Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PREFACE
This "handbook" has been prepared as a reference for the many engineers and other professionals who from time to time need to refresh their memory or update their knowledge on the principles and the operational techniques relating to the extraction and the recovery of Palm Oil and Palm Kernels from the fruit of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). They may be occupying the position of Mill Manager, Mill Engineer, Mill Superintendent, Laboratory Analyst etc. The book may also serve as a text book or reference for those wanting to pursue, or are already pursuing a career in this fascinating industry that directly combines large scale agricultural enterprises with industrial processing plants in a variety of different ways. There are five major sections to this book. The first is an introduction to the base product, i.e. the fresh fruit bunches from the oil palm, dealing with the fundamentals of its composition and (chemical) behaviour. This section also briefly describes the matters to be considered for harvesting, handling and transportation of the f.f.b. and deals therefore with those matters that effect or can affect the f.f.b. before reaching the processing plant. The second section describes the fundamentals and basic requirements to be considered when planning the locality, the type of process and the machinery required therefore. The third section explores, describes and details the unit operations normally found in a palm oil mill. The fourth section deals with the waste products generated, the disposal of it and the sources of pollution. The last section is an overview of all other activities and requirements that are normally associated with the operation of a palm oil mill, in particular the generation of steam and electricity, the maintenance of the machinery and equipment and the monitoring and evaluation techniques for the operation, administration, maintenance, stores, sales etc. It is impossible for me to acknowledge all the ideas of the many engineers, authors and friends whose experiences, added to my own during the forty years in engineering, may appear in this book. Fortunately I can acknowledge some of my friends and associates from whose world wide knowledge and experience in their specialized fields I gained during the past twenty four years in the palm oil industry and which has contributed to individual chapters in this book. These include: J.J.Olie; R.A.Gillbanks, MBE; ; T.Fleming; D.A.M.Whiting; K.L.Hammond; D.R.Hoare; J.C.Lumsden; Lim Kang Hoe; Dr.P.D.Turner; T.Menendez. Finally, I acknowledge that much of the material in this book is by no means new and/or complete but constitutes an attempt to amalgamate the information from published papers, manufacturers instruction books etc., with my personal knowledge, views and experience in this industry.
J.A.Vugts.
ABBREVIATIONS
Admix. B.O.D. B.V. C.B.C. C.M.C. C.O.D. C.P.O. D E.F.B. F.F.A. F.F.B. H.R.T. Lotox M.P.D. M.V.A. N.O.S. P. P.K. P.K.E. P.K.O. P.O.M. P.O.M.E. P.V. S.S. T. T.D.S. T.O.C. T.O.D. Totox T.S. U.S.B. V.M. : percentage foreign matter in kernel : Biological Oxygen Demand : Benzidine Value : Cake Breaker Conveyor : Cracked Mixture Conveyor : Chemical Oxygen Demand : Crude Palm Oil : Dura palm type : Empty Fruit Bunches : Free Fatty Acid : Fresh Fruit Bunches : Hydraulic Retention Time : Low total oxidation (value) : Mash Passing to Digesters : Melavonic Acid : Non Oily Solids : Pisifera palm type : Palm Kernel : Palm Kernel Expeller : Palm Kernel Oil : Palm Oil Mill : Palm Oil Mill Effluent : Peroxide Value : Suspended Solids : Tenera palm type : Total Dissolved Solids : Total Organic Carbon : Total Oxygen Demand : Total oxidation (value) : Total Solids : Un Stripped Bunches : Volatile Matter (moisture content)
CONTENTS
Preface Abrreviations used SECTION #1 The raw material - F.F.B. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Fresh Fruit Bunches Ripenes standards Bio chemistry Ripeness parameters Ripeness pattern Summary 1 to 5 Other factors of influence to F.F.B. Planting material Pollination Climate Soil condition Fertilizer Harvesting interval Transportation Summary 7 to 14 1-1 2-1 3-1 4-1 5-1 6-1 7-1 8-1 9-1 10-1 11-1 12-1 13-1 14-1 15-1
SECTION #2 The Factory - Design considerations 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Design Site selection Locality Effluent disposal Seasonal wind Transport distances Summary 16 to 21 16-1 17-1 18-1 19-1 20-1 21-1 22-1
SECTION #3 The Factory - Extraction of C.P.O. and P.K. 23. General requirements 24. Fresh fruit bunches 25. Sterilization of fruit 25.1 Air release 25.2 Condensate removal iii 23-1 24-1 25-1 25-3 25-6
26. Mash Passing to Digester 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Method of sampling 26.3 Analysis 26.4 Recording of results 26.5 Interpretation of results 27. Digesting of sterilized fruit 27.1 The digester 27.2 The action 28. Pressing of digested fruit 28.1 The press 28.2 The operation 28.3 The extraction efficiency 29. Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.) 29.1 The collection of C.P.O. 29.2 The clarification of C.P.O. 29.3 The storage of C.P.O. 29.4 Evaluation of C.P.O. 30. Palm Kernel (P.K.) 30.1 Nut / Fibre mixture 30.2 The cake breaker conveyor 30.3 Nut / Fibre separation 30.4 Nut treatment 30.5 Nut cracking 30.6 Kernel / Shell separation 30.7 Kernel recovery 30.8 Kernel drying 30.9 Kernel cleaning 30.10 Evaluation of P.K.
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32. Disposal of "wet" material 32.1 Parameters for liquid effluent 32.2 Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) 32.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.) 32.4 Total Organic Carbon (T.O.C.) 32.5 Total Oxygen Demand (T.O.C.) 32.6 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (Th.O.C.) 32.7 Correlation of measurements 32.8 Biological treatment definitions 32.9 Aerobic suspended growth treatment 32.10 Control methods and technology 32.11 Treatment types 32.12 Anaerobic facultative pond system 32.13 Anaerobic (bi-phase) facultative ponds 32.14 Anaerobic/extended aeration pond system 32.15 Anaerobic tank digestion/extended aeration system 32.16 Land application of partly treated effluent 32.18 Effects of application of digested effluent 33. Air pollution 33.1 Boiler smoke 33.2 Incinerator smoke
34. Generation of steam and electricity 34.1 General boiler water information 34.2 Water treatment : external 34.3 Water treatment : internal 34.4 Blow down 34.5 The principle of de-aeration 34.6 Procedure for boiler "boil out" 34.7 Steam requirement calculations 34.8 Electricity 35. Repair and Maintenance 35.1 Maintenance and scheduling 35.2 Check list for reporting on Palm Oil Mills 36. Process control 36.1 The aim of process control 36.2 Examination of F.F.B. 36.3 Empty Bunch checking 36.4 Sampling 36.5 Interpretation of the results 36.6 General comments 37. Quality control 37.1 The Laboratory (37I).01 Determination of F.F.A. in C.P.O. (37I).02 Volatile matter in oil (37I).03 Dirt in oil 37.2 Oxidation 37.3 Bleach-ability 37.4 Quality analysis of P.K. 37.5 Determination of oil losses 37.6 Other tests 38. Administration and accounting Glossary follows
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1.07
1.08
1.09 1.10
2.04
3.05
3.06
3.07
3.08
3.10
3.11
a) Lipid content The amount maximises when fruit is ripe and the amount drops slightly after senescence. Total oil content increases with the age of the plant. The amount of oil in wet mesocarp increases from 1% in the young fruits to about 40 % in the mature fruits. The FFA composition of the mesocarp lipid at different stages of maturity is significantly different. In 11 week old fruits, linoleic acid (C18:2) is prominent, forming about 28% of the FFA composition. As the fruit matures, oleic acid (C18:1) forms the bulk of the lipid. In the ripe fruit the FFA composition of the lipid extract is similar to that of the CPO (see table 1) It is only natural that the product which is generated by the plant maximises at the mature stage and the composition is such to provide the fruit with lipids containing the basic fatty acid precursors for the subsequent process of dispersion and survival.
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12
Chapter #5 RIPENESS PATTERN [relation of a ripe fruitlet to the rest of the bunch]
5.01 Ripe fruit may be defined as fruit which has the maximum amount of oil, and more directly as fruit which contains no more chlorophylls and attaining a carotene to carotene absorbency ratio of > 1.2 (which occurs normally in the 20th week after anthesis.) The fruits of any given bunch do not ripen simultaneously, due to slight variations in the time of pollination of the flowers. (The period of receptivity of the florets in an anthesizing female inflorescence is about 2 to 5 days.) Visual observation indicate that both the size and the colour of the fruit from the different locations on the bunch are different. The fruits on the periphery (outer side) of the bunch are usually large and deep orange in colour, whilst the fruits embedded in the interior of the bunch are sometimes smaller and do not have the deep orange coloration. Correlation of all these fruits with one another in terms of the degree of ripeness can be made. 5.04 Analysis done on the same bunch of a particular age, from different bunch sections, i.e. top, middle and bottom and from each section from different spikelets, i.e. outer, middle and inner parts shows that the contents of chlorophylls and carotenes are more in the top sections and decreases towards the bottom, but the 456 : 432 nm absorbency ratio is at a constant value, i.e. < 1. This constant value indicates that the fruits from different sections are all in a similar stage of maturity. Unless: the absorbency ratio of the top section is equal or more than 1, which would indicate that the fruits in that section are older than the fruits in the middle or bottom section of the bunch. Analysis from the 20th week (optimum ripeness) show a similar absorbency profile; in all the fruits from whatever position on the bunch.
5.02
5.03
5.05 5.06
5.07 13
5.09
14
15
16
7.04
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19
Chapter #9 POLLINATION
9.01 Efficiency of pollination: Popularly stated, non pollinated fruit has no kernel.(and a low oil content). The processing, especially pressing of this type of fruit is difficult and the resulting press liquid is difficult to separate into oil, water, dirt etc. (The immediate side effect of the non availability of kernel is the difference in fuel composition to the boiler furnace, since less or no shell will be available to be mixed with the fibre.) 9.02 The by insect (Elaedobius Kamerunicus) pollinated fruit has generally a much more "dense" composition than fruit pollinated by wind and or larger insects and in general has a larger number of fully and partly developed fruitlets in the bunch.
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29
16.02 Some of the innovations/modifications are not new, but merely a renewed application of an existing older principle, which coupled to other changes in the selected equipment and design has shown to be either economically advantageous, more efficient and/or more practically orientated by reducing the levels of skill required for maintenance of the equipment etc. Most, but not all, changes required the design and lay out of the factories to be re examined and have generally resulted in a more efficiently designed work place and allowed for a certain amount of "standardization" to be introduced. Despite this, the design and the lay out of palm oil factories are still very much subject to the individual preference of the owners and/or the individual preference of the Engineer(s) in charge .
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25.2.01 As steam is used in the sterilizer it condenses and this condensate has to be removed from the vessel for several reasons: a) If it is not removed it will flood the bearings of the cage bogies, wash out the lubricating agent and ruin the bearings. b) If the level is allowed to rise any further up to the level of fruit any "free" oil and oil out of the bunches will be washed out in excessive quantities. c) The "free" oil on the surface of the fruit is a result of damage and bruising of the fruit and this oil has a high fatty acid content and is therefore quite corrosive. The mixture with the condensate will thus be of a corrosive nature and attacks the steel work of the sterilizer. This corrosion cannot be totally eliminated since condensate must flow out of the vessel, but should be minimized as much as possible by keeping the vessel as free of condensate as practicably possible. d) At the end of the sterilizing cycle any free condensate still left in the vessel will flash off and thus increases the total blow off time of the sterilizer. 25.2.02 Condensate must be cleared when pressure in the vessel is still low to prevent a build up of condensate through the main condensate valves, whilst a "constant bleed" system with sample capacity to ensure continuous adequate removal of the condensate formed throughout the cycle must also be provided. Despite the ample capacity cited above, the main condensate 49
25.3.01 A full sterilizing cycle consists basically of three phases : i) Steam pressure build up ii) Constant pressure phase iii) Blow off i) Steam pressure build up The pressure build up in the sterilizer must be at a rate that will allow the requirements of proper de-aeration as described before and the constant pressure phase of minimal 30 minutes at 3 kg/cm2 to be attained within the designed or preferred cycle time. The supply of steam and the piping transporting this steam has therefore to be calculated large enough to achieve this aim. The very large quantity of steam required at the start of the cycle is usually limited by the capacity of the back pressure system and if supplemented by live steam of reduced pressure direct from the boilers, by the capacity of the steam boilers supplying this steam. A pressure build up to 3 kg/cm2 in a time of maximum 10 minutes would be ideal, but very few systems in C.P.O. mills are able to achieve this. (see under 25.4, Steam consumption) 50
25.4.01 The low pressure steam in the C.P.O. mill is usually provided by means of a back pressure system from the electrical power generating steam engines or turbine sets. Such equipment can be, and for C.P.O. mills usually is, designed with an exhaust or back pressure steam at 3 kg/cm2. 51
The total surface in contact with the steam at the start of the cycle has then the highest value, since the fruits are still hard and the bunches in the sterilizer cage are touching each other on only a few points and the total of these surfaces are rather small. 25.4.04 At the start of the cycle these surfaces are still dry and has been shown that droplet condensation will occur. The heat transmission co efficient (1) then has a very high value of : 70.000 kcal/m2.hr.oCelsius. 52
53
The calculation for the correct size of the orifice is quite complex using Bernoulli's theorem and the general equation for the mass flow of a fluid through and orifice. Calculation using simplified equations are not very accurate and the results obtained using such equations show quite large differences. Having plenty of steam available towards the end of the cycle is also of no help in shortening the required cycle time because the capacity of the fruit to condense the steam is by then greatly reduced. 25.4.12 In calculations of total steam demand for sterilizing an allowance must be made for the period of overlap between sterilizers. There can also be a substantial steam demand when mill production is reduced. For instance a 30 ton f.f.b./hr mill with 3 presses could have two x 9 cage sterilizers. When this mill runs on two presses at 20 ton f.f.b./hr the overlap in the sterilizer operation will still be needed and the steam demand will be almost the same as it is for the three press operation. The fuel available from the two press operation will only be 2/3 or 66 % of that available at full through put and the operation will come to a halt when steam pressure and production cannot be sustained due to this shortage of fuel. 25.4.13 For multiple peak sterilization average consumption can be as much as 250 kg/ton f.f.b. and at the peak rate the steam consumption will be the maximum that the steam system can support when the pressure is being build up at the start of the cycle. 55
Figure #1
25
TON/HOUR
10
0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
Figure #2
25
10 Peak @5.8 T/H = 2.15 x AVERAGE 5 AVERAGE = 2.7 T/H 0 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 STERILIZER PRESSURE in Kg/cm2
Figure #3
25
TON/HOUR
10
1.50
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
Figure #4
12000
2000
2.25
2.5
2.75
Figure #5
6000
5000
Kg/Hour
4000
3000
2000
1000
0 0.05 0.30 0.55 0.80 1.05 1.30 1.55 1.8 2.05 2.3 2.55 2.8 STEAM PRESSURE in kg/cm2
25.5.01 An oil mill cannot reach its rated throughput unless the required number of tons of well sterilized fruit are delivered to the threshing station at regular intervals. Failure to deliver fruit to the sterilizers as required, for what ever reason will reduce the throughput of the presses, which in turn will reduce the fuel supply to the boilers and in extreme cases results in steam shortage and inadequate, or delayed, sterilizing which in turn leads to a further lowering of the throughput. A strict control is therefore necessary. 25.5.02 During peak harvesting periods large quantities of loose fruits can be delivered to mills. If sterilizer cages are loaded with loose fruit entirely the heat penetration will be very poor and under sterilized fruit will enter the process. The enzymes responsible for the production of f.f.a. will probably be inactivated later in the process, but the other undesirable effects from poor sterilization will not be eliminated. Loose fruit must be distributed over a sufficient number of sterilizer cages to prevent this occurrence. Note: One exception to the above is when loose fruit is sterilized on its own, as sometimes practised when separating f.f.b. for the production and subsequent segregating high and low f.f.a. oil. When separately sterilized a shorter (about 45 minute) cycle of single peak at full pressure is sufficient to adequately sterilize and prepare the fruit for processing.
