CHAPTER OUTLINE

4/1 Introduction
4/2 Plane Trusses
4/3 Method of Joints
4/4 Method of Sections
4/5 SpaceTrusses
4/6 Frames and Machines
Chapter Review
STRUCTURES
4 /1 INTRODUCTION
In Cha pter 3 we st udied th e equilihr ium of a single ri gid body or a
syste m of connected memb ers t reated as a si ngle rigid body. We first
drew a free-body di agram of t he body showing all forces external t o t he
isolated body and t hen we applied t he force and moment equations of
equilibrium. In Chapter 4 we focus on t he det ermination of t he forces
int ernal to a st ruct ure , t hat is, forces of act ion and reaction between t he
connected memb ers. An engineering st ruct ure is any connect ed sys te m
of members built t o support or transfer forces and t o safely withstand
the loads applied to it. To determine the forces internal t o an engi nee r-
ing st ruct ure, we must dismember th e st ruct ure and analyze separate
free-body di agrams of individual members or combinations of members.
This analysis requir es careful application of Newton' s th ird law, whi ch
states th at each acti on is accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction.
In Cha pte r 4 we analyze the internal for ces acting in several types
of struct ures, namely, trusses, frames, and machines. In this treatment
we consider only statically determinate st ru ct ures, whi ch do not have
mor e supporti ng cons t raints t han are necessary to maintain an equilib-
r ium configurat ion. Thus, as we hav e already seen, the equat ions of equi-
librium are adequate to determi ne all unknown reactions.
Th e analysis of trusses, frames and machines, and beams under con-
cent rated loads cons t it ut es a st raight forward applicati on of th e mat erial
developed in th e previous two chapters. The basic procedure developed
in Cha pt er 3 for isolating a body by construct ing a cor rect free-body
diagr am is essent ial for t he analysis of statically deter min at e st ruct ures.
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165
166 Chapt er 4 Str uct ures
L
Stringer
Cross beam \
~ ~ ~
Figure 4/ 1
Pra tt
Warren
Howe
Common ly Used Bridge Trusses
Marwan and Waseem AI-Iraqi
Commonly Used Roof Tru sses
Figure 4/2
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Articl e 4/2 Plane Trusses 167
' a )
' bJ
B
A
A
[)
A framework composed of members joined at thei r ends to form a
rigid st ruct ure is called a truss. Bridges, roof supports, derricks, an d
other such structures are common examples of trusses. Structural mem-
bers commonly used are l -bearns, channels, angles, bars, and special
shapes which are fastened together at t heir ends by welding, r iveted
connecti ons, or large bolts or pins. \Vhen the members of the truss lie
essentially in a single plane, the truss is called a plane truss .
For bridges and similar structures, plane trusses are commonly uti-
lized in pai rs with one t russ assembl y placed on each side of t he st ruc-
t ure. A sect ion of a typical bridge st ruct ure is shown in Fig. 4/1. The
combined weight of the roadway and vehicles is transfer red to t he lon-
git udinal st r ingers, t hen to t he cross beams, and finally, wit h t he weights
of the stringers and cross beams accounted for, to the upper joints of
the two plane trusses which form the vertical sides of the structure. A
simplified model of th e truss st ru ct ure is indicated at t he left side of the
illust ra ti on; t he forces L represe nt t he joint loadings.
Several examples of commonly used trusses which can be analyzed
as plane trusses are shown in Fig. 4/2.
4 /2 PLANE TRUSSES
e
Compression
Figure4/4
Two-Force Members
A e
(e )
Figure 4/3
T
e
I T
Ie
F
Tension
Simple Trusses
The basic element of a plan e truss is t he t ria ngle. Three bars j oined
by pins at th eir ends, Fig. 4/3a , constit ute a r igid frame. The ter m rigid
is used to mean noncollapsible and also to mean that deformation of the
members due to induced internal strains is negligible. On the other
hand, four or more bars pin-jointed to form a polygon of as many sides
constitute a nonrigid frame. \Ve can make the nonrigid frame in Fig.
4/3b rigid, or stable, by adding a diagonal bar joining A and D or B and
C and t hereby for ming two triangles. We can exte nd t he st ruct ure by
adding additional unit s of two end-connected bars, such as DE and CE
or AF and DF, Fig. 4/ 3c, which are pinned to two fixed joints. In t his
way the entire structure will remain rigid.
Structures built from a basic triangle in the manner described are
known as simple trusses. \Vhen more members are present than are
needed to prevent collapse, t he truss is stat ically indet erminate. A stat-
ically indet erminate t russ cannot be analyzed by the equa tions of equi-
librium alone. Additional members or supports which are not necessary
for maintaining the equilibrium configuration are called redundant .
To design a truss we must first determine the forces in the various
members and then select appropriate sizes and structural shapes to
withstand the forces. Several assumptions are made in the force analysis
of simple trusses. First, we assume all members to be two-force members.
A two-force member is one in equilibrium under the action of two forces
only, as defined in genera l te rms with Fig. 3/4 in Ar t. 3/3. Each member
of a truss is normally a straight link joi ning the two points of application
of force. The two forces are applied at the ends of the member and are
necessarily equal, opposite, and collinear for equilibrium.
The member may be in tension or compression, as shown in Fig.
4/4. \Vhen we represent the equilibrium of a portion of a two-force mem-
ber, the tension T or compression Cacting on the cut section is the same
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16 8 Chapt e r 4 Struct ures
Truss Connections and Supports
for all sections. We assume here that t he weight of th e memb er is small
compared with the force it supports. If it is not, or if we must account
for the small effect of the weight, we can replace the weight W of t he
member by two forces, each W/ 2 if the member is uniform , with one
force acting at each end of the member. These forces, in effect, are
treated as loads externally applied to the pin connections. Accounti ng
for the weight of a member in thi s way gives t he cor rect result for the
average tension or compression along the member but will not account
for the effect of bendin g of the member .
