Professional Documents
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in any form or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, transmitted, or adapted in whole or in part without the prior written consent of Jeppesen. Copyright in all materials bound within these covers or attached hereto, excluding that material which is used with the permission of third parties and acknowledged as such, belongs exclusively to Jeppesen. Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the International Civil Aviation Organisation, the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority, and the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA). This book has been written and published to assist students enrolled in an approved JAA Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) course in preparation for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations. Nothing in the content of this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or advice relating to practical flying. Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained within this book, neither Jeppesen nor Atlantic Flight Training gives any warranty as to its accuracy or otherwise. Students preparing for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substitute for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current edition of JAR-FCL 1 Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes) (the Syllabus). The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in a JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for, or is entitled to enter himself/herself for, the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations without first being enrolled in a training school which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training.
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JA310114-000
Printed in Germany
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PREFACE_______________________
As the world moves toward a single standard for international pilot licensing, many nations have adopted the syllabi and regulations of the Joint Aviation Requirements-Flight Crew Licensing" (JAR-FCL), the licensing agency of the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA). Though training and licensing requirements of individual national aviation authorities are similar in content and scope to the JAA curriculum, individuals who wish to train for JAA licences need access to study materials which have been specifically designed to meet the requirements of the JAA licensing system. The volumes in this series aim to cover the subject matter tested in the JAA ATPL ground examinations as set forth in the ATPL training syllabus, contained in the JAA publication, JAR-FCL 1 (Aeroplanes). The JAA regulations specify that all those who wish to obtain a JAA ATPL must study with a flying training organisation (FTO) which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training. While the formal responsibility to prepare you for both the skill tests and the ground examinations lies with the FTO, these Jeppesen manuals will provide a comprehensive and necessary background for your formal training. Jeppesen is acknowledged as the world's leading supplier of flight information services, and provides a full range of print and electronic flight information services, including navigation data, computerised flight planning, aviation software products, aviation weather services, maintenance information, and pilot training systems and supplies. Jeppesen counts among its customer base all US airlines and the majority of international airlines worldwide. It also serves the large general and business aviation markets. These manuals enable you to draw on Jeppesens vast experience as an acknowledged expert in the development and publication of pilot training materials. We at Jeppesen wish you success in your flying and training, and we are confident that your study of these manuals will be of great value in preparing for the JAA ATPL ground examinations. The next three pages contain a list and content description of all the volumes in the ATPL series.
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ATPL Series
Meteorology (JAR Ref 050)
The Atmosphere Wind Thermodynamics Clouds and Fog Precipitation Air Masses and Fronts Pressure System Climatology Flight Hazards Meteorological Information
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1
Definitions Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................1-1 Terms............................................................................................................................................................1-1
CHAPTER 2
The Operator and the Air Operations Certificate Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................2-1 Certification ...................................................................................................................................................2-1 Operator........................................................................................................................................................2-1 General Rules for Certification ......................................................................................................................2-1 Conditions to be Met for Issue ......................................................................................................................2-2 Variation and Validity of an AOC...................................................................................................................2-2 Quality System..............................................................................................................................................2-2 Responsibilities .............................................................................................................................................2-2 Operator Responsibilities ..............................................................................................................................2-2 Familiarity with Rules and Regulations .........................................................................................................2-3 Responsibilities for Flight Operations............................................................................................................2-3 Operator Responsibilities ..............................................................................................................................2-3 Concerning Passengers................................................................................................................................2-3 Carriage of Passengers and Cargo...............................................................................................................2-4 Special Considerations for Special Passenger Categories ...........................................................................2-4 Persons on the Flight Deck ...........................................................................................................................2-4 Safety Concerns ...........................................................................................................................................2-4 Documents....................................................................................................................................................2-5 Flight Documents ..........................................................................................................................................2-5 Documentation to be Kept on the Ground.....................................................................................................2-6 Preservation of Documents...........................................................................................................................2-6 Commercial Practices and Associated Rules................................................................................................2-6 Leasing .........................................................................................................................................................2-6 Leasing of Aeroplanes between JAA Operators ...........................................................................................2-7 Leasing of Aeroplanes between a JAA Operator and Any Body Other Than a JAA Operator ......................2-7 Leasing of Aeroplanes at Short Notice..........................................................................................................2-8 Aeroplane Maintenance ................................................................................................................................2-8
CHAPTER 3
Flights Operations The Operations Manual (OM) .......................................................................................................................3-1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................3-1 Content .........................................................................................................................................................3-1 Acceptability..................................................................................................................................................3-1 Usability ........................................................................................................................................................3-2 Procedures....................................................................................................................................................3-3 Taxiing of Aircraft ..........................................................................................................................................3-3 Minimum Equipment List (MEL) ....................................................................................................................3-3 Master MEL (MMEL) .....................................................................................................................................3-3 Flight Preparation..........................................................................................................................................3-4 Documentation..............................................................................................................................................3-4 Operational Flight Planning...........................................................................................................................3-4 Passenger Briefings ......................................................................................................................................3-5 Passenger Seat Belts ...................................................................................................................................3-5 Smoking on Board Aeroplanes .....................................................................................................................3-5 Refuelling with Passengers on Board ...........................................................................................................3-5 Oxygen Supply..............................................................................................................................................3-5 Aeroplane Flight Crew ..................................................................................................................................3-6 General .........................................................................................................................................................3-6
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CHAPTER 3 (continued)
Commander/Pilot in Command .................................................................................................................... 3-6 Duties........................................................................................................................................................... 3-7 Co-pilot......................................................................................................................................................... 3-7 Cruise Relief Crew ....................................................................................................................................... 3-7 Flight Engineer (System Panel Operator) .................................................................................................... 3-7 Flight Navigator ............................................................................................................................................ 3-7 Pilot Proficiency Checks............................................................................................................................... 3-8 Line Checks ................................................................................................................................................. 3-8 Emergency and Safety Equipment............................................................................................................... 3-8 Training and Checking ................................................................................................................................. 3-8 Duty Stations................................................................................................................................................ 3-8 Flight Operations Officer/Flight Dispatcher (FOPSO/FDO) .......................................................................... 3-9 In-Flight Operational Instructions ................................................................................................................. 3-9 Journey Log ................................................................................................................................................. 3-9
