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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: ABOUT THE NUCLEAR SYSTEM

Considering the current Population growth, which has already crossed 100 crores in the 21st century and improvements in Standard of living of the forthcoming generations, there will be a large increase in the use of electrical energy particularly from clean green and safe energy sources. The electricity will play a vital role in sustainable development of the country. Among all the available conventional and non-conventional energy sources, the nuclear energy is the most efficient abundantly available, sustainable and cost effective energy source. It does not emit obnoxious gases that cause global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain. The energy needs of a country cannot be met from a single source. Hydroelectric stations produce cheap power but need a thermal backing to increase the firm capacity. The coal reserves of the world are fast depleting. The nuclear power is the only source, which can supply the future energy demands of the world.

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We have an installed power generation capacity of about 3310MW. The share of the nuclear energy is only 2.1% of total energy generated in India. The main advantages which nuclear power plant possesses are: The amount of fuel used is small therefore the fuel cost is low. Since the amount of fuel needed is small, so there are no problems of fuel transportation and storage. Nuclear plants need less area than the conventional steam plants.

Greater nuclear power production leads to conservation of coal, oil etc.

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CHAPTER 2 PRINCIPLE OF NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION

When a heavy nucleus breaks into smaller nuclei, a small amount of it is converted into energy .The amount of energy produced is given by Einsteins mass energy relation E=MC2. This breaking up of nucleus is called nuclear fission. Natural uranium has two types of isotopes U-238 and U-235 found in the ratio of 139:1 in nature. In a nuclear power station, U-235 is subjected to fission by bombarding with thermal (slow moving) neutron. This nuclear fission takes place in a nuclear reactor and produces a large amount of heat energy. This heat energy is used to boil water to form steam. The hot pressurized steam turns the steam turbine. When the turbine rotates, the electric generator fixed on its shaft starts working and produces electricity. In a nuclear reactor, heavy water (D2O) is used as a moderator to slow down the speed of high-energy neutrons. Cadmium rods are used as controlling rods to keep the fission reaction under control by absorbing the excess neutrons. Heavy water is also used as coolant to transfer the heat produced in the reactor to heat exchanger for converting water into steam.

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A complete chain reaction of nuclear fission is as shown in fig.

Fig-1:- Nuclear fission reaction.

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CHAPTER 3 NUCLEAR ENERGY

Mass defect is converted into energy through nuclear reaction. Two processes produce this: 1. Nuclear fission. 2. Nuclear fusion. A neutron splits a heavy nucleus like uranium-235 into two parts when it strikes nucleus thereby releasing two more neutrons. However mass of the two parts is slightly less than the original uranium nucleus. This mass deficit is converted into energy (200Mev/fission). This process is called nuclear fission. In the reactor most of the neutrons are absorbed so that for every neutron causing fission, only one is left. This neutron in turn collides with another U235 nucleus and causes fission. A chain reaction is thus set up. The fuel in the nuclear reactor consists of uranium that may be natural or enriched. Either light water (for enriched uranium) or heavy water (for natural uranium) may be used as moderators for slowing down the neutrons. The heat energy is absorbed by the coolant which transfers it to the light water in heat exchanger. Ultimately water is turned into high pressure steam that is used to drive turbine as in any conventional power plant.

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India has six Nuclear Power Plants: At Tarapur in Maharashtra. At Rawatbhata near Kota in Rajasthan. At Kalpakkam near Madras in Tamil Nadu. At Narora in Utter Pradesh. At Kakrapar near Surat in Gujarat. At Kaiga near Karwar in Karnataka. The reactors at Tarapur use enriched uranium as fuel and light water as coolant. All other power plants use natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as coolant. Nuclear Power Plant under construction in Rawatbhata is two units of 220 MWe each. Nuclear fission has become commercially viable and is used in several countries.

3.1 SOME IMPORTANT NUCLEAR REACTIONS

92

U238 + 0n1 92U239 + r 93Np239 94Pu239 Typical fission reaction:

..

Eq 3.1.1

92

U235 + 0n1 38Sr90 + 54Xe144 +2 0n1+ r + 200 MeV Eq 3.1.2

Reactor poisoning reaction:

52

Te135 53I135 54Xe144 55Cs135 56Ba135Eq 3.1.3

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(Stable)

We know that about 200 MeV of energy is released during per fission. This energy is divided in the following way: 1. K.E. of the fission fragments: 2. K.E. of neutrons: 3. Energy of gamma rays released at fission: 4. Energy of gamma rays released on n-capture: 5. Gamma decay energy: 6. Beta decay energy: 167 MeV 5 MeV 5 MeV 10 MeV 7 MeV 5 MeV ________ 199 MeV ________

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CHAPTER 4 POWER GENERATION SYSTEM

Turbine is a tandem compound machine directly coupled to an electric generator. A turbine generally consists of high-pressure cylinder (Single flow for 220 MW units and double flow for 500 MW Units) with External Moisture separators and steam reheaters and double flow pressure cylinders. Turbine is provided with necessary supervisory protection instrumentation and devices. Steam enters into the high pressure cylinder and subsequently passes through the moisture separator and reheaters before entering the low pressure cylinders. The steam then exhaust to a condenser under vacuum. The condense steam is extracted form condenser by condensate extracting pump and the condensate passes through feed water heaters to dearator. Boiler feed pumps takes suction from dearator and pump feed water via high pressure feed water heaters into steam generators. Electrical generator is directly coupled to the turbine to produce electricity and the generator transformer which intern is connected to switch yard steps up the generated voltage. Generated power is thus transmitted to the electrical power grid.

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Fig-2:- Power generation system.

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CHAPTER 5 NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME & TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA 5.1 INTRODUCTION

India figured in the nuclear power map of the world in 1969, when two boiling water reactors (BWRS) were commissioned at Tarapur (TAPS 1&2). These reactors were built on the turnkey basis. The main objective of setting these units was largely to prove the techno-economic viability of nuclear power. The nuclear power programme formulated embarked on the three-stage nuclear power programme, linking the fuel cycle of pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR) & fast breeder reactors (FBR) for judicious utilization of our reserves of uranium & thorium. The emphasis of the programme is self-Reliance & thorium utilization as a long- term objective.

5.2 THE THREE STAGES OF OUR NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME ARE:

# STAGE 1 = This stage envisages construction of pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR) using natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as moderator. Spent fuel from these reactors is reprocessed to obtain plutonium.

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# STAGE 2 =

This stage envisages on the construction of fast breeder reactors (FBR) fuelled by plutonium & depleted U produced in stage1. These reactors would also breed U233 from thorium.

# STAGE 3 =

This stage would comprise power reactors using U233 thorium as fuel, which is used as a blanket in these types of reactors.