25.5.02 The correct sequence and timing of valve operations for correct sterilization has proved to be far better maintained by a programmable automated valve control system than by manual control. However, an automated valve control system does not compensate for an inadequate steam supply and does in fact produce worse results under poor steam availability than a well operated manually controlled system. 61
25.6.01 After the sterilizing process the fruit is transported to the next step in processing, i.e. to the stripping or threshing equipment. Transportation of the cages is usually effected by means of a capstan and pull ropes, pulling a whole train of cages out of the sterilizer, thus making space for the next load of f.f.b. to be placed in the still hot sterilizer vessel. This change over should be effected as quickly as possible in order to reduce the heat loss from the open sterilizer and reduce the steam requirement for the next cycle. 25.6.02 Emptying of the cage can be achieved in different ways. the most common one being the overhead hoisting crane which lifts the cage to the thresher platform and tips the fruit out of the cage on to a feed regulating device which is usually situated on top of the thresher machine. 25.6.03 The use of a ground level "tippler" device (as for instance commonly used in the sugar industry) has also found an application in the C.P.O. factory. With this method the need for extra heavy building columns to take the load and stress from an overhead crane or gantry is eliminated, the building height can be reduced (thus reducing capital expenditure) and if correctly designed the speed of the tipping device can be controlled to achieve the required even feeding of the thresher machine, thus eliminating separate regulating feed devices. The (ground level) tipping device does need a conveyor system to transport the sterilized fruit to the inlet of the thresher machine. 62
25.7.01 The second process step in the factory is the stripping or threshing of the sterilized fruit bunches. The functions of the thresher can be separated into two major ones: a) to cause the fruit to detach from the bunches, and b) to separate the then loose fruit from the now empty bunch stalks. Both these actions cause oil losses and although these are unavoidable, correct operation can keep these losses within the for the industry accepted limits. 25.7.02 The operation and the effectiveness of the thresher must be continuously monitored during the operation to prevent the 'unstripped bunch' (u.s.b.) count from reaching too high levels. One method to reduce the level of unstripped bunches or poorly stripped bunches is to feed the bunches after the first threshing to a "bunch crusher". This machine squeezes the poorly or partly stripped bunch through a set of (usually star shaped) rollers, thereby dislodging any or most of the fruit still attached to the bunch stalk after the first threshing. The bunch and squeezed out fruit is then subjected to a second threshing, where virtually all fruit is removed. (see also section 5.36, Process Control) Regular representative sampling and analysis must be done to monitor the effectiveness of both the threshing and the sterilizing, for it has been shown that as much as 30 % of all oil losses can originate in these two first steps of processing f.f.b..
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64
it follows that
The empirical formulae for the thresher speed can be stated to be 1800 n = 0.75 to 0.80 x d
i.e. a drum with a diameter of 1.8 meter should have a rotational speed of
1800 n = 0.75 @ 0.80 x = 25 r.p.m. 1.8 The size of the bunches obviously are an important factor and the empirical formula 40 D - d 2 n = , where D - d n = r.p.m ; D = inside diameter drum and d = smallest diameter of bunch at widest part, takes this into account. It follows that one single speed cannot cater for the wide variety of bunch sizes that are usually delivered to the mill, since the diameter "d" will vary with every bunch delivered. 25.7.06 Variable speed of the drum would not solve this problem, since the sizes of bunches to be stripped will vary from minute to minute. 65
a) Insufficient feeding, which often leads to shock loading and/or overloading of the thresher will generally also result in shortening the actual retention time of the bunch in the drum, causes poor stripping and higher oil losses from fruitlets carried off with the empty bunch. b) The build up of too many bunches in the drum will allow the impact of the bunch dropping down to be cushioned and in general increases the retention time of the bunch in the drum. c) The residence time in the drum can be controlled by having suitably spaced lifting bars, angled to the longitudinal axis, to "throw" the bunches in the direction of the outlet from the drum. d) Too fast a travel in that direction is also undesirable since the bunch would then not be subjected to a sufficient number of drops and impacts to ensure complete stripping. 25.7.08 Oil losses in the threshing station as a result of the stripping process are: a) losses due to absorption of oil by the empty bunch stalks b) losses due to fruits not released from the bunch and carried off with the "empty"bunch.
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25.8.01 The material stripped from the bunches, i.e. fruitlets, calyx leaves, occasional spikelets and other bunch "trash" needs to be transported to the machinery required for the next step in the process. It is not uncommon that with the bunches some unwanted material, such as sand, earth, stones, bits of timber or steel etc. are also delivered. If these unwanted materials are not noted and removed during the ramp transfer, they will enter the process in the thresher machine where the larger bits that can not pass through the slots of the thresher drum will remain in the drum until manually removed. 25.8.02 The smaller bits however will find their way through and can cause jamming and damage to the transportation equipment of screw conveyors and bucket elevators. Large, flat plate type, permanent magnets can be placed at selected points in an effort to attract and trap/hold any metal bits that may be included in the mash passing to the digesters. Stones etc. will usually pass through the whole system, including the presses and separate out from the processed material in the depericarper, polishing drums etc. 25.8.03 The various conveyors used are usually the screw type conveyor, suitably sized and geared for the required respective duty and the quantity of material to be handled. The action of conveying sterilized fruit in this way compresses the fruit and thus oil is expelled and losses are to be expected. However, since the conveyor "scrapes" the fruit along, the expelled oil is mostly 68
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General Data
Screw Conveyor
Capacity of a screw conveyor C = A x B x V , where: A = sectional area of the material passing through the trough (usually about 30 % of the area of the trough) B = bulk density of the fruit V = velocity of the material moving (= rpm x pitch of screw) Average bulk density:
Material Density kg/m3 Loose fruit 590 Wet nuts 585 Dry nuts 560 Cracked mixture 500 Dry kernel 595 Wet kernel 640 Wet shell 790
Thresher considerations
Bunches are stripped after 6 to 7 drops from about 1.2 meter, drum diameter 1.8 meter, rpm = 23. At each drop the bunch moves "forward" by about 0.5 meter Thresher capacity C = area x k x bulk density x velocity pi x D2 Area = m2 4 K = factor 0.05 bulk density = 0.32 metric ton per cubic meter. Velocity = if the bunch drops once every 0.75 revolution and rpm = 23, then velocity = (23: 0.75) x 0.5 = 15.33 meter per minute
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In most cases this speed will be too high for a CPO mill fruit elevator, and the design usually features the "positive discharge" rather than the "centrifugal discharge" elevator. Positive discharge: The positive discharge design has a lower chain speed, pick up of fruits is more efficient and the elevator is almost always a double chain type where the buckets are supported between two strands of chain. Buckets are spaced at intervals about double of the bucket projection. The chains should be deflected backwards under the top sprockets (or head wheels) by a pair of deflector sprockets or wheels in such a way that the contents of each bucket will fall clear of the bucket ahead. The angle of the elevator assists in the material falling clear of the returning chains and buckets. As chains will "stretch" unevenly, bottom sprockets should be allowed to idle alternately in order to even out this difference in stretched chain length. 72
26.2.01 Equipment required: A top loading balance of a two to three kilogramme range, measuring to 10 grammes accuracy. 26.2.02 Sampling: Samples must be taken before the fruit is elevated to the digesters, i.e. at the thresher conveyor (or weighing belt equipment etc.) to the elevator. The weight of the sample should be as close to one kilogramme as possible and must be taken every half hour during regular processing. The sample must be analysed immediately after sampling, this is preferably done "on the factory floor", i.e. close to the sampling point. 73
26.3.01 Each sample should be analysed for percentage by weight of: a) Whole fruit with nut, split into two components: i) MESOCARP (squeezed out from each fruit) Mesocarp Nut ii) NUTS b) NORMAL PARTHENOCARPS (= underdeveloped fruits) c) ABNORMAL PARTHENOCARPS (= normal whole fruit without nut) d) CALYX leaves and Spikelets (= all "non fruit" material) 26.4 Recording of results. Whole fruit
26.4.01 The results must be recorded accurately and tabulated as under: Date: .../.../.....
Total Sample
F.F.B. Source:......
Whole Fruit with nut Mesocarp Nuts wght 324 320 298 etc % 30.0 32.0 28.4 wght 119 72 166 % 11.0 7.2 15.8 wght 120 175 168 % 11.1 17.5 16.0 wght 157 113 78 % 14.6 11.3 7.4 Abnormal parthenocarp Normal parthenocarp Calyx leave & Spikelets
Time
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26.5.01 The variation in extraction rates of both C.P.O. and P.K. (Palm Kernel) over a given amount of time is directly related to the tabulated results, i.e.: C.P.O. mainly from mesocarp - if the mesocarp % drops, then C.P.O. extraction can be expected to drop accordingly. P.K. mainly from nuts - if the nut % drops, then P.K. extraction can be expected to decrease accordingly. If Abnormal Parthenocarps % is too high, then pollination of the fruit is most likely incomplete, reducing the oil bearing mesocarp. If Normal Parthenocarps % is too high, then the fruit is probably harvested before the correct (optimum) ripeness standard. If Spikelets and other material % is too high, then fruit may have had a too long retention time in the sterilizer (over cooked) or in the thresher (over threshed), when the normally whole empty bunch/stalk is broken up and pieces pass to the oil extraction equipment. (This results in a lower extraction rate, since the material "soaks up" oil and retains it)
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27.1.01 The next step in the process of extracting C.P.O. and P.K. from the M.P.D. is the digesting of the sterilized fruit. The digester was developed during the period that C.P.O. mills predominantly used either "hand presses" or "hydraulic ram" type pressing equipment for the extraction of the oil. 27.1.02 The M.P.D. to be processed by these machines had to be prepared for this pressing by liberating and rupturing the oil cells in the fruit mass. Oil bearing cells not ruptured during the digesting process will, even under the rather high pressure in the press cage of an hydraulic press, remain "unopened" and the oil in these cells will be lost. 27.1.03 The introduction of the, now almost universally used, screw type press changed this somewhat. Due to the turbulence in-and the kneading action exerted upon the press cake in the press cage of a screw press, the M.P.D. has a better chance of being ruptured and releasing the oil. The action of a feed screw, as used with certain presses further enhances this aspect. 27.2 The action:
27.2.01 The digesters most commonly used in C.P.O. MILLS are steam jacketed, cylindrical vessels with a vertical central rotating shaft to which pairs of stirring/cutting/shearing arms are attached. The action of these rotating arms causes the fruit mass to be "digested" (= mashed) 27.2.02 The size (volume) of the digester must relate to the through put capacity of the press which follows it. 76
a) The heating system should allow for the supply of sufficient steam in order that the digested mash leaves the digester at about 90 to 95 o C. These high temperatures have been shown to be vital for good press results, lower oil losses on fibre and easier clarification (higher temperatures reduce the viscosity and generally it can be said that the higher the temperature, the lower the losses) Further more it will aid the fibre / nut separation in the depericarper as free moisture at higher temperature will flash off better from the fibre / nut mixture in the cake breaker conveyor. Care must be taken not to over heat the mash to boiling temperature since this has a marked detrimental effect on the ability to separate the components oil, water and non oily solids 77
The emulsions of ii) and iii) above are usually of a very high viscosity and considerably reduce the effectiveness of the extraction of oil in the press The addition of a (large) quantity of (hot) water to reduce this viscosity will help to restore this effectiveness to an extend, but the oil losses in sludge may increase disproportional and the volume of liquid effluent increases considerably. Proper digester drainage of the "free oil" appears to give the best results during the pressing stage. (The addition of dilution water after this stage, to aid the settling out proportions of the crude oil is another matter, see under chapter 29, clarification of C.P.O.) d) The even feed of the digested fruit mash into the press is important in view of the pressing action and the maintaining of a low oil loss on fibrous material ( and nuts ) expelled by the press. The more even the feed is maintained, the more even the conditions inside the press cage will be maintained and the best average setting for the cone pressure can be maintained. (see under chapter 28, Pressing of digested fruit)
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28.1.01 Directly following the digesting is the actual extraction of the oil, achieved usually by a pressing action. Presses have evolved from hand operated ones to hand operated hydraulic ram types, to automatic hydraulic ram types and to the presently almost universally used twin screw type presses. 28.1.02 The change over from hydraulic ram type presses to screw type presses was partly as a result of changes in the fruit composition as a result of "improved" planting material with a higher yield of oil. In general it can be stated that the "Dura" type f.f.b. suited the hydraulic ram type extraction equipment, but created problems if processed by screw presses, whilst the later developed "Tenera" type f.f.b. proved to be problematic with the hydraulic ram type presses, but suited the screw type presses. 28.1.03 This is partially due to the composition of the press cake from the different types of fruit. To illustrate the difference between the average "Dura" and the average "Tenera" type fruit, it is useful to compare the main parameters:
"DURA" M.P.D. : F.F.B. Bunch trash : F.F.B. (Calyx leaves,spikelets, abortive fruitlets etc.) Fibre : Nuts Clean sterilized fruit : F.F.B. Nuts : F.F.B. Oil in M.P.D. : F.F.B. Oil extraction rate : F.F.B. Kernel extraction rate : F.F.B. (clean, no dirt) 65 % "TENERA" 70 %
7% 65 : 35 60 % 25 % 18 % 17.5 % 4.5 %
10 % 80 : 20 60 % 13 % 24 % 24 % 6%
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28.2.03 Virtually all variables have a direct effect on the through put and the extraction efficiency, because: a) F.F.B.: Prolonged harvest interval usually result in the harvesting of "over ripe" bunches from which too much fruits have already detached, or will detach on cutting this fruit which will also have a higher f.f.a. %. Harvesting efficiency includes the collection of the loose fruits, non or partial collection results in different ratios of M.P.D. to F.F.B. and lower extraction and/or recovery rates of both oil and kernel by the milling process. F.F.B. handling, if incorrect, increases the bruising and damage to the fruit, decreasing the recovery of oil from M.P.D. and increases the oil losses on sterilizer condensate. 82
28.3.01 It is common practice in the palm oil industry to consider the oil loss on fibre ex presses as the most important one. It is however more appropriate and more accurate to take the overall oil losses into account and judge the overall performance by calculating the extraction efficiency of the overall palm produce , i.e. C.P.O. and P.K. There exists a direct relation between the press cake composition, the oil loss in fibre, the percentage nut breakage, (the shell thickness) and the torque of the press, due to the setting of the cones at the exit side of the press. Generally it can be observed that: i) ii) iii) iv) With constant torque, nut breakage increases in accordance with the percentage nuts in the press cake With constant torque, nut breakage increases in accordance with the ratio kernel to nut ( as a result of thinner shells) With improper feed, reducing the capacity of the press in relation to the main screw speed, the press cake tends to "slip" and nut breakage increases With a constant fruit composition the oil loss on fibre will decrease with an increase in torque, but at the same time nut breakage will increase.