I
l
, ,

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4 /3 METHOD OF JOINTS
This method for finding the forces in the members of a truss consists
of satisfying the condit ions of equilibr ium for t he forces act ing on the
connecting pin of each j oint. The method ther efore deal s with the equi-
librium of concurrent forces, and only two independent equilibrium
equations are involved.
We begin the analysis with any joint where at least one known load
exists and where not more than two unknown forces are present. The
solut ion may be started with the pin at th e lell end. It s free- body dia-
gram is shown in Fig. 4/ 7. Wit h the j oints indicated by lett er s, we usu-
ally designat e th e force in each member by the two letter s defining t he
ends of t he member . The proper directions of t he forces shoul d be evi-
dent by inspecti on for thi s simple case. The free-body diagrams of por-
tions of members AF and AB are also shown to clearl y indi cat e the
mechanism of the action and reaction. The member AB actually makes
contact on the left side of t he pin, although t he force AB is drawn from
the right side and is shown acting away from the pin. Thus, if we con-
sistently draw the force arrows on the same side of the pin as the mem-
ber , then tension (such as AB) will always be ind icat ed by an ar rowaway
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\Vhen welded or riveted connections are used to jom st ructural
members, we may usually assume that the connection is a pin joint if
the centerlines of the members are concurrent at t he joi nt as in Fig. 4/5.
\ Ve also assume in the analysis of simple trusses that all external
forces are applied at the pin connections. This condition is satis fied in
most trusses. In br idge t russes th e deck is usually laid on cross beams
whi ch are supported at the joint s, as shown in Fig. 4/1.
For large trusses, a roller, rocker, or some kind of slip joint is used
at one of the supports to provide for expansion and contraction due to
temperature changes and for deformation from applied loads. Trusses
and frames in which no such provision is made are statically indeter-
mi nate, as explained in Art. 3/ 3. Fig. 3/ 1 shows examples of such joints.
Two met hods for t he force analysis of simple trusses will be given.
Each met hod will be explained for t he simple t russ shown in Fig. 4/60.
The free-body diagram of t he t russ as a whole is shown in Fig. 4/6 b.
The external reac tions are usua lly determined first , by applying the
equilibrium equation s to the truss as a whole. Then the force analysis
of t he remainder of t he t russ is performed.
D
Figure 4/7
Figure 4/6
Tension

'-'=---_ ...1
Figure 4/5
F E
(a)
L
L R,
(b)
y
I
I
I AF
I
rAB
R
I
from t he pin, an d compression (such as AF) will always be indicated by
an arrow toward t he pin. The magnit ude of AF is obtained from the
equation ':::.F
y
= 0 an d AB is t hen found from ':::. F
x
= O.
Joint F may be analyzed next, since it now contains only two un-
knowns , EF and BF. Proceeding to t he next joint having no more t han
two unknowns, we subsequently analyze joints B, C, E, and D in that
orde r. Fig. 4( 8 shows t he free-body diagram of each joint and its corre-
sponding force polygon, which represents graphically the two equilib-
rium conditions 'i.. F
x
= 0 and 'iF
y
= O. The numbers indicate the order
in which t he joints are analyzed. We not e t hat , when joint D is finally
reached, the computed reaction R
2
must be in equilibrium wit h t he
forces in members CD and ED, which were determined previously from
t he t wo neighboring joints . This requi rement provides a check on t he
cor rect nes s of our work. Note that isolation of joint C shows t hat t he
force in CE is zero when the equation ':::.F
y
= 0 is applied. The force in
2
EF EF
zl
{l
BF
AB
Joint F
4
t CE=O
R
1
Joint A BC E
)
CD
Joint C
3
BF
BC
5
BE
BE

AB
BC
L BE EF
BF
Joint E
6

AB
CD
CD

L
R,
Joint B Joint D
y
I
I
L - - - x
Article 4/3 Method of Joi nts 169
R
1
L
Figure4/8
R,
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170 Chapter 4 Struct ure s
Marwa n and Waseem AI- Iraqi
this member would not be zero, of course, if an exte rnal vertical load
were applied at C.
It is often convenient to indicate the tension T and compression C
of t he various members directly on t he origi nal t russ diagram by draw-
ing arrows away from t he pins for tension and toward th e pins for com-
pression. This designation is illustrated at the bottom of Fig. 4/8.
Sometimes we cannot initially assign the correct direction of one or
both of the unknown forces acti ng on a given pin. If so, we may make
an arbitrary assignment. A negat ive computed force value indicates that
t he initially assumed direction is incorrect .
Internal and External Redundancy
If a plane t rus s has more external supports than are necessary to
ensure a stable equilibrium configuration, th e truss as a whole is stati -
cally indeterminate, and the extra supports constitute external redun-
dancy. If a truss has more internal members than are necessary to
pr event collapse when t he truss is removed from its supports, t hen the
extra members constitute internal redundancy and the truss is again
statically indet erminat e.
For a truss which is stat ically determinate externally, there is a
definit e relation between th e number of its members and th e number of
its joints necessary for internal stability without redundancy. Because
we can specify th e equilibrium of each joint by two scalar force equa-
t ions, th ere are in all 2j such equations for a truss withj joints. For th e
entire truss composed of m two-force members and having the maximum
of three unknown support reactions, there are in all m + 3 unknowns
(m tension or compression forces and three reactions). Thus, for any
plane truss, the equation m + 3 = 2j will be satisfied if t he truss is
sta tically determinate internally.