5.3 THE PHWR WAS CHOSEN DUE TO THE FOLLOWING

# It uses natural uranium as fuel. Use of natural uranium available in India helps to cut heavy investments on enrichment that are capital intensive. # Uranium requirement is the lowest & plutonium production is the highest. # The infrastructure available in the country is suitable for undertaking manufacture of the equipment. The short- term goal of the programme was to complement the generation of electricity at locations away from coalmines. The long-term policy is based on recycling nuclear fuel & harnessing the available thorium resources to meet countrys long- term energy demand and security.

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5.4 INDIAN NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

Indian nuclear power programme is essentially based on PHWRs using natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as moderator and coolant. India has six atomic power plants in which electricity is produced by using the nuclear reaction. NPCIL UNITS SYNCHRONISATION TO GRID & COMMENCEMENT OF COMMERCIAL OPERATION. UNIT TAPS-1 TAPS-2 RAPS-1 RAPS-2 MAPS-1 MAPS-2 NAPS-1 NAPS-2 KAPS-1 KAPS-2 KAIGA-2 RAPS-3 KAIGA-1 RAPS-4 TAPS-4 DATE OF FIRST SYNCHRONIZATION 01.04.1969 05.05.1969 30.11.1972 01.11.1980 23.07.1983 14.09.1985 29.07.1989 05.01.1992 24.11.1992 04.03.1995 02.12.1999 10.03.2000 12.10.2000 17.11.2000 04.06.2005 DATE OF COMMERCIAL OPERATION 28.10.1969 28.10.1969 16.12.1973 01.04.1981 27.01.1984 21.03.1986 01.01.1991 01.07.1992 06.05.1993 01.09.1995 16.03.2000 01.06.2000 16.11.2000 23.12.2000 12.09.2005

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Present installed nuclear power capacity is 3310Mwe. With the projects under construction at TAPP-3 (540Mwe), KAIGA-3&4 (440Mwe), KUDANKULAM (2000Mwe), RAPP-5&6 (440Mwe) & by re-rating of MAPS1 to 220Mwe, a total nuclear power capacity of 6780Mwe is planned to be achieved by December 2008 progressively. The list of proposed sites in India is:KAPP-3&4 RAPP-7&8 740X2 740X2 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor

Jaitapur(Maharashtra) 740X4

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CHAPTER 6 DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD INDIAN PHWR 6.1 LAYOUT:

The nuclear power stations in India are generally planned as two units modules, sharing common facilities Such as service building, spent fuel storage bay& other auxiliaries like heavy water upgrading, waste management facilities etc. Separate safety related systems & component are however provided for each unit. Such an arrangement retains independence for safe operation of each unit & simultaneously permits optimum use of space, finance & construction time. The layout for a typical 220MW station consists of two reactor building, active service building including spent fuel bay, safety related electrical, control buildings and the two turbine buildings. Orienting turbine building radial to the reactor building provides protection from the effect of turbine missiles. Other safety related building & structures are also located has not to fall in the trajectory of missiles generated from the turbine. The building and structures have also been physically separated on the basis of their seismic classification. Sectional views of the reactor building are depicting general layout inside the reactor building.

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6.2- PLANT LAYOUT (RAPP-5&6)

Fig-3:- Plant layout (RAPP 5&6).

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The over all plant layouts are for a twin unit complex. The principal features of the layout are:

The layout is based on the concept of independent operation of each unit.

Mirror image is avoided to the maximum extent possible to retain uniformity in layout.

All safety related systems and components are grouped together.

Reactor auxiliary building is located near to the reactor building to avoid long piping lengths.

Control room & control equipment room in this building are so laid out so as to cater for unitized operation.

Emergency power system such as DG & batteries are provided separately in safety related structures.

Physical protection scheme to protect against industrial sabotage & external or internal malevolent ad ions.

6.3 MAIN PARTS OF N.P.P

The main and auxiliary equipment of layout in nuclear power plant are described below:1. Nuclear Reactor

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2. Turbine 3. Steam generator 4. Calandria 5. Coolant assembly 6. End shield 7. Cooling Tower 8. Moderator pump & auxiliaries 9. PHT pumps 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Fuel Fuel design Fuel handling Moderator system PHT system

15. Reactivity control mechanism

6.3.1. NUCLEAR REACTOR

A reactor plays an important role in nuclear power plant. In NPP, heat energy is produced by the fission of nuclear fuel such as uranium, in a reactor thus, the source of heat energy is the reactor, which is equipment to the furnace in a coal fired plant. It is necessary to transport this energy to the turbine where it is changed into Mechanical energy of rotation.

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In concept, the Indian Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor is a pressure tube type reactor using heavy water moderator, heavy water coolant and natural uranium dioxide fuel. The reactor consists primarily of Calandria, a horizontal cylindrical vessel. It is penetrated by a large number of Zircaloy pressure tubes (306 for 235 MWe reactor), arranged in a square lattice. These pressure tubes, also referred as coolant channels, contain the fuel and hot high-pressure heavy water coolant. The pressure tubes are attached to the alloy steel and fitting assemblies at either end by special roll expanded joints. A typical pressure tube assembly is present in a reactor. End-shields are the integral parts of the calandria and are provided at each end of the calandria to attenuate the radiation emerging from the reactor, permitting access to the fuelling machine vaults when the reactor is shutdown. The end fittings are supported in the end shield lattice tubes through bearings, which permit their sliding. The Clandria is housed in a concrete vault, which is lined with zinc metallised carbon steel and filled with chemically treated demineralized light water for shielding purposes. The end shields are supported in opening in the vault wall, and form a part of the vault enclosure at these opening. Removable shield plugs, fitted in the end fittings, provide axial shielding to individual coolant channel. A replaceable channel seal plug seals the end fitting. Each pressure tube is

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isolated from the cold heavy water moderator present in calandria by a concentric zircaloy calandria tube. The pressure tubes are centered and partially supported in the calandria tubes by garter spring spacers. The annular space between the pressure tube and calandria tube has been sealed by inconel bellows and is connected to the annulus gas system, which circulated dry carbon dioxide gas. The moisture content of this gas is monitored at inlet and outlet points to detect possible leaks in the pressure tubes or the calandria tubes. Special care is taken in design of coolant channels to ensure that they can be replaced easily when the situation should warrant such a replacement. The en-mass coolant channel replacement carried out successfully in RAPS#2 during 1997-98 by inhouse developed technology has demonstrated the capability of NPCIL to take up this work in future reactors namely MAPS and NAPS. Coolant channels of these stations are made of Zircaloy-2 which will need replacement within 10 Effective Full Power Years (EFPY). However in KAPS#2 coolant tubes having Zirconium-2.5% Niobium alloy has been used. This alloy has superior mechanical properties, low deuterium pick-up rate and low irradiation assisted creep. Adequate creep allowances are given for the full 30 years design life of the station. Zr-2.5% Nb is being used as pressure tube material, which has improved creep

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properties, higher strength (hence neutron economy) and above all improved properties with regard to in pile corrosion and hydrogen pick-up. It has been the experience that garter spring spacers between the calandria tubes and pressure tubes of the earlier design were prone to displacement during operation and hence a modified design of garter spring capable of ensuring their freedom from displacement is used from KAPS, Unit#2 onward reactors. The garter spring used in standardized PHWRs are tight fit on the coolant tubes. In-situ measurements/studies in KAPS, Kaiga and RAPP-3&4 subsequent to hot conditioning have indicated this design to be effective in preventing displacement of garter springs.

