Running head: EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS

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Literature Review Recruitment and Selection of Effective Leaders: Getting the Right Ones on the bus Priscilla D. Johnson Prairie View A&M University Dr. Pamela T. Barber-Freeman November 17, 2011

Author Note Priscilla D. Johnson, Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling, Prairie View A&M University. Correspondence concerning this literature review should be addressed to Priscilla D. Johnson, Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling, Prairie View A&M University, Campus Box 519 MailStop 2420, Prairie View, Texas 77446. E-mail: pjohnson9@pvamu.edu.

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Abstract Hiring effective leaders begins with having a recruiting and selection process that is sustainable and unyielding. This structure is vital to the success of schools. Student achievement is highly likely to be effected by a leaders performance. The review of related literature in this work reveals similarities in historical and traditional processes concerning effective hiring. The historical perspective presented in this work allows one to understand the moral dilemma that created a need for educational programs. This work is guided by three theories: objective theory of job choice, subjective theory of job choice, and work itself theory of job choice. Embedded in this literature, these theories remind hiring administrators and Human Resource leaders why people chose certain positions. In addition, the researcher presents current models used for recruiting and selection of leaders. The need for effective leaders is overflowing. The researcher considers issues in education such as hiring minorities and women and current issues faced by students and administrators. Keywords: recruiting, selecting, principals, schools, Human Resources, students

EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS Literature Review How a leader enters the educational setting is just as important as their performance. The goal of both Human Resources (HR) and the school district is to hire candidates who will effectively flourish as the leader. In a school setting, educators and administrative staff can both be leaders. For these reasons, the researcher chose to make this research relevant to the recruitment and selection of both groups. The review of related literature discusses hiring from a historical perspective and current practices, the importance of hiring, and need for recruiting and selecting effective leaders in our schools. This is an incredible feat that requires structure and a strong sense of commitment. Collins work could help describe this process as Getting the right people on the bus, the wrong people off the bus, and the right people off the bus, and the right people in the right seats (2001, p. 184). Historical Perspective: Function of Human Resources in Schools The gap between educations promise and its achievement is a concern for both citizens and educators. When the causes of the discrepancies between educational ideals and actualities are examined, the personnel factor appears to be contributory (Castetter, 1962, p. 17). During the1960s the face and demand of education continued to evolve. Socially, the world began to change as well as the purpose of education. Prior to this period, Americas culture values transformed. According to Spindler (as cited in Castetter, 1962), people moved from Puritan morals, of self-renunciation to becoming more outgoing and involved in the lives of others. Events in life became less focused on individualism to concern for others. Moral codes and what the group thought were right became important. People became less and less focused on the future and began to relish

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their current state of living. Group conformity and collectivity emerged as a way to bring synchronization. These cultural changes led to an increase in the order of education. During the 1960s, education encountered many problems including should the school attempt to open closed areas of culture (economics, race and minority-group relations, social class, sex, courtship, marriage religion and morality, nationalism and patriotism) for study; can the recruitment and selection process be designed to identify value patterns of personnel which will have negative impact on children and youth (Castetter, 1962, p. 9). Castetter believed, The extent to which these and other educational issues of equal significance can be solved satisfactorily depends on the availability of personnel capable of rendering a high level of educational services (Castetter, p. 17). Guiding Theories Three theories guide this review of literature. The objective theory of job choice, created by Behling, Labovitz, and Gainer in 1968 proclaims that individuals are motivated to apply for a job based on the economic opportunities. The subjective theory of job choice explains how applicants have psychological needs the position could fulfill. The work itself theory of job choice shows us how applicants place importance on the job tasks, expectations, and other factors (Young, 2008). Figure one depicts these theories in a conceptual way. This brings us to the importance of recruiting and selecting effective leaders for our schools. Figure 1 Conceptual Framework: Three Guiding Theories

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Subjective theory of job choice Objective theory of job choice

Why Choose to Lead? Recruitment & Selection of Effective Leaders

Work itself theory of job choice

Recruitment and Selection Recruitment Recruiting effective leaders is a necessary process in all schools. Demanding testing standards, changing demographics of students, and each schools altering characteristics leads us to the need to recruit more educators and administrators (Young, 2008). According to Young, recruiting educators and administrators, should be completed before the actual need occurs (succession planning). Young also establishes two goals for recruitment. The first goal is to fill empty positions through a search for qualified candidates. The next goal is to persuade, inspire, and give the candidates a reason to work for your particular school district. Both goals are part of a strategic approach to human resource management. According to Castetter It is not difficult to realize that the investment made in every school employee is considerable; that the success of the local school system depends upon a continuous flow of qualified personnel; that future educational leadership is related to present recruitment policies; that the potential for waste of every kind is enormous if recruitment programs are ineffective; and that solutions to todays recruitment problems do not possess unchanging validity (1962, p. 172).

EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS Castetters historical perspective on recruitment shined rays on the significance of effective management of HR recruiting utilized to hire effective leaders. He believed the HR director or manager should provide the HR team with data and suggestions for recruiting leaders. In addition, throughout their leadership, HR professionals should implement strategic studies regarding the need for additional hiring; with info from all stakeholders, build a repertoire of standards for all positions; creatively recruit; collaborate with educational institutions and organizations to prepare future candidates; maintain a satisfying work environment; and use various technologies to communicate recruiting needs. Casetters work emphasis that some schools large in size, with enough resources benefit from having an assistant superintendent of HR. Casetter believed The more todays superintendent of schools considers the educational problems which he is expected to solve, the more clearly he see that his organization cannot function successfully unless it is fully and competently staffed (1962, p. 174). Historically, recruiting educators and other staff was based on enrollment trends; staffing standards; turnover rates; staffing costs; future staffing utilization (Casetter, 1962, p. 174).

Today, Young (2008), emphasis how effective recruiting for schools is still necessary to the educational process. Education is a revolving door, where vacant positions (or even filled ones) are waiting to be occupied by effective leaders. Interestingly, Gajda and Militello (2008) conducted a study to find more about principal shortage in

EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS Massachusetts. Their study was conducted online, with a sample of 523 principal

participants. The researchers found that 4,414 individuals were licensed as a principal in the state, with only 2,377 positions requiring a license. Findings from this research showed that 63% of respondents planned on leaving the profession within five years. Nearly 35% of respondents said they would leave because of stress, low salary, and job complexity. Findings also suggested that some principals are underemployed, while some who are licensed do not chose to work in the profession. As an operational task within the human resources process, recruitment is not an easy administrative endeavor for school districts (Young, 2008, p. 91). Young caste shadows on how recruitment has become an overlooked process, not being utilized appropriately, and often seen as needless. He brings to surface, how recruitment is a vital operational service, led by organizational mission, goals, and aspirations. In addition, recruitment of effective leaders involves designing effective policies and procedures aligned, with state and federal standards. By law, all public school districts must follow mandated public employment legislation in the recruitment and selection of employees and should develop well-formalized policies reflecting their intentions (Young, 2008, p. 95). Some of the major legislations guiding recruiting today are Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964); Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967); Section 504 of the Rehabilitation (1973); and the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) (Young, 2008). To recruit and select effective leaders, positions must first be outlined. According to Young (2008), a position is a collection of tasks constituting the total work assignment of a single employee (p. 106). A job analysis describes a positions requirements and duties. This is necessary for both compensation and appraisal purposes.

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A well-completed job analysis forms a physical document called a job description. These steps make it possible to recruit effective leaders. According to Young, there are several avenues to recruiting both certified and classified employees. Figure two in the appendices shows these different avenues (2008). The external labor market is utilized to recruit employees who are not currently employed with the school district. Young (2008) proclaims that three recruitment processes are part of all successful HR undertakings. Communication should be established between the district and its applicants; establish a budget for recruitment activities; and monitor the recruiting process continuously (2008). In Gutmore, Strobert, and Gutmores 2009 study, they describe a grow your own leader program between Newark Public School and a local university. The program was introduced in 2003. Aspiring teachers desiring leadership positions had the opportunity to gain a Masters degree and their principal certification. This program was completed through online, weekend, and a 600-hour internship. Each participant has a faculty mentor and gains hands-on-experience in a job-embedded fashion. At the programs end, 25 people graduated and 16 were received a principal or assistant principal position at a Newark public school. The assistant superintendent of Newark public schools was asked to rate the program and graduates performance. The assistant superintendent believed all new administrators were well prepared and did not require much guidance. This study found it easier to select qualified assistant principals and principals. This now brings us to the discussion of selection. Selection

EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS Selecting employees is a necessary incurred hiring cost for schools. Rebore (2001), suggests that hiring a new employee could cost about $1,000 and $25, 000 for a superintendent. The selection process aims its arrow to to hire individuals who will be successful on the job (Rebore, 2001, p. 114). There are ten major steps in the selection process as identified by Rebore (2001), they include 1. write the job description (Young (2008), emphasized this in recruitment step); 2. establish selection criteria; 3. write the vacancy announcement and advertise the position; 4. receive applicants; 5. select the candidates to be interviewed; 6. interview candidates; 7. check references and credentials; 8. select the best candidate; 9. implement the job offer and acceptance; 10. notify unsuccessful candidates (2001, p. 115). According to Young (2008), The main purpose of employee selection is to fill vacant positions in a public school district (p. 129). Selecting employees is a longstanding

problem for education. The community, taxpayers, and students bear the cost of selection errors. Many traditional selection systems used by public school districts to select employees have ignored these concerns, and this oversight has dampening effect for the selection of new employees from a strategic planning perspective (Young, 2008, p. 131). Just as school districts have specific needs, applicants also have desires motivating them to apply; these characteristics should not be ignored. Youngs (2008) work revealed that

EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS individuals are motivated differently, depending on this position they desire, complementing the subjective theory of job choice theory guiding this study. Before selecting a candidate, there are characteristics to look for among those wishing to occupy the leadership position. An applicants motive must not be ignored during the selection process (Young, 2008). SEDL, which is not currently used as an acronym, describes six characteristics that are found in effective leaders. These characteristics include being a visionary, believing schools are for learning, valuing human resources, communicating and listening effectively, being proactive, and taking

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risks (2011, p. 1). These characteristics also describe individuals who have the ability to positively change schools. The central theme of the research is that those who find themselves supervising people in an organization should be both good managers and good leaders (SEDL, 2011, para. 9). Sorenson and Goldsmith offer a model for principals and other administrators to use when selecting educators and administrative leaders. It is referred to as the Selection Criteria for the School Setting and can be seen in figure three below. These criteria are typically associated with a candidates academic background, personal, characteristics, and relevant experiences in the field of education (2009, p. 112).

EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS Figure 3: Selection Criteria Relative to the School Setting

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1Organizational Goals

5-Selection Instruments

Selection Criteria for the School Setting

2-Position Design

4-Position Skills and Performance Success

3-Positon Performance Measurements

Issues in Education: The Need for Effective Leaders School districts, universities, and colleges educate diverse groups of individuals, yet teaching faculty still underrepresents women and minority educators. According to Blount, Only in desperate situations, do school boards seem willing to hire women or persons of color for superintendencies (1998, p. 150). STEM education areas include science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, where there is a lack of women and minority educators employed (Bilimoria and Buch, 2010). According to Valian (as cited in Bilimoria and Buch, 2010) Ifwe can change the faculty search process in ways that encourage more diverse applicant pools and ensure that all applicants are evaluated fairy, more women should make it to the short list and be invited to campus (2010, p. 28). There are ways educational institutions can recruit more women and minority applicants. Bilimoria and Buch studied this process. Their work describes how business organizations usually grow their own talent, unlike educational institutions. In six years, they studied the hiring process at two universities. Their findings were applicable to

EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS hiring leaders for school districts. According to Turner (as cited in Bilimoria and Buch,

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2010) Historically, institutions have not provided training to faculty on how to conduct effective searches, especially those likely to yield diverse pools and outcomes. Findings from Bilimoria and Buchs study found that effective recruitment and selection involves training interviewers about the importance of the organizations mission and goals as it links to hiring diverse faculty. Interviewers in the study were also trained to identify and control their own biases and are given tools and resources from HR on how to identify proper candidates (2010). According to Davis, Darling-Hammond, LaPointe, and Meyerson (2005), selecting effective leaders requires the selector to identify specific characteristics in applicants. The leaders move students to arching levels of success by developing teaching staff and creating processes that enhances effective learning environments. Specifically, effective principals are skilled at developing a deep understanding of how to support teachers; managing the curriculum in ways that promote student learning; developing the ability to transform schools into more effective organizations that foster powerful teaching and learning for all students (2005, p. 5). These principals must be skilled at tackling pressing problems. For example, since the 9/11 events in the United States, many Muslim and other immigrant students continue to face discrimination in Americas schools. This discrimination comes in the form of verbal slurs, avoidance, violence, and murder (Tindongan, 2011). Another pressing problem strangling the effectiveness of principals is bullying in schools. Bullying is often defined as unprovoked aggressive behavior repeatedly carried out against victims who are unable to defend themselves, according to Smith, Ananiadou, & Cowie and