A simple plane t russ, formed by starting with a tri angle and adding
two new members to locate each new joint with respect to the exist ing
st ruc t ure, satis fies th e relation automatically. The condit ion holds for
t he init ial tri angl e, where m = j = 3, and m increases by 2 for each
added joint while j increases by 1. Some ot her (nonsimple) statically
determinate trusses, such as the K-truss in Fig. 4/2, are arranged dif-
ferently, but can be seen to satisfy the same relati on.
This equation is a necessary condit ion for stability but it is not a
sufficient condition, since one or more of the m members can be ar-
ranged in such a way as not to contribute to a sta ble configurati on of
t he ent ire truss. If m + 3 > 2j, t here are more members t ha n inde-
pendent equations, and t he t russ is statically indeter minate internally
wit h redundant members present. If m + 3 < 2j , there is a deficiency
of internal members, and t he truss is unstable and will collapse under
load.
Special Conditions
We often encounter several special conditions in the analysis of
trusses . When two collinear members are under compression, as indi-
cated in Fig. 4/9a, it is necessary to add a t hird member to main tain
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Ar t icl e 4 /J Method of Joint s 171
'F.F;r = 0 requires F
1
= }'i
rF;r' =0 requires F
J
=F
4
x
~ 1/
~ zr;= 0 requires F
1
= 0
x -r - - L r F;r ' = 0 requires F
2
= 0
X
/
/
/
h,
rF
y
= 0 requires F
3
= 0
! F
x
=0 requires F
1
=Iii
(c ) (bJ (c)
Figure 4/9
D B D B
wN
alignment of th e two members and prevent buckling. We see froma force
su mmation in they-direction that t he force F
3
in t he third member mus t
be zero and from t he x-direct ion that F1 = F2' This conclusion holds
regardless of t he angle 0 and holds also if the collinear members are in
tension. If an externa l force with a component in the y-direction were
applied to t he joint, t hen F3 would no longer be zero.
When two nonccllinear members are joined as shown in Fig. 4/ 9b,
then in t he absence of an externally applied load at t his joint, th e forces
in both members must be zero, as we can see from the two force
summations.
When two pairs of collinear members are joined as shown in Fig.
4/ 9c, t he forces in each pair must be equal and opposite . Thi s conclusi on
follows from the force summations indicated in the figure.
Truss pan els are frequently cross-braced as shown in Fig. 4/ 10a .
Such a panel is statically indeter minate if each brace can support eit her
tension or compression. However, when the braces are flexible members
incapable of supporting compression, as are cables, then only the tension
member acts and we can disregard the other member. It is usually evi-
dent from the asymmetry of the loading how the panel will deflect.
If the deflect ion is as indica ted in Fig. 4/lOb, th en member AB should
be retained and CD disregarded. When t his choice cannot be made
by inspection, we may arbitrarily select the member to be retained.
If the assumed tension turns out to be positive upon calculation, then
the choice was correct. If the assumed tension force turns out to be
negat ive, t hen t he opposit e member must be ret ained and the calculation
redone.
We can avoid simultaneous solution of t he equilibrium equat ions for
two unknown forces at a joint by a careful choice of reference axes . Thus,
for t he joint indicated schemati cal ly in Fig. 4/ 11 where L is known and
F
1
and F
2
are unknown, a force summation in the x-direction eliminates
reference to F1 and a force summation in the x' -direction eliminates
reference to F
2
. When the angles involved are not easily found , t hen a
simultaneous solution of the equations using one set of reference direc-
t ions for both unknowns may be pr eferable.
A
(a)
c A
Figure 4/10
Figure 4/1 1
(b)
c
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172 Chapt e r 4 St ructures
Sample Problem 4/1
Compute the force in each member of the loaded cantilever truss by the
method of joints.
= OJ
5T - 20(5) - 30(10) 0 T = 80kN
= OJ 80 cos 30
0
- Ex 0 Ex = 69.3 kN
= OJ 80 sin 30 + E
y
- 20 - 30 0 E
y
= 10 kN
Next we draw free-body diagrams showing the forces acting on each of t he
connect ing pins. The correctness of the assigned directions of the forces is verified
when each joint is considered in sequence. There should be no question about
the cor rect direction of the forces on joint A. Equilibrium requires
A
30 kN 20kN
T
5m
30
0
y
60
0
I
I
5m
L __
x
Ex
5 m 5m
30 kN 20kN E
y
Ans.
Ans.
AB 34.6 kN T
AC 17.32 kN C
o
o
0.866AB - 30
AC - 0.5(34.6)
OJ
0]
Solution. If it were not desired to calculate the exte rnal reactions at D and E,
the analysis for a cantilever truss could begin with t he joint at the loaded end.
However, this truss will be analyzed completely, so t he first step will be to com-
pute the exter nal forces at D and E from the free-body diagram of the truss as
a whole. The equations of equilibrium give
CD where T stands for tension and C stands for compression.
Joint B must be analyzed next , since there are more than two unknown
forces on joint C. The force BC must provide an upward componen t, in which
case BD must balance the force to the left . Again the forces are obtained from
OJ
0]
0.866BC - 0.866(34.6)
BD - 2(0.5)(34.6)
o
o
BC = 34.6 kN C
BD = 34.6 kN T
Ans.
Ans.
y
I I\B
I
I
I 60
0
_ AC - - x
30kN
BD

34.6 kN 600
BC
J oint C now contai ns only two unknowns, and these are found in the same
way as before:
CE = 63.5 kN C
Finally, from joint E ther e results
and t he equation '2:. F:r: = 0 checks.