CHAPTER 4
Operational Planning Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4-1 Alternate Aerodromes .................................................................................................................................. 4-1 Take-Off Alternate........................................................................................................................................ 4-1 Destination Alternate.................................................................................................................................... 4-2 All Aeroplanes .............................................................................................................................................. 4-2 Propeller-Driven Aeroplanes ........................................................................................................................ 4-2 Aeroplanes equipped with Turbo-jet Engines............................................................................................... 4-3 Weather Conditions...................................................................................................................................... 4-4 VMC ............................................................................................................................................................. 4-4 VMC JAR OPS Criteria ................................................................................................................................ 4-5 Selection of the Route.................................................................................................................................. 4-5 Criteria ......................................................................................................................................................... 4-5 Adequate Aerodromes ................................................................................................................................. 4-5 ETOPS......................................................................................................................................................... 4-6 Performance Class A ................................................................................................................................... 4-6 Performance Class B or C ........................................................................................................................... 4-6 Ditching Considerations ............................................................................................................................... 4-7 Landing Requirements ................................................................................................................................. 4-7 Performance Class A ................................................................................................................................... 4-7 Performance Class B and C......................................................................................................................... 4-7 Minimum Time Routes ................................................................................................................................. 4-7 Commanders Considerations ...................................................................................................................... 4-8 Filing the ATS Flight Plan (FPL)................................................................................................................... 4-8 Flights Subject to Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM).............................................................................. 4-9 Flights into Oceanic Airspace....................................................................................................................... 4-9
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CHAPTER 5
The Aeroplane Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................5-1 Basic Requirements......................................................................................................................................5-1 Internal Doors and Curtains ..........................................................................................................................5-1 First Aid Kits..................................................................................................................................................5-2 Hand-Held Fire Extinguishers .......................................................................................................................5-2 Break-in Markings .........................................................................................................................................5-3 Cockpit Voice Recorders (CVRs)..................................................................................................................5-3 Data Recorded..............................................................................................................................................5-4 CVRs Operation, Construction and Installation..........................................................................................5-4 Flight Data Recorders (FDRs).......................................................................................................................5-5 Parameters Recorded...................................................................................................................................5-5 Data Link Communications ...........................................................................................................................5-5 Recording Duration .......................................................................................................................................5-5 Construction and Installation.........................................................................................................................5-6 Operation of FDRS .......................................................................................................................................5-6 Combination Recorders ................................................................................................................................5-6 Flight Recorder Records ...............................................................................................................................5-6 Equipment for Compliance with Flight Rules.................................................................................................5-6 Controlled VFR Flights ..................................................................................................................................5-6 Compliance with IFR.....................................................................................................................................5-7 Standby Horizon ...........................................................................................................................................5-7 Night Operations ...........................................................................................................................................5-8 Flights Over Water ........................................................................................................................................5-8 Long Range Flights.......................................................................................................................................5-8 Remote Areas ...............................................................................................................................................5-8 Weather Radar..............................................................................................................................................5-9 Radiation Monitoring Indicator ......................................................................................................................5-9 Machmeter ....................................................................................................................................................5-9 Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS).................................................................................................5-9 Communications Equipment .......................................................................................................................5-10 Internal Communications ............................................................................................................................5-10 Audio Selector Panel (ASP) ........................................................................................................................5-10 Navigation Equipment .................................................................................................................................5-11 Instrument Procedures................................................................................................................................5-11 Installation...................................................................................................................................................5-11 Electrical Circuit Fusing ..............................................................................................................................5-11 Windshield Wipers ......................................................................................................................................5-11 Emergency and Survival Equipment ...........................................................................................................5-11 Performance and Operating Limitations......................................................................................................5-12 Factors Affecting Aeroplane Performance ..................................................................................................5-12 Mass Limitations .........................................................................................................................................5-12 Take-Off ......................................................................................................................................................5-12 Enroute One Power-Unit Inoperative......................................................................................................5-13 Enroute Two Power-Units Inoperative ....................................................................................................5-13 Landing .......................................................................................................................................................5-13 Aeroplane Performance Operating Limitations ...........................................................................................5-13
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CHAPTER 6
Operating the Aeroplane Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 6-1 Performance Considerations Enroute ....................................................................................................... 6-1 Performance Class A One Engine Inoperative.......................................................................................... 6-1 Compliance .................................................................................................................................................. 6-2 Performance Class A Aeroplanes with Three or More Engines, Two Engines Inoperative ....................... 6-3 Performance Class B Multi-Engine Aeroplanes ........................................................................................ 6-4 Performance Class B Single-Engine Aeroplanes ...................................................................................... 6-4 Performance Class C All Engines Operating ............................................................................................ 6-4 Performance Class C One Engine Inoperative.......................................................................................... 6-4 Performance Class C Aeroplanes with Three or More Engines, Two Engines Inoperative....................... 6-5 Selection of Cruising Speed and Altitude ..................................................................................................... 6-5 Endurance.................................................................................................................................................... 6-5 Maximum Range .......................................................................................................................................... 6-5 Shortest Time............................................................................................................................................... 6-6