28.3.02 Kernels from broken nut will not necessarily be lost, recovery can still be effected in the depericarper section, provided the kernel is not totally crushed and pulverized. There are many factors involved in efficient extraction, starting with the actual type and composition of the fruit and continuing with the handling. the sterilization, threshing , digesting and pressing. It is essential that all the operations involved are correctly executed and controlled. 84
85
29.1.01 The liquid extracted by the presses has a fairly high viscosity, which increases with the oil and solid content of the liquid and with the decrease of the temperature of the liquid. Thus, collection of C.P.O. and distribution to the screening plant is best kept as short as possible and can usually be achieved by chutes and funnels leading to a "crude oil gutter", suitably sized to match the out put of the number of digesters and presses that feed into this gutter and fixed on an angle to facilitate fast(er) flow to the screening plant. 29.1.02 The screening plant may or may not have a sand trap tank or filter installation, fitted before or after the actual screening, to remove the sand. Sand has a very high influence on the wear and tear of the machinery. Much depend on the local conditions and circumstances, i.e. whether sand is or is not a common component of the crude oil often depend on field conditions and f.f.b. handling. 29.1.03 The sand trap acts by "settling". thus the major consideration is to allow the speed of the crude oil flow to reduce to near static conditions in order that sand has sufficient time to settle out and sink through the viscous liquid to the bottom of the trap or tank. Thus, the trap or tank dimensions are important, as in too small a unit the sand with its very low "sinking" speed in the liquid will not have time to settle out. The sand "cyclone" uses a specially designed hydro cyclone through which the C.P.O. is pumped. The liquid enters tangentially, so causing the sand particles to be deposited against the cylindrical outer wall of the cyclone by centrifugal force and to follow a down ward spiral to escape through 86
29.2.01 C.P.O. is extracted from sterilized mesocarp and the major variations in the C.P.O. are mainly due to the type of extraction process used. Fresh mesocarp may be analysed as follows: 49 % Oil 35 % Water 16 % Non Oily Solids whilst sterilised mesocarp may be: 54 % Oil 28 % Water 18 % Non Oily Solids The aim of the clarification process is to separate as much as possible all foreign particles from the oil in order to produce palm oil as pure as possible before storage and sales, whilst keeping losses of oil on the removed foreign particles as low as possible. The (screened) liquid pumped to the clarification consists of three major components: a) a mixture of oil and water ii) a
This mixture can be seen as two parts, i.e.: i) "free" oil and homogenized emulsion i) 88
"Free" oil is mainly oil that has separated out in the digester and
89
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29.3.01 The storage of C.P.O. from a correct process, which produces oil of a sufficiently low moisture and dirt content usually takes place in ordinary steel tanks, without special treatment. Storage of oil may last for several months without unacceptable deterioration in the quality of oil, although the F.F.A. content will continue to increase. 92
[Similar contracts exist for Palm Kernel Oil (P.K.O.)] Market patterns change, but majority of produce is sold on a C.I.F. basis. Careful handling and storage prior to shipment and correct carriage procedures to the port of destination should result in only modest deterioration in quality of the product.
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= US$ = US$
Good Quality Delivered value b) Less:V.M. and Dirt (0.22%) c) Add FFA premium basis 5% (2%) Value received for oil 198,500 436.70 (0.50%) 3,970 202,033.30 (0.25%)
Good Quality oil advantage = US$ 4029.55 or equivalent to US$ 8.06 per tonne.
Comments: a) The CPO is weighed (or gauged) at destination and buyers do not pay for the loss in weight (skin loss etc.), which is deducted. b) Buyers do not pay for water and dirt in the oil, weights are deducted. c) Each percent of FFA below the agreed basis of 5% shall be paid for by buyers at the rate of 1 % of the contract price, with fractions in proportions. Equally, if % is above agreed basis a deduction is made on the same basis. The contract also states that " oil shall be of merchantable quality" If oil is contaminated in transit, (from residual cargo left over in 94
95
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Thus basically three layers are formed, of which the middle one is the most active one. That is where the "stirrers" are fitted to help the separation by shearing the mixture of crude oil entering the tank and helping oil globules to rise up and solids to sink down . The conical bottom of the tank has a purpose - it will collect the settled out solids sinking down and guide them to the lowest point, where a 'drain' valve is fitted. The bottom layer should not be disturbed any more, therefore both the steam coils and the stirrers are fitted above this level. (The steam coils would very quickly "cake up" with the solids baking on to them and the stirrers would stir and swirl the solids back in to the layer above!!) Thus the lowest stirrer blade is fitted about 35 cm above the start of the conical section. Pending the size of the C.S.T. the highest blade / paddle is about half way the straight section of the tank. Usually there are 4 rotating paddles (@ 3 - 5 rpm) and 3 stationary plates. The slow rotating paddles shear the liquid and if the temperature, or more correctly the viscosity is correct, oil and solids will have a much greater chance of escaping the middle layer. The bottom layer should therefore be never more than the conical section 101
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CRUDE OIL TANK ( WITH 30 % DILUTION ADDED) = INPUT INTO CONTINUOUS SETTLING TANK OIL WATER NOS : 38 % : 58 % : 4%
OUTPUT COUNTINOUS SETTLING TANK WET PURE OIL : (35 % OF CST INPUT) UNDERFLOW : (65 % OF CST INPUT)
INPUT TO PURIFIERS OIL WATER NOS 98.9 % 1.0 % 0.1 % INPUT TO DECANTERS OIL WATER NOS 10 % 85 % 5%
TO VACUUM DRYER; END PRODUCT = "CPO" = OIL 99.8 % + V.M. O.2 %) OUTPUT FROM 3 PHASE DECANTERS OIL : 28 % (RETURN TO CST OR PURE WET OIL) OIL : 32% WATER : 64 % NOS : 4% : 9 % (DISPOSE DIRECT ; END PRODUCT) OIL : 3% WATER : 78 % NOS : 19 %
SOLIDS
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30.2.01 The first process after the pressing is the action of "breaking up" the cake expelled from either the hydraulic or the screw presses. The cake from the hydraulic presses is dense and well compacted, while the cake from the screw presses is less compacted. In both cases this mixture needs to be "broken up" and opened before separation by the nut/fibre separator, commonly known as the "depericarper". (This in fact is a wrong name for this machine, but is commonly used through out the industry to describe the nut / fibre separator) 30.2.02 The commonly used method is to transport the cake from where it is expelled from the presses to the separator by a trough type rotating conveyor fitted with paddles, the angle of which can be adjusted so 106
Diameter RPM Peripheral speed = 3.14 x x metres/second, 100 60 where the diameter is in metres.
The movement of the fibre / nut mixture can thus be quite violent and considerable and loosen the fibre from the nuts. The free fibre will loose a certain amount of moisture, due mainly to the exposure and the "flashing off" during this tossing action. Cake breaker conveyors are traditionally fitted with steam jackets to increase the temperature of the fibre and so help in this drying action, 107
30.3.01 Once the nut/fibre mixture has been adequately prepared by the cake breaker conveyor, the separation of the nuts and the fibrous material can be achieved by either mechanical or pneumatic air stream separation. 30.3.02 The mechanical nut/fibre separator has severe limitations with regard to capacity and with the expansion of the industry coupled to the increase in process capacity, this equipment has largely been replaced by the now commonly used air separation type of equipment. 30.3.03 The pneumatic nut/fibre separators can be divided into two basic types with occasionally a hybrid combination of these two can also be found. 30.3.04 For smaller capacity factories (5-15 ton/hr), the rotating drum type separator has been used. This, in principle, is a slow rotating (10-15 RPM) long, narrow drum, fitted with lifting arms and baffle or retaining rings. The air is evacuated through a fan and blown to a cyclone. The fibrous material is carried with this air and recovered from the cyclone, usually situated conveniently near the boiler fuel supply storage area. The rotating drum type separator for larger capacity processing plants tends to be very large in size and thus has a very large power consumption. This fibre passes through the fan, thus causing wear and tear, so a suitable hard wearing material should be chosen for this fan. Since most of the separation does actually take place after the drum, 108
Velocity
2 m/sec 4 m/sec 6 m/sec 10 m/sec 12 - 14 m/sec 14 m/sec 16 m/sec 16 m/sec 18 m/sec 20 - 24 m/sec 20 m/sec 20 - 28 m/sec
Small shell (D x P type) Normal shell ( mixed type F.F.B.) Small kernel ( < 4 mm diameter) Small nut ( < 8 mm diameter)
Large shell ( D type) Normal kernel ( > 10 mm diameter) Normal nut ( > 14 mm diameter)
To keep the losses within an acceptable range, the separating speed should thus be taken to be < 14 m/sec, so that kernel and nut will separate from the material for further treatment, while the fibre and smaller shell particles etc. will be transported away. Transportation speed has been experimentally established (for oil palm fruit fibre with a "normal" moisture content < 40% and oil content < 8 % ), to be most efficient between 22 and 30 m/.sec. 110
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30.4.01 During normal, continuous processing, the nuts after being separated will still be hot or warm and the shells will be somewhat "elastic", whilst the kernel may still be adhering to the shell as well. The nuts may still have a moisture content of up to 20%. 30.4.02 To extract the kernel from these nuts, the nuts need to be cracked 112
30.5.01 With properly preconditioned nuts, the nut cracking is a simple operation, where the shell is struck hard enough to crack and split this so that the kernel can be released. 30.5.02 Despite this apparent simplicity, over the years a surprisingly large 113
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30.6.01 The cracked mixture expelled from the nut crackers contains kernel, the broken shell parts and fragments of kernel and shell. From this mixture primarily the whole, clean kernel needs to be separated and recovered. 30.6.02 In principle there are two methods in use to achieve this, i.e. the "dry" separation method and the "wet" separation method. 30.6.03 Before either of the above two methods a variety of screening activities can take place, all with the aim to separate the various components of the mixture as effectively as possible. 30.6.04 The "dry separation" is by far the simplest and the most economical, but is not always the most effective method. The principle of this pneumatic separation is similar to that of the nut / fibre separation, i.e. the difference in volume - weight ratio of the various components in the mixture. process is known as "winnowing" and can be done either as a single stage operation, or in multiple stages. 30.6.05 Provided the losses can be kept within the required parameters, this method has the great advantage that the kernel recovered from this process has already a low moisture content and kernel drying thus becomes a much less difficult matter. Also the average quality of the palm kernel oil extracted from this kernel has proved to be generally lower in F.F.A. It is thus well worth while to pursue with dry separation, even if the direct end result is only partially acceptable and the unacceptable portion of the resulting product has (separately) to be submitted to a further (possibly "wet") separation method. 115
30.2.01 The kernel recovered after the separation requires further treatment, the extend of this treatment depending mainly on the method of separation used. Kernel recovered from dry separation methods have already a relatively low moisture content ( about 12%) and the retention time in the traditional kernel drying silos can be shortened considerably to achieve the required final moisture content for storage (about 7%) This type of kernel is also less susceptible to mould formation, which ensures a better quality of the final product of palm kernel oil. 30.7.02 Kernel recovered from the wet separation method can have an internal moisture content of over 20%. This moisture is much more difficult to remove, since it must first diffuse to the kernel surface before if can evaporate. Wet kernel (i.e. all kernel with a moisture content > 7%) can support the growth of a mould that leads to an increased rate of hydrolysis of the palm kernel oil extracted from this kernel, i.e. an increase in F.F.A. The enzyme causing this is produced by the mould growth and can withstand quite high temperatures, thus the drying after the mould has developed will only enhance the appearance of the kernel, but will not prevent the later quick deterioration of the kernel oil since the enzyme will remain active in the palm kernel oil.