6.3.2. TURBINE
Turbine is tandem compound machine directly coupled to electrical generator. A turbine generally consists of low- pressure cylinder (double flow for 500 MW units). Turbine has a maximum continuous & economic rating of 229MW. Turbine is the horizontal tandem compound re-heating impulse type running at 3000RPM with special provision for the extraction of moisture. A steam turbine converts heat energy of steam into mechanical energy and drives the generator. It uses the principle that the steam when issuing from a small opening attains a high velocity. This velocity attained during

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expansion depends on the initial and final heat content of steam. The difference between initial & final heat content represents that the heat energy is converted into mechanical energy. They are of two types: 1. Impulse turbine: - In this, steam is expanded in turbine nozzle and attains a high velocity, also complete expansion of steam takes place in the nozzle & steam pressure during the flow of steam over turbine blades remains constant. The blades have symmetrical profile. 2. Reaction turbine:- In this, only partial expansion takes place in nozzle and further expansion takes place as the steam flows over the rotor blades.

6.3.3. STEAM GENERATORS

The boiler assemblies contain 10-u shaped shell & tube heat exchangers, connected in parallel. The hot coolant inlet channel and returning coldwater channel are welded, the shell material is carbon steel & tube material is Monel. Each heat exchanger has 195 tubes approximately 42 ft.long, 4.5 dia, and 0.049 thou thick. The design pressure on the heavy water side of the boiler is 1350 psig at 5700 f.

6.3.4. CALANDRIA

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It is the heart of reactor and contains fuel and moderator; it is made of Austenitic Stainless Steel. It contains 306 horizontal calandria tubes made form Nickel- free- Zicaloy-2. It also contains a special tube, which has 12 fuel bundles making a total of 3672 fuel bundles. It also has 6 openings at the top through which pass the reactivity control mechanism assemblies. In the middle it has piping connection for moderator outlet & inlet. The entire assembly is supported from calandria vault roof.

6.3.5. COOLANT ASSEMBLY

The primary function of coolant assembly is to house the reactor fuel & to direct the flow of primary coolant part to remove the nuclear heat. At the end of 306 tubes low neutron capture containments structure is provided, while the end fitting provides entry and end connections both to the primary coolant system.

6.3.6. END SHIELD

Two circular water coolant end shields of diameter about 5.12m & thickness about 1.11m are located in the north and south calandria vault. They are penetrated by 306 passages form reactor coolant tube assemblies.

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These end shields provides shielding to reduce the radiation in the fuelling machine vaults, the heat due to a closed water circulation removes radiation from the calandria into shields.

6.3.7. COOLING TOWERS

Mainly there are two types of cooling towers: IDCT: Induct Draft Cooling Towers NDCT: Natural Draft Cooling Towers The main purpose of these cooling towers is to bring down the temperature of circulating water. This is light water which circulates through the heat exchanger and carry away the heat generated by the DM water. This DM water condenses the steam. Hence by the application of cooling towers the efficiency of the plant gets enhanced. Following is the description of these types of cooling towers:-

IDCT:
As the name indicates it requires induced draft for cooling the active process water. Big fans are used to produce the draft. The active water is used in reactor building to cool various equipments.

NDCT:
The inductive water, which is used to condense water, is further cooled by natural draft. They are 150m high with hyperbolic shape atomizing action.

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6.3.8. MODERATOR PUMP AND AUXILIARIES

The main moderator circulating systems consists of 5 pumps, 2 heat exchangers, and necessary valves and piping. The pumps circulate moderator form cal. through the two shells & tube heat exchangers to keep the temp. Between 700f &1450. The cooled heavy water is again fed to the cal. cooling necessities to reduce capture of thermal neutral and the thermal stresses. The moderator receives about 37Mwe fission heat. The system contains about 140,000kg heavy water.

6.3.9. PHT PUMPS

The PHT pump circulates the coolant (HW) in reactor core to steam generator to generate steam. The complete system contains 8-circulating pumps, 8-sets of boiler isolating valve of special design, 2 pressurizing pump, a stand by cooling system, a relief control valve and feed & bleed system.

6.3.10. FUEL
The use of natural uranium dioxide fuel with its low content of fissile material (0.72% u-235) precludes the Possibility of a reactivity accident during fuel handling or storage. Also, in the core there would no significant

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increase in the reactivity, in the ever of any mishaps causing redistribution of the fuel by lattice distortion. The thermal characteristics namely the low thermal conductivity and high specific heat of UO2, permit almost all the heat generated in a fast power transient to be initially absorbed in the fuel. Furthermore, high melting point of UO2 permits several full power seconds of heat to be safely absorbed that contained at normal power. Most of the fission products remain bound in the UO2 matrix and may get released slowly only at temperatures considerably higher than the normal operating temperatures. Also on the account of the uranium dioxide being chemically inert to the water coolant medium, the defected fuel releases limited amount of radioactivity to the primary coolant system. The use of 12 short length fuel bundles per channels in a PHWR, rather than full- length elements covering the whole length of the core, subdivides the escapable radioactive facility in PHWR has also the singular advantage of allowing the defected fuel to be replaced by fresh fuel at any time. The thin zircaloy-2/4 cladding used in fuel elements is designed to collapse under coolant pressure on to the pellets. This feature permits high pellet- clad gap conductance resulting in lower fuel temperature and

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consequently lower fission gas release from the UO2 matrix into pellet- clad gap.

6.3.11. FUEL DESIGN

Fuel assemblies in the reactor are short length (half meter long) fuel bundles. Twelve of such bundles are located in each fuel channel. The basic fuel material is in the form of natural uranium dioxide a pellet, sheathed & sealed in thin Zircaloy tubes. Welding them to end plates to form fuel bundles assembles these tubes. A 19-element fuel bundle is used in 220Mwe PHWRs. A fuel bundle is shown below.

Fig-4:- Fuel bundle.

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6.3.12. FUEL HANDLING

On power fuelling is a feature of all PHWRs, which have very low excess reactivity. In this type of reactor, refueling to compensate for fuel depletion & for over all flux shaping to give optimum power distribution is carried out with help of 2 fueling machines, which work in conjunction with each other on the opposite ends of a channel. One mounted on a bridge & column assembly. Various mechanisms provided along tri-directional movement (X, Y&Z Direction) of fueling machine head and make it mechanisms have been provided which enables clamping of fueling machine head to the end fitting, opening & closing of the respective seal plugs, shield plugs & perform various fuelling operations i.e. receiving new fuel in the magazine from fuel transfer system, sending spent fuel from magazine to shuttle transfer station, from shuttle transfer station to inspection bay & from inspection bay to Spent fuel storage bay.

