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PHRM 304
There are two major classes of antibacterial agents which act by inhibiting cell wall synthesis: - Penicillins & - Cephalosporins Gram (+) ve and gram (-) ve bacteria has been naming according to their staining capacity. As the gram (+) ve bacteria has higher amount of peptidoglycan in their cell wall they show (+) ve staining property. As penicillin and cephalosporin inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis the drugs are mainly active against gram (+) ve baccteria: Staphylococci, Streptococci.
Penicillins:
Certain moulds could produce toxic substances which killed bacteria (1877, Pasteur and Joubert) Antibacterial agents which inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis Discovered by Fleming from a fungal colony (1928)
Penicillins:
History of penicillins In 1877, Pasteur and Joubert discovered that certain moulds could produce toxic substances which killed bacteria.
He concluded that the fungal colony was producing an antibacterial agent which was spreading into the surrounding area. Recognizing the significance of this, he set out to culture and identify the fungus and showed it to be a relatively rare species of Penicillium notatum which produces antibacterial agent penicillin. Fleming spent several years investigating the novel antibacterial substance and showed it to have significant antibacterial properties and to be remarkably non-toxic to humans. Unfortunately, the substance was unstable & Fleming was unable to isolate and purify the compound. He therefore came to the conclusion that penicillin was too unstable to be used clinically. The problem of isolating penicillin was eventually solved in 1938 by Florey and Chain by using a process known as freeze-drying.
The synthesis of such a highly strained molecule presented a huge challenge- a challenge which was met successfully by Sheehan who completed a full synthesis of penicillin by 1957. In 1959, Beecham Laboratories obtained 6aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) from Penicillium chrysogenum moulds. The availability of 6-APA made possible the introduction of semisynthetic penicillins, with new and better properties than the natural ones. Penicillins were used widely and often carelessly, so that the evolution of penicillin resistant bacteria became more and more of a problem (Bact: Rapid division: No. double in every 20 min).
The fight against these penicillin-resistant bacteria was promoted greatly when, in 1976, Beecham Laboratories discovered a natural product called clavulanic acid which has proved highly effective in protecting penicillins from the bacterial enzymes (-lactamases) which attack penicillin.
Structure of penicillin
1 6* 5* 4 3* 2
Penicillin contains a highly unstable-looking bicyclic system consisting of a four membered -lactam ring fused to a five-membered thiazolidine ring. The skeleton of the molecule suggests that it is derived from the amino acids cysteine and valine. According to biogenesis, antibiotics can be derived from various natural substances like -lactam antibiotics from cysteine and valine amino acids.
Phenylacetic acid
OCH2
CO2H
Phenoxyacetic-acid
All penicillins have the same -lactam-thiazolidine general structure that contains three chiral centers. Therefore, theoretically this structure could present eight optically active forms. However, the natural isomers, presumably the only one with biological activity, has the stereochemistry of 3S:5R:6R. (According to BP & USP 2S:5R:6R)
Penicillin analogues
R=
Benzyl Penicillin
CH2
PEN G
R=
CH2
PEN V
Phenoxymethylpenicillin
- First commercially available penicillin. - Acid sensitive, so need to administer IV or IM route. Unable to provide through oral route.
The carbonyl group in the -lactam ring is highly susceptible to nucleophiles and it does not behave like a normal tertiary amide which is usually quite resistant to nucleophilic attack.
A normal tertiary amide is far less susceptible to nucleophiles since the resonance structures reduce the electrophilic character of the carbonyl group. The -lactam nitrogen is unable to show such effect. To show the similar effect like tertiary amide, penicillin had to obtain a strained flat structure, which is highly unstable. As a result, the lone pair is localized on the nitrogen atom and the carbonyl group is far more electrophilic than a tertiary amide.
Figure demonstrates how the neighboring acyl group can actively participate in a mechanism to open up the lactam ring. Thus, penicillin G has a self-destruct mechanism built into its structure.
-H+
Fig. Penicillin V.