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30.8.01 Kernel drying is most commonly achieved by the "continuous" type silo dryers. Drying is achieved by blowing hot or warm air through the kernels at the bottom, the middle and the top level sections of the silo at different temperatures. The coldest being at the bottom, the hottest being at the top section of the silo. Too high an air temperature (>85o C) could cause discolouration of the kernel (and thus the kernel oil extracted there from) and must be avoided. Thus retention times can be quite long and rather large capacity drying silos will be needed. Here again the advantages of the dry separation method show up quite clearly, since the lower initial moisture content will allow lower drying air temperatures and shorter retention times to dry the kernel to the required moisture content. The resulting end product will be of higher quality. Despite the term "continuous" dryer, this type of drying in practice really works out to be more of the "batch" type operation. Continuous drying , where kernel is moved continuously on slowmoving conveyor belt or tables has been tried as an alternate method and proved to be quite successful, producing well dried good quality kernel. The preferred method thus depends very much on a design philosophy and economical considerations. 30.9 KERNEL CLEANING
30.9.01 Kernel cleaning, after the drying process consists mainly of the removal of dirt and shell debris, loose fibre and fragments of broken kernel. This can be done mechanically, by air separation or by hand. Much depends on the quality of the process before the drying stage, but invariably shells and shell particles which adhered to the kernel before the drying process will have come loose during this process, partly due to the reduction in moisture (size) of the kernel and partly 118
[Similar contracts exist for Palm Kernel Expeller (P.K.E.)] Market patterns change from time to time, but the majority is sold on a C.I.F. basis.
Sale of 500 MT @ US$ 200,- /tonne Shipped 500 tonne @ US$ 200,= 100,000.= 100,000.-
Outturn = 487 tonne Shortage 13 tonne = 2,600.= 2,600. Outturn value = 97,400.= 97,400.-
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Difference between good and poor quality = US$ 18876.12 or US$ 37.75 per tonne.
Poor quality kernel gives rise to large crushing losses, which is why the specifications have been set to the following indicative levels: Oil content F.F.A Dirt & Shell Moisture over 49% under 4% under 6% under 7%
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2) Unknown data (to be calculated) Air flow rate Static pressure requirement Size of lifting column Size of separating section Size of transport pipe or duct 3) Calculation a) Air required to convey 5250 kg nuts per hour = 5250 x 2.5 kg/hr = 13125 kg/hr Airflow rate = 13125 kg/hr : 1.177 kg/m3 = 11151 m3/hr Losses due to speed reduction @ 2 %, losses due to leakage etc. @ 10 %, calculate to actual flow rate of = 11151 x 1.12 = 12489 m3/hr. b) Suction pressure required: for pick up nuts from rest pressure loss in ducting and column pressure loss in cyclone Total = 125 mm WG = 125 mm WG = 75 mm WG = 325 mm WG
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ACTION FOR FPII: 1) FPII should check the measurements and data of their existing equipment and compare with above theoretical calculations to ensure that at least the minimum requirements are met. 2) The schematic diagram no 1 shows the principle lay out of the system. FPII should compare with what they have and determine what additional material, equipment etc. they may require. 3) The lay out as shown on sketch 2 is simple and direct, but it does require a minimum difference in height between nut inlet and separating box outlet of at least 8 meters. That should be possible in FPII, and it will eliminate the need for the now used single chain bucket elevator. 122
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31.1.01 The major source and nature of solid "wastes" from C.P.O. mills are: a) Empty Fruit Bunches b) Fibrous matter c) Shell material d) Solids ex centrifuges e) Solids ex Decanters 22-25% 13-15% 4-6% 0.5-1.0% 1.5-2.5% of F.F.B. weight. of F.F.B. weight. of F.F.B. weight. of F.F.B. weight. of F.F.B. weight.
Processing F.F.B. to the stages of C.P.O. and P.K. continuously generates these solid products, whilst the liquid effluent treatment generates "wet" (sludge) solids. These solids are removed from the anaerobic ponds and/or settling tanks with periodic intervals depending on the load of the system. (see 31.11 solids from effluent treatment) The Empty Fruit Bunches (E.F.B.) can be dealt with in two different ways: 31.2. The incinerator
31.2.01 E.F.B. from the mills process is transported directly from the outlet of the threshing machine to the inlet of the incinerator usually by means of open, slat type conveyors. Various types of incinerators have evolved over the years, but the underlying principle remained the same, i.e. a slow, low temperature "burning" or incineration of the (still wet) bunches on an inclined grate. The combined effect of a thick layer of E.F.B. and only natural draught conditions cause a slow and steady process of converting the E.F.B. into ashes. The 124 combustion efficiency is seldom optimum under these
31.3.01 E.F.B. are also rich in plant nutrients, making mulching an alternative method of disposal. Mulching E.F.B. utilizes the full potential nutrient and soil enriching properties, whilst there is no source for air pollution. On analysis of E.F.B. it is usually found that the values are approximately: N = 14 %, P2O5 = 0.03 % and K2O = 0.45 %.
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31.4.01 The very high moisture content of the E.F.B. necessitates pre drying, if these bunches are effectively to be used as additional fuel in the boiler furnace, since their calorific value when wet is low (1050 kcal/kg) The calorific value of dried E.F.B. varies considerably with the oil content of the material and on average (with an oil content of 3 %) can be taken as between 2300 and 2350 kcal/kg. 31.4.02 Most factories do not use the E.F.B. as fuel, since the combined fibrous matter and shell provide sufficient fuel to operate and create a surplus which can be used for starting up periods etc.
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31.5.01 All fibre produced by the process is normally used for boiler fuel. Pending the steam/power/fuel balance, this is normally sufficient to ensure adequate fuel supply, more so since it is mixed with the available shell. Surplus fuel is normally stored near the boiler(s) for reserve purposes during periods of low production, start up periods and, if sufficient reserves can be accumulated, to maintain boiler operation during part of the non producing periods to reduce the costs of power generation by means of diesel oil fuelled diesel generating sets. 31.5.02 Fibre is "dry" when oil has been extracted and free moisture flashed off during its transportation from the pressing station to the boiler feeding or storage area, but still has a certain moisture content. (between 30 and 35 %) It requires no further treatment and can be directly utilized as fuel in the boiler furnace. 31.5.03 Fibre when burned as fuel produces approximately: 10% ash on dry matter and this contains approximately: 20-30% K2O , 4-6% P2O5 and 10% CaO. The ashes can be conveniently disposed of in various ways, usually as a road topping for the non sealed roads in the mill/plantation areas and are thus not considered as an environmental threat. 31.6 The fuel value of fibre
31.6.01 The moisture content of the fibre used for fuel and the oil content of the fibre largely determine the calorific value available from this material. The oil loss on dry fibre is on average about 8 %, whilst the moisture content can vary between 30 and 40 %. Thus the calorific value available from this material can vary considerably, but on average remains between 2500 and 3600 kcal/kg which is sufficiently high to be used in the boiler furnace, but on its own is insufficient to generate sufficient heat to produce the required amounts of steam.
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31.8.01 There has been a difference established between the calorific values of "old" shell and "fresh" shell. For the purpose of determining the fuel value this can be ignored. Shell has on average a calorific value of between 3500 and 4000 kcal / kg and it will be noted that this is quite a lot higher than that of the fibrous material. 31.8.02 Under the normally prevailing conditions in a boiler furnace, shell burns very hot and its silica content produces a hard, solid slag/clinker which is difficult to remove from the furnace grate bars etc. It is for this reason that a mixture of fibre and shell is used and that the ratio of this mixture is controlled by regulating the quantity of shell added to the fibre and regularly analyzing samples taken from this mixture. 31.8.03 Shell produce approximately 2% ash and this contains approximately : 55-85% Silicic acid , 4-5% P2O5 and 2-3 % K2O.
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31.9.01 Centrifuge sludge has a good plant nutrient value and can be disposed of together with the E.F.B, if mulching is practised. Sludge (evaporated sludge) has an ash content of about 10 % and contains approximately: 20-30% K2O , 4-8% P2O5 and 10% CaO. The advantage of disposal with the bunch mulch is that the sludge becomes trapped by the bunches and is not readily washed off by the surface run off. 31.9.02 If mulching is not practised, these solids can be applied directly to the land. 31.10 Solids from Decanter systems
31.10.1 A typical C.P.O. factory generates a total effluent of 70 % from the clarification processes. The basic principle of a decanter system is to reduce or eliminate the effluent discharge either partially or totally, in order to reduce the total effluent volume. 31.10.2 Some decanter systems do not require the reduction of the viscosity of the crude oil by means of dilution and thus the resulting solids phase has a very low moisture content. Evaporation and flash off of this moisture produces a virtually "dry" cake which is easily handled. The dried cake, known as "palm oil meal" has been used both as a fertilizer and as a component in animal feed. This system usually utilizes the waste heat from the boiler flue gases to dry the solids from both the decanter and the nozzle separators. Such driers simultaneously serve as a "scrubber", thus reducing the particle emission in the flue gases of the boilers. 129
31.11.1 These solids can also be directly applied as fertilizer to the oil palm plantings, but since the wet volumes are large, the sludge is first dewatered usually on sand beds, to reduce the volume and facilitate handling. 31.11.2 De-watering occurs by evaporation under natural sunlight and by percolation and/or drainage of the (free) water into the sand beds. The resulting solids "cake" can then be applied to the land, a typical application would be: for anaerobic sludge cake : 0.1 tonne per tonne of F.F.B. for aerobic sludge cake : 0.05 tonne per tonne of F.F.B. Again, economic considerations are often the deciding factor, although with the increased emphasis on environmental and pollution control over the last decade, the choice has become more limited.
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These standards are acceptable for the industry and are approximately equal to those set in major oil palm growing areas. (Malaysia / Indonesia). 32.2 Terms and conventions used for general effluent descriptions:
32.2.01 Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) The calculation used to measure in milligram per litre, for percent mixtures: B.O.D.(mg/l) = [ ( D.O.b - D.O.i ) 100 : % ] - ( D.O.b -D.O.i) D.O.b , D.O.i = Dissolved Oxygen values found in blank (contains dilution water only) and dilutions of sample, respectively , at end of incubation period. D.O.s = Dissolved Oxygen originally present in undiluted sample. With B.O.D. > 200 mg/l, D.O.s is nearly = D.O.b and the second part of the formula becomes negligible. 131
32.3.01 Used to measure the content of organic matter of both waste water, (effluent) and natural water. The oxygen equivalent of the organic matter that can be oxidized is measured by using a strong chemical oxidizing agent in an acidic medium. (Potassium di-chromate for example) A catalyst (silver sulphate) is required. Some organic components interfere, care must be taken to eliminate these. C.O.D is also used to measure the organic matter in wastes that are toxic to biological life. 32.3.02 The C.O.D of a waste is generally higher then the B.O.D. , because more compounds can be chemically oxidized then can be biologically oxidized. 132
32.4.01 This is used for measuring organic matter present in water and is especially applicable to small concentrations of organic matter. The test is performed by injecting a small, known, quantity in a high temperature furnace, where the organic matter is oxidized to carbon dioxide in the presence of a catalyst. The CO2 is measured quantitatively by means of an infra red analyser. Test is very quick, but certain organic compounds resist being oxidized and the measured T.O.C. value will be slightly less than the actual amount. 32.5 Total Oxygen Demand (T.O.D.)
32.5.01 Organic matter are converted to stable end products in a platinum catalysed combustion chamber. T.O.D. is determined by monitoring the oxygen contend present in the carrier gas (nitrogen) Rapid testing and the results can be correlated with C.O.D. results. 32.6 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (Th.O.D.)
32.6.01 If the chemical formula is known, then Th.O.D. may be computed from this formula, expressed usually in gram O2/mol. 32.7 Correlation among the various measurements.
32.7.01 This depends primarily on the nature of the waste water, effluent and its source. If a good correlation can be established, then because of the rapidity of the C.O.D., T.O.C. and the T.O.D. tests, this can be very useful and eliminates or reduces the time to get B.O.D results directly.
