generator ring CTs are rated 8000 A. Loading transformer
was available to inject only 1000 A. Hence, 8 turns of current injecting lead were
toroidally would through the C.T. and the tests were done for 8000 A. Such torodial
winding may not be possible in sub-station C.Ts but their maximum rating is 1200 A only
and hence no problem exists.
10. Tripping of generator differential relays at sholayar PH-1
There were frequently maloperation of generator differential relays of both
machines at Sholayar PH 1 for through faults on 110 KV feeders since commissioning in
1971. Suspecting the metrosils connected across the CT secondaries they were removed
on 12-11-79 and thereafter there was not even a single such wrong tripping.
11. Negative sequence relay operation at Kadamparai
Unbalance current (1000 A, 1000 A, 1800 A) was noticed in machine 4 on
29.8.90. The observation was ignored assuming that the transducers would have been
faulty. When the load picked upto 70 MW on 30.8.90, the machine tripped on negative
sequence relay.
Many tests like measurement of D.C. resistance of generator circuit, measurement
of generator impedance primary injection by injecting current just after 230 KV CTs in
the yard in vain.
Primary injection was done after the 230 KV breaker in the yard. CT secondary
currents were less than expected in R and Y phases.
Reached the location. Y Phase limb of the 230 KV ABCB was showing 500 in
closed condition.
Lesson: Dont make assumptions.
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12. Tandem rod problem in 110 KV OMCB:
During routine maintenance works on a 110 KV OMCB (BHEL) at 230 KV/110
KV S.S. at Udumalpet, the timing was incorrect in one of the limbs. The reason was the
loosening of bolts in the tandem rod.
13. Problem with core balance CTs in Cables:
In one of the sub-stations where core balance CT was used for earth fault
protection in the outgoing cable of a distribution line, the earth fault relay did not operate
for a known earth fault in the cable.
It was found that the earthing of cable sheath was not made properly.
The earth fault current has gone through the C.T. and also returned through the
C.T. getting cancelled each other in the C.T. Hence no out put from C.T.
Correct sheathing is shown in figure. Current first goes through the cable core,
returns through sheath and again returns through the sheath. The sheath currents through
the CT gets cancelled and the cable core current remains.
14. Protection tripping through Local control of breaker:
In a section of a system with 8 No. grid feeder breakers commissioned under one
contract, a fault occurred in one of the lines.
The protection operated O.K. and isolated the fault. The Operator went to the yard
for inspection and tried to test charge the line through local control from the breaker
mechanism box. All the incoming breakers to that S.S. tripped at the remote ends. The
distance relay in the above faulty line operated but the breaker did not trip.
On investigation, the protection scheme was so designed that the protection
tripping was not effective when the breaker control was on LOCAL.
We have already said that the protection tripping should be effective irrespective
of the position of the local-remote control switch of the breaker.
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15. A Terrific Experience:
While test charging after a fault tripping the operator at 230 KV S.S. Udumalpet
one day observed that there was no current in one phase of a 230 KV feeder going to the
nearby S.S. at Myvadi. The protection did not operate will not operate if it was on open
jumper.
LC was availed and a through inspection of the line was done by lines wing and
everything was O.K.
Test charged the feeder. The current was still missing.
Shut down the feeder. 400 Volts 3 phase voltage was injected from 230 KV
Udumalpet S.S. and bulbs connected at Myvadi a end of the line were burning O.K. in all
the 3 phase.
The protection wing was again moving in the yard for further probing. Suddenly,
one person shouted and alerted others to sit down. A vertical live 230 KV jumper from
the bus going to the isolator got unclamped at the top end and was hanging down just at
the safe clearance over the head of the inspecting persons.
16. Operation during L.C.
This happened when Kundah PH I was a dead end. A double circuit 110 KV line
was there between Kundah PH-2 and Kundah PH-1. All the machines were shut down at
Kundah PH-1.
A shutdown was needed in line No. 1 shut down was issued and LC was availed
in line 1 at both ends. Line work was taken up and LC returned and everything
normalised.
But the SBA at Kundah PH I found that the 110 KV bus RVM was not recording
for so many hours. On deeper investigation, it was found that the operator had tripped
line 2 at Kundah PH-1 while issuing the L.C.
How much negligence?
Clear instructions over the step by step operations before issuing a line clear on
equipment should be available in every SS/PH at the operators table.
Sub-log book should be essentially maintained. The author has heard a story of
attending repair works in the cooler of a healthy generator when the cooler was defective
in other unit.
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17. Primary injection and Bus bard stability problem:
The above figure shows the portion of a 33 KV GIS system. When the B/B CT
was tested for ratio by inserting the current cable through the available external hole
marked as C, the CT behaved accurately.
When it was tried to do the primary injection by injection current in between A
and B through conductor, the CT behaved erratically.
THE PROBLEM could not be solved for many months inspite of the visits of
expert from the country where it was manufactured.
The foreign company finally brought a flux Camera which can take photo of
magnetic flux. It was seen that there was flux linking between points D and E through F.
This was found to be due to missing of an insulating washer provided in one of the fixing
bolts of flange F. Actually, there should not have been electric conductivity between G
and H but the defect was the existence of continuity due to the missing washer as was
concluded by the company engineers.
