Displacement = objects change in position Average Speed = Ratio of Total Distance to time (distance/time) Velocity = speed and direction

(displacement/time) Acceleration = change in velocity Average Acceleration = change in velocity / change in time -object can accelerate even if its speed doesnt change (centripetal) Kinematics apply to objects in constant acceleration Kinematics graphs = position vs. time graph (slope = velocity) Curved graph = acceleration =velocity vs. time (slope = acceleration) -Area between graph and the time-axis is the displacement Free Fall= when the object experiences only the force of gravity Launch angle = angle the initial velocity makes with the horizontal (in projectile motion) Full horizontal displacement of a projectile = range Newtons first law = object will continue in its state of motion unless compelled to change by a force on it First law also known as law of inertia Second law = when a force does apply on it (F=ma) Mass measured in kg Mass measures an objects inertia = resistance to acceleration 1 kgm/s^2 = 1 N (1 medium sized apple) Third Law = every action there is always an equal but opposite reaction -applies to two different objects (known as an action/reaction pair) Weight = gravitational force on an object Mass does not change, weight changes Normal force = force perpendicular to the surface Weight and normal force are not an action-reaction pair (Acts on same object) Friction= contact force parallel to surface of an object Static Friction = initial friction before it is moving Kinetic Friction = force when the object is moving Nature of surfaces = coefficient of friction (mu) Static > Kinetic Kinetic = opposite to motion Static = opposite of intended motion Static Frictional Force is the maximum value Pulleys = devices that change the direction of tension force in the cords that slide over them Inclined plane = ramp Mg cos = normal to plane and Mgsin = parallel to plane Uniform circular motion = object revolving around a center -velocity is not constant (direction keeps changing), but speed is -acceleration used to turn the object -velocity always tangential to objects path Centripetal acceleration = acceleration directed towards the center Centripetal Force = force that is created by the centripetal acceleration

Work = force (cos theta) times distance If angle between F and d is perpendicular = no work -if its less than 90 = negative work -if its greater than 90 = positive work In a Force vs. displacement graph, the area under is the work Kinetic Energy= energy an object possesses b/c of its motion Net Work = change in kinetic energy (called work-energy theorem) Energy and Work is scalar

Potential Energy = energy of an object due to its position Gravitational Potential Energy = energy stored in a gravitational field Gravitational Potential Energy = - Work done by gravity (since its change in kinetic energy) Gravity is a conservative force since it does not depend on the path taken by the object Important to have a reference point for potential energy Mechanical Energy= sum of an objects kinetic and potential energies Conservation of Mechanical Energy = Kinetic + Potential = Kinetic + Potential (assumes no non-conservative forces) Power = rate which work is done (work per time) Linear momentum = mass times velocity (vector) Change in momentum over time = force Impulse = force times change in time = change in momentum (impulse-momentum theorem) Conservation of Linear momentum = isolated system, the total linear momentum will remain constant Elastic Collision = momentum and kinetic energy conserved Inelastic Collision = Momentum is conserved and KE is not Perfectly Inelastic Collision = Momentum is conserved and KE is not, objects stick together Center of Mass = point where all of the mass of an object can be considered to be concentrated -in homogeneous body, the center of mass is at the center -center of mass = m1x1 + m2x2+ m3x3 / m1 + m2 + m3

All motion is a combination of translation and rotation Torque is the quantity that measures the effectiveness of a force on rotation (is not a force) Torque = rFsintheta Lever arm (moment arm) = the distance from the pivot point to the line of action Torque = l (lever arm) F Torque is also called the moment of the force Torque = r (perp) F Net torque = the sum of all the torques Counterclockwise = positive and clockwise = negative Translational equilibrium = sum of forces = 0 Rotational equilibrium = sum of torques = 0 Equilibrium refers to both translational and rotational Static Equilibrium = object at rest Angular momentum = rotational momentum L = rmv For a rotating object, the angular momentum is the sum of the angular momentum of each particle L = IW (I = moment of inertia and W = angular velocity) Moment of Inertia = how difficult it is to start an object rotating I increase with mass and avg radius from axis of rotation Conservation of Angular Momentum = Torque net = Change in L / Change in t If Torque net = 0, L is constant Conservation of Angular Momentum = if the torques on a body balance so that the torque net = 0, then the angular momentum wont change Rigid body = all points along a radial line always have the same angular displacement Theta= angular displacement W= angular velocity Alpha = angular acceleration These measures follow the radian measures Points on rotating body farther from the rotational axis move faster than those closer V= r W a= r Alpha (where a is the tangential acceleration which comes from a change in speed caused by angular acceleration) -centripetal acceleration does not produce a change in speed For the rotational kinematics, replace the values above with the values of the kinematic equations