6.3.13. MODERATOR SYSTEM

The heavy water moderator is circulated through the calandria by aid of a low temperature & low- pressure moderator system. This system circulates the moderator through two heat exchangers, which remove heat dissipated by high- energy neutrons during the process of moderation. The cooled moderator is returned to the calandria via moderator inlet nozzles. The high

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chemical purity and low radioactivity level of the moderators are maintained through moderator purification system. The purification systems consists of stainless steel ion exchange hoppers, eight numbers in 220MW contains nuclear grade, mixed ion- exchange Resin (80% anion & 20% cation resins). The purification is also utilized for removable of chemical shim; boron to affect start- up of reactor. Helium is used as a cover- gas over the heavy water in calandria. The concentration deuterium in this cover gas is control led by circulating it using a sealed blower and passing through the recombination containing catalyst alumina- coated with 0.3% palladium. The purpose of heavy water moderator is to maintain criticality in the reactor core by slowing down the high energy fast neutrons to low energy thermal neutrons where their probability of fission capture is greater. Heavy water, used as moderator inside the calandria, gets heated up due to neutron moderation and capture attenuation of gamma radiation as well as due to the transfer of heat from reactor components in contact. The heat in the moderator is transported to the moderator heat exchangers outside the core where it is removed by process water. Circulation of moderator through moderator heat exchangers is accomplished by moderator pumps.

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In Units 5&6 moderator is filled up to 100% as the shutdown mechanism is entirely different. It has got primary shut off rods which gets inserted into calandria and absorbs neutrons, thus causing a breakage of chain reaction. For this there are 14 shut off rods made up of cadmium sandwiched in SS. The other components of the moderator system consists of calandria, coolant channels, over pressure rupture disc, expansion joints, moderator pumps, heat exchangers and control valves.

6.3.14. PRIMARY HEAT TRANSPORT (PHT) SYSTEM

The system, which circulates pressurized coolant through the fuel channels to remove the heat generated in fuel, referred as Primary Heat Transport System. The major components of this system are the reactor fuel channels, feeders, two inlet headers, two reactor outlet headers, four pumps & interconnecting pipe & valves. The headers steam generators & pumps are located above the reactor and are arranged in two symmetrical banks at either end of the reactor. The headers are connected to fuel channels through individual feeder pipes. The coolant circulation is mentioned at all times during reactor operation, shutdown & maintenance.

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6.3.15. REACTIVITY CONTROL MECHANISMS

Due to the use of natural uranium fuel & on-load refueling, the PHWRs do not need a large excess reactivity. Standard reactor designs are provided with four systems for reactivity control, viz. 1. Regulating rods. 2. Shim rods. 3. Adjuster rods for xenon override 4. Natural boron addition in the moderator to compensate for the excess reactivity in a fresh core & for absence of xenon after a long shutdown. The reactivity control devices are installed in the low-pressure moderator region & so they are not subjected to potentially severe hydraulic & thermal forces in the event of postulated accidents. Furthermore, the relatively spacious core lattice of PHWR allows sufficient locations to obtain complete separation between control & protective functions. The regulating systems are thus fully independent with its own power supplies, instrumentations & triplicate controls channels. Cobalt & stainless steel absorber elements have been utilized in the reactivity control mechanisms. For 220MW standardized design, two diverse, fast acting & provides a high degree of assurance that plant transients requiring

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prompt shutdown of the reactor will be terminated safety. The primary shutdown system consists of 14 mechanical shut off rods of cadmium sandwiched in stainless steel & makes the reactor sub critical in less than 2 sec. Fail-safe features like gravity fall & spring assistance has been incorporated in design if mechanical shut off rods. The second shutdown system, which is also fast acting, Comprise 12 liquid poison tubes, which are filled with lithium pent borate solution under helium pressure. The trip signal actuates a combination of fast acting valves and causes poison to be injected simultaneously in 12 interstitial liquid poison tubes of calandria of the machines is used to fuel the channel while the other one accepts the fuel bundles. In, Addition, the fueling machines facilitate removal of failed fuel bundles. Each fueling machine is mount thin zircaloy tubes. Welding them to end plates to form fuel bundles assembles these tubes.

6.4 STATUS OF NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION & FUTURE PLANS

The nuclear power programme in India up to year 2020 is based on installation of a series of 235 MWe & 500MWe pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR) units, 1000 MWe light water reactors (LWR) units & fast breeder reactors (FBR) units. NPCIL plans to contribute about 10% of the total additional needs of power of about 20000MWe per year i.e.

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10000MWe per year in the coming two 5 year plans. The total installed capacity of nuclear generation would increase.

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CHAPTER 7 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF SITES FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 7.1 OBJECTIVE:
The main objective in siting of Nuclear Power Plants from the point of view of nuclear safety is to be able to construct and operate Nuclear Power Plants safely & to provide protection to the public against radiological impact resulting from accidental releases of radioactive material as well as release of such materials during normal operation of the plant. Hence the basic criteria for selection of a site for the location of a nuclear power plant shall be to ensure that the site plant interaction will not introduce any radiological risk or others of an unacceptable magnitude. This can be achieved by: A. The radiological risk to the Nuclear Power Plant due to the external events should not exceed the range of radiological risk associated with accidents of internal origin. B. The possible radiological impact of a Nuclear Power Plant on the environment should be acceptably low for normal operation, an accident conditions and with in the stipulated criteria for radiological safety.

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In evaluating the suitability of a site for locating a Nuclear Power Plant, the following are the major aspects that need to be considered: plant.

Effect of external events (nature & man induced) on the

Effect of plant on environment & population Implementation of emergency procedures particularly counter measures in the public domain.

7.2 DESIGN BASIS FOR INTERNAL NATURAL EVENTS: Natural

phenomenon, which may exist or can occur in the region of a proposed side, shall be identified and these should be classified as per their importance. Design basis shall be derived for each important event by adopting appropriate methodologies. These should be justified as being compatible with the characteristics of the region & also with the current state of art of the extent possible.

7.3 DESIGN BASIS FOR EXTERNAL MAN - INDUCED EVENTS:

Proposed sites shall be adequately investigated with respect to all the design basis man- induced events that could affect the plant safety. The region shall be examined for facilities and human activates that may affect the safety of the proposed Nuclear Power Plant. These facilities & activates shall be identified and the conditions under which the safety of the plant is likely to be affected shall be considered in fixing the design

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basis for man-induced events. Information concerning the frequency & severity of those important, man-induced events shall be collected & analyzed for reliability, accuracy & completeness.