18. Real life is like that:
I. After the tripping of a generator, the hydraulic operator in a power house was
shouting to the electrical operator:
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Hey the machine has tripped but the shaft is still rotating
II. No rains No problem:-
Load dispatch engineer asked to put one Generator on bars immediately.
Operator replied that the rotor is outside.
Load dispatcher advised that since there were no rains, the rotor could well be
outside and asked to put the machine first.
III. Deserving appreciation:
The rewinding works of an induction motor was going on. One big engineer
commented to the electrician, what you are doing is wrong. There should be only 4 leads
coming out. How come there are six leads?
Finally, after successful completion of the work, the big engineer recommended
himself for appreciation and got it too.
IV. Yet to design:
This is in sixties. A proposal was sent through the hierarchical ladder to the
Canadian Company who erected Kundah system to provide a transformer in a circuit to
solve a problem. The company replied:
We are yet to design a D.C. transformer.
V. More careful:
One engineer was more careful that he wanted to get approval from the foreign
company who had supplied the 250 V.D.C. generator equipment as to whether varnishing
could be done to improve its I.R. value.
VI. How is it?
Boss: Which fool gave you the degree?
Subordinate engineer: The same fool who gave it to you.
VII. Betting by the author:
Primary injection was going on in the Bus bar protection C.T. in a sub-station.
One young engineer was doing the test. The author was witnessing. The testing guy
found it very difficult to drive current in the loading transformer when he tested one
particular phase. He said to his assistant to check whether any secondary of the C.T. was
open.
The author intercepted and asked? How is it? You are sending current only
through the C.T. primary and a big bus bar jumper of about 5 meters. How can the C.T.
open circuit can impede the current in the loading transformer?
The testing guy was very sure. The author was very adamant. The author offered
to make a bet and the testing guy immediately accepted. Supplying Pepsi to all present
was the bet.
The author had to supply Pepsi to all finally.
Experience always speaks.
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VIII. Protection Mind:
One engineer saw a chicken in his dream inside the Kadamparai PH. (How can a
chicken get into the under ground Power House?) He was telling about this dream to his
nearest people.
Within two or three days, there was the fire accident at Kadamparai. It was sug-
gested by somebody in presence of the then Chairman to send down through a basket
pulley rope system a chicken through the vertical tunnel upto the Power House location
to ensure that fire had extinguished completely. These are also protection thinking and
dreaming.
IX. Getting shouted gives un-forgetting pleasure:
The top brass from Madras who is famous for shouting is in site to witness the
scheduled commissioning of a big equipment. One small protection engineer could not be
available for the commissioning. He gets the nod from his local boss to be away on the
day of commissioning on an unavoidable family function. The news reached the shouting
boss. He shouts, what? What do you mean? nothing doing. No commissioning
tomorrow. We will wait for you. Go and finish your job and join us. This shouting is
unforgettable. Only the protection engineer can get so much of importance every one of
you know.
X. Masters:
The author has innumerable number of masters in this world. Leaking rain water
was dripping over a villager silting in a bus. He was not at all caring. He neither bothered
nor enjoyed. He was as calm as a baby in its mothers arms. He is also a master of the
author. The author thinks of him whenever he faces such a situation now and then and
asks himself how the villager in bus would have acted under this circumstance?
Like wise many masters. The author is blessed always with very good bosses
anywhere in the world.
Most of the bosses like Er. K. Narayanasamy, Er. B. Ranganathan and Er. K.R.
Syed Abdul Subhan are his masters in many ways. When the author makes an analysis of
tripping or when he drafts a letter or when he faces a labour union, he asks himself, How
Engineer will analyse this tripping? The author gets some more depth. His masters
has assessed the author as GIVES IMMEDIATE SOLUTIONS IN THE FIELD and
CAPABLE OF TACKLING ANY PROTECTION PROBLEM
- Million dollars boosts indeed.
The author has started thinking confidently after getting these assessments that he
could give himself a solution to any problem in life also.
The 26 year old protection engineer of electrical equipment has understood now
the way to protect himself from any hazards in life and his own I.R. value is > --------.
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UNDER GROUND CABLES
Er. M. Arunachalam
EE / GRT
A.3.1. 11KV & 33KV POWER
CABLES.
A.3.2. 110KV OIL FILLED
POWER CABLES.
A.3.3. 110KV XLPE POWER
CABLES.
A.3.4. 230 KV XLPE POWER
CABLES.
A.3.5. PILOT CABLES.
A.3.6. LV CABLES.
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CHAPTERXIX
A.3.1. 11KV & 33KV POWER CABLES.
Test No. Test Description Standard Ref. Remarks
1. Sheath Insulation &
continuity Test.

IEC-52
ISI-
IR value for
sheath>100 meg
ohms, And for cable
conductor>500 meg
ohms
2. Insulation test for
cable core.
3. Phasing test
4. H.V. test
A.3.2. 110 KV OIL FILLED POWER CABLES.
Test No. Test Description Standard Ref. Remarks
1. Oil flow test IEC-141-1
ISI-
IR value more
Than 100 Meg
ohms.
Test at 245KV
DC for 15
Minutes.
2. Impregnation Test
3. Conductor
Resistance test.
4. Capacitance test
5. Sheath insulation by
5KV megger.
