Chapter 1: Introduction to Educational Research Answers to Review Questions 1.1. Why should we study educational research?

To become research literate. Because we live in a society thats driven by research. To improve your critical thinking skills. To learn how to critically evaluate published research. To learn how to conduct research in case the need arises one day. 1.2. What are the definitions of the five general kinds of research? The five general kinds of research are basic research, applied research, evaluation research, action research, and orientational research. Here are the definitions: (a) Basic research research aimed at generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical understanding about basic human and other natural processes (b) Applied research research focused on answering practical questions to provide relatively immediate solutions (c) Evaluation - determining the worth, merit, or quality of an evaluation object (d) Action research applied research focused on solving practitioners local problems (e) Orientational research research done for the purpose of advancing an ideological position 1.3. Why is it important that both basic and applied research be done? Basic research helps provide a solid foundation of reliable knowledge on which future research can be built, and applied research helps answer real world or practical questions. Obviously, both of these are important. 1.4. What is the difference between formative and summative evaluation? They have a different purpose. Formative evaluation is used for the purpose of improving an evaluation object. Summative evaluation is used for the purpose of making judgments about the overall effectiveness of an evaluation object and determining whether a program should be continued. 1.5. What is the key question associated with each of the following forms of evaluation: needs assessment, theory assessment, implementation assessment, impact assessment, and efficiency assessment? (a) Needs assessment Is there a need for this type of program? (b) Theory assessment Is this program conceptualized in a way that it should work? (c) Implementation assessment Was this program implemented properly and according to the program plan? (d) Impact assessment Did this program have an impact on its intended targets? (e) Efficiency assessment Is this program cost effective?

1.6.

What are the different sources of knowledge? Which ones are especially important for educational researchers? (a) Experience (i.e., empiricism) (b) Expert opinion (c) Reasoning (i.e., rationalism) Educational researchers use a mixture of both empiricism and rationalism. Empiricism involves collecting data and learning from the data, and rationalism involves reasoning and thinking about the concepts and the results and developing theories to organize ones explanations. 1.7. What is the key difference between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning? Inductive reasoning is results in conclusions that are probably true. Deductive reasoning provides conclusions that are necessarily true IF the premises are true. 1.8. Describe the two forms of the scientific method, and explain why both are important. The two forms or styles are the exploratory or inductive form and the confirmatory or deductive form. (a) The exploratory or inductive scientific method follows three steps: observe the world, search for a pattern in what is observed, and make a generalization about what is occurring. This is a bottom up approach to research. It is especially useful for generating and constructing new ideas and theories. (b)The confirmatory or deductive scientific method also follows three steps: state the hypothesis (based on theory or research literature), collect data to test the hypothesis, and make a decision to accept or reject the hypothesis. This is a top down approach to research. It is especially useful for testing ideas and theories. In practice, researchers use both of these methods, often in a cyclical manner as shown in the research wheel (see Figure 1.1 in your textbook). 1.9. Explain why researchers do not use the word proof when they write up the results of their research in journal articles. Because empirical research provides evidence, not proof. Empirical research is different from areas such as logic and mathematics where proof is obtained. In empirical research what is found tomorrow is not necessarily the same as what is found today; that is, the future may not always resemble the past; therefore, empirical research only provides evidence of how things operate. In research, we always leave open the possibility of todays explanations being replaced with newer and better explanations. Rather than using the word proof, just use the word evidence when you are talking about the conclusions of empirical research.

1.10. What criteria can you use to determine the quality of a theory or an explanation? They are in Table 1.4 (see your textbook). 1.11. What does the principle of evidence state? It says that what we obtain in empirical research is EVIDENCE, NOT PROOF. A corollary of the principle and an important point to remember is that one should more strongly respect findings when they have been replicated (i.e., found in many different studies) rather than relying on a single research study (i.e., replication leads to better evidence). 1.12. What are the five main objectives of educational research? (Hint: the first letters form this acronym, EDEPI.) Explore, describe, explain, predict, and influence. 1.13. Why is each of the five main objectives of research/science important? Each of these has an important role in research and science. Exploration is especially important in the early stages of research to generate concepts and theories that can be further tested later. It gets research started; it gives us direction. Description is carried out, to some degree, in every research study; it provides needed information and helps us to understand exactly what we are looking at. Explanation is important because it studies causes and effects and it involves testing and improving theories (i.e., our explanations). Prediction is common in the mature sciences, and helps us to improve our world by predicting what will happen. For negative predictions (e.g., dropping out of school and drug use), predictions can be followed with interventions to help prevent the negative outcomes. For positive predictions, one wants to do whatever leads to the positive predictions. Influence is the ultimate goal of research as we strive for social betterment and improvement of our world; in education, influence comes about through the implementation of demonstration programs to show what works and then later through changes in educational policies to have a broader social impact.