Keplers Laws = 1st Law = planets move in ellipses with the sun as a focus, an ellipse has 2 foci 2nd Law = planets move faster when it is nearer to the sun (since it has to complete the same amount of area in a given interval pg 140) 3rd Law = the ratio of the square of a planets period of revolution to the cube of its average distance from the sun is a constant and is the same for all planets (T^2/a^3) Newtons Law of Gravitation -any two objects exert a force on each other -G is the universal gravitational constant Gravitational Potential Energy U = -GMm/r -gravitational potential energy is always negative Speed needed to escape Earths gravitational field = escape speed

Hookes Law = -kx K = spring constant (stiffness of spring) Stiffer the spring, the higher the k Equilibrium position = position where the net force on the block = zero Restoring Force = force the restores the block to equilibrium position Springs that obey Hookes laws are called ideal or linear springs Oscillate = go back and forth through equilibrium position During oscillation, the force on the block is zero when the block is at equilibrium Endpoints of the oscillation regions where the displacement are the largest, the restoring force and magnitude of acceleration are both at the maximum Stretched or compressed spring stored elastic potential energy Shuttling energy between potential and kinetic energy causes the oscillations At the endpoints, the KE = 0 and the PE = max Block passing through equilibrium = KE max PE = 0 Maximum displacement is called the amplitude Cycle = round-trip Amount of time to complete a cycle = a period (T) Number of cycles per time interval = frequency (f, units are Hz) T= 1/f In simple harmonic motion, the f and T are independent of the amplitude Effective spring constant = force constant of a single spring that would produce the same force on the black as the pair of springs shown in each case On a vertical hanging spring, the springs equilibrium position would be stretched (mg) Simple Pendulum = weight (called a bob) hanging on a mass less string that swings Restoring force = gravity At the maximum points, the tangential acceleration is at its maximum For small angles, a pendulum exhibits simple harmonic motion The period and frequency of a pendulum do not depend on the mass Absolute temperature scale = Kelvin 0 K is the lowest possible temperature 273.16 K is the triple point of water When a substance absorbs or gives off heat, the temp increases or it undergoes phase change Sublimate = s g Deposition = g-s Specific heat is an intrinsic property Thermal equilibrium = same temperature Heat is conserved (Q = - Q) Water has a high specific heat and can absorb large amounts of thermal energy w/o going through a huge change in temp Latent Heat of transformation = phase change Heat of Fusion = solid to liquid