6. Cross bonding test.
7. Tightness of links in
Junction boxes
8. Test for SVL by
2.5KV Megger.
9. High Voltage Test.
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A.3.3. 110 KV XLPE POWER CABLES
Test No. Test Description Standard Ref. Remarks
1. Insulation Test IEC-840
2. Conductor
Resistance,
capacitance &
inductance test.
ISI-
3. Sheath insulation
Test.
4. Cross bonding Test.
5. Link box tightness
check
6. SVL test by 2.5 KV
megger
Test at 185 KV
DC for 15
minutes.
7. H. V. Test
A.3.4 230 KV XLPE POWER CABLES.
Test No. Test Description Standard Ref. Remarks
1. Insulation Test
2. Conductor
Resistance,
capacitance &
inductance test.
IEC 840
ISI-
3. Sheath insulation
Test.
4. Cross bonding Test.
5. Link box tightness
check
Test at 385 KV DC
for 15 minutes.
6. SVL test by 2.5 KV
megger
7. H.V.Test
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A.3.5. PILOT CABLES.
Test No. Test Description Standard Ref. Remarks
1. Insulation Test by
5KV Megger
IR value>100 Meg
ohm
2 Loop Resistance
Test.
3. Cross talk test &
coupling Test.
4. Noise level
measurement
A.3.6. LV CABLES.
Test No. Test Description Standard Ref. Remarks
1. Phasing &
continuity check.
IEC- 227-2
IR value More than
100 Meg Ohms.
2. 2KV insulation test.
3. Visual inspection,
size & ratings
confirmation.
Note: Annual DL H.V. test on cables in generalings station should be dispensed with and
the DL H.V test should be conducted after ratification of fault conditions.
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BATTERIES
Checking of Value Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries in conjunction with the
commissioning of plant.
1. GENERAL
This is a general guideline for bringing Valve regulated lead acid (VRLA)
batteries into service
Test Record 1 WAT 910037-006 is to be used during testing.
For commissioning of freely vented lead acid batteries, please see provision 1
WAT 910034-007.
The installation, commissioning and maintenance instructions given by each
manufacturer shall always be complied and should be read at the same times
as this guideline.
2. RFERENCE DOCUMENTS.
- Installation drawings and instructions from the manufacture provided
together with the battery, regarding storage, erection, initial charging etc.
- Commissioning instruction for rectifies 1 WAT 910034-005
- Manufacturers manual for rectifier.
3. TEST EQUIPMENT
Multimeter class 1.5
Test leads
Voltmeter for DC class 0.2 (Digital multimeter)
Thermometer
Rubber gloves, goggles, eyecup, cold water and saline solution in squeeze
bottle for eye wash.
4. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
4.1 Hydrogen gas.
When lead acid batteries are being charged, oxihydrogen gas is liberated. To
minimise the risk of explosion, the following precautions must be taken:
- Ensure that the space around the battery is adequately ventilated. Ensure
ventilation according to local standards. Use Swedish standard SS 408 01
10 if no local standard is available.
- Smoking is to be prohibited
- Prior to touching the call caps, remove any static electricity by placing
the hand on the edge or the side of the respective battery cases.
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4.2 Chemical stuff.
The valves of the battery must not be blocked or opened. Filling of cells is
not possible, since the electrolyte is immobilized and the battery already
filled when delivered.
Severe damages on the battery container might cause acid to leak. Therefore
the same safety precautions as the vented batteries are necessary:
- Use protective goggles.
- Washing facilities are to be available close to the battery.
- Electrolyte on the skin, must be washed with plenty of soap and water.
- If electrolyte gets into the eyes wash with plenty of clean water and get
immediate medical attention.
Lead compounds are poisonous. Always wash your hands after working with
the battery.
4.3 Electrical current
Valve regulated batteries are always electrically alive and the risk of short
circuit (and electrical sparks, see 4.1) must be prevented.
- Use insulated tools only to make connections to the battery, taking care
not to over tighten beyond manufacturers recommended torque value.
- Check the circuit and make sure it is safe before making a connection to
the battery.
- Before working on the battery, always remove personal metal effects,
such as rings, watches, bracelets, necklaces etc.
4.4 Temperature.
For lead acid batteries in general and especially for valve regulated batteries
it is of utmost important to keep the temperature at a steady level of 20 C
(See fig. 1).
5. PREREQUISITES.
Chargers which are connected to the battery shall already been commissioned
previously.
6. VALVE REGULATED BATTERIES.GENERAL INFORMATION
6.1 Description of basic technology
Over the past years VRLA batteries have been introduced as an alternative to
the conventional lead acid and nickel cadmium batteries. This new type is
advertised as sealed or maintenance free. The correct designation is
valve regulated according to IEC 896-2 (draft).
In a VRLA cell the net water consumption is strongly reduced by means of a
recombination of the oxygen at the negative electrode and by preventing the
hydrogen from being generated.
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CHAPTERXX
However, the oxygen recombination does not work at 100% efficiency.
Some oxygen escapes from the electrochemical system. Furthermore,
evolution of hydrogen cannot be fully suppressed. This means that water loss
will take place already during normal conditions and particularly during
charging with high currents and high temperatures. These water losses are
not possible to replace.