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32.8.01 AEROBIC processes are biological treatment processes that occur in the presence of oxygen. Certain bacteria that survive only in the presence of dissolved oxygen are known as obligate (restricted to special conditions in life) aerobes. 32.8.02 ANAEROBIC processes are biological treatment processes that occur in the absence ofoxygen. Bacteria that can only survive in the absence of any dissolved oxygen are known as obligate anaerobes. 32.8.03 ANOXIC DENITRIFICATION is the process by which Nitrate nitrogen is converted biologically into nitrogen gas in the absence of oxygen. The process is also known as Anaerobic denitrification. 32.8.04 FACULTATIVE PROCESSES are biological treatment processes in which the organisms are indifferent to the presence of dissolved oxygen. These organisms are known as facultative micro organisms. 32.8.05 MICRO AEROPHILS are a group of micro organisms that grow best in the presence of low concentrations of oxygen. 32.8.06 CARBONACEOUS B.O.D. removal is the biological conversion of the carbonaceous organic matter in effluent into cell tissue and various gaseous end products. In this conversion it is assumed that the nitrogen present in the various compounds is converted to ammonia. 32.8.07 NITRIFICATION is the two stage biological process by which nitrate is converted to nitrogen and other gaseous end products. 32.8.08 STABILIZATION is the biological process by which organic matter in sludge produced from primary settling ponds and the biological treatment of effluent is stabilized, usually by conversion to gases and cell tissue. 134
32.9.01 The processes are: 1) Activated sludge 2) Suspended growth nitrification process 3) Aerated lagoons (ponds) (as used in P.O.M's) 4) Aerobic digesters (also used in P.O.M's) 5) High rate oxidation ponds 32.9.02 AERATED LAGOONS: evolved from facultative stabilization ponds when surface aeration was installed to overcome the odours from organically overloaded ponds. Description: The aerated lagoon process is essentially the same as the conventional extended aeration activated sludge process (with Hydr. Retention Time = +> 10 days), except that an earthen basin is used for the "reactor" and the oxygen required by the process is supplied by surface or diffuser aerators. 135
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32.10.1 The choice of an appropriate effluent system depends on various factors, such as the characteristics of the effluent, (physical, chemical and biological), the local environment, the degree of treatment before disposal stipulated by the regulating authorities and the economic considerations.
138
32.11.1 A number of systems have been developed over the past decade, to treat this effluent. Most are biological processes, dictated by the bio degradable nature of the effluent. The processes are usually combinations of anaerobic and aerobic processes. 32.11.2 Before these processes, the proper screening, filtering and centrifuging to reduce the suspended solids as much as possible must be maintained, so that the "final" effluent to be treated has the lowest possible quantity of suspended solids. 32.11.3 Appropriate methods include the following: a) Anaerobic / facultative ponding b) Anaerobic / extended aeration ponding c) Anaerobic tank digestion / extended aeration ponding 139
32.12.1 Essentially the components are: : the de - oiling tank : the acidification ponds : the methogenic ponds : the facultative ponds : the sand beds 32.12.2 The raw effluent firstly enters the (usually concrete) de - oiling tank, which should have a Hydraulic Retention Time (H.R.T.) of 1.5 days. Free oil is trapped and some solids settle out. The effluent is homogenized, cooled to a degree and flows to the anaerobic ponds. 32.13.1 The anaerobic ponds have two distinct phases: : the acidification phase : the methogenic phase By keeping these processes separated, by using two separate ponds, the optimum individual environment for both the acidification and the methogenic reactions are ensured.
140
32.14.1 This system is similar to that described under 32.13 above, but here the facultative ponds are replaced by extended aeration lagoons. The reason for this is that the facultative ponds with their retention 141
32.15.1 This system has tank digesters, coupled with aerated lagoons. The closed type is suitable for tapping the bio gas produced which can be used as an energy source. Tank digesters are capital intensive, but do have a number of advantages; i.e.: a) compact, thus requiring little land area b) High loading rates and shorter retention time c) Easier for corrective measures (and sampling) d) Bio-gas production as energy source e) good mixing of (tank)contents possible 32.15.2 Tank digestion may be mesophyllic or thermophilic, the latter generally produces better digestion conditions. The anaerobic liquor discharged from the digester does require further treatment.( see sketch 3 & 4) 32.15.3 The raw effluent is acidified with anaerobic liquor from the tank digester, (H.R.T.= 1 day ), ratio 1:1 (by volume) The acidified effluent is then fed to a (mild) steel tank digester. Typical reduction in B.O.D. levels are 90 to 95 %. The tank contents are mixed or stirred with a "gas mixing" system. Gas mixing requires about 12% of the power required by a mechanical stirring device and costs about 25% less as there are no moving parts. 142
143
32.16
32.16.1 Because of its rich nutrient content, the anaerobic liquor can be utilized as a fertilizer resource in the oil palm plantations. Raw effluent can also be used, but the high B.O.D. levels usually create an unpleasant odour and a fly / insect nuisance. The possibility of surface run off during heavy rain periods contaminating existing fresh water streams can also not be discounted. 32.16.2 Partially treated anaerobic liquor, with B.O.D. level not more than 5000 mg/l is suitable for land application and may also at the same allow the production and utilization of bio gas. 32.16.3 Partial digestion does not appreciably change the nutrient contents of the effluent, (which is related mainly to the nitrogen content) but complex organic molecules are broken down and are thus easier to be assimilated by the plants.
144
32.17.1 Although the physical land application is generally outside of the area of responsibility of the technical mill staff, a basic knowledge of the methods used to apply partially or fully digested effluent to the "fields" enhances the overall appreciation of the total effluent control system. There are a number of different methods to distribute this (still liquid) effluent, i.e.: I ) Fixed spray lines, moveable spray lines with sprinkler system In fixed spray line sprinkler systems the effluent is pumped through buried pipe lines direct to the sprinklers. Sprinklers are generally fixed every third row of palm trees and at about 27 metres intervals. Capital costs are high and maintenance costs are high. In moveable spray line sprinkler systems the basic principle is the same, but as a result of using moveable lines, the capital costs are substantially lower. Fast lock, clip lock type couplings facilitate the removal of the spray lines, at which time clogging etc. can be detected and cleared. II ) Flat beds Flat, bunded beds constructed between rows of palms are connected by channels which run from the top end to the bottom end of the slopes. Effluent is pumped to the top and allowed to run down the channels and each bunded bed is filled to a shallow depth, starting with the lowest. As each bed is filled, the feed is closed and directed to another channel. III) Furrows Here the effluent is pumped to high points and allowed to drain down the slopes in furrows of about 20 to 30 cm deep and about 30 cm wide. The velocity of the flow should be slow enough to allow percolation into the soil. Zig-Zag configuration on steeper slopes 145
32.18.1 Although the effects vary from place to place and the optimum for a particular plantation area is largely determined by experimentation, on average the yield of oil palm increases with the use of digested effluent. 32.18.2 The nutrient value of the soil improves, especially the phosphorus, the potassium and the magnesium values. The resulting leaf growth has proved to have increased values of nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium, all assisting in a higher F.F.B. production per palm. The effect on underground water has been shown to be negligible and surface drainage is not polluted, provided the application method and the application rates are controlled. 146
COD stabilization which occurs as methane and is insoluble in water is formed and leaves the system Operating requirements: Compared with the acidogenic bacteria the methanogenic ones are particularly slow growing and sensitive to changes in their environment. Therefore conditions have to be created that are favorable to methanogenic bacteria. pH, temperature and toxic materials have the greatest effect on the micro organisms rate of growth and on its metabolic activities. The optimum operating pH for the anaerobic biological process is around the neutral mark, 7. pH values below 6 and above 8 are not favorable and may even be toxic to the methanogens. The digestion process can be carried out at either the mesophilic range of 25 - 45 deg.C or the thermophilic range of 45 - 85 deg.C. A number of substances, such as chlorinated hydro carbons, heavy metals, synthetic detergents etc., have been reported to have an inhibitory effect on the process. 148
149
The above example is about correct for a conventional, static tank type clarification system operated palm oil mill, with dynamic type clarification it can be reduced to about 0,45 m3/tonne FFB. For a 60 tph factory @ 0.75 tonne effluent/tonne FFB, the effluent to be handled in a 20 hour work day : = 20 x 60 x 0.75 = 900 tonnes/day. The BOD in the raw effluent can be assumed to be around 25,000 to 30,000 mg/l. For calculation the worst should be prepared for, i.e.the maximum BOD load per day: = 900 x 30,000/1000 = 27,000 kg/day. At a maximum loading of 0.4 kg BOD/m3, the effective pond volume required would be 27,000 kg BOD/day divided by 0.4 kg BOD/m3 = approximately 67,500 cubic meter.
151
152
if the oil content increases to 20,000 mg/l: TVS : 55,000 mg/l HRT = 10 days organic loading = 5.5 kg VS/cub.m/day In other words, in order to maintain the organic loading of 4.5 kg, the 154
The high rate digester also produces approximately 25 cubic meter bio gas with a calorific value of approximately 22,400 KJ/cubic meter, from 1 cubic meter of POME digested. The direct use of the bio gas as a heat source is probably the most economical way of using it.
155
FERTILIZER VALUE OF DIGESTED POME EXAMPLE FOR 60 TON PER HOUR FACTORY OUTPUT
FERTILIZER SUBSTITUTE AMMONIUM SULPHATE (21% N) ROCK PHOSPHATE (36% P2O5) MURIATE OF POTASH (60% K2O) KIESERITE (26 % MgO) DIRECT LAND 0.65 0.17 1.55 1.05 HIGH RATE DIGESTER 1.92 0.62 2.18 2.10
NOTES: Items (1) and (2) measured from filtered samples All values in mg/l, exept pH.
156
EMPTY BUNCHES
as bunch ash (%) N P K Mg Ca Mn B 0.05 1.5 30.0 3.0 4.0 300 ppm 120 ppm as empty bunches as empty bunches (in kg per 1000 kg Empty Bunches) N P K Mg Ca S Cl 2.4 kg 0.24 kg 6.0 kg 0.35 kg 0.75 kg 0.24 kg 0.63 kg
(70% moisture, 30 % dry matter) (% on dry matter) N P K Mg Ca S Cl 0.79 0.08 2.0 0.12 0.25 0.08 0.21
157
159
33.2.1 The control of smoke/particulate emission from incinerator stacks can also be improved by improving combustion efficiencies with regulated feed rates. 33.2.2 The nature of the operation of incinerators ,i.e. the slow and "low" temperature burning also results in low gas exit velocity and precludes the use of dust collection equipment . 33.2.3 The "stack plume" is high in moisture content and thus has little buoyancy, therefore aerial dispersion is usually minimal. Visual observation of the colour of the smoke emitted from the stack can usually give a fair indication of the combustion condition. 33.2.04 The Ringelmann smoke charts may be used to determine either the increase or decrease in combustion efficiency by comparing the relative blackness of the smoke against these charts. Since each chart (6 in total) indicates a change of 20 % in the observation, an estimate can be made of the altered combustion condition and controls adjusted to achieve optimum conditions.
160
SECTION #5 THE FACTORY STEAM & ELECTRICITY GENERATION MONITORING & EVALUTION
161
34.1.01 The most common components of boiler water deposits are: CALCIUM PHOSPHATE; CALCIUM CARBONATE (in low pressure boilers). MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE; MAGNESIUM SILICATE; various forms of IRON OXIDE; SILICA (absorbed on previous mentioned precipitates and ALUMINA. 34.1.02 EXPECTED AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF BOILER SLUDGE
CONSTITUENT Calcium carbonate Calcium phosphate Calcium silicate Calcium sulphate Calcium hydroxide Magnesium phosphate COAGULATION TREATMENT HIGH USUALLY < 15% USUALLY < 3% NIL NIL NIL PO4 RESIDUAL TREATMENT USUALLY < 5% HIGH TRACE OR NIL NIL NIL USUALLY < 5% (except in H.P. boilers) MODERATE MODERATE USUALLY < 10% USUALLY < 10% NONE USUALLY < 5% (except in high purity feed water) USUALLY < 1.5% USUALLY LOW LOW USUALLY 8 - 12 % (except in very pure feed water)
MODERATE MODERATE USUALLY < 10% < 10% NONE USUALLY < 5%
162
34.2.01 Broad classification, the aim is to control: a) suspended solids b) hardness c) alkalinity d) silica e) total dissolved solids f) organic matter g) gases a) Suspended Solids The removal is accomplished by coagulation/flocculation, filtration or precipitation. Other processes (except "direct reaction") usually require prior removal of solids Example: Ion exchange water should contain less than 10 mg/l suspended solids to avoid fouling of the exchanger and cause operating problems.
164
n/a
10 mg/l
<1mg/l
10 mg/l
Pre treatment
Is required
for all of
these
Hardnes s
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
note 3
note 4
note 5
note
Alkalinity
note 7
n/a
n/a
note 8
note 4
n/a
note
Silica
slight removal
slight removal
note
note 10
note 4
n/a
note
n/a
n/a
note
note 12
note 4
n/a
note
Organics
note 13
n /a
note 13
5-10%
note 4
n/a
note
Gas
n/a
note 15
note 16
note 4
note 17
note
NOTES: 1) Direct addition is application of chemicals directly to water, where by-products remain in solution. 2) In the precipitation process, hardness can be reduced by a controlled amount, depending on the line dosage. In partial lime softening - only Ca is removed by adding just enough lime to react with bicarbonate alkalinity plus free CO2. The reduction of Calcium equals the reduction of alkalinity, since CaCo3 forms as a precipitate. More hardness removal requires enough lime to react with magnesium as well to produce a hydroxide alkalinity of 10mg/l. The reduction of total solids equals the hardness reduction with 165
166
167
Silica reduction is not always necessary, but is very necessary when operating turbines. Low concentrations of silica can produce a sticky sludge in low pressure boilers treated with phosphate. Treatment selection to the proper degree of silica reduction required by the steam system. e) Total Dissolved Solids Usual reduction achieved by a reduction of several individual contaminants. Treatment will result in residuals produced by processes which reduce T.D.S. as under:
RESIDUAL HARDNESS 160 nil 75 17 nil nil
PROCESS Original water Split steam Partial cold lime Hot lime - soda Hot lime - zeolite Demineralization
SILICA 10 10 9 1 1 0.05
168
34.3.01 Scale formation in a boiler is controlled mainly by four chemical programmes: 1) Coagulation (carbonate) 2) Phosphate residual 3) Chelation 4) Coordinated phosphate 1) COAGULATION Sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide or both are added to the boiler water to supplement the alkalinity. The carbonate causes deliberate precipitation of calcium carbonate under favourable, controlled conditions, preventing depositions at some subsequent point as scale. Under alkaline conditions, magnesium and silica are also precipitated as magnesium hydroxide and magnesium silicate. There is usually a fairly high concentration of suspended solids in the boiler water and precipitation occurs on the solids. Only used on boilers with high hardness feed-water and operating below a pressure of 18 kg/cm2. 2) PHOSPHATE Where the pressure is above 17.5 kg/cm2, high concentrations of sludge are undesirable. Feed-water hardness to be limited to 60 mg/l. 169
34.4.01 Basically it is a process of diluting boiler-water solids by withdrawing water at a rate that induces a flow of feed-water into the boiler in excess of the steam demand, i.e.:(example):
Steam 900.000 kg/day, solids essentially zero Feed water 1.000.000 l/day solids 100 mg/l solids added per day=100 kg Boiler Water Solids Level1000 mg/l
Blow down 100.000 l/day Solids content 1000 mg/l Solids removal= 100 kg/day
Blow down may be intermittent or continuous, to concentration level of solids in boiler water.