CHAPTER 7
Aerodrome Operating Minima and Low Visibility Operations Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 7-1 Aircraft Categorisation.................................................................................................................................. 7-1 Terminology ................................................................................................................................................. 7-2 Take-Off Minima........................................................................................................................................... 7-3 General ........................................................................................................................................................ 7-3 Visual Reference.......................................................................................................................................... 7-3 Required RVR/Visibility ................................................................................................................................ 7-3 Non-Precision Approach System Minima..................................................................................................... 7-5 Minimum Descent Height ............................................................................................................................. 7-5 Visual Reference.......................................................................................................................................... 7-5 Required RVR .............................................................................................................................................. 7-6 Night Operations .......................................................................................................................................... 7-7 Precision Approach - Category I Operations ................................................................................................ 7-7 General ........................................................................................................................................................ 7-7 Decision Height ............................................................................................................................................ 7-7 Visual Reference.......................................................................................................................................... 7-8 Required RVR .............................................................................................................................................. 7-8 Single Pilot Operations................................................................................................................................. 7-8 Night Operations .......................................................................................................................................... 7-8 Precision Approach - Category II Operations ............................................................................................... 7-9 General ........................................................................................................................................................ 7-9 Decision Height ............................................................................................................................................ 7-9 Visual Reference.......................................................................................................................................... 7-9 Required RVR ............................................................................................................................................ 7-10 Precision Approach - Category III Operations ............................................................................................ 7-10 General ...................................................................................................................................................... 7-10 Category IIIA Operations............................................................................................................................ 7-10 Category IIIB Operations............................................................................................................................ 7-10 Category IIIC Operations ........................................................................................................................... 7-10 Decision Height .......................................................................................................................................... 7-10 No Decision Height Operations .................................................................................................................. 7-11 Visual Reference........................................................................................................................................ 7-11 Required RVR ............................................................................................................................................ 7-11 Circling ....................................................................................................................................................... 7-12 Visual Approach ......................................................................................................................................... 7-12 Conversion of Reported Meteorological Visibility to RVR........................................................................... 7-12 Low Visibility Operations ............................................................................................................................ 7-12 General Operating Rules ........................................................................................................................... 7-12 LV Take-off ................................................................................................................................................ 7-12
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 7 (continued)
Aerodrome Considerations .........................................................................................................................7-13 Operating Procedures .................................................................................................................................7-13 Minimum Equipment ...................................................................................................................................7-13 Commencement and Continuation of Approach .........................................................................................7-13 Controlling RVR ..........................................................................................................................................7-13 Special VFR ................................................................................................................................................7-14
CHAPTER 8
Special Operational Procedures and Hazards Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................8-1 Ice and Other Contaminants .........................................................................................................................8-1 Icing ..............................................................................................................................................................8-1 Ice Removal ..................................................................................................................................................8-2 De-Icing on the Ground.................................................................................................................................8-2 De-Icing/Anti-Icing Fluids ..............................................................................................................................8-3 Holdover Times.............................................................................................................................................8-3 Fire and Smoke.............................................................................................................................................8-3 Fire................................................................................................................................................................8-3 Carburettor Fire.............................................................................................................................................8-3 Engine Fire....................................................................................................................................................8-4 Hand Fire Extinguishers................................................................................................................................8-4 Class of Fires ................................................................................................................................................8-5 Fire Detection................................................................................................................................................8-5 Brake Overheat.............................................................................................................................................8-6 Crash Axes and Crowbars ............................................................................................................................8-6 Smoke ..........................................................................................................................................................8-6 Smoke in the Cargo Compartment................................................................................................................8-6 Security Requirements..................................................................................................................................8-6 Training Programmes ...................................................................................................................................8-6 Aeroplane Search Procedure Checklist ........................................................................................................8-7 Reporting Acts of Unlawful Interference........................................................................................................8-7 Aeroplane Search Procedure Checklist ........................................................................................................8-7 Flight Crew Compartment Security ...............................................................................................................8-7 Weapons.......................................................................................................................................................8-7 Unlawful Interference Annex 2 ...................................................................................................................8-7 Procedures If the Aircraft Is Unable To Notify an ATS Unit...........................................................................8-8 Annex 14 - Isolated Aircraft Parking Position ................................................................................................8-8 Fuel Jettisoning System ................................................................................................................................8-8 Fuel Jettisoning Procedures..........................................................................................................................8-9 Pressurisation Failure .................................................................................................................................8-10 Windshear and Microburst Definitions and the Meteorological Background ...............................................8-12 Low Altitude Windshear ..............................................................................................................................8-12 