The valve, which must open at high pressure, is a very important detail. If
the valve sticks open (or is removed for any reason), this will lead to oxygen
ingress with resultant discharge of the cells and ultimately total dry out. If it
sticks, internal pressure build-up will create a severe bulge of the cell
container leading to eventual fracture. In the extreme case it may rise to an
explosion.
NOTE:
Valve regulated batteries are not sealed.
6.2 Two VRLA designs
The VRLA batteries are divided into two main groups depending on the way
the gas recombination is achieved:
- Absorbed (starved) electrolyte
- Gelled electrolyte
Absorbed electrolyte cells are built up of pasted plates with microporous
glass fibre as separators.
The electrolyte is absorbed by the pores of the electrode active materials and
the separator. The separator is not saturated with acid and the acid free pores
are used for transferring the oxygen from the positive to the negative
electrode.
The gel electrolyte is immobilised by the addition of silicon dioxide to the
sulfuric acid. The oxygen is transported through micro cracks in the gel.
The plates can be designed as for FVLA with pasted or tubular plates. The
separators are normally made of microporous plastic.
6.3 Float charge
Due to the limited acid volume and consequently the need for high acid
density in the absorbed cells (1.29-1.30 kg/I), the float charge voltage will be
somewhat higher than for other lead acid batteries. For this reason the
absorbed VRLA cells must be charged with a higher float charge level of
2.27 V/cell with given tolerances.
The gelled type has the same density as the FVLA type i.e. 1.24-1.26 kg/I
and accordingly has the same float charge level of 2.23-2.25 V/cell.
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CHAPTERXX
This discrepancy must of course be considered when calculating the number
of cells so that the upper limit is not exceeded.
Absorbed Gelled
Density 1.29-1.30 kg/I 1.24 kg/I
Float charge 2.27 V/c 2.23 V/c
The manufacturer must give detailed information of recommended float
charge voltage.
6.4 High rate charge (boost charge, equalizing charge)
In order to avoid gas development and risk of dry-out, all manufacturers
advise limitations for voltage, current and time when recharging VRLA cells.
It is therefore of importance to follow the instructions from the manufacturer.
6.5 Ambient temperature
The higher ambient temperature, the higher float current at a given voltage
level.
High float current causes high internal temperature and escape of gas, which
will dramatically decrease the lifetime of the battery.
This is valid for all lead acid batteries. See fig 1.
100 %
Fig 1.
50 %
0 10 20 30 40
Due to the exothermal oxygen recombination reactions, VRLA batteries
develop much more heat inside the cell than the conventional cells.
Furthermore, as there is no free acid, the heat dissipation is not supported by
convection.
Under extreme conditions, the battery can be subject to successive increase
of float current and temperature until it is destroyed. This phenomenon is
called thermal runaway.
Life Time
Temperature
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CHAPTERXX
A temperature compensated charger can be installed in the DC system.
This charger can decrease the float charge level at high temperatures and
therefore marginally improve the situation but not restore the lifetime due to
high temperatures. See typical values fig 2.
Fig 2.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
In general, the gelled batteries have a larger electrolyte volume than the
absorbed type and are more resistant to a drying out. This is a general
guideline and differences between different makes may change this picture.
6.6 Ripple
There is no difference between valve regulated batteries and conventional
lead acid batteries regarding the acceptance of ripple current. The ripple
current must be limited to a value recommended by the manufacturer
(Normally 5A/100Ah). Otherwise the corrosion on the positive grid and the
internal temperature will increase.
6.7 Discharge performance
The absorbed type has a very good high rated discharge current performance.
Therefore this technology is highly suitable for UPS systems, diesel engine
starting and DC systems where large current peaks are required after a long
discharge period.
For the gel type, the peak loads might increase the nominal battery capacity
and consequently the cost. Gel-technology is worth its price for applications
with low discharge current without extreme peak loads at the end of the
discharge period.
240
235
230
225
220
Plant voltage Per Coil (V)
Temperature C
375
CHAPTERXX
6.8 Classification and Lifetime
EUROBAT has classified the VRLA batteries into 4 groups with particular
reference to Performance
- Safety
- Design Life
*10 + year High integrity
Telecommunications, nuclear and conventional power plants, oil and
petrochemical industry and other applications where the highest security is
required.
*10 year High performance
In general terms, this group of batteries have comparable design life
performance as in the 10 + year High integrity group. However,
requirements for performance and safety are not as severe. The requirement
for capacity is 95% at first cycle and 100 % at 10:th cycle.
*5-8 year General purpose.
Safety requirements and design life related tests are not as stringent.
*3-5 year Standard commercial.
This group of batteries are at the consumers end and are popular in small
emergency equipment.
There are some gelled batteries on the market today which cannot reach
100% after first cycle and shall be classed in the 10 year Higher
performance group.
The difference in lifetime expectancy between the two VRLA types at 20
degrees C is;
* Absorbed technology appr. 10 years for the 10+ and 10 year groups.
* Gel technology appr. 12-15 years
7. RECEIVING, UNPACKING AND STORAGE.
Inspect the battery upon arrival and check that the goods delivered are
complete and that all cells/blocks are undamaged.
Under no circumstances shall the cell/blocks be lifted by their terminal
pillars.