maintain
When level is reached, blow down is opened for a short period to reduce the concentration, water is filled and boiler operated until control limits are reached again. 170
Blow down = 100 : 6.7 = 15 % of feed water. High blow down losses can be reduced by treating water to reduce the constituent making the lowest CRf. Therefore careful sampling of both the feed water and the make up water is required to determine the correct blow down rate. Boiler water must be cooled before analyzing it. Although one of several constituents may determine the required blow down rate, it is general practice to determine all of the critical concentrations on a regular basis. Each can be related to the T.D.S as measured by a conductivity meter and actual blow down can be related to this. (Chloride test may also be used for this) Continuous blow down, at a calculated, controlled ratio is usually cheaper than the intermittent type blow down. (chemical usage)
171
34.5.01 When dealing with de-aeration problems, it is usual to refer to dissolved oxygen content in millilitres per litre or in part per million (1 ml/l = 1.43 ppm) The volume of oxygen being corrected to the normal temperature and pressure (N.T.P.), i.e. 0 0C and 1 atmosphere. It is assumed that the source of all dissolved oxygen is the atmosphere which contains approximately 20 % of oxygen and 80 % of nitrogen, measured by volume. By the Law of Partial Pressures it follows that the pressure exerted by the oxygen constituent in air is 20% or one fifth of the total air pressure. The solubility of oxygen in water follows Henry's Law which states that the weight of gas dissolved in water is proportional to the pressure of the gas. The graph below shows the solubility of pure oxygen in water for varying temperature at a constant oxygen pressure of 1 kg/cm2. From this curve, it is possible to calculate the maximum dissolved oxygen contents of water for any temperature and pressure conditions. 34.5.02 Example: Calculation for the maximum dissolved oxygen content of water at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of 82 oC.: From the saturated steam tables,
Internal vapour pressure of water Thus, total pressure (1 atm) Vapour pressure Difference (air pressure) Oxygen pressure (1/5 x air) 0.5 kg/cm2 1.0 kg/cm2 0.5 kg/cm2 0.5 kg/cm2 0.1 kg/cm2
172
STEAM TEMPERATURE (DEGR. CELSIUS) 320 400 430 480 OVER 480
The most simple method of de-aeration is by thermal, by operating at the boiling point of the water under vacuum or pressure. Under vacuum, the operating temperature is lower.
173
34.6.02 USAGE OF CHEMICALS: PER 1000 LITRE WATER IN BOILER: = Na2 CO3 Na3 PO4 (+12 H2O) = = Na3 PO4 34.6.03 METHOD OF WORK: FIRST DAY: 1) Fill boiler with water with the chemicals already mixed in, to the normal operating water level. 2) Start slow firing to a maximum of 15 % of the normal working pressure, then stop firing and "rest" the boiler. (i.e. 12 hours firing; followed by 12 hours rest.) 3) There after, drain out the boiler water. SECOND DAY: 1) Fill boiler with water with chemicals already mixed in, to the normal operating water level. 2) Start slow firing to a maximum of 30 % of the normal working pressure, then maintain pressure for 12 hours in total. 3) Let boiler cool down 4) after cool down, drain out the boiler water. THIRD DAY: 1) Fill boiler with water with chemicals already mixed in, to the normal operating water level. 2) Fire up boiler to a maximum of 50 % of the normal working pressure , then maintain pressure for a total of 12 hours. 174 9 KG 5 KG 2,5 KG
Chemical
Aluminium Sulphate [Al2(SO4)3 .14H2O] Bentonitic clay Calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] Calcium hypochlorite [CA (OCl)2.4H2O] Calcium oxide (CaO)
64kg/m3 @15oC
Bentonite Limestone
Insoluble Insoluble
96 % Ca(OH)2
40*
640
12
Insoluble
70 % Cl2
103
880
6-8
3% @15oC
96 % CaO
30 *
960
12
Calcium sulfate (CaSO4.2H2O) Chlorine (Cl2) Copper sulfate (CuSO4.5H2O) Dolomitic lime [Ca(OH)2.MgO] Ferric Chloride (FeCl3.6H2O) Ferric sulfate [Fe2(SO4)3.3H2O] Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4.7H2O)
98 % Gypsum
86*
880
5-6
35.5 121 *
gas 1200
5-6
Dolomitic lime
36-40% MgO
67#
640
12.4
Iron chloride
91*
3-4
45% @15oC
Iron sulfate
51.5*
3-4
30% @15oC
Copperas
20% Fe
139*
1120
3-4
16kg/m3 @15oC
175
Sodium aluminate (NaAlO2) Sodium chloride (NaCl) Sodium carbonate (NaCO3) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Aluminate
100*
800
11-12
40% @15oC
58.5
960
6-8
53
960
6-8
Caustic, Lye
40
1040 190
11 12.8
49% P2O5
47.3
880
66% P2O5
34
750
5-6
16kg/m3 @15oC
Oil of vitriol
94-96 % 66 o Baume
50*
240
1-2
Infinite
* Effective equivalent weight of commercial product # Effective equivalent weight based on Ca(OH)2 content
176
34.7.01 Steam required for mill capacity of 20 ton ffb/hr, 25 ton ffb/hr and 30 ton ffb/hr at the peak load of sterilizer.
At capacity 1ton FFB/hr 20/25/30 ton Steam consumption 3 peak sterilizer at the peak load* Digester Crude oil heater*, tank & clarification Process water heating * Cake breaker conveyor* Nut silo dryer* Kernel silo dryer* Vacuum oil dryer* Steam driven feed pumps De-aerator Kg steam/hr 256/240/224 20 82/74/66 36/38/40 90/72/60 60/48/40 42 HP 6/4.8/4 HP 30 LP nil HP 50 LP nil High pressure Sub total Losses 5 % Grand total 20 ton FFB/hr 25 ton FFB/hr 30 ton FFB/hr
kg steam/hr 5.120 400 1.640 720 1.800 1.200 840 120 nil 600 nil 1000 nil 1720 11.760 588 12.348
kg steam/hr 6.000 500 1.850 950 1.800 1.200 1.050 120 nil 750 nil 1250 nil 2120 13.350 667 14.017
kg steam/hr 6.720 600 2.000 1.200 1.800 1.200 1.260 120 nil 900 nil 1500 nil 2520 14.720 736 15.456
177
**) with moisture content 16% ***) with moisture content 34%
178
% %
25 TON FFB
30 TON FFB
179
25 TON FFB/hr
30 TON FFB/hr
(*)
180
5. HORSE POWER & KILOWATT REQUIREMENT A load factor of 70% could be assumed as full load. 20 TON FFB & 25 TON FFB (Almost equal power requirements)
ELECTRIC POWER For processing Additional - Factory light - Work shop - Office & lab. - Domestic TOTAL 996.2 x 0.746 x 0.7 = 520 kW
59 x 0.746
= 44 kW
564 kW
30 TON FFB
ELECTRIC POWER For processing Additional - Factory light - Work shop - Office & lab. - Domestic TOTAL 1,102.2 x 0.746 x 0.7 = 576 kW 59 x 0.746 = 44 kW
620 kW
181
Capacity
FINAL ANALYSIS
I. STEAM POWER I.a. For 20 TON FFB: - Steam required for processing - Steam available - Steam balance : : : 12348 kg/hr. 11324 kg/hr. 1024 kg/hr.
i.e. Fuel (Fibre + Shell) are not enough to generate the required steam for this reason, thus supplementary fuel (for example empty bunch) has to be used. I.b. For 25 TON FFB: - Steam required for processing - Steam required - Steam balance i.e. surplus of fuel. I.c. For 30 TON FFB: - Steam required for processing - Steam available Steam balance i.e. surplus of fuel. II. ELECTRIC POWER II.a. For 20 TON FFB: - Electric power required for processing - Power balance is : : 564 kW 566 kW + 2 kW - Electric power available for processing : : : : 15456 kg/hr. 17043 kg/hr. +1587 kg/hr. : : : 14017 kg/hr. 14182 kg/hr + 165 kg/hr.
That means that steam production is sufficient to generate the required power.
182
II.b. For 25 TON FFB: - Electric power required for processing - Electric power available for processing - Power balance is : : : 564 kW 709 kW +145 kW
That means that steam production is sufficient to generate the required power (surplus). II.c. For 30 TON FFB: - Electric power required for processing - Electric power available for processing - Power balance is : : : 620 kW 844 kW + 224 kW
That means that steam production is sufficient to generate the required power (surplus).
SUMMARY
A. Mill capacity 20 TON FFB/hr: 1. To obtain sufficient steam/power for processing, empty bunches could be utilized as fuel. 2. Boiler capacity: 15 T/hr 3. Turbo alternator output: 650-700 kW (in order to cover additional power requirement for empty bunch treatment plant). B. Mill capacity 25 TON FFB/hr: 1. Steam and power can be sufficiently generated from fuel available. 2. Boiler capacity: 18 T/hr 3. Turbo Alternator output: 600-700 kW (in order to fully utilize the steam available). C. Mill capacity 30 TON FFB/hr: 1. Steam and power can be sufficiently generated from fuel available. 2. Boiler capacity: 18 T/hr 3. Turbo Alternator output: 700-950 kW (in order to fully utilize the steam available). shredded and dried
183
Thus a part of the potassium salts is carried along with the smoke gasses in some form and later on, when these gasses cool down, it will crystallize as fine dust and deposit with soot and other particles on various places in the smoke gas flues. Investigation in to the reasons for (violent) corrosion have comprised a qualitative chemical analysis of the acid liquid between the "iron blisters" and corroded parts. The tests showed that the existence of Mg - K - NH4 - iron Cl and SO4 could be determined. 184
34.8.01 Since a palm oil mill utilizes the expelled fibre, shells etc. for fuelling its boilers and generating steam, it is obvious that it is advantageous to generate electricity for normal processing by steam driven alternators. 34.8.02 In order to be able to start-up the boilers and the process, there has to be electricity available before sufficient steam is raised to operate the steam driven equipment and this is commonly achieved by generating electricity with diesel driven alternators. 34.8.03 In a well designed and correctly operated palm oil mill these diesel driven units should never be used to operate the main process lines and in fact the capacity of these units should be chosen such that there is sufficient power generated to allow for a correct start-up (and stopping) of the boilers and auxiliary equipment, but definitely insufficient to "run" the factory. 34.8.04 Steam turbines have now largely replaced all other types of steam drive units for alternators in palm oil mills. The steam turbine type most commonly used is designed to operate on the full steam pressure as generated by the boiler(s) and has a "back pressure" (or exhaust steam pressure) which is sufficiently high to be utilized for the sterilization process and the various heating applications in the oil mill. 34.8.05 The introduction of the water tube type steam boiler with super heated steam etc. has aided the introduction of a fairly large assortment of steam turbines into the industry, each with their own particular characteristics, their good point sand their "failings". 34.8.06 As for many other (specific) machinery in the mill, it would be outside the scope of this book to enter into too much detail for particular machines as it is far better to extract specific information from the manufacturers instruction manuals and hand books. 34.8.07 Correct operation of these machines consists mainly of correct 185
186
Feed water pipe diameter To calculate the required diameter of a pipe to pass a stated quantity of boiler feed water: water quantity in lb/hr x 144 sq.inch Area of pipe in sq.inch = velocity in ft/secf. x 62.5 lb/ft3 x 3600 sec. N.B.: The area calculated should be increased by at least 30% to permit quick filling of the boiler(s) in emergency situations. 187
The linear coefficient of expansion per oF for the varios metals various somewhat and should be obtained from the boiler or pipe manufacturer, but on average the following may be assumed: Mild steel Cast iron Copper Wrought iron Equivalent evaporation For purposes of comparison it is assumed that feed water is supplied and evaporated at a temperature of 212oF. 188 = = = = 0.0000065 0.0000063 0.0000093 0.0000069
Wi
Factor of evaporation The factor of evaporation for either saturated or superheated steam can be calculated: total heat of steam - (feed temperature - 32) 970.7 Gross boiler efficiency May be roughly calculated: furnace temperature flue gas exit temperature Boiler efficiency % = furnace temperature
189
35.1.01 Most maintenance seen to date at older mills is either on a : "repair when breakdown" basis or on a scheduled time preventative basis. Both systems have considerable failings; the first one needs no explanation, it is always too late, the second one depends on scheduled inspections of the installed equipment in order to discover (and remedy) the condition that leads to the breakdown, damage etc. With the knowledge acquired over many years of mill operation in many different mills and under equally as many different circumstances various systems have evolved to control and "manage" maintenance. 35.1.02 One of the more successful ones can be termed:"break down fore cast" or a predictive system. Such a system requires the proper recording of machine/ equipment utilization (i.e. running hours, operating loads, through put rates etc.) and the proper recording of repairs effected in terms of time, parts etc. Once the above recording system is established, usually the cost of maintenance and the total spare part inventory cost decrease, resulting in a lower overall total cost of production. 35.1.03 More efficient maintenance control by management will reduce the stock holding levels of the three major areas : - consumables (which is about 15% of total) - materials, pipes, valves, fittings etc. (which is about 25 % of total) and - machinery spare parts (which represent about 60 % of total stock holding). Usually maintenance cost operate in cycles,i.e. a very heavy cost this year is followed by fairly moderate costs the following one or two years. 35.1.04 The main area for (initial) attention is good and consistent recording, so that trouble areas can be identified and analyzed to attempt to predict (the cause of) failure of the machine. Once this is in place, essential decisions in the following areas can be 190
35.1.05 All above have a specific function and apart from the actual physical repair work most of the above administrative tasks can be assisted to a high degree with the introduction of the computer in the workshop/store environment, for the recording, sorting and linking the gathered data. Suitable interpretation of the data as noted above allows the following: a) better control by the engineering staff b) identification / reduction of excessive R&M costs c) early indication of equipment problems / failure d) improved planning / scheduling options e) repetitive failures can be identified / analyzed, leading to f) improvements in re design, lay out, replacements etc. g) less emergencies, more reliability h) less paper work (computerized records) i) better inventory control through instant access to updated data j) lower overall stock holding, lower costs Computer utilization to assist in the record keeping and the data bases should be on at least the following: 35.1.06 Individual machine records. Ideally if a machine has a nameplate, all data on that should be transferred to a data base that contains all equipment information, including equipment number (a code cross reference number to the stock inventory), original cost, replacement cost, (updated), warranty data, service agent information, service location, engineering drawings and specifications, parts descriptions and technical performance data.