Meteorological Features .............................................................................................................................8-12 Thunderstorms............................................................................................................................................8-12 Frontal Passage..........................................................................................................................................8-13 Inversions....................................................................................................................................................8-13 Turbulent Boundary Layer...........................................................................................................................8-13 Topographical Windshear ...........................................................................................................................8-13 The Effects of Windshear on an Aircraft in Flight ........................................................................................8-14 Summary.....................................................................................................................................................8-15 Techniques to Counter the Effects of Windshear........................................................................................8-15 Wake Turbulence........................................................................................................................................8-16 Aircraft Wake Vortex Characteristics ..........................................................................................................8-16 Wake Vortex Avoidance Advice to Pilots .................................................................................................8-17 Wake Turbulence Spacing ..........................................................................................................................8-17 Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima Displaced Landing Threshold ...........................................................8-18 Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima Opposite Direction ............................................................................8-18
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CHAPTER 8 (continued)
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima Crossing and Parallel Runways ....................................................... 8-19 Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima Intermediate Approach .................................................................... 8-19 Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air........................................................................................................ 8-19 Terminology ............................................................................................................................................... 8-19 Dangerous Goods Categories.................................................................................................................... 8-22 Requirements............................................................................................................................................. 8-22 Dangerous Goods on an Aeroplane for Operating Reasons...................................................................... 8-22 Loading Restrictions................................................................................................................................... 8-22 Cargo Compartments................................................................................................................................. 8-23 Packing and Labelling ................................................................................................................................ 8-23 Information for Passengers and Other Persons ......................................................................................... 8-23 Information to Crew Members .................................................................................................................... 8-23 Information to the Commander................................................................................................................... 8-23 Information in the Event of an Aeroplane Incident or Accident................................................................... 8-23 Contaminated Runways ............................................................................................................................. 8-23 Terminology ............................................................................................................................................... 8-23 Aquaplaning (Hydroplaning)....................................................................................................................... 8-24 Stationary Tyre........................................................................................................................................... 8-25 Recommendations ..................................................................................................................................... 8-25 Wheel Braking on Wet Runways................................................................................................................ 8-25 Interpretation .............................................................................................................................................. 8-26 Snow, Slush, or Ice on a Runway .............................................................................................................. 8-26 Bird Hazard Reduction ............................................................................................................................... 8-27 Bird Hazards and Strikes ........................................................................................................................... 8-27 IBIS ............................................................................................................................................................ 8-27 Noise Abatement Procedures .................................................................................................................... 8-28 Noise Abatement Departure Procedure 1 (NADP1) ................................................................................... 8-29 Noise Abatement Departure Procedure 2 (NADP2) ................................................................................... 8-30 Noise Abatement on Approach .................................................................................................................. 8-31 Stabilised Approach ................................................................................................................................... 8-31
CHAPTER 9
TRANSOCEANIC AND POLAR FLIGHT Operational Approval and Aircraft System Requirements for Flight in the NAT MNPS Airspace ................. 9-1 Minimum Navigation Performance Specification Airspace (MNPSA) ........................................................... 9-1 RVSM........................................................................................................................................................... 9-3 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................... 9-3 General ........................................................................................................................................................ 9-4 Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT) ....................................................................................................... 9-4 Navigation Requirements for Unrestricted MNPS Airspace Operations....................................................... 9-4 Longitudinal Navigation................................................................................................................................ 9-4 Lateral Navigation ........................................................................................................................................ 9-4 Routes for Aircraft with Only One LRNS ...................................................................................................... 9-5 Routes for Aircraft with Short-Range Navigation Equipment Only ............................................................... 9-5 Special Arrangements for the Penetration of MNPS Airspace by Non-MNPS Approved Aircraft................. 9-5 Equipment Required For Operations at RVSM Levels ................................................................................. 9-5 Special Arrangements for Non-RVSM Approved Aircraft ............................................................................. 9-6 Climb/Descent through RVSM Levels .......................................................................................................... 9-6 Operation at RVSM Levels........................................................................................................................... 9-6
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CHAPTER 10
The Organised Track System (OTS) General .......................................................................................................................................................10-1 Mach Number Technique............................................................................................................................10-1 Description of Terms...................................................................................................................................10-1 Objective .....................................................................................................................................................10-1 Procedures in NAT Oceanic Airspace.........................................................................................................10-1 Procedure after Leaving Oceanic Airspace.................................................................................................10-2 Construction of the Organised Track System (OTS)...................................................................................10-2 The NAT Track Message ............................................................................................................................10-2 NAT Track Message Content......................................................................................................................10-2 Periods of Validity .......................................................................................................................................10-3 OTS Changeover Period.............................................................................................................................10-3
CHAPTER 11
The Polar Track Structure (PTS) General .......................................................................................................................................................11-1 Abbreviated Clearances..............................................................................................................................11-1 Abbreviated Position Reports......................................................................................................................11-1 Polar Track Structure (PTS)........................................................................................................................11-2
CHAPTER 12
Other Routes and Route Structures Within or Adjacent to NAT MNPS Airspace General .......................................................................................................................................................12-1 Other Routes within NAT MNPS Airspace ..................................................................................................12-1 Route Structures Adjacent to NAT MNPS Airspace....................................................................................12-1 Irish/UK Domestic Route Structures ...........................................................................................................12-1 North American Routes (NARs) ..................................................................................................................12-1 Routes Between North America and the Caribbean Area ...........................................................................12-2 Shannon Oceanic Transition Area (SOTA) .................................................................................................12-2 Brest Oceanic Transition Area (BOTA) .......................................................................................................12-2
CHAPTER 13