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Whitted and Dupper, as (as cited in Good, McIntosh, and Gietz, 2011, para. 1). Students being bullied are often from a marginalized group, with a physical drawback, or live with a disability. School campaigns against bullying are often presented after longstanding events of abuse have occurred, rather than preventing these events. Another rising problem for school leaders is sexting. Ostrager describes this a sending nude or almost nude pictures of oneself to another person via mobile communication device, usually though a cell phone. Students caught sexting could be suspended, arrested, or charged with handling child pornography (2011). Texas is among the thirty-two states that specifically require sex offender registration for juvenile offenders. However, the offender is entitled to a hearing to determine whether the interests of the public require registration (Ostrager, 2011, p. 716). These are only few problems faced by leaders. Reflecting back on the conceptual model guiding this study, interviewers Young (2008) suggests that interviewers really understand why one wishes to serve as a leader. These issues in education makes it important to know before a hiring decision is made if a candidate has the skills, knowledge, and motivation to be effective leaders. In the recruiting and selection process leaders have the opportunity to improve education programs, according to Webb and Norton (as cited in Sorenson and Goldsmith, 2009). This review of related literature revealed how historical HR recruiting and selection processes are similar. Both aim to hire educators who will plant seeds of knowledge in each student. This review also expounds on the need for schools to implement creative recruiting strategies, which should reach the most qualified candidates. Often, recruiting strategies utilized by schools fail to take advantage of technologically advanced possibilities. A current practice working for business-like

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organizations is a grow your own leader approach. If implemented effectively by schools, this approach has the ability to reduce hiring cots and gives the candidate an opportunity to lead in a familiar setting. Selecting leaders is crucial part of the HR process. In fact, a well-planned and carefully executed screening and selection process can breathe new life into a school where ineffective visioning and planning, low morale, and teacher absenteeism, low test scores and overall tedium are the norm (Sorenson and Goldsmith, 2009, p. 107).

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Appendices Figure 2 Avenues for Recruiting from External Labor Market

College/Universiti es Professional Associates Job Fairs Certified Employees Electronic Databases Web Pages Walk-ins External Labor Market Employment Agency Volcational Schools Community Colleges Local Press Employee Referrals Walk-ins

Classified Employees

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References Bilimoria, D., & Buch, K. K. (2010). The search is on: Engendering faculty diversity through more effective search and recruitment. Change, 42(4), 27-32. Blount, J., M. (1998). Destined to rule the schools: Women and the superintendency 1873-1995. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Castetter, W. B. (1962). Administering the school personnel program. Ontario, Canada: The Macmillian Company. Collins, J. (2001). Good to great. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Davis, S., Darling-Hammond, L., LaPointe, M., and Meyerson, D. (2005). School leadership study: Developing successful principals. (Review of Research). Retrieved from The School Redesign Network (SRN): Stanford University Website: http://www.srnleads.org/data/pdfs/sls/sls_rr.pdf Gajda, R. and Militello. (2008). Recruiting and Retaining School Principals: What we can learn from practicing administrators. E-Journal of AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice, 5(2), 33-39. Retrieved from http://www.aasa.org/jsp.aspx Gutmore, D., Strobert, B., & Gutmore, G., F. (2009). Meeting the needs: A best practice grow your own school leader program. E-Journal of AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice, 6(1), 33-39. Retrieved from http://www.aasa.org/jsp.aspx Good, C. P., McIntosh, K., & Gietz, C. (2011). Integrating bullying prevention into schoolwide positive behavior support. Teaching Exceptional Children, 44(1), 4856.

EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS Ostrager, B. (2010). SMS. OMG! LOL! TTYL: Translating the law to accommodate today's teens and the evolution from texting to sexting. Family Court Review, 48(4), 712-726. doi:10.1111/j.1744-1617.2010.01345.x Rebore, R. W. (2001). Human resources administration in education: A management approach (6th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. SEDL. (2011). Leadership characteristics that facilitate school change. Retrieved from the SEDL Website: http://www.sedl.org/change/leadership/character.html

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Sorenson, R., D. & Goldsmith, L., M. (2009). The principals guide to managing school personnel. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press Tindongan, C. (2011). Negotiating Muslim youth identity in a post-9/11 world. High School Journal, 95(1), 72-87. Young, I, P. (2008). The human resource function in educational administration. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.