7.4 RADIOLOGICAL IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT:

The radiological consequences due to Nuclear Power Plant on

environment should be as low as is reasonably achievable taking into account. Social and economical factors, both for normal & accidental conditions are within the stipulated criteria for radiological safety. In evaluating a site for the radiological impact by the Nuclear Power Plant on the region for operational states & accidental conditions, appropriate estimates shall be made of expected or potential releases of radioactive material taking into account the design of the plant including its safety features. The direct & indirect pathways, by which radioactive materials released from the Nuclear Power Plant could reach & affect the people, shall be identified for use in the estimation of the radiological impact. Thus, the main points to be considered for sitting Nuclear Power Plants are as follows: A. B. Land requirements. Accessibility.

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C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L. M. N. O. P.

Construction facility. Cooling water. Electrical system and energy resources. Geology. Seismology. Flooding. Natural events. Man-induced events. Population. Radiological impact. Meteorological & air releases. Hydrology & liquid waste. Geo hydrology & solid waste. Land use & Environment impact.

7.5 SAFETY DESIGN PRINCIPALS

It has been ensured that systems, components & structures having a bearing on reactor safety are designed to meet stringent performance & reliability requirements. These requirements are met by adopting the following design principles:

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a)

The quality requirements for deign, fabrication, construction, & inspection for these systems are of the high order,

commensurate with their importance to safety. b) The safety related equipment inside the containment building is designed to perform its function even under the elevated pressure & temperature & steam environment conditions expected in the event of postulated loss of coolant accidents (LOCA). c) Physical & functional separation is assured between process systems & safety systems. d) Adequate redundancy is provided in systems such that the minimum safety functions can be performed even in the event of single active components in the system. e) f) To minimize the probability of unsafe failures. Provisions are incorporated to ensure that active components in the safety systems are testable periodically. g) All the supplies/services (electric, compressed air or water) to these systems, necessary for the performance of their safety functions are assured & safety grade sources.

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CHAPTER 8 SWITCH YARD

8.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The 220KV switchyard consists of double bus bar scheme, each bus being designed for evacuation of full power of the station taking into consideration of the failure of the one line with another line under maintenance. The switchyard is provided with breakers and isolators for feeding load through either of the buses. A by-pass isolator is also provided for each feeder to facilitate taking breaker maintenance. All the feeders are provided with lightning arrestors, on each phase. CVTs are provided on each phase of out going feeders to facilitate carrier communication and line protection. Current transformers and EMPTs of adequate rating are provided as per requirement of the protection scheme. Adequate provision has been made to provide off site power supply to station auxiliaries through transformers. start-up

8.2 220KV SWITCH YARD

220KV switchyard of RAPP-5&6 consists of 2 startup transformer bays, one bus coupler bay and 2 line bays. There are total 5 bays in 220KV switchyard of RAPP-5&6.

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Double main bus bar with by-pass switching scheme is provided for the switchyard. This arrangement provides for maintenance of one main bus or one circuit breaker at any time without interruption of power supply to any feeder. Details of the design parameters adopted for 220KV switchyard are below: Type of switchyard Normal voltage Rated voltage Out door 220KV 245KV 460KV RMS 2000 Amp 1600Amp 2.7 Meters 5.5 Meters as

Basic one-minute power frequency level Rated current for main bus bars Rated current for feeder bus bars Phase to phase minimum clearances Ground minimum clearances -

8.3 DESIGN DETAILS:

Main aspects that are considered in the design of 220KV switchyard are as follows: I. It shall be possible to take out any circuit without interrupting the corresponding circuit from service. II. It shall be possible to isolate main bus for maintenance without loss of any circuit.

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III. A bus fault shall not result into shut down of complete station. IV. Further expansion should be easily possible without any lengthy shut downs. V. Crossing of outlets shall be avoided. All switchyard equipment shall be suitable for outdoor installation in hot, humid and tropical atmosphere. All equipment shall be capable of withstanding the dynamic and thermal stresses due to short circuit current without any damage or deterioration. The equipments shall be designed as per codal design for meeting seismic requirement. The string bus bars of outdoor switchyard are of ACSR conductor. Conductor sizes are selected which is based on the current rating and other site conditions. The circuit breakers are of sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) type & can carry rated current continuously and short time current for 3 seconds. The isolators are threepole double end breaker in Air. Center post rotating type with contact blades moving through horizontal plane. The current transformers are oil immersed, self-cooled and hermetically sealed type. The current transformers are single pole unit, suitable for upright mounting on steel structure. Voltage transformers are of Electromagnetic/capacity type. Capacitive voltage transformer used with power line carrier communication (PLCC) system are suitable for a PLCC system having frequency range of 40 to 500 Hz. Design of other switchyard

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equipment (wave trap, lighting arresters, earth switch etc.) shall govern by respective data and environmental conditions.

8.4 SWITCHING SCHEME:

Double bus with bypass isolator system for 220 KV switching scheme has been adopted for RAPP-5&6. Advantages of this scheme are as follows: Circuit breaker of any feeder can be taken out without interruption of that circuit. Maintenance of any bus can be carried out by transferring all the circuit on one bus, without loss of any circuit. Fault on any of the buses will result in the shutdown of the circuits connected to that particular bus at that time. However, after isolating faulty bus, these circuits can be connected to healthy bus. Expansion of switchyard for RAPP-3&4 is possible at one side. Crossing of lines can be avoided by proper arrangement of bays. An independent control room is provided inside the switchyard. This houses all control required for lines and bus coupler bay. Independent battery banks and battery charges are provided in switchyard control room feeding 250 volts D.C. control and protections. These battery chargers are fed from class-III MCCs (P2 &Q2) to ensure reliability.

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8.5 400KV SWITCH YARD

400KV switchyard of RAPP-5&6 consists of 3 bays, 2 for GT-5 & GT-6 and one bay for Kota feeder. In future there will be total 5 bays including GT-7 and GT-8. Power evacuation from the generating units of RAPP-5&6 would be done at 400KV, whereas 220KV voltage level shall be used for drawing start-up power.

400 KV System:
Following feeders will be operated at 400KV: a) Two nos. 400KV feeders from Generator Transformer of unit-5&6. b) c) Two (2) nos. 400KV line feeders to Kankroli. One (1) no. 400KV line feeder to Kota.

8.6 TRANSMISSION LINES

Five transmission lines 514-L-1 to 514-L-5 interconnecting the station to RSEB grid are given below: A. B. C. D. E. RAPP-5&6-Anta single circuit line is long 80 Km route length. RAPP-5&6-To RAPS-3&4 single circuit line. RAPP-5&6-To Kankroli-I double circuit line. RAPP-5&6- To Kankroli-II double circuit line. RAPP-5&6- Kota double circuit line is long 50Km route length.