Heat of Vaporization = liquid to vapor Changes in temperature = changes in size Alpha = coefficient of linear expansion Beta = coefficient of volume expansion Beta = 3 Alpha Most substances have positive beta and alpha Negative Value of Beta is when water is between 0 4 C, the liquid water expands as it nears freezing point and solidifies Volume = cross-sectional area * height Pressure = force on the walls of a container = F/A SI units = N/m^2 or Pascal Faster gas molecules = more pressure 1 mole = 6.022 * 10^23 (Avogadros number) PV= nRT (R = 8.31 J/mol K = universal gas constant) equation = ideal gas law -ideal gases = volume of gas molecules is negligible compared to the container -no electrostatic attraction and undergo elastic collisions K (avg) = 3/2 K (b) T Mass of one moles = molar mass Thermodynamics = study of energy transfers involving work and heat and resulting changes in internal energy, temperature, volume, and pressure = thermodynamics Zeroth Law= 1 and 2 in thermal equilibrium with 3, then 1 and 2 in equilibrium with each other First Law = statement of conservation of energy = energy cannot be created or destroyed in any thermodynamic system In a PV diagram, the work done is the area under the curve Moving to the right = positive area = positive work and left = negative If the temperature remains constant in a PV diagram its isothermal If there is no heat exchanged its adiabatic Entropy = measure of disorder 2nd Law of Thermodynamics = amount of disorder of a system and its surroundings will never decrease Disordered sates do not spontaneously become ordered without any other change taking place Entropy can decrease but at the expense of a greater entropy in its surroundings In the end, the sum of entropy would increase Device that uses heat to produce work = heat engine Cyclic heat engine = heat comes into the engine, some of it converted into work and the remainder ejected as exhaust and the cycle continues Since the system returns to normal after each cycle the change in U = 0 Therefore, Q = W Engine efficiency is always less than one Carnot cycle = most efficient heat engine -isothermal expansion, then adiabatic expansion, then isothermal compression, then adiabatic compression Electromagnetic force holds the atoms together Protons and electrons have electric charge which gives them attractive force Charged matter = unequal numbers of protons and electrons This can be accomplished by ionizing the atoms (removing / adding electrons_ Charge is conserved Elementary charge = charge of an electron and the basic unit of electric charge Charge is quantized Charge of a particle denoted q Charge is expressed in coulombs (C) Coulombs law = electric force (same thing as gravitational force) Coulombs constant = 9* 10^9 Nm^2/C^2 Superposition = electric forces added like vectors Charges create electric fields (another charge placed in the field will experience a force due to the field) F= Eq (E = electric field vector) Field lines denser = field is stronger

Two equal but opposite charges form an electric dipole Electric fields = sketched to determine what a positive charge would do Electric field lines never cross Conductors = materials that permit the flow of excess charge, they conduct electricity (metals) Insulators = electrons are not free to move (plastics, rubber, wood) Semi-conductors = less conducting than metals but more conducting that insulators (silicon and germanium) Superconductor = material that offers no resistance to flow of charge (perfect conductor of electrical charge) There can be no electric field within the body of a conductor Electric force does work on the charge when the field lines are not perpendicular If work is done by the electric field, then the change in the charges electrical potential energy is (U = -W (change)) We = -kq1q2 (1/r2 1/r1) or U = kq1q2/r Change in potential energy for a positive charge = -qEr Change in potential energy for a negative charge = qEr Change in potential energy is negative = potential energy decreases, which means that the field does positive work Change in electric potential = change in potential energy/ charge (change in potential is electrical potential energy per unit charge and the units are J/C Potential energy from a electric field from a point source charge = V= kQ/r Potential is scalar (any distance from the charge would result in the same potential = called equipotential surfaces) Their cross sections in any plane are circles and are perpendicular to the electric field lines As a charge moves along an equipotential line, the change in V and U are zero Two conductors (+,-) make up a system called a capacitor Work must be done to create this separation of charge, therefore potential energy is stored Capacitors are basically storage devices for electrical potential energy Parallel metal plates or sheets make up parallel-plate capacitors Ratio of Q to V is called capacitance (C= Q/V) Greater capacitance = more charge can be stored on the plates at a given potential difference Capacitance depends only on the size, shape, and separation of the conductors Units of capacitance = C/V or 1 Farad PE = Q^2/c= CV^2 Capacitors are in parallel if they share the same potential difference Capacitance for plates in parallel is the sum Equivalent capacitance of capacitor in parallel is the sum of the individual capacitors Capacitors are in series if they share the same charge magnitude The equilivant capacitance is the inverse sum of the capacitors Dielectric = an insulator that increases the capacitance of a capacitor The capacitor polarizes the dielectric, which forms a layer of negative charge along the top surface and positive layer on the bottom, which opposes the original electric field by induces its own electric field (Ei) E dielectric = E without dielectric Ei = E/k K = dielectric constant, which is always greater than 1 (kappa) C dielectric = kC without dielectric K = factor which the electric field had been reduced Electric current = ordered motion of charge through a conductor If there is no net motion of charge, there is no current Potential difference between the ends of the wire or an electric field would create a current Drift speed = speed of electrons moving through a current (1 mm/s approx), while the E field moves at speed of light I = Q/t 1 Ampere = 1 C/s Direction of current is the direction that positive charges would move Resistance = change in V/ I Change in potential = voltage Resistance is measured in ohms or V/A Resistivity depends on the material and its shape