1. Mrs. Smith is writing her daily observations of a student and writes, without interpretation, that the student is not completing the class work and is constantly speaking out of turn. Which of the following objectives does she appear to be using? a. prediction b. description c. explanation d. exploration

2. Which of the following is a form of research typically conducted by teachers, counselors, and other professionals to answer questions they have and to specifically help them solve local problems? a. action research b. basic research c. predictive research d. orientational research

3. How much confidence should you place in a single research study? a. you should completely trust a single research study. b. you should trust research findings after different researchers have found the same findings c. neither a nor b d. both a and b

4. The development of a solid foundation of reliable knowledge typically is built from which type of research? a. basic research b. action research c. evaluation research d. orientational research

5. Which form of reasoning is the process of drawing a specific conclusion from a set of premises? a. rationalism b. deductive reasoning

c. inductive reasoning d. probabilistic

6. The idea that when selecting between two different theories with equal explanatory value, one should select the theory that is the most simple, concise, and succinct is known as ____________. a. criterion of falsifiability b. critical theory c. guide of simplicity d. rule of parsimony

7. Research that is done to examine the findings of someone else using the "same variables but different people" is which of the following? a. exploration b. hypothesis c. replication d. empiricism

8. ________________ is the idea that knowledge comes from experience. a. rationalism b. deductive reasoning c. logic d. empiricism

9. According to your text, what are the five key objectives of science? a. prediction, summary, conclusion, explanation, description b. influence, prediction, questions, exploration, answers c. exploration, description, explanation, prediction, influence d. questions, answers, prediction, explanation, summary

10. A researcher designs an experiment to test how variables interact to influence how well children learn spelling words. In this case, the main purpose of the study was: a. Explanation

b. Description c. Influence d. Prediction

11. There is a set of churches in the U.S. where part of the service involves snake handling. The researcher wants to find out why the people attending these churches do this and how they feel and think about it. In this case, the primary purpose of the study is: a. Exploration b. Description c. Influence d. Prediction

12. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a good theory or explanation? a. It is parsimonious b. It is testable c. It is general enough to apply to more than one place, situation, or person d. All of the above are characteristics of good theories

13. Which of the following is not a basic assumption of science? a. Science cannot provide answers to all questions b. It is possible to distinguish between more and less plausible claims c. Researchers should follow certain agreed upon norms and practices d. Science is best at solving value conflicts, such as whether abortion is immoral

14. What general type of research is focused on collecting information to help a researcher advance an ideological or political position? a. Evaluation research b. Basic research c. Action research d. Orientational research

15. Which scientific method follows these steps: 1) observation/data, 2) patterns, 3) theory? a. Inductive b. Deductive c. Imductive d. Top down

16. Rene Descartes is associated with which of the following approached to knowledge generation? a. Empiricism b. Rationalism c. Expert opinion d. None of the above

17. Which scientific method is a top-down or confirmatory approach? a. Deductive method b. Inductive method c. Hypothesis method

d. Pattern method

18. Which scientific method is a bottom-up or generative approach to research? a. Deductive method b. Inductive method c. Hypothesis method d. Pattern method

19. Which scientific method focuses on testing hypotheses developed from theories? a. Deductive method b. Inductive method c. Hypothesis method d. Pattern method

20. Which scientific method often focuses on generating new hypotheses and theories? a. Deductive method b. Inductive method c. Hypothesis method d. Pattern method

21. Which of the following statements is true of a theory? a. it most simply means explanation b. it answers the how and why questions

c. it can be a well developed explanatory system d. all of the above are correct

Answers: 1. b 2. a 3. b 4. a 5. b 6. d 7. c 8. d 9. c 10. a 11. a 12. d 13. d 14. d 15. a 16. b 17. a 18. b 19. a

20. b 21. d