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RAPP-5&6 is connected to Anta gas power plant and RAPS-3&4 Nuclear Power Plant for taking start-up power. Thus RAPP-5&6 is connected to two sources of power generators for off-site power.

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CHAPTER 9 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT USED IN NPP

9.1 220KV CIRCUIT BREAKER

Circuit breakers are the switching and current interrupting devices. Basically a circuit breaker comprises a set of fixed and movable contacts. It switches during normal and abnormal conditions and interrupts the fault circuit.

9.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The 220Kv breakers form part of the main power output system which consists of 21Kv isolated face bus duct, two main transformer with 220Kv lightning arrestor disconnect switches, 220Kv bus and start-up transformer, line and bus transformer.

9.1.2 DESCRIPTION
Type Rated voltage Rated current Rated making capacity Rated short time current Rated line charging breaking Arching time Closing time SF6 gas pressure Air pressure SF6 gas Circuit Breakers 245KV 2000Amp 100KA peak 40 KA for 3sec 125Amp 30Millisecond 100Millisecond 7kg/cm2 15.5Kg/cm2

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The circuit breakers are of SF6 puffer type design. The circuit breakers are of single pole type. The control scheme of line circuit breakers has provision for single or three phase auto reclosing and tripping. The reclosing scheme has also provision for reclosure on dead line or reclosing with synchronizing check features. There are unities compressed air systems for feeding air to the circuit breakers. The compressors are located inside the central pole cubicle of respective breakers. The air piping between the poles of each circuit breaker is provided with copper tubes and are run inside the cable trenches. The 220 KV SF6 circuit breakers are provided with compressed air for holding contact in position when closed. The opening & closing of breaker is by compressed air & closing spring respectively. Air reservoirs are provided on each pole and are inter connected by copper tubing. One single air compressor of adequate capacity is provided in the central pole control cubicle. The pole column provided on each phase consists of

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breaker chamber, two support insulators, on each phase consists of breaker chamber, two support insulators, driving rod, pneumatic drive, control valves & closing spring, All components such as contractor, relays etc, are accommodated in the central inside the central pole cubicle of control cubicle.

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The control system comprises equipments for SF6 density monitoring, functional lockouts, signaling, compressed air monitoring etc. A wafer type auxiliary switch is coupled directly mechanically to the pneumatic drive. An antipumping device provided, prevents repeated closing and tripping of the breaker when there is a sustained close and trip signal. A temperature compensated dens meter is provided on each pole. The current rating of all outdoor 220 KV circuit breaker is 2000A. This current rating of circuit is selected on the load (current) requirement and symmetrical short circuit level of 40 kA at 220 kV system. All circuit breakers have short time withstand capacity of 40 KA for 3 sec. with symmetrical breaking capacity of 15000 MVA and a making capacity of 102KA (peak). The circuit breaker is operational even under phase opposition arising out of faulty synchronization. Each outgoing line feeder circuit breaker compromise three identical poles complete with individual operating mechanism and shall have provision for both single and three phase auto reclosing. Three (3) poles of the breaker are linked together electrically/pneumatically for SF6 breakers. Breakers have been tested for one- minute power frequency test voltage of 460 KV (rms) and impulse test voltage of 1050 KV (peak) with 1.2/50 micro sec. impulse.

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9.2 ISOLATING SWITCHES:

The isolators are motor operated center post rotating type and are capable of remote operation from control room in switchyard. In the event of necessity they can also be operated by manual operation with operating handle. Necessary electrical and mechanical interlocks to meet the logic as per IE rules standards have been incorporated. The isolators are also tested for all interlocks and for 1000 cycle on and off operations in the factory. Grounding switches are provided on the line & bus EMPT isolators. These are mechanically and electrically interlocked with the main isolators so that they are not closed to earth when the system is charged. All operating mechanisms are sufficiently earthed as required by standards to prevent any electrical shock for operators during local operation. The bus bar-II selector isolators are of tandem type. The isolators are type tested as relevant standards in approved testing institutions. All isolating switches are rated to carry current of 1600A continuously except for bus coupler bay where it will be 2000A. All isolators will carry short circuit current of 40KA for 3 sec. The isolating switches are AC motor operated, horizontal center post rotating double break type. Isolators have been type tested at CPRI, Bhopal for its short circuit with stand capacity. The isolating switches are capable of making and breaking:

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a) Magnetizing current of the voltage transformer. b) Capacitive current of the buses and short connections. The air break 3- pole isolating switches are gang operated type so that all the poles make and break simultaneously. The isolating switches are suitable for sequential interlocking with associated equipment, for closing and opening.

9.3 CURRENT TRANSFORMER

Five core CTs are provided for each of the feeder of the switchyard. The general allocations of the five cores are as follows: A B C Bus differential Main protection Metering 2 Cores 1 Cores 1 Core

The CTs for bus couplers are of live tank design. These CTs are supplied by M/S Crompton Greaves Ltd Nasik. All other CTs are of dead tank type and are supplied by M/S TELK Angamally. While type-1 CTs used for lines & GT bays are rated for the short circuit of 40KA-3 Sec. The type II CTs used for SUT bays are rated for 40KA for 1 sec due to manufacturing limitations.

9.4 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

In line with the requirement of Rajasthan state electricity board for communication purposes 4400 pf capacitance CVTs have been procured

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for RAPP-5&6.These CVTs serve dual function Viz. as PTs for under/over voltage protection and as coupling capacitors for carrier communication. The CVTs are provided on all the three phase. The CVTs are supplied by M/S ABB Baroda. Electromagnetic Voltage Transformer (EMPTs) is supplied by M/S Telk Anagamally. There is one (1) set voltage transformer (VT) for each 220kv bus bar. Each set consists of three single phase VTs. Each outing line from switchyard has its own voltage transformer. Line voltage transformer is of capacitor type. It is used for communication system. These line CVTs are of single-phase type. Each CVTs has three secondary winding and winding connection will be of star/star, star, open delta.

9.5 GENERATOR TRANSFORMER

The generator transformer is required to step up the generating voltage to the transmission line voltage (16.5kV to the transmission line voltage of 400KV). Two power transformer 512T3and 512T4 rated.

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Rating Low voltage winding High voltage winding Type of cooling Type of tap changer Temp. Rise oil Temp. Rise winding

260 MVA 16.5KV 400KV Air cooled OLTC 450C 550C

9.6 CONTROL UPS

U.P.S. or uninterrupted power supply is used to maintain continuity of power supply in case of power failures. The control U.P.S. used in RAPP5&6 consists of mainly 4 blocks: a) Rectifier b) Battery c) Inverter d) Static switch and manual bypass switch

RECTIFIER:Rectifier feeds the inverter & battery or the U.P.S. The main
functions of the rectifier are:

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i.)

Produce control output voltage ranging from 226V to 286V with accuracy of 1% of the set value.

ii.) iii.)