Flight Planning for NAT Routes Preferred Route Messages (PRMS) ...........................................................................................................13-1 Flight Plan Requirements............................................................................................................................13-1 Routings......................................................................................................................................................13-1 Flight Levels................................................................................................................................................13-2 Appropriate Direction Levels .......................................................................................................................13-2 ATC Flight Plans .........................................................................................................................................13-2 Filing ...........................................................................................................................................................13-2 Approved Flights .........................................................................................................................................13-2 Mach Number and Speed ...........................................................................................................................13-2 Flights Planning on the Organised Track System .......................................................................................13-2 Flights Planning on Random Route Segments at/or South of 70N ............................................................13-3 Flights Planning on a Generally Eastbound or Westbound Direction on Random Route Segments North of 70N............................................................................................13-3 Flights Planning on Random Routes in a Generally Northbound or Southbound Direction ........................13-3 Flights Planning on the Polar Track Structure (PTS) ..................................................................................13-3 Flights Planning to Operate Without HF Communications ..........................................................................13-3
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CHAPTER 14
Oceanic ATC Clearances General ...................................................................................................................................................... 14-1 Performance Limitation .............................................................................................................................. 14-1 Clearance Delivery..................................................................................................................................... 14-1 Critical Failure ............................................................................................................................................ 14-1 ETA at OCA Boundary ............................................................................................................................... 14-1 Different Route ........................................................................................................................................... 14-2 Clearance Elements................................................................................................................................... 14-2 Clearance Not Received ............................................................................................................................ 14-2 Contents of Clearances.............................................................................................................................. 14-3 Oceanic Clearances for Flights Intending To Operate Within the NAT Region and Subsequently Enter the EUR or NAM Regions....................................................................................... 14-3 Oceanic Clearances for Random Flights Intending To Operate Within the NAT Region and Subsequently Enter Regions Other Than NAM or EUR ......................................................................... 14-3 Oceanic Flights Originating From the CAR or SAM Regions and Entering NAT MNPS Airspace via the New York OCA............................................................................................................................ 14-4 Errors Associated With Oceanic Clearances ............................................................................................. 14-4 Waypoint Insertion Errors........................................................................................................................... 14-4 ATC System Loop Error ............................................................................................................................. 14-4
CHAPTER 15
Communications and Position Reporting Procedures HF Communications................................................................................................................................... 15-1 VHF Communications ................................................................................................................................ 15-1 Time and Place of Position Reports ........................................................................................................... 15-1 Contents of Position Reports ..................................................................................................................... 15-1 Standard Message Types .......................................................................................................................... 15-2 Addressing of Position Reports .................................................................................................................. 15-2 When Able Higher (WAH) Reports .......................................................................................................... 15-2 Meteorological Reports .............................................................................................................................. 15-3 SELCAL ..................................................................................................................................................... 15-3 General Purpose VHF Communications (GP/VHF).................................................................................... 15-3 Data Link Communications ........................................................................................................................ 15-4 HF Communications Failure....................................................................................................................... 15-4 General ...................................................................................................................................................... 15-4 Communications Failure Prior to Entering NAT Region ............................................................................. 15-4 Communications Failure after Entering NAT Region.................................................................................. 15-5 Procedure .................................................................................................................................................. 15-5 Operation of Transponders ........................................................................................................................ 15-5 Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS) ......................................................................................... 15-5
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CHAPTER 16
MNPS Flight Operation and Navigation Procedures Flight Operation ..........................................................................................................................................16-1 Importance of Accurate Time ......................................................................................................................16-1 The Use of the Master Document ...............................................................................................................16-1 GPS Operational Control Restrictions.........................................................................................................16-2 Effects of Satellite Availability .....................................................................................................................16-2 Flight Plan Check........................................................................................................................................16-2 In Flight Procedures ....................................................................................................................................16-2 ATC Oceanic Clearance .............................................................................................................................16-2 Navigation Procedures................................................................................................................................16-3 Entering the MNPS Airspace and Reaching an Oceanic Waypoint ............................................................16-3 Approaching Landfall ..................................................................................................................................16-3 Avoiding Confusion between Magnetic and True Track Reference ............................................................16-3 Navigation in the Areas of Compass Unreliability .......................................................................................16-3
CHAPTER 17
Grid Navigation Introduction .................................................................................................................................................17-1 Grid and Plotting on a Polar Chart ..............................................................................................................17-1 Gyros and Inertial Systems .........................................................................................................................17-4 Precession ..................................................................................................................................................17-4 Types of Gyro .............................................................................................................................................17-5 Space (or Free) Gyro ..................................................................................................................................17-5 Tied (or Displacement) Gyro .......................................................................................................................17-5 Earth Gyro...................................................................................................................................................17-5 Rate Gyro....................................................................................................................................................17-5 Rate Integrating Gyro..................................................................................................................................17-5 Solid State (Ring Laser) Gyro .....................................................................................................................17-5 Gyro Wander...............................................................................................................................................17-5 Real Wander ...............................................................................................................................................17-5 Apparent Wander........................................................................................................................................17-6 Horizontal Axis Gyro ...................................................................................................................................17-6 Transport Wander .......................................................................................................................................17-7 Examples of Gyro Wander ..........................................................................................................................17-7
CHAPTER 18
Procedures in the Event of Navigation System Degradation or Failure General .......................................................................................................................................................18-1 Detection of Failures ...................................................................................................................................18-1 Methods of Determining which System is Faulty.........................................................................................18-1 Guidance on What Constitutes a Failed System.........................................................................................18-2 GPS Satellite Fault Detection Outage.........................................................................................................18-2 Partial or Complete Loss of Navigation/FMS Capability by Aircraft Having State Approval for Unrestricted Operations in MNPS Airspace.............................................................................................18-2 Monitoring ...................................................................................................................................................18-3 Complete Failure of Navigation Systems Computer ...................................................................................18-3