There is no need to remove the terminal covers before the erection of the
battery set.
If the battery cannot be installed immediately, store all parts in a clean and
dry room.
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CHAPTERXX
It is advisable to check the voltage for each cell/block after the unpacking.
This can be done without removing the terminal cover (for most of the
makes). The recommended lowest voltage is given by the manufacturer.
(appr. 2-10 V/cell)
In order to ensure that the batteries can be charged easily after a long period
of storage, it is recommended that the batteries should not be stored more
than the following periods without recharging (typical values);
6 months at 20 C
4 months at 30 C
2 months at 40 C
For this reason it is very important that the design office is informed about
any delays at an early stage so that the delivery of the batteries can be
coordinated with the start of commissioning.
8. INSTALLATION
The installation section of the battery manual and the installation drawing for
the special project must be complied completely.
Care for space between cells/blocks and for good ventilation in the room
where the battery is accommodated.
9 . COMMISSIONING CHARGE
NOTE! It is very important to follow the instruction from each manufacturer
regarding;

- applied float voltage and high rate voltage (if recommended).
- current limit
- time period for charging
- temperature when charging
Some manufactures make a distinction between initial charge for
immediately load connection and initial charge for site acceptance test.
Generally, the absorbed typed are more sensitive to high voltages and large
current. For this reason batteries require most time to be initially charged,
especially when the battery is subject for site acceptance test (up to 6days
charging for some manufactures).
The voltage applied to the battery set is calculated according to: next
recommended charging voltage (n = number of cells)
If a temperature compensated charger is installed, the float charge voltage
shall be adjusted according to recommendation from the manufacture or
according to fig 2. In this case the alarm level for under/over float charge
voltage is set to 2-3% of the set float value.
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The charging current (1 charging) is expressed as % of Ah capacity 0.1 x
C10 means that the current shall be limited to a value of 10 % of the nominal
10 h capacity.
For a 100 Ah nominal capacity it is 10 A. Before initial charge it might be
necessary to derate the current limit of the charger (1 set) so that the current
is limited to the recommended value; I set = I charging
When the station load is connected it is advisable to set the current limit in
accordance with actual configuration in the power station (substation) and the
recommended value given from the design office; I set = I charging + I load
10 . SITE ACCEPTANCE TEST (CAPACITY TEST)
The site acceptance test must be carried out in the period between completion
of the commissioning charge and the introduction of an operating load on the
system.
The capacity test is normally performed during 5 hours, 10 hours or the
battery duty period. The following instruction will apply to the 5 and 10
hours discharge.
- Read the ambient temperature.
- The charger shall be connected to the battery until the start of the
discharge. It is recommended to check the voltage for each cell/bloc after
completion of the initial charge but before disconnection the charger and
start of the testing.
- If nothing else is specified the discharge current is given in the
manufactures catalogue at an end voltage of 1.80 volt/cell for 5 hour or 10
hours discharge.
- The battery load until shall be connected to suitable terminals where the
station loads and rectifier are disconnected and where the battery load unit
connections are protected by fuses/circuit breakers. See fig 3
378
- If possible, makes a rough current setting on the battery load unit before is
connection to the battery.
- Connect the battery load unit and make a final adjustment of the current. It
is very important to that the discharge current is supervised and kept at an
accurate level of +/-1 % throughout the test
- Make a note in the test sheet at what time the test is started and at what
time the test is finished.
- The battery voltage is to be measured 6 times during the discharge period.
- Battery terminal voltage is to be measured the first 3 times and individual
cell voltage is to be measured the last 3 times (at 80-90-100% discharge).
If the battery terminal voltage is measured at the load bank, the voltage drop
in the cables between battery and load bank has to be considered
- Voltage drop between the battery terminals and the cell connections shall
be checked during an early stage of the discharge. All cells are checked
and the voltage must not exceed 5 mV. Connections where the voltage
drop is larger must be investigated and carefully adjusted.
Successively as the test is performed, enter the test results in Test Record 1
WAT 910037 006.
379
CHAPTERXX
The acceptance test must be supervised to prevent deep discharges and the
recharging must be commenced immediately after the discharge with a
voltage, current and time equal to the method for putting the batteries into
service without test.
1. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR COMMISSIONING TEST
Two criteria must be regarded for acceptance of the site test.
-cell/bloc voltage deviation
-capacity
The cell/bloc voltage deviation has a very wide range for new VR batteries. It
is recommended to check the voltage for each cell/bloc after completion of the
initial charge but before disconnecting the charger and start of the testing. In
this stage the deviation can reach a level of +0,2/-0,1 V/cell for gelled cells
but less for absorbed type.
At the end of a site test the cell/bloc voltage deviation shall not vary more
than +/-0.06 V from mean value and the battery voltage shall not be bellow
the predestinated end voltage (normally the number of cells multiplies with
1.80 V/cell).
The capacity test shall be interrupted when the battery voltage has reached the
end voltage.
If the happens for instance at the 4,5 hour reading for a 5 hour test, it indicates
that the capacity is only 90 % (4,5/5).
For adsorbed type in*10+ year High integrity group not less than 100 %
capacity is accepted.
For gelled type which is in the 10 year High performance group 95 %
capacity at first cycle is accepted.