191
The reduction in maintenance staff will be a saving, but is not shown above since costs will be taken up in training those with the ability to absorb the new technique and the upgrading of the existing maintenance staff. In the long term a general, significant, reduction in overall maintenance costs can be expected. Introduction of the system can be either "step by step" or "instant". Both will require the KEEPING OF GOOD RECORDS as the FIRST and most IMPORTANT measure. That way the inventory control is more effective and stock levels can be set based on the inter changeability of parts etc. between mills, resulting in overall lower levels and less capital tied up in stock.
195
196
Unstripped bunch count 100 bunches Check : : all drive units, chains and sprockets machinery guards
197
198
199
200
201
3.
202
4.
203
5.
204
: excess steam consumption, higher oil losses on condensate, irregular factory throughput, higher losses overall. the excess steam consumption : higher and irregular steam demands on the boilers, higher stresses on the boilers, higher fuel consumption, possible fuel shortage. The excess steam demand also : using a dis-proportionate amount of "fresh" make up steam from the boilers to the back pressure vessel, which : an excessive amount of SUPERHEATED STEAM entering the sterilizers, possibly causing scorching and overheating of the exposed FFB
results in
results in
results in
205
Apart from the above there are a number of other directly or in directly related unfavorable results from excessively fluctuating steam demands (frequent and more than necessary usage of additional power supply from diesel driven alternator units is but one of them!) generally all resulting in higher than necessary operating costs and maintenance requirements. 2. Other common problems in this station a. Pipeline leakage, door seal leakage, poor instrumentation b. Rail condition, both outside and inside the sterilizers
THRESHING STATION
1. Irregular feeding of the threshers, usually resulting in occasional over feeding of the threshers, causing poor stripping of the fruit, high oil losses in EFB. 2. Overfeeding causes overloading of the subsequent conveyors and fruit elevators, unnecessary compaction of the fruit during this transfer to the digesters, higher than necessary oil losses in the conveyors and elevators. 3. All overfeeding/overloading causes additional stress to drive motors, gearboxes, couplings, chains and sprockets etc. and will accelerate the wear and tear and increase the chancres of breakdown.
PRESSING STATION
1. The irregular feeding pattern of the threshers has the effect of irregular feeding of the digesters, causing irregular feeding of the screw presses. This generally results in presses having to adjust the cone pressure to maintain an acceptable percentage oil loss on press fibre. With automatic controlled equipment this causes excessive usage of the controls, resulting in accelerated wear and tear and increased chances of breakdown. 2. Poor automatic controls, or non functioning automatic controls resulting in higher than necessary oil losses and/or higher than necessary nut breakage during pressing. 3. Poor instrumentation, resulting in a lack of control of the required optimum operating conditions, such as temperatures, pressures, dilution rates etc.
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CLARIFICATION STATION
1. Incorrect level control in tanks, possible overflows, spillage etc. is frequently the cause for high losses. 2. Leakage from pipelines and equipment ditto. 3. Incorrect and/or improper operation of the equipment, i.e irregular usage, overloading, incorrect temperatures etc. 4. Improper operation can usually be related back to a lack of training and a lack of operational knowledge required by the operators in charge of this station. 5. Insufficient or unreliable instrumentation is frequently the cause of improper operation, generally resulting in higher than necessary overall oil losses in this station and the production of a lower than necessary quality of CPO produced and pumped to the storage tanks.
WATER TREATMENT
1. The most common problem is usually the lack of training of the key operators, resulting in poor control and poor efficiency. The indirect results of this can be disastrous, in the form of (frequent) boiler breakdowns, high repair costs and extended down time or reduced factory operation. 2. This is another area where the "knock-on " effects can be very extensive indeed, for example:
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LABORATORY OPERATIONS
1. Calibration of instruments and equipment 2. Accuracy of the test results, consistency of accuracy of sampling and test procedures 3. Correct interpretation of the results of the tests, action recommended. 4. Lack of training of key operators, analysts, samplers
EFFLUENT TREATMENT
1. Maintenance and upkeep of the various treatment ponds 2. Re-circulating, de-silting and overflows 3. Incorrect operation of the ponds resulting from a lack of knowledge of the biological actions taking place 4. Lack of interest of staff in this "dirty , unimportant" part of the operation, often resulting in nobody wanting to take the responsibility for this operation.
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
1. Frequently differs from operator to operator, from worker to worker. 2. No proper system established by management 3. Lack of direct involvement by management, too much left to the operators initiative.
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GENERAL TRAINING
1. Lack of systematic approach and follow up. 2. Lack of proper records / recording of training activities 3. Too often on ad-hoc basis, trainees too often used as "cheap" additional labour.
Obviously there are many more problem items and areas which deserve a similar approach as the ones noted above and certainly there are specific problem for any specific mill. The above is not a definitive list, just an indication of how to develop a "feel" for the job of "running a mill" and getting a grip on the most common problems! The earlier issued paper called: "General contributory factors that influence quality, losses and performance" (incorporated in the Palm Oil Mill Management Circulars on Quality) should also be read in conjunction with the above notes.
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36.2.01 It is the primary responsibility of the (estate) field management to harvest F.F.B. at optimum ripeness. Given the wide spread of area of the plantation(s), the ratio of Supervisors to workers and the desire of workers to increase immediate earnings, it is unrealistic to expect that the optimum conditions will be achieved at all times or even at any time. 36.2.02 To put the difficulty of control in perspective comparison with a mill operation is perhaps valid and will illustrate the point. Mill managers comments in reports often state, for instance, that the control of the operators feeding the threshers is difficult. The thresher operation is at a distance measured in meters from the mill office and under the direction of shift engineers situated at a distance of a few steps away from the operation. Despite this control is difficult! How much more so in the plantation, where distances are in kilometres and spread over large hectarages! 211
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36.3.01 The largest possible source of product loss under normal operating conditions is in UNSTRIPPED BUNCH 36.3.02 It follows that in order to establish what this loss is, the "empty bunch" conveyor must be monitored continuously and at all times and any unstripped bunch ( U.S.B.) returned for further processing. 36.3.03 As the percentage U.S.B. is a measure of sterilizing efficiency and that a high recycle rate of U.S.B. reduces the mill's through put, data must be gathered and the accuracy of data on U.S.B. must be checked. U.S.B. can be defined as: any bunch which has more than 5 (five) fruit still inside the bunch. 36.3.04 U.S.B. can result from three causes: a) Inadequate threshing All U.S.B. to be re threshed, without re sterilizing. A reduction in U.S.B. then shows the percentage resulting from inadequate threshing. b) Inadequate sterilizing The balance U.S.B. from a) above is re sterilized and re threshed. A reduction in U.S.B. shows the percentage due to inadequate sterilization. c) Nature of the bunch The balance can be taken as the percentage U.S.B. as a result of the nature of the bunch. (These used to be called "katte koppen" or "knot heads").
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36.4.01 It is self evident that samples should be representative of the product stream being sampled. It is also self evident that the various product streams vary in composition from time to time and that some are more homogeneous than others and some are heterogeneous. Thus, the selection of sample frequencies and size is critical, if data obtained from the sample is to be accurate and viable. 36.4.02 To illustrate the point: All empty bunches were taken from the conveyor of a particular mill over a period of time. Each separately analyzed for oil content and the results subjected to statistical analysis.
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36.5.01 It is of no use drawing samples and analyzing them if the data produced is not used. Results should flow on to the operating staff, as they are produced. Whilst average results can be used in some cases, in many areas they are misleading and can cover inefficiency in operation. 36.5.02 If a one month average for one sludge centrifuge is 0.99% oil loss on wet basis and for another is 1.05 % oil loss on wet basis, the former may be considered the better; but if the range results is 0.77% to 1.22%, and 0.85 5 to 1.15 % respectively, the second machine is probably the better one! In both cases the process is anyway "out of control", i.e. the results are unpredictable, probably because the dilution rate is out of control. 36.5.03 A very simple scientific calculator will allow the mean (average) result and the standard deviation (degree of variability) to be calculated as quickly as the mean alone can be calculated. Reporting of mean and standard deviation should be adopted. Any high variability should be investigated to determine the cause. As some variability is inevitable, a method of checking trends is necessary.
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b) c) d)
37.1.01 The process control is intended in the first place for the technical staff of the mill, who need the data obtained by the tests and checks for an efficient and economic management of the mill. More over, the process control enables the compilation of an accurate record/account of the work done and the results produced by the mill. By comparison of these (control) reports with those of similar or associated mills, it will sooner or later be possible to track down any imperfections so that improvements, modifications and or more 218
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iii)
iv) From the number of cc of the NaOH solution consumed minus the number of cc of NaOH used in the blank test, it is possible to determine the F.F.A. %, expressed as free palmitic acid . (molecular weight 256) Thus F.F.A. can be calculated:
number of cc NaOH (minus blank) x normality NaOH x 256 x 100 FFA = weight of sample in grammes x 1000
With pre prepared standard solutions, the following method is generally used: i) Add three drops of 0.1% phenolphthalein indicator.
ii) Titrate N/10 Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) into the oil until the first persistent pink colour is obtained. iii) No attention should be paid to the subsequent fading of the pink colour. iv) Record the number of ml of N/10 KOH required. v) Calculate the F.F.A. % :
FFA % = A x 2.56 weight of oil
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b) Preparation of 0.1 % Phenolphthalein from a 1.0 % phenolphthalein solution: (the solution is normally supplied in a 1.0 % strength) i) ii) Put 10 ml of the 1.0 5 solution into a 100 ml volumetric flask. (use a 10 ml pipette) Fill up the 100 ml volumetric flask to the 100 ml mark exactly.
c) Preparation of the 0.1 N Potassium Hydroxide solution (N/10 KOH): i) 221 0.1 N Potassium Hydroxide can be packed in various ways, in
iii)
(37 I).02 VOLATILE MATTER ( moisture content ) % IN OIL : i) Weigh accurately 10 to 15 grammes of oil into a crystallisation dish ("watch glass") and keep in a (conventional) oven for 3 hours at a temperature of 105 degree Celsius. ii) Remove the sample from the oven, cool in desiccator and weigh accurately. iii) Replace the sample in the oven, dry for 1 hour and weigh the sample again. iv) Continue this procedure until a constant decimal point is obtained. weight to the second
v) Record all weights and the time of drying accurately. NOTE: The use of a magnetron oven ( micro wave ) type is also practised and the in oven drying times can usually be reduced considerably. Example of recording: Moisture determination of oil after purifier, or after dryer: Date of sample Date of analysis Dish no Weight of dish Weight of dish + wet sample : : : : : dd/mm/yy dd/mm/yy D1 40.1234 grammes 51.2345 grammes
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Calculation:
weight of moisture V.M. % = x 100 % weight of wet sample (51.2345 - 50.2300) x 100 % (51.2345 - 40.1234)
(37 I).03 DIRT percentage on production oil Method: i) The filter paper must be well rinsed with Shellsol, (or equivalent) then dried in oven for 15 to 20 minutes at 105 degrees Celsius, allowed to cool in desiccator and then accurately weighed.
ii) About 40 to 50 grammes of oil is weighed accurately into a 250 ml flask iii) Heat for about 10 minutes and add 50 ml of shellsol, shake vigorously to mix the contents. iv) The solution is then filtered through a "Gooch" crucible, under vacuum. v) The filter paper is then washed thoroughly with solvent, from a jet of a wash bottle. The washing must be thorough to ensure that no trace of oil is left on the filter paper. vi) The weighed crucible and filter paper are then dried in the oven at 105 degr. C. for two hours. 223
37.1.03 There are a number of other factors which are also indicative of the quality of C.P.O. but the tests for these are not normally performed by the oil mil laboratory, but by the manufacturers of the products made from palm oil. Such test usually include or concern the oxidation of the oil and the bleach-ability of the oil. The bleach-ability of palm oil has been found to be related to the degree of oxidation of the oil. 37.2 Oxidation occurs largely as a result of processing methods, storage of oil, handling of the oil and increases notably by: a) Very high temperatures during the extraction (> 100 degr.C.) b) Very high temperatures for drying oil, especially if in direct contact with hot air. (hence the preferred use of a vacuum dryer, which operates at lower temperatures ) c) Incorrect pumping, handling, where air is mixed with oil, or when it falls into tanks with such a force that considerable turbulence is caused. 224
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37.4.01 Determination of Shell % in kernel i) From a sample of 1000 to 1500 grammes of kernel the shell particles are removed , by hand.
ii) If there are any half cracked or uncracked nuts present, then the kernels in these nuts must be taken out of the shells first. iii) The percentage of separated shell particles is determined by the weight of the initial sample of the kernels. Calculation:
weight of shells only x 100 % total sample weight
37.4.02 Determination of Dirt % in kernels As for the above , but dirt is understood to be any particles which cannot be regarded as either kernel or shell , i.e. abortive fruit, fibrous matter, bunch particles etc. Calculation:
weight of dirt x 100 % total sample weight
37.4.03 Percentage of broken kernels i) From the sample that has been used to find the shells and dirt percentages, the broken kernels are sorted out as well. ii) The percentage of broken kernel is calculated by weight of the initial sample: Calculation:
weight of broken kernel x 100 % total sample weight
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The distinction made is merely a subjective one and unless the check is always performed by the same person, there can be considerable differences and the check will be of little value. 37.4.05 Moisture percentage in kernels i) Approximately 150 grammes of kernel , cleared of shells, dirt etc. are ground or minced in a small grinding machine.
ii) This should be done as rapidly as possible, to prevent desiccation. iii) 100 grammes of the ground substance are dried to a constant weight in a drying oven, using exact similar techniques and methods as used for oil. Calculation:
weight of moisture x 100 % weight of wet sample
37.4.06 Determination of F.F.A. in kernel This can be determined by extracting some oil from the kernels of the sample taken and by using similar methods os described for C.P.O.