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CHAPTER 19
Regional Supplementary Procedures Doc 7030/4: North Atlantic (NAT) and European (EUR) Supps North Atlantic (NAT) Region....................................................................................................................... 19-1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 19-1 MNPS Specifications.................................................................................................................................. 19-1 Flight Planning ........................................................................................................................................... 19-1 Separation of Aircraft ................................................................................................................................. 19-1 Lateral Separation...................................................................................................................................... 19-1 Longitudinal Separation ............................................................................................................................. 19-2 Western Atlantic Route System (WATRS) ................................................................................................. 19-2 Operations Not Meeting the MNPS Airspace Except the WATRS ............................................................. 19-2 European (EUR) Region ............................................................................................................................ 19-3 Submission of Flight Plans ......................................................................................................................... 19-3 8.33 KHz Spacing ...................................................................................................................................... 19-3 Separation of Aircraft ................................................................................................................................. 19-3 Longitudinal Separation ............................................................................................................................. 19-3 Transfer of Radar Control .......................................................................................................................... 19-3
CHAPTER 20
In-Flight Contingencies Emergency and Precautionary Landings ................................................................................................... 20-1 General ...................................................................................................................................................... 20-1 Ditching ...................................................................................................................................................... 20-1 Precautionary Landing ............................................................................................................................... 20-2 Passenger Briefing..................................................................................................................................... 20-2 Evacuation ................................................................................................................................................. 20-2 North Atlantic Procedures .......................................................................................................................... 20-3 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 20-3 General Procedures ................................................................................................................................... 20-3 Special Procedures .................................................................................................................................... 20-3 Wake Turbulence ....................................................................................................................................... 20-4 TCAS Alerts and Warnings ........................................................................................................................ 20-4
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We would like to thank and acknowledge: For photographs and assistance Page 1-9 Mr. Ashley Gibb
INTRODUCTION
The examinable subject Operational Procedures encompasses aspects of Air Law, Airworthiness of Aircraft, requirements for the Issue of an Air Operators Certificate, and emergency procedures as laid down in Annex 6 to the Chicago Convention and JAR OPS-1. The Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) of Annex 6 (part 1) are applicable to Operators authorised to carry out international commercial air transportation operations (both scheduled and non-scheduled). The pre-amble to JAR OPS-1 states that it has been issued with no national variants, hence it may not contain all the information some authorities and organisations would like to see in the document. As with all JARs, it is a living document and is subject to frequent amendment and updating. For this reason, the Learning objectives (LOs) for this subject are general rather than specific in requiring the student to memorise the content of JAR OPS-1. Annex 6 lays down the SARPs for Aircraft Operations and the student will be familiar with some of the content from the study of Air Law. Additional material is based on the current version 9 of the North Atlantic MNPS Operations Manual, and from JAR 25 Large Aeroplanes. This text is based on JAR OPS-1 including amendment 5 dated March 2003. It is emphasised that this text is not for use as a reference for operational procedures, only for examination preparation. For matters relating to regulation, the reader must use a current version of the document, amended to the current amendment state. The Learning Objectives for 070 Operational Procedures require the student to familiarise themselves with the definitions used in the reference documents, reproduced below.
TERMS
Aerial work An aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialised services such as agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, aerial advertisement, etc. Operational Procedures 1-1
Chapter 1
Definitions
Aerodrome A defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations, and equipment) intended for use either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and surface movement of aircraft. Aerodrome operating minima The limits of usability of an aerodrome for: Take-off, expressed in terms of runway visual range and/or visibility and, if necessary, cloud conditions; Landing in precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility and/or runway visual range and decision altitude/height (DA/H) as appropriate to the category of the operation; and Landing in non-precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility and/or runway visual range, minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H) and, if necessary, cloud conditions. Aeroplane A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight. Aircraft Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air other than the reactions of the air against the Earths surface. Aircraft operating manual A manual acceptable to the State of the Operator, containing normal, abnormal and emergency procedures, checklists, limitations, performance information, details of the aircraft systems and other material relevant to the operation of the aircraft. The aircraft operating manual is part of the operations manual. Air operator certificate (AOC) A certificate authorising an operator to carry out specified commercial air transport operations. Alternate aerodrome The aerodrome an aircraft proceeds to when it becomes either impossible or inadvisable to proceed to, or to land at, the aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate aerodromes include the following: Take-off alternate An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft can land, if necessary shortly after take-off and it is not possible to use the aerodrome of departure. Enroute alternate An aerodrome at which an aircraft is able to land after experiencing an abnormal or emergency condition while enroute. ETOPS enroute alternate A suitable and appropriate alternate aerodrome at which an aeroplane is able to land after experiencing an engine shut-down or other abnormal or emergency condition while enroute in an ETOPS operation. 1-2 Operational Procedures
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Destination alternate An alternate aerodrome that an aircraft may proceed to if it becomes either impossible or inadvisable to land at the intended aerodrome. Note: The aerodrome that a flight departs from may also be an enroute or a destination alternate aerodrome for that flight. Approved by the Authority (JAR) Approval given by a JAA regulatory National Aviation Authority for compliance with the approved standard or procedure. Approved Standard (JAR) A manufacturing/design/maintenance/quality standard approved by the Authority. Cabin attendant A crewmember who performs, in the interest of safety of passengers, duties assigned by the operator or the pilot-in-command of the aircraft, but who shall not act as a flight crewmember. Commercial air transport operation An aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers, cargo, or mail for remuneration or hire. Configuration deviation list (CDL) A list established by the organisation responsible for the type design with the approval of the State of Design which identifies any external parts of an aircraft type which may be missing at the commencement of a flight , and contains, where necessary, any information on associated operating limitations and performance correction. Crewmember A person assigned by an operator to duty on all aircraft during flight time. Cruising level A level maintained during a significant portion of a flight. Dangerous goods Articles or substances capable of posing significant risk to health, safety, or property when transported by air. Decision altitude (DA) or decision height (DH) A specified altitude or height, during a precision approach, at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been established. Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level, and decision height (DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation.
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Decision Point Decision: Missed Approach Decision Height (DH) Decision: Land Runway The required visual reference means that section of the visual aids or of the approach area which must be in view for sufficient time for the pilot to assess the aircraft position and rate of change of position, in relation to the desired flight path. In Category III operations with a decision height, the required visual reference is that specified for the particular procedure and operation. For convenience, when using both expressions, they may be written in the form decision altitude/height and abbreviated DA/H. Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) Generic term describing equipment that broadcasts distinctive signals on designated frequencies and, depending on application, may either sense a crash and operate automatically or be manually activated. An ELT may be any of the following: Automatic fixed ELT (ELT (AF)) An ELT permanently attached to an aircraft. Automatic portable ELT (ELT (AP)) An ELT, rigidly attached to an aircraft, but readily removable from the aircraft after a crash. Automatically deployable ELT (ELT (AD)) An ELT rigidly attached to an aircraft, and deployed automatically in response to a crash. Also possible is manual deployment. Survival ELT (ELT(S)) An ELT, removable from an aircraft and stowed, facilitates its ready use in an emergency and activated by survivors. Automatic activation may apply. Flight crewmember A licensed crewmember charged with duties essential to the operation of an aircraft during flight time. Flight duty period The total time from the moment a flight crewmember commences duty, immediately subsequent to a rest period and prior to making a flight or a series of flights, to the moment the flight crewmember is relieved of all duties having completed such flight or series of flights.