Joi ntB
BC =
34.6 kN
J oint A
Helpful Hint
CD It should be stressed th at t he te n-
sion/compression designation refers
to the member, not the j oint . Note
that we dr aw the force arrow on the
same side of the joint as the member
which exer ts the force. In thi s way
ten sion (ar row away from the joint)
is disti nguished from compression
(ar row toward the joint).
Ans.
Ans.
Ans.
o
o
11.55 kN C DE 0.866DE 10
0.866CD - 0.866(34.6) - 20
CD 57.7 kN T
CE - 17.32 - 0.5(34.6) - 0.5(57.7) OJ
= OJ
I:EF
y
= 0]
AC=
17.32 kN
DE
60
0
69.3 kN
CE CE =
63.5 kN
20kN 10kN
Joint C Joint E
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Art icle 4/3 Problems 173
PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems
4/4 Calculate the forces in members BE and BD of the
loaded trus s .
4/1 Determine the force in each member of the simple
equilateral truss.
Ans. AB ~ 736 N T, AC ~ 368 N T, BC = 736 N C
A
2 m
B C ~ 2
2
8' 8'
A'
8'
E
8'
2m ' B
10001b
2m
Problem 4/4
3 kN C
6 kN T
6 kN C
An. , AB = 12 kN T, AE
BC = 5.20 kN T, BD
BE ~ 5.20 kN C, CD ~ DE
4/5 Determine the force in each member of the loaded
truss.
75 k ~
Problem 4/ 1
C
4/2 Determine the force in each member of the loaded
truss. Discuss the elTects of varying the angle of the
45
0
support sur face at C.
A
A 6'
B
B C
1001b
2.5'
E
3D'"
3 kN
C
D
Problem 4/5
45
- - - -
4/6 Calculate the force in each member of th e loaded truss.
"'- - - - "'- -2kN
Problem 4/2 E D
3 m
B
Problem 4/6
3 m
4/3 Determine the force in each member of the truss. Note
the presence of any zero-force members.
An". AB = 5 kN T, BC = 5/2 kN C
CD ~ 15 kN C, AC ~ 5, /5 kN T, AD ~ 0
Problem 4/ 3
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174 Chapter 4 Structures
c
D c B
Ans. AB ~ DE ~ 96.0 kN C
All ~ EF = 75 kN T, BC = CD = 75 kN C
BH ~ CG ~ DF = 60 kN T
CH ~ CF ~ 48.0 kN C, GH ~ FG = 112.5 kN T
Determine the force in each member of the loaded
truss. Make use of the symmetry of the truss and of
the loading.
4/7
4m
'i---- - - ---->:D
5m
G
5 m
F
5 m
E
4 kN 2 kN
Problem 4/ 9
30 kN 60 kN 30 kN
Problem 4/7
Representative Problems
4/8 Det ermine the force in each member of the loaded
truss. All triangles are isosceles.
4/10 Solve for the forces in members BE and BD of the
truss which supports the load L. All interior angles
are 60 or 120.
4 m
~
4m
1
1
300
I lOkI'
I
B
c
c
A
B
Ans. AC = !:: T
2
Problem 4/ 8
4/9 Determine the force in each member of the loaded
truss. All triangles are equilateral.
Ans. AB ~ 9,13 kN C, AE = 5,13 kN T
BC = ,?J3 kN C, BD = 3,13 kN C, BE = iJ3 kN C
CD ~ lfJ3 kN T, DE ~ J3 kN T
4/11
D
F E
G
t
L
Problem 4/ 10
Determine the force in member AC of the loaded
truss. The two quarter-circular members act as two-
force members.
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Article 4/1 Prob l ems 175
L
B
Problem 4/11
4/12 Calcul at e the forces in members CG and CF for the
truss shown.
2 kips
2 kN
Problem 4/14
Problem 4/12
4/14 A drawbridge is being raised by a cable 1. Th e four
joi nt loadings shown result from the weight of t he
roadway. Det ermine th e forces in members EFt DE,
DF, CD, and FG.
4/16 Det ermine t he forces in members BI , CI, and HI for
t he loaded truss. All angles are 30, 60, or 90.
Problem 4/16
Problem 4/15
4/15 Th e equiangular t russ is loaded and support ed as
shown. Det ermine the for ces in all members in terms
of th e horizontal load L.
Ans. AB BC = L T, AF = EF = L C
DE = CD = L/2 T, BF = DF = BD = 0
20' B
Problem 4/13
E
20'
4/13 Each member of the truss is a un iform 20ft bar
weighing 400 lb. Ca lculate the average ten sion or
compr ession in each member du e t o the weights of
t he members. Ans. AB = BC 1000/ ,/ 3 1b T
AE = CD = 2000/ ,13 Ib C
BD BE = 800/ ,13 Ib T
ED = 1400/ , 13 Ib C
D
F
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176 Chap ter 4 Sto uctur es
Problem 4/17
4/20 Determine the force in each member of the pair of
trusses which support the 5000-lb load at their com-
mon joint C.
D 1 1<.."
F 2 m
1 kN 1 kl'i
4/17 A snow load transfers the forces shown to the upper
joints of a Pratt roof truss. Neglect any horizontal
reactions at the supports and solve for the forces in
all members.
Ails. AB DE = BC CD = 3.35 kN C
AH = EF = 3 kN T, BH DF 1 kN C
CF CH 1.414 kN T, FG = GH = 2 kN T
1 kN

4/18 The loading of Prob. 4/ 17 is shown applied to a Howe
roof truss. Neglect any horizontal reactions at the
supports and solve for the forces in all members.