Intrinsic resistance = resistivity R = pL/A Current maintained through a conducting pathway is called a circuit If the current travels in the same direction through the pathway, its called a direct current The voltage source provides a potential difference called the electromotive force, or emf (V) The voltage source must do positive work on the charge, to move it from the positive terminal to the negative terminal after it cycles the entire circuit P = IV (power delivered by a battery to the circuit and resistors) You can use V= IR to rearrange this equation Resistors become hot when a current passes through them and generates joule heat Resistors = devices that control the current In the battery/ voltage symbol, the longer line is positive and the shorter line is negative I = E/R where E is the emf In series, you add up the resistance In parallel, you add up the inverse IF there are two emf sources, and they are pointed in different directions (like the + and terminals), you just subtract them and the one with the higher emf is the direction of the flow The effective voltage provided by the battery to the rest of the circuit is called the terminal voltage and is lower than the ideal emf (refer to pg 248) you find the current in total (using Req and V) and use that current to determine the voltage taken by the resistor next to the voltage source, the total voltage subtract that is the terminal voltage Voltmeter = device used to measure voltage between two points in a circuit (always in parallel) Ammeter used to measure current (always in series) Ground = potential = zero Capacitors are charged by batteries; the electrons accumulated to the bottom plate of the capacitor, and continue until the voltage across the capacitor plates matches the emf, and no current passes through it RC circuits are circuits for charging batteries If two capacitors in series, they must have the same amount of charge (sum must equal the V, the capacitors in series) Combinations of series must equal the emf If two capacitors are in parallel, they must have the same amount of voltage If one plate is charged, and another is not, and the battery is cut off, the charge will be redistributed such that the voltage would be equal in both Moving charges create magnetic fields Charges at rest and in motion generate electric fields Fb = IqIvB sin (theta) Theta is the angle between v and B Magnetic force is maximum when v is perpendicular to B and minimum when parallel Use the right hand rule Direction of the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the field Electric force always parallel to the field SI unit for the magnetic field is tesla (1 N/Am) Gauss = 10^-4 T A charge in a field will experience uniform circular motion, Fb is the centripetal force Fb is always perpendicular to V and B Magnetic forces only change the direction, not the speed Magnetic fields do no work on any charge R = mv/qB If a charge wants to pass through an electric field and a magnetic field undeflected, the E-field and B-field must cancel out The magnetic force on a current carrying wire = BILsin(theta) Theta is the angle between L and B (direction of L is the direction of the current) Magnetic force is proportional to I/radius At a point between two wires carrying the same current, the magnetic field = 0 Fe = qE

When Fb = Fe, E= vB When a rod moves through a magnetic field, the magnetic force creates a potential difference through the rods (since the force is exerted on the electrons) The potential difference through this rod = vBL Motion of the sliding rod through the magnetic field creates an electromotive force, called the motional emf E = vBL Magnetic flux measures the density of magnetic field lines that cross an area = BA cos (theta) Flux is not a vector, and changes in flux induces emf Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, the emf induced in a circuit is equal to the rate of change of the magnetic field through the circuit E = -Change in flux/ time The induced emf produces a current, which produces its own magnetic field Direction of the induced current is determined by the polarity of the induced emf and Lenzs Law Induced current will always flow in the direction that opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it Use Faradays law of induction to determine the direction of the flux (if its negative, the change in flux is downwards, positive, its up) Current will only flow while the loop rotates Magnet from North to South In the questions involving magnets going through a loop, find the direction where the magnetic field comes from (From the North into the loop, there would be increased flux) Mechanical wave = disturbance transmitted by a medium from one point to another, without the medium itself transported Traveling Wave = peaks and valleys moving along the rope Crests = points at maximum displacement above the horizontal Troughs = points at maximum displacement under the horizontal The distance between two adjacent crest = wavelength Maximum displacement from the horizontal equilibrium position is the amplitude When the rope oscillates perpendicularly to how the wave propagates (travels horizontally), it is called transverse The time for one complete vertical oscillation of a point is called the Period, I Number of cycles it completes in one second is called the frequency v= frequency * lambda Speed of a wave depends on the medium All waves of the same type in the same medium have the same speed Frequency increase = wavelength decreases (pulses closer together) V = square root (Tension/mass density) When a wave passes into a new medium, its frequency stays the same (but wavelength changes) Wave fronts = lines that represent crests Wave that moves into a new medium, the speed changes Superposition = displacement at any point of the medium is equal to the sum of the displacement due to the individual waves When they meet and overlap (interfere), the displacement of the string = to sum of the individual displacements Once they pass the wave pulses continue, unchanged Constructive interference = when two waves with the same sign interfere to form a wave that has a displacement greater than either of them Destructive = when the combined wave will have a displacement that is less than either of them If waves are in phase (crest meets to crest, trough to trough), the waves will constructively meet completely, and the amplitude will be the sum If the waves are out of phase, they will destructively interfere completely; the amplitude would be the difference between the individual amplitudes When a wave strikes the wall, the wave will reflect and travel back (standing wave) The resulting pattern will oscillate vertically and remain fixed Its basically the superposition of the two oppositely directed traveling waves The points attached to the wall and the other end are fixed (no vertical oscillations) The interference of the two traveling waves results in complete destructive interference (called nodes) Points of zero displacement = nodes, points of maximum displacement = antinodes (points on the amplitude)