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Flight manual A manual, associated with the certificate of airworthiness, containing limitations to consider the aircraft airworthy, and instructions and information necessary to the flight crewmembers for the safe operation of the aircraft. Flight plan Specified information provided to air traffic services units, relative to an intended flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft. Flight recorder Any type of recorder installed in the aircraft for complementing accident/incident investigation. Flight time The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves under its own power for taking off until the moment it comes to rest at the end of the flight. Flight time as defined here is synonymous with the term block to block time or chock to chock time in general usage, measured from the time an aircraft moves from the loading point until it stops at the unloading point. General aviation operation An aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation or an aerial work operation. Human Factors principles Principles which apply to aeronautical design, certification, training, operations, and maintenance and which seek safe interface between the human and other system components by proper consideration to human performance. Human performance Human capabilities and limitations affecting the safety and efficiency of aeronautical operations. Instrument approach and landing operations Instrument approach and landing operations using instrument approach procedures are classified as follows: Non-precision approach and landing operations An instrument approach and landing which does not utilise electronic glide path guidance. Precision approach and landing operations An instrument approach and landing using precision azimuth and glide path guidance with minima as determined by the category of operation.
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Definitions
Categories of precision approach and landing operations: Category I (CAT I) operation A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height not lower than 60 m (200 ft) and with either a visibility not less than 800 m or a runway visual range not less than 550 m. Category II (CAT II) operation A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height lower than 60 m (200 ft), but not lower than 30 m (100 ft), and a runway visual range not less than 350 m. Category IIIA (CAT IIIA) operation A precision instrument approach and landing with: a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft) or no decision height, and a runway visual range not less than 200 m. Category IIIB (CAT IIIB) operation A precision instrument approach and landing with: a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft) or no decision height, and a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less than 50 m. Category IIIC (CAT IIIC) operation A precision instrument approach and landing with no decision height and no runway visual range limitations. Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, less than the minima specified for visual meteorological conditions. Large aeroplane An aeroplane of a maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5700 kg. Maintenance Tasks required ensuring the continued airworthiness of an aircraft including any one or combination of overhaul, repair, inspection, replacement, modification, or defect rectification. Master minimum equipment list (MMEL) A list established for a particular aircraft type by the organisation responsible for the type design with the approval of the State of Design containing items, one or more of which is permitted as unserviceable at the commencement of a flight. The MMEL may be associated with special operating conditions, limitations, or procedures. Maximum mass Maximum certificated take-off mass.
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Minimum descent altitude (MDA) or minimum descent height (MDH) A specified altitude or height in a non-precision approach or circling approach below which descent must not be made without the required visual reference.
Minimum equipment list (MEL) A list providing for the operation of aircraft, subject to specified conditions, with particular equipment inoperative, prepared by an operator in conformity with, or more restrictive than, the MMEL established for the aircraft type. Night The hours between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight or such other period between sunset and sunrise, as prescribed by the appropriate authority. Note: Civil twilight ends in the evening when the centre of the suns disc is 6 degrees below the horizon and begins in the morning when the centre of the suns disc is 6 degrees below the horizon. Obstacle clearance altitude (OCA) or obstacle clearance height (OCH) The lowest altitude, or the lowest height, above the elevation of the relevant runway threshold or the aerodrome elevation, as applicable, for establishing compliance with appropriate obstacle clearance criteria. Operational control The exercise of authority over the initiation, continuation, diversion, or termination of a flight in the interest of the safety of the aircraft and the regularity and efficiency of the flight. Operational flight plan The operators plan for the safe conduct of the flight based on considerations of aeroplane performance, other operating limitations and relevant expected conditions on the route to be followed and at the relevant aerodromes. Operations manual A manual containing procedures, instructions, and guidance for use by operational personnel in the execution of their duties. Operator A person, organisation, or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in an aircraft operation. Pilot-in-command The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during flight time. Operational Procedures 1-7
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Definitions
Pre-flight Inspection (JAR) The inspection carried out before flight to ensure that the aeroplane is fitted for the intended flight. It does not include any rectification of faults. Pressure-altitude An atmospheric pressure expressed in terms of altitude, which corresponds to that pressure in the Standard Atmosphere. Psychoactive substances These include alcohol, opioids, cannabinoids, sedatives and hypnotics, cocaine, other psycho stimulants (excluding coffee and tobacco), hallucinogens, and volatile solvents. Required navigation performance (RNP) A statement of the navigation performance necessary for operation within a defined airspace. Navigation performance and requirements are defined for a particular RNP type and/or application. Rest period Any period on the ground during which the operator relieves a flight crewmember of all duties. RNP type A containment value expressed as a distance in nautical miles from the intended position within which flights are at least 95 per cent of the total flying time. For example, RNP 4 represents a navigation accuracy of plus or minus 7.4 km (4 nm) on a 95 per cent containment basis. Runway visual range (RVR) The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or identifying its centre line. Small aeroplane An aeroplane with a maximum certificated take-off mass of 5700 kg or less. State of Registry The State on whose register the aircraft is entered. State of the Operator The State in which the operators principal place of business is located or, if there is no such place of business, the operators permanent residence.