Temperature correction for other temperatures than 20 C must be done as
follows:
K(t) = capacity at temperature t = time for discharge x discharge current.
K(20) = capacity at 20 = K(t) / f
f = correction factor given by the manufacture. If nothing is specified this
factor can be calculated as; 1+0,006 x (t-20)
380
CHAPTERXX
ABB Substations Inspection and test record Record form No:
1 WAT 910037-006
Description:
Batteries valv requlated lead acid
Order No.: Sheet
1
With capacity test Drawing No.: Cont
2
Customer.: Customer ref.:
Erection site.: Ref.:
A. neral Data and Information
Battery type.Manufacturer:.
Nominal Voltage:Nubmer of cells:.
Temperature compensated charger ___
B. Initial charging:
Charging coltage: V
Charging current. (current limit of the charger):. A
Charging time:.h
C. Cell voltage after initial charging:
Float voltage:.V Time between initial charging and capacity test.h
Ambient temperature:. C
Cell. Volt Cell Volt Cell. Volt Cell. Volt Cell. Volt Cell. Volt
No. age No. age No. age No. age No. age No. age
1 21 41 61 81 101
2 22 42 62 82 102
3 23 43 63 83 103
4 24 44 64 84 104
5 25 45 65 85 105
6 26 46 66 86 106
7 27 47 67 87 107
8 28 48 68 88 108
9 29 49 69 89 109
10 30 50 70 90 110
11 31 51 71 91 111
12 32 52 72 92 112
13 33 53 73 93 113
14 34 54 74 94 114
15 35 55 75 95 115
16 36 56 76 96 116
17 37 57 77 97 117
18 38 58 78 98 118
19 39 59 79 99 119
20 40 60 80 100 120
Test carried out
Date. Sign.:
Customers approval
Date. Sign.:
381
ABB Substations Inspection and test record Record form No:
1 WAT 910037-006
Description
Batteries vlav regulated lead acid
Order No.: Sheet.:
2
With capacity test Drawing No.: Cont.:
3
Customer.: Customers ref.:
Erection sale.: Ref.:
D. Capacity test.
5 hours test:___ 10 hours test:___ ..........hours test:____
End voltage/cell 1.80 V/cell_____ Other end voltage/cell.......V/cell
Time between initial charging and capacity test.......h
Ambient temperature............................... C
Discharge current according to datasheet.........................A
Calculated capacity (discharge current x time)........................Ah
The discharge was started at...............stopped at..................
Individual cell voltage
5 hours test 10 hours test .hours
Time V Time Time hours
(h) (h) V (h) V
0 0
1.00 1.00
2.30 5.00
4.00 (80%) Sh.4 8.00 (80%) Sh.4 (80%) Sh.4
4.30(90%) Sh.5 9.00 (90%) Sh.5 (90%) Sh.5
Compl. Compl. Compl.
test (100%) Sh.6 test (100%) Sh.6 test (100%) Sh.6
NOTE:
Individual cell voltages are noted on sheet 4-6. One sheet for each voltmeter reading at
80-90-100% discharge
At 0 hours the load bank is not yet connected and the voltage indicates the open circuit
voltage of each cell.
The capacity test is to be completed when the battery voltage has reached the end
voltage.
Contact resistance between terminals and cell connectors checked (after 1 hour):______
Test carried out
Date. Sign.:
Customers approval
Date. Sign.:
CHAPTERXX
382
ABB Substations Inspection and test record Record form No:
1 WAT 910037-006
Description
Batteries vlav regulated lead acid
Order No.: Sheet.:
3
With capacity test Drawing No.: Cont.:
4
Customer.: Customers ref.:
Erection sale.: Ref.:
E. Evaluation of results after completed test.
1.Cellvoltage deviation after initial charge with the rectifier still connected at float
charge mode (section C. page 1)
Mean value...........V/cell
Max. value............V/cell
Min. value.............V/cell
2. Cellvoltage deviation after completed test (section D, page 2)
Mean value...........V/cell
Max. value............V/cell
Min. value.............V/cell
3. Extracted capacity.
Extracted capacity after compleated test = discharge current x discharge time:
................................................................................................Ah.
Calculated capacity according to section A:...............Ah.
Correction with other temperatures than 20C; Capacity (20C) = Capacity
(tC)/correction factor:
................................................................................................Ah.