Compare with the resul ts of Prob. 4/17.
4/21 The rectangular frame is composed of four perimeter
two-force members and two cables AC and BD which
are incapable of supporting compression. Determine
the forces in all members due to the load L in position
(0) and then in posi tion (b) .
Ail S. (0) AB = AD BD = 0, BC I. C
5L 4L
AC = '3 T, CD '3 C
Ibl AB AD BC BD 0
AC 51. T CD 41. C
3 ' 3
L
Problem 4/20
1 kN
D
1 kN
2m
Problem 4/ 18
B
1 kN
2 m H 2m G 2m F 2m
1 kN
3d
4d
Probl em 4/21
C
Hb)
t
L
( a)
10'
20001b
20001b
C
D
10'
10'
+
10'
f--- - - 26' - - - -..j
4/19 Calculate the forces in members CF, CG, and EF of
the loaded. truss.
Ans. CF 15381b C, CG = 4170 lb T, EF = 0
Probl em 4/ 19
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Article 4/3 Problems 177
Ans. FD 24,500 Ib T

A F
D
(0 ) (b)
F
C D
B
(e) (dl
Problem 4/24
16'
4/25 Analysis of t he wind act ing on a small Hawaiian
churc h, whi ch wit hstood th e 165-mi/hr winds of
Hurricane Iniki in 1992, showed th e forces t ra nsmit -
ted to each roof t russ panel to be as shown. Treat t he
st ruct ure as a symmet rical simple truss and neglect
a ny horizontal component of th e support reaction at
A. Ident ify t he truss member which supports th e
largest force, te nsion or compression, and calculat e
t his force.
2450 lb
4/24 Ver ify the fact that each of t he trusses contains one
or more element s of redundancy and propose two
separate cha nges, either one of whi ch would remove
the redundancy and produce complete stat ical det er-
minacy. All members can support compression as
well as tension. E
/
U2 L L
Problem 4/22
L U 2
I
16 m
E
'"
Problem 4/ 23
4/23 The movabl e gantry is used to erect and pre pare a
500Mg rocket for firing. The primary structure of
th e gantry is approximated by t he symmetrical plan e
t russ shown, which is sta t ically indeterminate. As t he
gantry is positi oning a 60-Mg sect ion of th e rocket
suspended from A, st rain-gage measurements indio
cate a compressive for ce of 50 kN in member AB and
a tensile force of 120 kN in member CD due to the
60-Mg load. Calculate th e corresponding forces in
member s BF and EF.
Ail s. BF 188.4 kN C, EF 120 kN T
H C D
4/22 Determine the forces in members AB, CG, and DE of
th e loaded truss.
Probl em 4/25
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178 Chapt er 4 Structur e s
1-- - - - - 6 panels at 5 m - --- - -
1.8 kN
5 panels at 3 m ----i
J D E IA
Problem 4/27
Problem 4{28
10 kN
I
20kN
E 20kN
20kN
IOkN
H
I'
3m I
I '

3 m 15
-j--
3 m
i
5 m
J_ - .J5._ ..A..
.... 4/28 Find t he forces in members EF, KL, and GL for th e
Fink truss shown.
Ans. EF = 75.1 kN C, KL 40 kN T
GL 20 kN T
4/26 The 240 ft st ruct ure is used t o pr ovide various sup-
port services to launch vehicles pri or to liftoff. In a
t est , a re-t e weight is sus pended from j oints F and
G, wit h its weight equally divided. between t he two
joints. Det ermine t he forces in members GJ and GI.
What woul d be you r pat h of joint analysis for mem-
bers in t he vert ical tower, such as AB or KL?
Problem 4{26
.. 4/27 The tower for a t ransmi ssion line is modeled by th e
truss shown. The crossed members in t he cen ter sec-
t ions of t he t russ may be ass umed t o be capable of
supporting tension only. For the loads of 1.8 kN ap-
plied in the vertical plane, compute the forces in-
du ced in members AB, DB, and CD.
Ans. AB 3.89 kN C, DB 0, CD 0.932 kN C
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Articl e 4/ 4 Me th o d of Secti on s 179
4 /4 METHOD OF SECTIONS
When analyzing plane t r usses by t he method of joint s, we need only
two of the three equilibrium equations because the procedures involve
concur rent forces at each joint. We can take advantage of the third or
moment equation of equilibrium by selecting an entire section of the
truss for the free body in equilibrium under the action of a nonconcur-
rent sys tem of forces. This method of sections has the basic advantage
t hat t he force in almost any desired member may be found dir ectly from
an ana lysis of a section which has cut that member . Thus, it is not
necessary to proceed wit h the calculation from joint to joint until t he
member in question has been reached. In choosing a sect ion of the truss,
we note that, in general, not more than three members whose forces are
unknown should be cut , since t here are only three available independent
equilibrium relations.
Illustration of the Method
F \ E
A
C
r
\
R, L R,
( a)
F E E
/ EF
I
I RE
I
1/
/
C
R, L
y
8 ,
I
I
L __
x
( b )
Figure 4/12
The met hod of sect ions will now be illust rated for the t r uss in Fig.
4/ 6, which was used in the explanation of t he met hod of joints. The
truss is shown again in Fig. 4/ 12a for ready reference. The external
reactions are first computed as with t he method of joints, by cons idering
the truss as a whole.