Nodes and antinodes always alternate and they are equally spaced (distance of 2 successive nodes = lambda) Lambda (n) = 2L (length of string) / n where n = harmonic number and the wavelength is called the harmonic / resonant wavelength Fn = nv/ 2L (harmonic/ resonant frequencies) The first standing wave, where the harmonic number is 1, is called the fundamental standing wave Fn = nf1 N is basically the number of antinodes (= nodes 1) Sound waves are produced by vibrations of an object Vibrations cause pressure variations in the conducting medium 20 Hz 20,000 Hz = human ear detection Compressions = molecules of the medium are bunched up together (more pressure) Rarefactions = pressure below normal Sound waves are longitudinal (wave moves parallel to wave propagation) Speed of sound wave depends on the medium (density of the medium and the bulk modulus, the measure of the mediums response to compression) Gases have low bulk modulus and solids/ liquids have high values Sound travels faster through solids and liquids due to V= radical (B/p) B= bulk and p = density Speed travels at 343 m/s at 1 atm (increases when the air warms or pressure increases) Loudness of a wave = intensity (I = P/A) P = power and A = area (4r^2) Loudness can also be measured in decibel level (or relative intensity) B (decibel level) = 10log (1/I) (measured in decibels, but dimensionless) I = threshold of hearing and is equal to 10^-12 watts If 2 sound waves whose frequencies are close, but not identical interfere, the resulting sound alternates in amplitude (loud then soft then load) The individual waves are in phase and then out of phase Each time the waves interferes constructively, producing an increase in sound level, we say that a beat has occurred Fbeat = I F1-F2I Resonance for Sound wave = within an enclosure Vibrating source at one end of the tube produces sound waves that travel the length of the tube The waves reflect off the far end and the superposition of the forward and reflected waves can produced a standing wave pattern The vibrating source and the end of the tube would be the nodes (closed tube) Resonant frequencies of length being odd multiples of (1/4 lambda) = F = nv/4L Lambda = 4L/n For when the tube is open F = nv/2L Lambda = 2L/n Doppler Effect = when there is relative motion between the source and the detector -detector moves toward the source, the detector receives waves at higher rates (higher wavelengths) -detector moves away, the frequency is at lower rates (longer wavelengths) F (Doppler) = v v (detector)/ vV (source) * fs (frequency the source emits) V is the speed of sound Detector moving towards the source, you use +, away you use If source moving towards you use +, if away you use Light also experiences Doppler effects, motion toward corresponds to a frequency shift upwards and motion away corresponds to a frequency shit downward Receding light = red-shifted (wavelength shifted upward, toward the red end of the visible spectrum) Optics = study of light and its interaction with devices (mirrors, lenses, and prisms) Electromagnetic waves do not need a medium Electromagnetic waves consist of time-varying electric and magnetic fields that oscillate perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation of the wave (transverse waves) Speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum = 3*10^8m/s Electromagnetic spectrum = full range of wave frequencies of Electromagnetic waves