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37.5.01 During the process of extracting oil and kernel from the fruit, oil losses will occur in a number of areas. Samples are taken and tests are conducted to determine where oil is lost and how much of it is lost. In order of the process, the following losses can be calculated: a) oil loss on sterilizer condensate b) oil loss on empty bunches c) oil loss on fibre ( ex pressing equipment) d) oil losses sustained by clarification e) oil losses on nuts a) Oil loss on sterilizer condensate A continuous sample should be drawn from the condensate discharge lines of the sterilizers. This can be achieved with the aid of a sampling tube, fitted with a "dropper". From the average oil content of the condensate, the measured or calculated quantity of the condensate and the quantity of F.F.B processed it is possible to calculate the oil loss to F.F.B. b ) Oil loss on empty bunches (see also section on empty bunch checking and U.S.B. under the 228
i) From a representative sample of empty bunches, obtain two samples of 100 grammes each ( by the "mixing - quartering - mixing quartering" technique) ii) Determine the moisture and oil content of the samples by the usual method iii) The daily average or periodical average is calculated from the analytical figures (i.e. the arithmetical mean of the replicate determinations) in proportion to the total quantity of bunches processed. iv) This will produce a "weighed" average. v) Finally the ratio oil loss in empty bunches to F.F.B. is calculated via the weight of the empty bunches. c ) Oil loss on fibre. Fibre samples can be taken at various points in the process, i.e. at the presses to determine the individual press performance or at the end of the cake breaker conveyor to determine the overall oil loss on fibre etc. Sampling procedures and test procedures are similar. Sampling: i) Sampling must be done at hourly intervals during the mill operation, with the first sample to be taken one hour after the mill (pressing station) has started. ii) A good "hand full" of the sample is to be collected, including the fibre and the fines. iii) Store the sample immediately in an air tight container or bag, clearly labelled to indicate the source of the sample. iv) Store the container in the coolest convenient place near the sampling point.
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ii) Sort out the kernels, shells and stalks etc. from the main sample iii) Mix the remainder thoroughly, breaking up lumps etc. but ensure that no spillage of fines or fibre takes place iv) Quarter the main sample until a sample of about 500 grammes is left over, again ensuring that all the fines are included. v) Cut or chop the sample to uniform size with a suitable chopper or grinder. vi) Mix this chopped up sample thoroughly and quarter to a final size of about 15 grammes for analysis. Make sure that during the quartering fines divided for one quarter do not get mixed with other quarters. vii) The analysis of the fibre sub sample must include all the fines within that sample and be carried out immediately after obtaining the final sub sample. Analysis: Moisture: The method for moisture determination and recording is exactly similar to the one as described for the moisture determination in oil ( see 1.02 ) Oil determination (using Soxhlet extraction method) i) Transfer the properly dried sample (from above) and keep in desiccator.
ii) Extract the oil and continue to extract until a clear solution is obtained, i.e. until no trace of oil left in the sample is observed. iii) The recording of weights should be recorded directly below the recordings of the ( previously ) dried sample. 230
B) Weight of dried sample + thimble : ........... OIL DETERMINATION: (sample after extraction) C) 22.00 - 24.00 24.00 - 01.00 D) 22.00 - 23.00 24.00 - 01.00 ..........(thimble plus ..........(extracted fibre) ...........( extracted ...........( oil )
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ii)
To decide which equation should be used, check the following: If the analysis has been carried out perfectly correct then the equation C + D = B will hold. However, some error will usually occur, so that C+D is > B, or C+D is < B. If C + D < B use equation ii) If C + D > B use equation i) If C + D = B use either i) or ii), the simplest being i) The daily average or periodic average is calculated from the analytical figures (arithmetical mean of the duplicate determinations) in proportion to the quantity of bunches handled during the period. From the figures, the quantity of fibre and the bunches handled, the ratio of oil loss in fibre to bunch weight can be calculated. d) oil loss on sludge: Sludge samples can be taken from the outlet of the individual machines, for checking their performance, or from the outlet for the "final" sludge before the disposal to the effluent treatment, for the overall loss of oil on sludge. The sampling procedures and the analysis method for both samples is identical. 232
ii) Collect 500 ml from the sampling point into a suitable container and seal airtight. iii) Shake vigorously, then pour 100 ml of the well mixed sample into a measuring cylinder. iv) Pour the measured 100 ml into a 1000 ml bottle and seal air tight. v) Sampling throughout the normal operating day of the mill should produce at maximum 800 ml per shift which can all be kept in the 1000 ml bottle. vi) At the end of the day, maximum 3 bottles @ 1000 ml, clearly labelled with the source and date can be taken to the laboratory. Sub sampling and Analysis: Each 1000 ml bottle should be graduated on a 100 ml scale. The total quantity of the sample depends on the total time of operation of the mill. Assuming a 3 shift operation: There will be 3 bottles of samples i) Shake each bottle vigorously and pour away half of the sample.
ii) Repeat above procedure once more iii) Mix all three bottles into one iv) From the total mixed sample, shaken thoroughly pour away half the sample v) From the remainder, shaken thoroughly, pour out a final sample of about 60 grammes for analysis into a weighed, dry beaker.
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ii) Mix the 2 bottles into one iii) From the total mixed sample proceed as described for the 3 shift operation. Assuming a 1 shift operation: (or individual machine samples) i) Shake the sample vigorously and pour away half the sample
ii) Shake the other half and pour out a final sample of about 60 grammes for analysis. ANALYSIS: A) Moisture determination: The method of moisture determination is the same as the method used for fibre analysis, i.e. dry until constant weight is obtained, but in this case however the drying is more critical. B) Oil determination: The final dried sample must be stored properly in a desiccator before oil extraction. The oil is to be extracted as soon as possible to prevent absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. i) Final dried sample is quickly soaked in solvent
ii) With the aid of a spatula, the sample in solvent is scraped in to a porcelain mortar. The sample is properly and carefully ground and sheared, taking care that no solvent or solids are spilled. iii) The ground sample is then filtered, using the finest grade filter paper. Suction filtration is necessary to reduce the filtration time. 234
O.L.D.B. =
(method 1 ) g x 100 % e-d e-f x 100 % e-d
(method 2 )
O.L.W.B. =
(method 1 ) g x 100 % b-a c-f x 100 % b-a
(method 2 )
235
axbxd c x 100
a = percentage of shell to bunches b = percentage of non-oily solids in shells produced c = percentage of non-oily solids in shell used for analysis d = percentage of oil to shell analyzed.
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237
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General Data
Processed Material
Sterilizer condensate: V.M. N.O.S. Oil/N.O.S. Empty bunches: V.M. N.O.S. Oil/N.O.S. Bunch ash: 04. - 0.5 to F.F.B and contains aprroximately: 30 - 40 % 2- 5% +/- 7.5 % Press cake: V.M. N.O.S. Oil/N.O.S. Wet nuts: Oil/N.O.S Oil loss Fibre: Shell: = 0.8 % = 0.5 % = 41 % = 55 % = 8% K2O P2O5 CaO = 67% = 31% = 6% = 95% = 4% = 9.5%
with V.M. of +/- 30 % has C.V. of +/- 2500 kcal/kg with V.M. of +/- 15 % has C.V. of +/- 3800 kcal/kg
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The acid molecules combine together (in 3's) with a glycerine molecule to form a fat molecule called: triglyceride. The triglyceride composition can vary considerably, pending type and composition of numerous bonds of the saturated and un-saturated acids. Other constituents of C.P.O. are carotenes and tocopherols. Carotenes give C.P.O. its characteristic orange colour, which is then removed by bleaching the oil. Carotenes are precursors of Vitamin A, which is primarily formed when the molecule splits due to the addition of water. Tocopherols are naturally occuring anti-oxidants and in C.P.O. may be as high as 800 ppm, pending the quality of the material and the process.
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P.K.O. % of dried P.K. is approximately 50 %, the residue cake composition is as under: Carbo-hydrates Proteine Fibre Water Oil Ash 48% 19 % 13 % 11 % 5% 4%
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38.1.01 This consists mainly of monitoring the quality of the palm products manufactured, stored and distributed, but also the quality of the raw input material (F.F.B.), the boiler feed water and water quality, the operation of the waste product sections (effluent control) etc. 38.1.02 Many of the records required and kept are to a large degree "repetitive" type records, requiring summary calculations etc. to be integrated with other administrative records. Here also the introduction of "computerized" records can provide a greater and more accurate measure of control, all resulting in (where possible) a reduction in the final cost of producing the palm products. 38-2. Repair and Maintenance control
38.2.01 As described in chapter 35, Repair and Maintenance, the keeping of records of the machinery and equipment performance and the condition can be a positive aid to the scheduling end execution of an effective repair and maintenance program for the mill's machinery. Here also the introduction of computerized records allow a large degree of record integration and a better (cost) control of this important part of the overall operation of an oil mill. 38.2.02 Spare parts and spare part stock holding can be kept at proven and accepted minimum levels if good records are kept, all helping to keep the overall financial requirements of the oil mill down to the minimum level required to sustain effective and profitable operation.
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38.3.01. As for any other industrial operation, financial records of the cost of the operation are to be kept and calculated. These records may take the form of weekly, monthly or other time based accounts and may vary with the individual factories, companies or corporations requirements. 38.3.02 The introduction of computer based accounting can provide an option to integrate some of the direct operational costs with for instance weigh bridge records, repair and maintenance costs, transport and distribution costs etc, during the time based period which is to be covered, thus virtually providing a day to day financial control of the production cost per tonne of palm product. 38-4 General The three sections above are just general descriptions, since each individual factory will have its own, specific, requirements or system of administrative control. It is however advisable that when there is more then one plant operating within a group of plants owned by one company or corporation, that an as much as possible "standardized" format for the generated accounts and reports is created and adopted in order to allow for a reasonable degree of accuracy when comparing different factories and to allow the staff who produce and process these records and reports to become familiar and competent with the recording and calculating procedures. Mill management should make full use of all the reports and records produced and (as noted in chapter 36, Process control) should use this data as a "news paper" rather than a "history sheet" in order to maintain full control and be able to alter / modify the production process as required, when required and not at some undetermined future date, usually after costs have already risen out of proportion, or losses have already increased to intolerable levels.
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GLOSSARY of terms
Absorbance ratio (carotene: chlorophyll) The ratio in which various bio-chemical palm products form during the period of growth till maturity of the palm fruit. Aerobic ponds Excavations made in earth to provide a holding space for liquid effluent in the aerobic stage. Ponds are not usually lined but have inclined earth walls. Anthesis The time of flowering. Back pressure system Method whereby low pressure (exhaust) steam from high pressure equipment (turbines) is collected and utilized for low pressure applications before released to the atmosphere. Bio-gas Usually methane based gas, in palm oil processing plants collected from effluent digesters or ponds. Bleachability The ability to reduce the (usually reddish-orange) colour of crude palm oil by chemical treatment. Blow down The release of water, solids and chemical material from boilers under pressure. Bogey The chassis, fitted with wheels, on which the sterilizer cage is transported over rail tracks. Boiler sludge An emulsion formed inside the water compartments of the boiler, usually containing water, treatment chemicals and some scale fragments. Brine bath Method to separate shell and kernels by floating the mixture in water which has its specific gravity increased by means of the addition of salt. I
III
IV
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INDEX
absorption : 25-23 acid sulphate soil : 31-1 administration : 38-1; 38-2 aerated lagoon : 32-5 aerobic : 32-4 aerobic pond : 32-6 aerobic stabilization pond : 32-6 aerobic suspended growth : 32-5 aerobic sludge cake : 31-7 aerobic digestion : 32-5 air flow rate : 30-5 air pollution 33-1 air release : 25-1; 25-3 air velocity : 30-4 alkali attack : 34-2 alkalinity : 34-3; 34-7 alumina : 34-1 anaerobic : 32-4 anaerobic ponds : 32-11 anaerobic sludge cake : 31-7 anaerobic tank digestion : 32-13 analysis c.p.o. : 37-1; 37-2; 37-3; 37-4; 37-5; 37-7; 37-8; 37-9 analysis p.k : 37-10; 37-11; 37-12 anoxic denitrification : 32-4 application digested effluent : 32-18 attached growth : 32-5 automated valve control : 25-19 bag filter : 33-2 batch type process : 25-19 bio gas : 32-14 bio-chemistry : 3-1 biochemical oxidation : 32-2 biological oxygen demand (b.o.d.) : 32-1; 32-2 biosynthesis : 3-2 black bunches : 36-3 bleach-ability : 29-12 blow down : 34-10 blow-off : 25-4; 25-5; 25-7; 25-8 boiler smoke : 33-1 X
XVIII