Supply trickle charge to 220V DC battery bank. Following the loss of AC supply and its subsequent restoration to the rectifier provides full load and boost charging current to battery.

BATTERY:
Battery back up is provided through Lead Acid batteries.

INVERTER:
It takes DC supply as input from the rectifier / battery and inverters to 240V AC, 50Hz for supplying 1-phase (2 Wire), control loads such as computers, recorders and controllers etc. Inverters for 20kVA UPS are transistorized and for 60kVA inverters are thrusters based.

9.7 STATIC SWITCH AND MANUAL BYPASS:

The main U.P.S. and the standby UPS are isolated by this static switch. It consists of 2 SCR connected back to back (Antiparallel). Normally both the SCRs will be in blocking mode. When the inverter trips on fault the static switch get firing pulses and the stand by supply is connected to load. Static switch has only short time rating, hence once the parallel contactor closes, SCRs will be commutated.

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CHAPTER 10 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Nuclear power stations require electrical power supply to perform their functions when the reactor is under normal operation, anticipated operational occurrences and emergency situations and accident conditions. In order to meet the requirement at various stages of operation, electrical power supply system is provided with adequate redundancy. It consists of main power evacuation system, off site supplies and associated transformers & distribution boards. This project report is prepared to educate, and familiarize on the electrical equipments in general and RAPP-5&6 electrical system in specific. Attempts have been made to elaborate the equipment selection criteria advantages of them whenever it is felt important.

10.2 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM (OBJECTIVES)

The electrical power system for RAPP-5&6 is designed to provide for the following objectives: a) To evacuate the power generated from the turbo generators to the off site grid connected to the station at 400KV switchyard.

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b)

To provide required quality of power to the station auxiliaries through start-up transformer (SUT), unit auxiliary transformers (UAT), on site diesel generator sets and uninterruptible power supply systems.

c)

To provide emergency electric power supply to safety system of the station during simultaneous occurrence of postulated initiating events and single failure of any active/passive electric component/system.

d)

To provide station emergency electric power system with reliable off site power from at least two transmission lines preferably connected to two generating stations.

e)

To provide fast transfer systems, emergency transfer systems and load shedding schemes so that electrical power supply is restored within the interruption time permitted by the connected loads.

f) g)

To provide operational flexibility. To provide necessary isolations, alarms and indications for safe operation and maintenance of electrical equipment.

h) i)

To provide fire protection and safety. To provide earthing of electrical systems and equipment for personnel and system safety and isolation of defective system.

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j) k)

To provide surge suppression, lighting protection. To provide adequate lighting during plant operation and during emergency.

GENERAL
The major objective in the design of an electrical power distribution system in a power distribution system in a power plant is to obtain the best possible reliability compatible with economic considerations. A further factor which has influenced the design of distribution system for this system is the fact that there is very high ratio of capital costs to running costs which makes downtime due to failure of equipment very costly and higher degree of reliability must be built into system than the conventional generating stations or industrial plants.

10.3 CLASSES OF POWER

CLASS I POWER: The class I power supplies low loads that require a 220 volt DC voltage, which is un- interruptible. CLASS II POWER: The class II power system supplies all loads that must be fed from an AC source which is uninterruptible. CLASS III POWER: The class III power system covers all loads which may be interrupted for a short period (1-2 minute) during an outage or disturbance on the system.

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CLASS IV POWER: The class IV station service system covers all other loads which may be interrupted during outage or disturbance on the system without endangering the plant. Various auxiliaries (i.e. electrical loads) of the power station are provided with power supply from off-site and on-site sources. The station power supply system is connected to transmission network with the help of at least 2 independent transmission connected to the 220kV switchyard. The system is designed to have adequate standby power sources so that in the event of loss of normal supplies, the essential equipment required for reactor safety can be kept running. Essentially, the power sources for station requirement are: Normal supplies provided from two redundant sources, viz, from the grid (off-site power) or from the unit generator. Standby diesel generator. Storage batteries. The station auxiliary power system is classified into four classes as mentioned above. Class I system (based on batteries) is the most reliable system and is used for the supply of control power for the circuit breakers and control such as diesel engine control schematics, turbine control schematics, static

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excitation for turbine generators, control schemes for diesel driven fire fighting pumps etc. Class II power supply is derived from uninterrupted power supply system consisting of rectifiers, inverters and a dedicated battery bank. The battery bank is capable of feeding inverter loads for a period of at least 30 minutes after the failure of ac power supply to the rectifier. Major loads on class II include FM supply pumps, emergency lights, seal oil pumps, flushing oil pump etc.

Class III power supply is connected to emergency diesel generator to provide power supply in the event of class IV power has failed. Diesel generator sets are designed to provide power automatically to the class III bus whenever class IV bus has failed. Loads connected to the class III supply can tolerate short interruptions in power supply. The class III power can be resorted within two minutes from the loss of class IV. The capacity of each on-site emergency diesel generator is 2250 kW. Three DGs, each of 2250 kW capacity, are provided for each unit. Major loads connected to class III supply are primary feed pumps, power and control uninterrupted power supply, moderator circulating pumps,

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ECCS pumps air compressors, ABFPs, shutdown cooling pumps and process water pumps. Class IV power supply is derived from 220kV grid through start up transformer and from turbo generator through unit transformer. The capacity of each transformer is 35 MVA and adequate to supply all start up and operating loads of the unit. The load connected to this system can withstand prolonged power supply interruption.

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CHAPTER-11 SWITCHGEAR
Switchgear is a general term covering a wide range of equipment concerned with switching and protection. Switchgear includes switches, fuses circuit breakers, isolators, relays, control panels, lightning arresters, current transformer. KV Metal Clad Switch Gear is combining of circuit breakers, instrument transformer relays, meters with there interconnections and enclosures arrange in such a way to open and close that circuit with full safety to the operator whenever required. The most important component of metal clad switchgear is a air magnetic power circuit breaker in which the circuit interruption takes place in a intense magnetic field. The metal clad switchgear assemblies are used to provide power distribution, power switching and relaying facilities for the 6.6KV or 3.3KV, 50Hz, 3-phase power to station service equipment.

11.1 6.6KV switchgear (Class-III & Class-IV)

Type Rated voltage Rated insulation (a) One minute power frequency withstand 27KV 8BK 20 7.2KV

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(b)

Impulse

60KV peak

Rated bus bar currents (a) (b) Class-IV Class-III 2000Amp. 630Amp.