Waves include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays (ordered in increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength) Visible Spectrum (memorize by ROYGBV increasing wave frequency and expressed in nanometers) If waves are coherent (phase difference remains constant over time and does not vary), and if the difference in their path lengths (change in L) is a whole number of wavelengths (0, lambda, 2lambda), they will arrive in phase at the meeting point If the path lengths are whole numbers plus , they will be out of phase Constructive interference: change in L = m (lambda) Destructive interference: change in L = (m+1/2) lambda Youngs double-slit interference experiment: light is incident (shining) on a barrier that contains two narrow slits, separated by a distance When a wave encounters a slit with a width thats comparable to the wavelength, the wave will fan out (called diffraction), as a result, there will be bright bands (fringes) centered at the points where the waves interfere constructively, and alternating dark fringes where the waves interfere destructively The locate the positions of the bright fringes we use: y (m) = m (lambda) L/d Y (m) = the vertical displacement along the screen from the center of the screen (y= 0 is the point directly across the midpoint of the slits) The bright fringe directly opposite to the midpoint of the slits is called the central maximum (has the greatest intensity) Bright fringes at 1 and 2 will have lower intensities More slits are cut into the barrier, the interference patterns will become sharper, and the distinctions between dark and bright fringes are more pronounced Diffraction gratings = barriers that contain thousands of slits per centimeter Diffraction will also occur if the barrier only has one slit (called the single-aperture diffraction) The central maximum will be very pronounced, but lower-intensity maxima will also be seen due to the interference from the waves arriving from different locations within the slit itself The width of the central maximum will become wider as the width of the slit is decreased When a beam of light hits a smooth transparent surface, some energy will be reflected off the surface and some transmitted into the new medium Normal is the line perpendicular to the interface Angle that the incident beam makes with the normal is the angle of incidence The angle that the reflected beam makes with the normal is called the angle of reflection The angle that the transmitted beam makes with the normal is the angle of refraction Incident, reflected, and transmitted beams all lie on the same plane Angle of incidence and Angle of reflection is equal (called the Law of Reflection) N = c/v (n = index of refraction which has no units and is never less than 1) Snells Law = n1sin (theta1) = n2sin (theta2) N1 = incident medium and n2 = refraction medium If N2>N1, the beam will refract (bend) towards the normal as it enters the medium (since light slows down in N2) If N2< N1, the beam will bend away (since light speeds up in N2) Index of refraction for air = 1 and for water = 1.33 When light travels through a medium, it displays dispersion, which is a variation in wave speed with frequency (or wavelength) As wavelength increases, the refractive index increases Higher frequencies = higher indices of refraction When white light hits a glass prism, the beam splits into its component colors (since each color has its own indexes) Critical angle = angle of refraction becomes 90, which means the refracted beam is directed along the surface For angles greater than the 90, there is no angle of refraction and the entire beam is reflected back into the original medium (called total internal reflection TIR) This happens when n1>n2 and Theta 1 > Critical angle Mirror = optical device that forms an image by reflecting light Flat mirrors called plane mirrors Image is real if the light rays focus at the image (it can be projected onto a screen) Plane mirrors are virtual In plane mirrors, the image is behind the mirror, and produces an upright image that is not altered in size Spherical mirror = mirror thats curves such that its surface forms a part of a sphere Center of this imaginary sphere is the mirrors center of curvature, and the radius of the sphere = mirrors radius of curvature