F. Recharging after completed test
Charging voltage...................V
Charging current....................A
Charging time.....................h
References to used instruments:
Type:__________________________Identity:_________________________________
Type:__________________________Identity:_________________________________
Type:__________________________Identity:_________________________________
Type:__________________________Identity:_________________________________
Test carried out Customers approval
Date, Sign.: Date, Sign.:
CHAPTERXX
383
ABB Substations Inspection and test record Record form No:
1 WAT 910037-006
Description
Batteries vlav regulated lead acid
Order No.: Sheet.:
4
With capacity test
Drawing No.: Cont.:
5
Customer.: Customers ref.:
Erection sale.: Ref.:
Cell voltage after 80% discharge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
1 21 41 61 81 101
2 22 42 62 82 102
3 23 43 63 83 103
4 24 44 64 84 104
5 25 45 65 85 105
6 26 46 66 86 106
7 27 47 67 87 107
8 28 48 68 88 108
9 29 49 69 89 109
10 30 50 70 90 110
11 31 51 71 91 111
12 32 52 72 92 112
13 33 53 73 93 113
14 34 54 74 94 114
15 35 55 75 95 115
16 36 56 76 96 116
17 37 57 77 97 117
18 38 58 78 98 118
19 39 59 79 99 119
20 40 60 80 100 120
Test carried out Customers approval
Date, Sign.: Date, Sign.:
CHAPTERXX
384
ABB Substations Inspection and test record Record form No:
1 WAT 910037-006
Description
Batteries vlav regulated lead acid
Order No.: Sheet.:
5
With capacity test Drawing No.: Cont.:
6
Customer.: Customers ref.:
Erection sale.:
Ref.:
Cell voltage after 90% discharge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
1 21 41 61 81 101
2 22 42 62 82 102
3 23 43 63 83 103
4 24 44 64 84 104
5 25 45 65 85 105
6 26 46 66 86 106
7 27 47 67 87 107
8 28 48 68 88 108
9 29 49 69 89 109
10 30 50 70 90 110
11 31 51 71 91 111
12 32 52 72 92 112
13 33 53 73 93 113
14 34 54 74 94 114
15 35 55 75 95 115
16 36 56 76 96 116
17 37 57 77 97 117
18 38 58 78 98 118
19 39 59 79 99 119
20 40 60 80 100 120
Test carried out Customers approval
Date, Sign.: Date, Sign.:
CHAPTERXX
385
ABB Substations Inspection and test record Record form No:
1 WAT 910037-006
Description
Batteries vlav regulated lead acid
Order No.: Sheet.:
5
With capacity test Drawing No.: Cont.:
6
Customer.: Customers ref.:
Erection sale.: Ref.:
Cell voltage after 100% discharge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
Cell
No.
Volta
ge
1 21 41 61 81 101
2 22 42 62 82 102
3 23 43 63 83 103
4 24 44 64 84 104
5 25 45 65 85 105
6 26 46 66 86 106
7 27 47 67 87 107
8 28 48 68 88 108
9 29 49 69 89 109
10 30 50 70 90 110
11 31 51 71 91 111
12 32 52 72 92 112
13 33 53 73 93 113
14 34 54 74 94 114
15 35 55 75 95 115
16 36 56 76 96 116
17 37 57 77 97 117
18 38 58 78 98 118
19 39 59 79 99 119
20 40 60 80 100 120
Test carried out Customers approval
Date, Sign.: Date, Sign.:
CHAPTERXX
386
Contributors of this Manual
1. Er. A.S. Kandasamy M.E.,MI.EEE(USA) CE/Transmission
Contributed a lot of papers on Distribution protection and Metering system.
2. Er. K. Mounagurusamy. B.E.,
Chief Engineer/Protection & communication. The experiences in the generation and
transmission network with contributions to the development of the system.
3. Er. M. Varadharajan, B.E,
Executive Engineer/O&M /Orathanadu
Experiences in generating station protections and distribution protection contributed to
the value information.
4. Er. P. Ponnambalam, B.Sc., B.E.,
Executive Engineer/Sub-Station Erection / Chennai
The experience in the field of erection and testing of equipment contributed to the
manual.
5. Er. M. Arunachalam, M.E.,
Executive Engineer/Grid relay Test/Chennai
The experiences on transmission protection are shared much on this manual.
The contributions are worthy in nature and confined to the transmissions.
290
APPENDIX 1
TABLE 1
TEST SPECIFICATION REFERENCES AND TEST REQUIREMENTS
Ref. Country Organization Voltage Uo/U Specification in use Test requirements
(kv/kv) for new cables
d.c. time
voltage (min.)
1 ITALY Cable 36/60 - IEC 502 exrapolation 4Uo 15
Maker - CIGRE recommondations
2 Cable 63/110 to CIGRE recommondations on customer
Maker 86/150 agreement 4UO
1
15
3 Cable 76/132 IEC 502 extrapolation on customer 3Uo 15
Maker agreement 4Uo 15
4 GERMANY BEWAG 63/110 BEWAG specification 1984 3.1Uo 15
5 THE 30/50 KEMA specification S 10 for 50, 3Uo 15
NETHERLANDS KEMA 64/110, 92/150 110 and 150 KV cables, KEMA S10
7
th
April 1984.
6 SWITZERLAND Cable 35/60 to - IEC 502 4Uo 15
Maker 127/220 - SWISS SEV 3437
7 SWEDEN Cable 17.3/30 SWEDISH SS 424 1417 4Uo
2
15
Maker to - 1979 1.73Uo/50Hz
127/220 5
or
Uo/50Hz 24 hours
8 EIRE ESB 63/110 ESB Specification 4Uo 15
949T May 1979
9 FRANCE EDF 36/63 Under consideration
52/90 - -
130/225
10 UK ESI 38/66 to ESI standard 09-16 4Uo 15
76/132 Issue 1 August 1983
11 AUSTRALIA ETSA 38/66 SWEDISH SS 242 14 17 4Uo 15
- 1979
12 SECV 38/66 Australian Electricity 3,46Uo 15
Supply Utility
Specifications
13 ACTEA 76/132 ESI Standard 09-16 4Uo 15
Issue 1 August 1983
14 PCC 38/66 Australian Electricity 3,94Uo 15
Supply Utility Specificiations 3,33Uo 15
15 USA NEMA
16 JAPAN JIEE 38/66 National Technical 4Uo 10
to Standard for Electric
89/154 Installations 2.6Uo 10
17 INTERNATIONAL l EC up to 98/170 draft IEC Specification 3Uo 15
1 - Sometimes limited to 3Uo if SF6 insulation involved.