11.2 415 Volt switchgear (Class-III & Class-IV)

Type Rated voltage M-PACT 415 V 2.5 KV for 1 min 2500Amp

Rated insulation level Rated bus bar currents -

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CHAPTER 12---------PROTECTIVE RELAYING AND METERING

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Protective relaying is necessary with almost every electrical plant, and no part of the system is left unprotected. The choice of protection depends upon several aspects such as type and rating of the protected equipment, its importance, location probable abnormal conditions, cost etc between generators and final load points, there are several electrical equipment and machines of various ratings. Each needs certain adequate protection. The protective relaying senses the abnormal conditions in a part of the power system and gives an alarm or isolates that part from the healthy system. The relays are compact, self-contained devices, which respond to abnormal condition. Whenever an abnormal condition develops the relays close its contacts. Thereby the trip circuit of the circuit breaker is closed. Current from the battery flows in the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the circuit breaker opens and the faulty part is disconnected form the system, is automatic and fast. In RAPP-5&6 Numerical Relay has been used to provide protection to various electrical equipments. Numerical relay has its own memory. It can store time and various parameters during faulty conditions.

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CHAPTER 13--------------------IMPORTANT SECTIONS OF RAPP

13.1 ENVIRONMENT SURVEY LAB (ESL):

Environment survey laboratory located in each nuclear site is continuously monitoring the radioactive release from the plant at various points upto 30 kms. radius. Any radiological release requiring for off-site emergency is notified through the local authority. Proper procedures for off-site emergency have been chalked out and necessary plans are checked periodically. However public will not be able to come to know about the releases because of the inherent nature of radioactivity which cannot be felt by sensory organs. Proper instruments are necessary for any one to find out about the presence of radioactivity. Also newer reactors have double containment making any significant release of radioactivity in public domain highly impossible.

13.2 INDUSTRIAL SAFETY SECTION:

Safety organization in the plant is the agency employed by management to assign responsibility for accident preservation and to ensure performance under that responsibility.

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According to the factories act, it is the duty of the management to provide a safe working place and instructions on the hazards involved in operations and indicate the safety way of performing the job. Accidents are caused, they do not just happen. All accidents are preventable because they happen due to the human failure in unsafe act / unsafe conditions. The basic functions of safety committee are:(i). To discuss and formulate safety policies and recommend their adoption by management. (ii). To discover unsafe conditions and practices and determine their remedies. (iii). To work to obtain results by having its management approved recommendations put into practice.

13.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITY:

A waste management site for the storage / disposal of low intermediate level solid / solidified waste generated in the exclusion zone of 1.6 km radius of the reactor which is exclusively under the control of the power plant. This is a small area of the exclusion zone and it is isolated from the public use after retiring of the station until the radioactivity decays down to acceptable levels.

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Radioactive wastes can be categorized in three types, they are:-

1. SOLID WASTE:
This type of waste is disposed deep inside the earth (1000-1500m). The least radioactive waste i.e. 0-2 mSv/year is disposed into earth trenches. The radioactive waste from 2 mSv 50 mSv/year is disposed in RCC trenches and the rest from 50 mSv/year radioactive waste is disposed in the tie holes.

2. LIQUID WASTE:
This type of waste is treated separately in a different plant where after applying ion exchange method we release this water into the lake.

3. GASEOUS WASTE:
Gaseous radio nuclides are generated during the operation of NPPs fission in fuel and activation product in vault air cooling. These gaseous nuclides are passed through filters and absorbers before releasing them to atmosphere.

13.4 WATER TREATMENT PLANT:

The water treatment plant supplies domestic water and demineralised water to fulfill the RAPS station requirement. The water after filtration,

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decomposition and chlorination is sent to domestic water tank to supply within the station. Water is taken from LP process water supply and feed to the up flow sedimentation tank where it enters from bottom and flow upwards. Before the up flow to the sedimentation tank, we add alum dose to coagulate the fine dust. After doing all these processes, clear water is obtained. Then the part of this clear water after chlorination is sent for domestic purposes and from the rest of the clear water, DM water is obtained by ion exchange method.

13.5 ESTATE MANAGEMENT (EM):

This department is placed within the colony to rectify all the civil, electrical or any other problems taking place in the houses. And one of the main work is to step down the 11KV high voltage into 220V or 415V for the domestic purposes. The water treatment plant is also coming under this department.

13.6 FIRE STATION:

Here in the fire station, we came to know about the classification of fire, how these types of fires can be extinguished and how the whole safety purposes of the huge power plant are solved.

13.6.1 WHAT IS FIRE?

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The combination of HEAT, FUEL, and OXYGEN give rise to FIRE. For fire to arise, the presence of all three components is necessary. Now as the type of fuel varies the classification of fire also differs and since there are different types of fires, so the methods to extinguish these fires are also different as studied below:

13.6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE:

There are four types of fire:-

1. A CLASS FIRE:When grass, paper, cloth, jute, etc. act as fuel then the fire which arises is of A class type. To extinguish this A class fire water is used.

2. B CLASS FIRE:When the liquid fuels like petrol, diesel, oil, and other hydrocarbons are the reason for fire, then foam is used to extinguish it. Here the foam generated is of two types:(i). Chemical foam (ii). Mechanical foam Chemical foam is formed by mixing Al2SO4 + NaHCO3; whereas mechanical foam is obtained by using foam generator.

3. C CLASS FIRE:When gaseous fuels like LPG, Br2, H2S, etc. are the reason for fire,

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then carbon dioxide {CO2} is used to extinguish it. Actually CO2 extinguishers are used for fire fighting purposes, in which pressurized CO2 is filled.

4. D CLASS FIRE:When fire arises due to metals like Al, Fe, Cu, etc, then the dry chemical powder [DCP] is used to extinguish the corresponding D class fire. DCP is formed by adding Na + K + Ba + steroid. Also there are some other fire fighting systems which are used in RAPP. These can be classified as:-

1. ACTIVE FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS:

These systems are used externally to extinguish fire. Different active fire fighting systems are: CO2 spreading system Fire hidden system Fire brigades Dilute system Water tender Emergency tender

2. PASSIVE FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS:

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These systems are placed internally i.e. inside the building, so as to restrict the spreading of fire from one room to other. Different passive fire fighting systems are:

Fire dampers Fire doors

Fire sensor cabins Fire resistor paint Fire barriers Smoke detectors

13.7 RAPP COBALT OPERATING FACILITY (RAPPCOF):

RAPP cobalt operating facility has been set up at RAPS site to handle and process large quantities of Co-60 produced in adjuster rods and fuel channels of power reactors. The facility is designed to handle about 2 mega curies of Co-60.

USES:
Cobalt - 60 is used in many fields. These are:1. Food irradiation 2. Treatment of cancer through radiation 3. Sterilization of medical products 4. Vulcanization of rubber latex

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CONCLUSION
An engineer needs to have not just theoretical knowledge but practical knowledge also. So every student is supposed to undergo a practical training session after III year. I have taken my summer training from NUCLEAR TRAINING CENTRE (RAPP) where I practically saw that how electric power is generated. I have also got a chance to saw different electrical equipments which helps me to enlarge my knowledge. During our 45 days training session we were acquainted with the working of the power plant. At last I would like to say that practical training taken at NTC (RAPP) has broadened my knowledge and has widened my thinking as a professional.