Halfway between the mirror and the center of curvature is the focus (focal point) The intersection of the mirrors optic axis (axis of symmetry) and the mirror is the vertex Distance from the focus to the vertex is the focal length (= radius of curvature) Incident rays that are parallel to the axis (paraxial rays) would be reflected to the focal point (concave mirror) Concave mirror = mirror whose reflective side is caved in towards the center of curvature (also convex mirror) Ray tracing Rules: Concave Mirrors: incident rays parallel to the axis is reflect through the focus -incident ray that passes through the focus is reflected parallel to the axis -incident ray that strikes the vertex is reflected at an equal angle to the axis Convex Mirrors: incident ray parallel to the axis is reflected away from the virtual focus -incident ray directed towards the virtual focus is reflected parallel to the axis -incident ray that strikes the vertex is reflected at an equal angle to the axis (virtual focus = focus behind the mirror) If the image is formed on the same side of the mirror it is real, if not its virtual Concave forms real, inverted, and minimized images (on the same side of the object) Convex forms virtual, upright, and minimized images (other side of object) Mirror equation: 1/s(o) +1/s(i) = 1/f (s(o) = objects distance from the mirror, s(i0 = images distance from the mirror and f is the focal length of the mirror) S(o) always positive, if s(i) = positive it is real Magnification equation: m = s(i)/s(o) If m = positive image is upright (virtual), and negative = inverted (real) Real images are always inverted and virtual images always upright The height of the image = original height of object times magnification Lens = optical device that forms an image by refracting light Converging lens = causes paraxial rays of light to a focal point on the far side (bi-convex = both of its faces are convex, converging lens have at least 1 convex face) B/c light focuses at F for converging lens, this point is called a real focus (distance from the lens = focal length) Diverging lens = causes paraxial rays of light to diverge away from a virtual focus, on the same side as the rays (diverging lenses have at least one concave face) Raying tracing for lenses: Converging Lenses: -an incident ray parallel to the axis is refracted through the real focus -incident rays pass undeflected through the optical center (O, the central point in the lens where the axis intersects the lens) Diverging Lenses: -an incident ray parallel to the axis is refracted away from the virtual focus -incident rays pass undeflected through the optical center Converging Lenses from real, inverted images (on the other side), while Convex forms virtual, upright images (same side) Rules for magnification and image distance is the same as for mirrors Raisin pudding model = positively charged whole, with electrons scattered to keep it neutral Ernest Rutherford = fired alpha particles at a thin sheet of gold foil (it was expected to pass right through it, but a small percent of them were deflected at large angles) It showed that an atom had a positively charge nucleus, surrounded by a swarm of negatively charged electrons Above known as the Rutherford nuclear model Max Planck and Albert Einstein discovered the particle nature of light Electromagnetic radiation is emitted and absorbed by matter in quantities called quanta A quantum of electromagnetic energy = a photon Light behaves like a stream of photons, and is illustrated by the photoelectric effect (piece of metal is illuminated by electromagnetic radiation, the energy absorbed near the surface of the metal will absorb the energy and fly off, these new electrons are known as photoelectrons) Photoelectrons were ejected within a few billionths of a second after illumination, increasing the intensity of the light did not cause photoelectrons to leave the metal surface with greater kinetic energy b/c there is a maximum photoelectron kinetic energy (but more electrons were ejected), and for each metal, there was a certain threshold frequency, where the light of frequency had to be higher than the threshold to eject electrons These theories rejected the wave-only theory of light