Let us determine the force in the member BE, for example. An irnag-
inary section, indicat ed by th e dashed line, is passed through the truss,
cut ting it into t wo parts, Fig. 4/ 12b. This sect ion has cut three members
whose forces are initially unknown. In order for the portion of the truss
on each side of the section to remain in equilibrium, it is necessary to
apply to each cut member t he force which was exerted on it by t he
member cut away. For simple trusses composed of two-force members,
these forces, either tensile or compressive, will always be in the direc-
ti ons of the respective members. The left -hand section is in equilibrium
under the action of t he applied load L, t he end react ion R 1> and the
t hr ee forces exerted on t he cut members by t he right-hand sect ion which
has been removed.
We can usually draw the forces with their proper senses by a visual
approximation of the equilibrium requirements. Thus, in balancing the
moments about point B for the left-hand sect ion, t he force EF is clearl y
to the left, which makes it compressive, because it acts toward the cut
section of member EF. The load L is greater than the reaction R11 so
t hat t he for ce BE must be up and to t he right to supply t he needed
upward component for vertical equilibrium. Force BE is therefore ten-
sile, since it acts away from the cut section.
With t he approximate magni tudes of R, and L in mind we see that
the balan ce of moments about point E requires t hat BC be to the right.
A casua l glance at t he truss should lead to t he same conclusion when
it is reali zed that t he lower horizontal member will st retch under t he
tension caused by bending. The equat ion of moments about joint B elim-
inates three forces from the relation, and EF can be determined directly.
The force BE is calculated fr om t he equilibrium equat ion for t he
y-direct ion. Finally, we deter mine BC by balancing moments about point
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18 0 Chapter 4 Structure s
Marwan and Waseem AI-Iraqi
E. In this way each of the t hree unknowns has been determined inde-
penden tly of t he ot her two.
The right-han d sect ion of t he t russ, Fig. 4/126, is in equilibrium
under t he act ion of R
2
and t he same three forces in t he cut members
applied in the direction s opposite to t hose for the left sect ion. The pr oper
sense for the horizontal forces can easily be seen from the balance of
moments about points B and E.
Additional Considerations
It is essential to understand t hat in t he method of sections an entire
portion of t he t russ is considered a single body in equilibr ium. Thus, t he
forces in members internal to the section are not involved in the analysis
of the sect ion as a whole. To clarify the free body and t he forces acting
exte rnally on it , the cutt ing sect ion is preferably passed through the
members and not the joints. \ Ve may use either portion of a truss for
the calculati ons, but t he one involving the smaller number of forces will
usually yield the simpler soluti on.
In some cases the methods of sections and joints can be combined
for an efficient solution. For example, suppose we wish to find the force
in a central member of a large truss. Furthermore, suppose that it is
not possible to pass a section t hrough thi s member wit hout passing
t hrough at least four unknown members. It may be possible to deter-
mine t he forces in nearby members by the method of sections and th en
progress to th e unknown memb er by the method of joints. Such a com-
bination of the two met hods may be more expedient than exclusive use
of either method.
The moment equations are used to great advantage in the method
of sections . One should choose a moment center, either on or ofT the
section, through which as many unknown forces as possible pass.
It is not always possible to assign the proper sense of an unknown
force when t he free-body diagram of a section is ini ti ally drawn. Once
an arbitrary assignment is made, a positive answer will verify the as-
sumed sense and a negative result will indicate that the force is in the
sense opposite to that assumed. An alternative notation preferred by
some is to ass ign all unknown forces arbitrarily as positi ve in the tension
directi on (away from the section) and let t he algebraic sign of the an swer
disti ngui sh between tension and compression. Thus, a plus sign would
signify te nsion and a minus sign compr ession. On th e ot her hand, the
advantage of assigning forces in their correct sense on the free-body
diagram of a section wherever possible is that doing so emphasizes the
physical act ion of t he forces more directly, and th is pract ice is t he one
which is pr eferred here.
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Arl icle 4/ 4 Mel h o d of Sectio ns 181
Sample Problem 4/2
Calculate the forces induced in member s KL, CL, and CR by the 20-too load
on the cantilever truss.
C CB
8
KL L

Ill '
I
p
y
I
I
G fl - - .r
20 tons
20 tons
11
16'
i-

- - - 6 pa nels at 12' - - -
H
Helpful Hinls
CD We not e t hat analysis by the method
of j oints would necessit at e working
wit h eight j oints in order t o calculat e
t he t hree forces in quest ion. Thus,
t he met hod of sections offers a con-
sider able advantage in t his case.
Ans.
Ans. KL = 65.0 Ions T
CB 57.1 Ions C 20(5)(12) - CB(21) 0
20(4)(12) - SKL(16) = 0 [LAIc = OJ
Next we take moments about C, which requires a calculat ion of cos 9. From t he
given dimensions we see 9 = t an -
1
{5/12) so t hat cos 8 = 12/13. Ther efore,
Solution. Although t he vertical components of th e reactions at A and M are
st at ically ind et ermi nat e wit h the two fixed supports, all members oth er than AM
are stat ically det erminate. We may pass a section dir ectl y th rough member s KL,
CL, and CR and analyze the porti on of the truss to the left of this section as a
stat ically det erminate ri gid body.
The free-body diagram of the portion of the truss to the left of t he section
is shown. A moment sum about L quickly ver ifies the assignment of CR as com-
pr ession, and a moment sum about C qui ckly discloses that KL is in tension. The
direction of CL is not quite so obvious un til we observe t hat KL and CB int er sect
at a poi nt P to the ri ght of G. A moment sum about P eliminat es reference to
KL an d CB and shows that CL mu st be compressive t o balance the moment of
t he 20-ton force about P. With t hese consi derati ons in mind th e solut ion becomes
straight forward, as we now see how to solve for each of the three unknowns
inde pendently of the ot her t wo.