A range of penicillin analogues which have been very successful are penicillins which are disubstituted on the alphacarbon next to the carbonyl group. As long as one of the groups is electron withdrawing, these compounds are more resistant to acid hydrolysis and can be given orally (e.g. ampicillin and oxacillin). To conclude, the problem of acid sensitivity is fairly easily solved by having an electron withdrawing group on the acyl side-chain.
-lactamase
Several analogues were made and the strategy was found to work. However, there was a problem. If the side-chain was made too bulky, then the steric shield also prevented the penicillin from attacking the enzyme responsible for bacterial cell wall synthesis (transpeptidase).
Oxacillin R = R' = H Methicillin is not an ideal drug. Since Cloxacillin R = Cl, R = H there is no electron withdrawing group Flucloxacillin R = Cl, R = F on the side-chain, it is acid sensitive, These compounds are acid-resistant and so has to be injected. and penicillinase-resistant.
The fatty portion of the coating may act as a barrier to the polar hydrophilic penicillin molecule.
The only way in which penicillin can enter into the cell is the protein channels (porins) in the outer coating. Most of the channels remain closed. 2. High levels of transpeptidase enzyme produced
The transpeptidase enzyme is the enzyme attacked by penicillin. In some gram negative bacteria, a lot of transpeptidase enzyme is produced, and the penicillin is incapable of inactivating all the enzyme molecules present. 3. Modification of the transpeptidase enzyme A mutation may occur which allows the bacterium to produce a transpeptidase enzyme which is not antagonized by penicillin.
4. Presence of -lactamase (penicillinase) -lactamases are enzymes which degrade penicillin. They are situated between the cell wall and its outer coating.
Overall outer negative charge inhibit the penetration of ionized (-ve) penicillin into the cell.
2. If hydrophobic character is increased, there is little effect on the gram-positive activity, but activity against gramnegative bacteria drops even more. 3. Hydrophilic groups on the side-chain have either little effect on gram-positive activity (e.g. penicillin T) or cause a reduction of activity (e.g. penicillin N). However, they lead to an increase in activity against gram-negative bacteria. 4. Enhancement of gram-negative activity is found to be greatest if the hydrophilic group (e.g. -NH2, -OH, -COOH) is attached to the carbon, alpha to the carbonyl group on the acyl side chain.
Penicillin N
Penicillin T
Those penicillins having useful activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria are known as broad-spectrum antibiotics. There are two classes of broad-spectrum penicillin antibiotics. Both have an alphahydrophilic group. However, in one class the hydrophilic group is an amino function as in ampicillin or amoxycillin, while in the other the hydrophilic group is an acid group as in carbenicillin.
Ampicillin
Amoxycillin
R=H
Carbenicillin
H C
NH2
HO
NH2 C C O H N H
C O
H N
Ampicillin
Amoxicillin
Properties
o Active vs Gram +ve bacteria and Gram -ve bacteria which do not produce -lactamases (Sensitive to -lactamases) o Acid resistant and orally active o Non toxic
H C
NH2 H N
R=
H H S N
C CH2O CMe3
PIVAMPICILLIN
C O
Me
R=
Me CO2R
O
TALAMPICILLIN
R=
CH Me
CH2Me
BACAMPICILLIN
Properties
oIncreased cell membrane permeability oPolar carboxylic acid group is masked by the ester oEster is metabolised in the body by esterases to give the free drug (once the prodrug has been absorbed )
R=H R = Ph
S
Me Me
Carbenicillin Carfecillin
Properties
o Carfecillin=prodrug for carbenicillin: show an improved absorption through the gut wall. o Active over a wider range of Gram -ve bacteria than ampicillin o Resistant to most -lactamases o Less active vs Gram +ve bacteria (note the hydrophilic group) o Acid sensitive and must be injected o Stereochemistry at the -position is important o -CO2H at the -position is ionized at blood pH
Examples of Broad Spectrum Penicillins Class 3 - Urea group at the -position (ureidopenicillins)
Properties
Newest class of broad-spectrum penicillins Have a urea functional group at the -position.