2 Used on special customer requirement for 132 KV XLPE cable.
291
APPENDIX 2
TABLE 2
RESULTS OF SITE TESTS
Ref Country Organ. Initial Accessories Initial Site Test Service
Site Test Results failures
Description
(kV) (Min)
(kV) Termin. Joint Type
1 ITALY Cable 4Uo 15 36/60 Slip-on Slip-on EPR New installation
Maker EPR Taped EPR, on- no breakdown
Vulcanized
Taped ERP
Vulcanized
2 Cable 4Uo 15 63/110 Slip-on Taped EPR, Three new installa- One early
Maker EPR Slip-on Vulcanized tions (2 installa- breakdown
EPR tions 63/110 kV) - (63/110 kv
No breakdown cable).
3 Cable 3Uo 15 63/110 Slip-on Taped XLPE New installtion -3 joint fai-
Maker EPR vulcanized -1 joint failure lures within
(voids on cable 3 days (Large
insulation pencil- voids on
ling) insulation
pencilling)
4Uo 15 76/132 Slip-on Taped XLPE New installation - 9 joint fail-
vulcanized - 18 joint failures lures within
(11 joints had ob- 4 days (voids
vious defects; 7 pencilling or
joints were appa- similar).
rently sound but
lailed via the top
of the pencilling).
-2 cable failures
(cable damage)
Uo 24 hr 76/132 Slip-on Taped XLPE New installation - 3 joint fai-
(a.c.) EPR vulcanized - 9 joint failures lures within
(defects in joints) 1 month
(defect in
joints).
4 GERMANY BEWAG 3.1 Uo 15 63/110 Slip-on Taped EPDM un- No failures in
Silicon vulcanized d.c. testing
Rubbed
5 The PGEM 4Uo 15 30/50 No. failures in
NETHERL. 64/110 d.c. testing
92/150
6 SWITZERL. Cable 4Uo 15 35/60 Slip-on Taped EPR No failures in
Maker to Silicon Silicon Vulcanized d.c. testing
127/ Rubber Rubber
220
Cable 4Uo 15 86/150 d d
Maker (220
appr.)
7 SWEDEN Cable 3.84Uo 17.3/ Slip-on Taped EPDM un- 1000 km of 80-240kV
30 vulcanized Cable tested to
16 ss 424 unlog
a.c. or d.c. test.
127/ Slip-on Taped XLPE kV cable.
vulcanized reported on
initial site test
at (a.c.)/ 24 hr.
4Uo 15 76/132 Taped XLPE Special order of
vulcanized 132 Kv cable with
lead sheath. B-12
joint failed 4Uo/15
min test (no ob-
vious reason for
(100) (600) failure).
292
APPENDIX 2 (Continued)
TABLE 2
RESULTS OF SITE TESTS
Ref Country Organ. Initial Accessories Initial Site Test Service
Site Test Results failures
Description
(kV) (Min)
(kV) Termin. Joint Type
8 EIRE ESB 4Uo 15 64/110 Slip-on Taped EPR All 4Uo/15 min d.r.
vulcanized test satisfactory
9 FRANCE EDF 3Uo 30 36/63 Slip-on Taped LDPE on No site Lest done
before HDPE Under consideration
1977
2Uo 15 52/90 Slip-on Taped Un-
(a.c.) vulcanized
130/
225
10 UK Cable 4Uo 15 38/66 Slip-on Taped Un- No failure in d.c.
vulcanized testing.
Marker 76/432 (93) Taped Vulcanized (Note 4Uo/15 min
(3) test also carried
out as part of Type
Approval Test on
Cable loop with
joints).
3.5Uo 15 38/66 Slip-on Taped Un- No failures in
vulcanized d.c. testing.
76/132 (24) Taped Vulcanized
(24)
4.5Uo 15 38/66 Slip-on Taped Un- No failure in
(6) (4) vulcanized d.c. testing
4Uo 15 38/66 Slip-on Taped Un- No failures in
vulcanized d.c. testing.
76/132 CSP
11 AUSTRALIA ESTA 3.67Uo 15 38/66 Slip-on No No failures in
joints d.c. testing
12 SECV 3.46Uo 15 38/66 No No failures in
joints d.c. testing
14 PCC 3.94Uo 15 38/66 No failures in
d.c. testing
3.3Uo 15 76/132
15 JAPAN JIEE 4Uo 10 38/66 EPR Taped EPR 6 accessory failu-
vulcanized res in 3700 km cir-
uit (moisture in
interface between
premoulded stress
cone and cable in 2
accessories, pre-
moulded stress cone
positioned incor-
rectly in 1 acces-
sory)
2.6Uo 10 89/154 EPR Moulded XLPE No failures in
3 km circuit.
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80