Summing moments about L requires finding the moment arm BL = 16 +
(26 - 16)/ 2 21 ft. Thus,
CD
Final ly, we may find CL by a moment sum about P, whose di stance from C
is given by PC/16 24/ (26 - 16) or PC 38.4 ft . We also need fl, which is
given by fl tan-
1
(CB/ BL) l an -
1
(12/ 21) 29.7' and cos fl 0.868. We
now have
@ [LAI
p
= OJ 20(48 - 38.4) - CL<O. 868)(38.4)
CL = 5. 76 Ions C
o
Ans.
@ We could have st art ed with moments
about C or P just as well.
@ We could also have det ermined CL
by a force summati on in eit her t he x-
or y-di rection.
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182 Chapter 4 Structur e s
Sample Problem 4/3
Section 1
2
I
1
' V
I
10 kN
lO kN
c
18.33 kN
JK
~
K I I J J H
10 kN
6 panels at 4 m----I
l OkN
B
A _
lO kN
CV If desired, t he direction of CD may
be cha nged on the free-body diagram
and t he algebrai c sign of CD reversed
in the calculat ions, or else the wor k
may be left as it stands with a not e
stating the proper direct ion.
Helpful Hints
CD There is no harm in ass igni ng one or
more of the forces in the wrong di-
recti on as long as the calculati ons
are consiste nt with the ass umpt ion.
A negati ve answer will show the
need for reversing the dir ection of
the force.
o
CJ = 14.14 kN C 0.707CJ(12) - 10(4) - 10(8) = 0
0.894CD(6) + 18.33(12) - 10(4) - 10(8)
CD = - 18.63 kN
The moment of CD about J is calculated here by considering its two components
@ as act ing through D. The minus sign indicates t hat CD was assigned in the wrong
direct ion.
Calculate t he force in member DJ of t he Howe roof truss illustrated. Neglect
any horizontal components of force at the supports.
In thi s equation t he moment of CJ is calculated by considering its horizontal
and vertical components acting at point J . Equilibrium of moments about J
requires
Solution. It is not possible to pass a sect ion through DJ wit hout cutting four
members whose forces are un known. Although three of t hese cut by section 2
are concurrent at J and therefore the moment equati on about J could be used
to obtain DE, t he force in DJ cannot beobtained from t he remaining two equi-
librium pri nciples. It is necessary to consider first the adjacent sect ion 1 before
analyzing section 2.
The free- body diagr am for section 1 is drawn and includes t he react ion of
18.33 kN at A, which is previously calculated from the equilibri um of the t russ
as a whole. In assigning the proper directi ons for the forces acting on t he th ree
cut members, we see t hat a bal ance of moments about A eliminates the effects
of CD and JK and clearly requires that CJ be up and to the left . A balance of
moments about C eliminat es the effect of the three forces concurrent at C and
indicates t hat JK must be to t he right to supply sufficient count erclockwise mo-
ment. Again it should be fairly obvious t hat the lower chord is under tension
because of t he bending tendency of t he truss. Although it should also be apparent
that t he top chord is under compress ion, for purposes of illust rat ion the force in
CD CD wi ll be arbitrarily ass igned as tension.
By t he ana lysis of sect ion 1, CJ is obtained from
From the free-body diagram of section 2, which now includes the known
value of CJ , a balance of moments about Gis seen to eliminate DE and JK. Thu s,
Hence, CD = 18.63 kN C
12DJ + 10(16) + 10(20) - 18.33(24) - 14.14<0.707)(12) = 0
lOkN
Sect ion 2
<,
<,
14.14 kN ....... ....... .......
~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ J - - - - - - - ~ G
DJ = 16.67 kN T Ans. 18.33 kN
Again the moment of CJ is determi ned from its components considered to be
act ing at J . The answer for DJ is posit ive. so that t he ass umed tensile direction
is correct.
An alter native approach to t he entire problem is to utili ze section 1 to de-
ter mine CD and then use t he method of joints applied at D to det ermine DJ .
@ Observe that a sect ion th rough mem-
her s CD, D.J, and DE could be taken
which would cut only three unknown
members. However, since the forces
in t hese three member s are all con-
current at D, a moment equation
about D would yield no information
about them. The remaini ng two force
equations would not be sufficient to
solve for t he t hree unknowns.
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Articl e 4/4 Probl ems 183
PROBLEMS
Introductory Problems
4 m
J 4 m H 4m G
4 m B 4 m C 4 m D
50kN
E
14.14 kips T
10' F 10' G 10' H
4/29 Determine t he force in member CG.
Ans. CG
Problem4/31
10'
A
B c
Dl
5 kips 5 kips 5 kips
Problem4/29
4/30 Det er mine the forces in members BC, CF, and EF of
th e loaded t russ.
4/32 Determine t he force in member DO of t he loaded
truss.
I
5 pan els at 4'
l
r
L L
L V
E C
3'
4'
A
F
12'
A
B
B
Problem 4/32
4/33 Deter mine the forces in member s BC, BE, and BF.
Th e t r ian gles are equilateral.
An s. BC BE
c
E
B
F
A
G

4/31 Deter mine th e forces in members OH and CO for
t he truss loaded and supported as shown. Does t he
sta t ical indet erminacy of the supports affect your
calculation?
An s. CG 70.7 kN T, GH 100 kN T, No
Problem 4/10
L
Problem 4/33
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184 Chapt e r 4 Structu r es
Representative Problems
4/34 Determine th e forces in members DE and DL.
6'
Problem 4{34
H
- ~ " - - - - x - - ~ F
Problem 4{36
4/37 The truss is composed of equilate ral t riangles of side
a and is supported and loaded as shown. Determine
t he forces in members BC and ca.