They
generally
have
better
properties
than
the
Probenecid
Clavulanic acid
Clavulanic acid is a -lactamase (penicillinase) inhibitor sometimes combined with penicillin group antibiotics (combination of amoxicillin with clavulanic acid known as
The drug fits the active site of -lactamase, and the -lactam ring is opened by a serine residue in the same manner as penicillin. Can be given orally and intravenously. Reduces the required dose of -lactam penicillin (This allows
1) the dose levels of amoxicillin to be decreased and 2) also increases the spectrum of activity).
Probenecid is a moderately lipophilic carboxylic acid and, as such, is similar to penicillin. It is found that probenecid can block facilitated transport of penicillin through the kidney tubules. In other words, probenecid slows down the rate at which penicillin is excreted by competing with it in the excretion mechanism.
As a result, penicillin levels in the bloodstream are enhanced and the antibacterial activity increases.
Probenecid
Clavulanic acid
Cephalosporins
Antibacterial agents which inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis.
Cephalosporin C
Molecular modification of Cephalosporin C gave origin to cephalosporins; most of them are semisynthetic substances, obtained by reaction of 7-aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA) with appropriate compounds. The structure of Cephalosporin C has similarities to that of penicillin in that it has a bicyclic system containing a fourmembered -lactam ring. However, this time the -lactam ring is fused with a six-membered dihydrothiazine ring. This larger ring relieves the strain in the bicyclic system to some extent, but it is still a reactive system. The cephalosporin structure contains two chiral centers (6C & 7C). Thus four optically active forms are possible. The natural isomer (6R & 7R) has the following stereochemistry.
Fig. Cephalosporin C
A study of the cephalosporin skeleton reveals that cephalosporins can be derived from the same biosynthetic precursors as penicillin, i.e. cysteine and valine.
H 2N
N O C O 2H
Me
C
These are very close to penicillins and there are only a limited number of places where modifications can be made. Those places are:
7 3
Cephalosporin analogues
O R1 N H O O OH H
7
H S N
3
R2
Different cephalosporins are developed by changing the moieties attached at the 3 and/or 7 positions of the 7-ACA.
Usually, substituents at C-3 (R2) modify the overall pharmacokinetic properties, whereas those at C-7 (R1) alter the antibacterial spectrum.
Cefadroxil
Cefaclor
Cefdinir
Cefepime
Penicillin and Cephalosporin antibiotics bind to penicillin binding proteins (PBPs) of bacteria and inhibit the formation of cell wall. Bacteria have to survive a large range of environmental conditions such as varying pH, temperature, and osmotic pressure. Therefore, they require a robust cell wall. Since this cell wall is not present in animal cells, it is the perfect target for antibacterial agents such as penicillins and cephalosporins.
The bacterial cell wall is a peptidoglycan structure. In other words, it is made up of peptide units and sugar units. The structure of the cell wall consists of a parallel series of sugar backbones containing two types of sugar [Nacetylmuramic acid (NAM) and N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)].
N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
Sugar backbone
Peptide chain
Peptide chains are bound to the NAM sugars, and in the final step of cell wall biosynthesis, these peptide chains are linked together by the displacement of D-alanine from one chain by glycine in another.
It is this final cross-linking reaction which is inhibited by penicillins and cephalosporins, so the cell wall framework is not meshed together. As a result, the wall becomes 'leaky'. Since the salt concentrations inside the cell are greater than those outside the cell, water enters the cell, the cell swells, and eventually lyses (bursts). The enzyme responsible for the cross-linking reaction is known as the transpeptidase enzyme. It has been proposed that penicillin and cephalosporin has a conformation which is similar to the transition-state conformation taken up by D-Ala-D-Ala the portion of the amino acid chain involved in the cross-linking reaction. Since this is the reaction centre for the transpeptidase enzyme, the enzyme mistakes the penicillin molecule for the D-Ala-D-Ala moiety and accepts the penicillin into its active site.
Once penicillin or cephalosporin is in the active site, the normal enzymatic reaction would be carried out on the penicillin or cephalosporin.
R C O
Me
H N
Me H H N H CH3 CO2H
O
CO2H
Penicillin
D-Ala-D-Ala