Einstein believed that energy of the incident electromagnetic wave was absorbed in individual bundles (photons) E = hf (h is planks constant 6.63*10-34 Js) A metals work function was the amount of energy imparted to an electron on the metal surface in order to liberate it If an electron absorbed a photon whose energy E is greater than the work function (), it would leave the metal with a maximum KE of E- Kmax = hf Threshold frequency = /h The electronvolt = energy gained or lost by an electron when it accelerates through the potential difference of 1 V 1 eV = 1.6*10^-19 J Atoms in a gas discharge tub emitted and absorbed light only at specific wavelengths Light from a glowing gas passed through a prism to disperse its component wavelengths, produces patterns of sharp lines called atomic spectra Bohr believed that the electron orbits the nucleus at a certain radii, and it does not lose energy when its in these orbits If it absorbs energy, it is excited to a higher orbit (with higher radius), but returns to its original level after it loses energy (by emitting a photon) Each orbit, or energy level has a specific radius and the photons emitted in each jump has different energies and wavelengths Thus, we say the electrons energy levels are quantized E (emitted photon) = I change in E I= E (j) E (i) where j is a higher energy level Wave-particle duality = electromagnetic radiation propagates like a wave, but exchanges energy like a particle De Broglie proposed that a particle of matter can behave like a wave, since electromagnetic waves can behave like a particle De Broglie wavelength (lambda = h/p) Nucleus of an atom is composed of particles known as protons and neutrons (known collectively as nucleons) Number of protons is the atomic number Z The number of neutrons (neutron number) is N Total number of nucleons Z+N is the mass number (nucleon number) A Number of protons defines element Isotopes = nuclei that has the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons Nuclide = nucleus with specific numbers of protons and neutrons (Notation is AZ X, where A is above Z) Strong nuclear force binds the neutrons and protons to form nuclei Mass of proton and neutron = 1.6726 * 10^-27 (1 amu, or 1/12 of Carbon-12 as reference) Deuteron is the nucleus of deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen that contains 1 proton and 1 neutron Mass defect = difference between the mass of any bound nucleus and the sum of the masses of its nucleons The missing mass was converted into energy when the deuteron was formed, also represents the amount of energy needed to break the deuteron (tells us how strongly the nucleus us bound, called the binding energy) Einsteins mass-energy equivalence equation = E=mc^2 Binding energy per nucleon = binding energy/ number of nucleons Stability of a nucleus depends on the ability of the nuclear force to balance the Coulomb forces between the protons Nuclides are ultimately unstable and undergo spontaneous restructuring to be more stable (called radioactive, and they change into a lower-energy configuration) When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay, it emits an alpha particle, consists of two protons and neutrons (same as helium) happens to large nuclei Mass number is conserved and charge is conserved The decaying nuclide is the parent and the resulting nuclide is the parent 3 types of beta decay When the N to P ratio too large, it undergoes B- decay (neutron transforms into a proton and electron and the electron is ejected-called the beta particle) Transformation of a neutron into a proton and electron (and another particle called the electron-antineutrino (V (e) with a bar over v) is caused by the weak nuclear force B+ decay is when the N to P ratio is too small, so the proton is transformed into a neutron and a positron (the electrons anti-particle) plus another particle called the electron-neutrino (v (e)) Electron capture = a nucleus increases it neutron to proton ratio by capturing an orbiting electron, which changes a proton into a neutron Gamma decay = does not alter the identity of the nucleus, it just shed energy Photon of energy is a gamma ray

As a radioactive sample decays, the number of decays per second decreases, but the decay constant doesnt The decay constant = the fraction of nuclei that decay per second Activity of a radioactive sample = number of disintegrations it undergoes per second, it decreases with time according to the equation A = A (o) e^-(lambda) t Where A (o) is when the t = 0 and lambda is the decay constant Decay is expressed in disintegrations per second (1 disintegrations per second is one Becquerel (Bq)) Greater the value of lambda, the faster it decays Half-life time required for half of a sample to decay M = M(o) (1/2)^ t/T (where t = time and T is the time for 1 decay) Exponential decay curve = when the samples activity or mass is graphed as a function of time Bombardment of target nuclei with subatomic particles to induce radioactivity (nuclear fission) Nuclear fusion = small nuclei at extremely high temps (bombarded together to induce radioactivity) A + B = C + D + Q (Q is the disintegration energy) IF Q is positive, the reaction is exothermic and can occur spontaneously, if Q is negative, it is endothermic and cannot occur spontaneously Q is calculated through [(M(a) + M(b)) (M(c) + M(d))] c^2 Einsteins theory of relativity: -all the laws are the same in all inertial reference frames (where the Newtons first law holds) -the speed of light in vacuum has the same value, regardless of the motion of the source or observer Any reference frame that moves with constant velocity relative to the first one will also be inertial V (measured by you) = U + V/ (1 + UV/C^2) where u = velocity of the reference frame (you) and v is the velocity of the object moving parallel to you Like if you were on a train, and a ball whizzes past you, you would be the reference frame (with the trains velocity) and the ball would be the object moving Time is also relativistic (time flows slower in stronger g-fields) The relativistic factor = = 1/ (radical (1 (v/c) ^2)), where gamma is greater than 1

Length is also relative L (2) the length perceived by you = L (1), the length of the object/ Since gamma is greater than 1, the length you measure is always shorter (called length contraction) Mass is regarded as a type of energy (rest energy) ie. Like in mass defect If v is close to c (object is moving at relativistic speed), you use the formula KE = (gamma 1) mc^2 An objects total energy, is now defined as the sum of its rest energy and its kinetic energy E (total) = gamma (mc^2) If we plot the kinetic energy of a particle of mass m as a function of its speed v, we get the graph:

KE (dotted line is C)

V As V approaches C, the objects KE reaches infinity Therefore, it is impossible for a material particle to move at the speed of light (or greater than it)