Ans. BC ~ CG ~ 1-{3 T
8kN
2m 2m
4/35 Calculate the forces in members BC, BE, and EF.
Solve for each force from an equilibrium equation
which contains t hat force as the only unknown.
Ans. BC ~ 21 kN T, BE ~ 8.41 kN T
EF = 29.5 kN C
14 kN
G L
a
a
F
B
a
E
C
:
30'
D
Problem 4{37
4/38 The t russ shown is composed of 45 right triangles.
The crossed members in the cente r two panels are
slender ti e rods incapabl e of support ing compression.
Retain the two rods which are und er tension and
compute the magnitudes of t heir tensions. Also find
th e force in member MN.
Problem 4/35
4/36 Determine th e forces in members BC and FG of t he
loaded symmet rical truss. Show t hat thi s calcul ati on
can be accomplished by using one sect ion and two
equa t ions, each of whi ch contains only one of t he two
unknowns. Are th e resul ts affected by t he statical in-
dete rminacy of t he supports at t he base?
J
80 kN
A
H
K
G
L
F E
N
100 kN
D
o
Problem 4{38
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www.gi gapedi a.com
Articl e 4/ 4 Pro ble ms 18 5
LI2
L
Problem4/41
r-6 panels at 3'
MI L K J
1-- - ---8 panels at 3 m--- - - -4
4/42 Determine the forces in members CD, CJ , and DJ.
5'
B C D E F G
A
L L L L L L
Problem 4(42
4(43 Compute the force in memb er GM of th e loaded
t ru ss.
Ans. GM = 0
L
L L
L L
L
L
F
L
L
2
E G
2
D H
E
4 m
3 m
G
D
8 kN
H
10 kN
3 m C 3 m
Problem4/40
I
B
4 kN
3 m
A

J
9 ki
p
s
1
3 kips i FI - EI
r-- 5' -j-'-- 5' --+-- 5' ---4
A
B
Problem 4(39
6 kN
4/39 Det ermine th e force in member BF.
Ans. BF 2.66 kips C
4/40 The members CJ and CF of t he loaded truss cross
bu t are not connected to members BI and DG. Com-
put e the forces in members BC, CJ , CI , and HI.
C
D
4/41 The t russ supports a ramp (shown with a dashed
line) which ext ends from a fixed approach level near
joint F to a fixed exit level near J . The loads shown
represen t th e weight of th e ramp. Det ermine t he
forces in members BH and CD.
Ails. BH 0.683L T, CD 1.932L C
Problem 4(43
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186 Chapte r 4 Structures
3
26.4 kN T
75.9 kN T
F
Dimen sion s in met ers
Problem 4/47
K
C
4/47 Determine the forces in members DE, EI, FI, and HI
of t he arc hed roof t russ.
Ans. DE = 297 kN C, EI
Fl = 205 kN T, HI
L
L
L
L
J
L
L
L
Problem 4/44
1------ - 8 panels at 3 m------
4/45 Determine th e forces in members DJ and EJ of t he
loaded t russ.
4/44 Compute th e force in member HN of t he loaded
t russ. Compare your answer wit h t he stated result of
Prob. 4/ 43.
Ails. DJ = 0.45L T, EJ 0.360L T
1--- - - - 6 panels at 8 m - - - - ~
Problem 4/45
4/48 Find t he force in member JQ for t he Bal timor e truss
wher e all angl es are 30, 60, 90, or 120.
L L
E
L
D
L
c
L
4/46 Determine th e force in membe r HP of the loaded
truss. Members FP and GQ cross without touching
and are incapable of support ing compression.
All s. DK = 1 kip T
L
2 L L L L L L L
L
L 2
100 "''I 100 kN
Problem 4/48
.... 4/49 Deter mine the force in member DK of t he loaded
over head sign truss.
u
I
6 pan els at 8'
lc B C D E F
A -,
0
p
Q R S
T j'
II
5'
N
t
L
t
M J I
9 panels at 20'
Problem 4/46
1 kip 2 kips 4 ki ps
Problem 4/49
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Article 4/4 Problems 187
... 4/51 Det ermine the force in member DC of the compound
truss. The joints all lie on radi al lines subtending an-
gles of 15 as indicated, and the curved members
act as two-force members. Distance DC = OA =
~ 4/50 In the traveling bridge crane shown all crossed m em -
bers are slender tie rods incapable of supporting com-
pression. Determine the forces in members DF and
EF and find the horizontal reaction on the truss at
A. Show that if CF = 0, DE = 0 also.
Ans. DF = 768 kN C, EF = 364 kN C
AI = 101.1 kN
25 kN
6m
1-
6m
1-
6m
4m l4m 14 m , 4 m 14 m 14 m I
I
K ~ I c-+--+-+-----.-
J I
6m
H N j
60
0
/ .... 60' I
C 0 6 m
I
5.4 m
25 kN
A
... 4/51 A design model for a transmission-line tower is
shown in the figure. Members GR, FG, OP, and NO
are insulated cables; all other members are steel bars.
For the loading shown, compute the forces in mem-
bers FI, FJ, EJ . EK, and ER. Use a combinati on of
methods if desired.
Ans. FJ = ER = 0, FJ = 7.81 kN T
EJ = 3.6 1 kN C, EK = 22.4 kN C
- x
22m
Problem 4/50
A . I!-
I
I
)'
.;-- - - - 5 panel s at 8 m - - - - -j
I
--.-----<;<;------;i/c----;>;<c---,"'"----;i/ I f
6 m
1-
200 kN
DB = R.
Ans. DC = 0.569L C
Problem 4/52
Problem 4/51
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