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Synthetic flight trainer Any one of the following three types of apparatus in which flight conditions are simulated on the ground: Flight simulator Provides an accurate representation of the flight deck of a particular aircraft type to the extent that the mechanical, electrical, etc., aircraft systems control functions, the normal environment of flight crewmembers, and the performance and flight characteristics of that type of aircraft are realistically simulated.
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Flight procedures trainer Provides a realistic flight deck environment, and which simulates instrument responses, simple control functions of mechanical, electrical, electronic, etc., aircraft systems, and the performance and flight characteristics of aircraft of a particular class.
Paper procedures trainer Basic instrument flight trainer Equipped with appropriate instruments, and simulates the flight deck environment of an aircraft in flight in instrument flight conditions. Visual meteorological conditions (VMC) Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, and distance from clouds.
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INTRODUCTION
In the study of Operational Procedures, concern is for commercial air transportation. According to JAR OPS, this is limited to operators whose place of business is in a JAA state. There is no consideration given to military, customs and police operations, aerial work, parachuting, or firefighting from aeroplanes.
CERTIFICATION
OPERATOR
Before conducting a commercial aviation operation, the operator (see definition) requires approval and possession of an Air Operators Certificate (AOC). The national authority in accordance with JAR OPS-1 approves a JAA operator, whereas a non-JAA operator is approved under regulations in force in the State of the operator.
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Before granting an AOC, the authority looks closely at the organisation and management of the operation and assesses the suitability of the established organisation to run the operation. As well as assessing the level of supervision required and provided, the authority requires an acceptable person, holding a managerial post, be nominated as the accountable manager who has corporate authority to ensure that the operation is properly financed and meets the standards of the authority. Persons are also to be nominated for management and supervision of the following: Flight Operations Maintenance Crew Training Ground Operations For small operations, one person may hold a combination of some of the above posts. Required of the operators is the production of an Operations Manual, and the authority must receive a copy to ensure that all operations are carried out in accordance with the manual. The aircraft used must be fully equipped and properly maintained for the role, and the crews are to be fully trained. A main operating base is to be established and maintained with facilities to meet the needs of the operation.
QUALITY SYSTEM Periodic inspection by the authority achieves a demonstration of compliance with the terms of an AOC. However, this is often time consuming, disruptive to the operation, and costly. Providing the operator establishes a quality system approved by the authority, it is sufficient to have a periodic audit of the quality system.
Within the quality system, a quality assurance programme must be established, and a quality manager appointed to oversee the system. In complex operations (e.g. British Airways), two managers may be appointed, one for flight operations and another for maintenance. The JAA recommended quality system is based on EN ISO 9000. All JAA approved maintenance organisations must have a quality system approved under JAR 145. Where an AOC holder contracts out the maintenance of the aircraft, it is sufficient for the maintenance agency to show JAR 145 approval without further audit of the organisations quality system.
RESPONSIBILITIES
OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES
The Operator runs the operation (has operational control), and is responsible for day-to-day control over any flights conducted under the terms of the AOC. The Operator produces the Operations Manual detailing all aspects of the operation, primarily for the guidance of personnel running the operation.
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The organisation certifies that all personnel involved in the ground and airborne aspects of the operation are fully trained in their particular duties, and are aware of their responsibilities. Crewmembers, other than flight or cabin crew, who may be carried on aeroplanes require proper training (security guards, etc.). Operations and Training Manuals detail the responsibilities and training. The Operations Manual also contains procedures and instructions for each type of aeroplane operated, including check lists for normal and abnormal flight conditions.
FAMILIARITY WITH RULES AND REGULATIONS Operators must ensure that all employees (aircrew and ground crew) know that they are to comply with the laws of the state in which they operate. Flight crews must be familiar with the rules and regulations applicable to the airspace within which they operate. Commanders are to have on board the aircraft all the essential information concerning Search and Rescue (SAR) and the SAR services in the areas where they are flying. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR FLIGHT OPERATIONS It is the Operators responsibility to ensure that crewmembers do not engage in any activity except those applicable to the safe operation of the aeroplane during the critical phases of flight. Due to the nature of the operations involving the safety of members of the public, Operators must specify that Air Traffic Control services are for use wherever and whenever such services are available, implying the conduction of flights in controlled airspace under IFR.
The Operator must also ensure that all the aerodromes for use in flight operations are adequate for the purpose. These include departure and destination aerodromes and all scheduled take-off, enroute, and destination alternate aerodromes. For the use of ad hoc diversion aerodromes for use as bolt holes in an emergency, it is to remain the responsibility of the Commander at the time of the emergency to decide whether or not to use the aerodrome. For the nominated aerodromes, the Operator must calculate and publish aerodrome operating minima (AOM). In addition to assessing the suitability of aerodromes, the Operator must also assess the safety and usability of instrument approach and departure procedures, established by the State in which the aerodrome is located. If there is an ATC clearance offered which is different from the published procedures, the Operator authorises the Commander to use personal discretion after consideration of the obstacle clearance criteria required. Where an Operator wants amended procedures for use by aircraft under operational control, use such procedures only when approved by the State in which the aerodrome is located.
OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES
CONCERNING PASSENGERS The seating configuration of the aircraft must be such that passengers sit in positions where, in the event of an emergency, their presence does not hinder evacuation from the aircraft. Whilst check-in baggage is stowed in the hold of the aircraft, hand baggage, or walk-on baggage, may be carried into the passenger cabin if stowed properly in dedicated stowages, so as not to cause injury or damage, and not to obstruct aisles and exits.
Before taxiing, carry out take-off and landing checks, ensuring unobstructed exits and escape paths, and proper stowing of all hand baggage. Likewise, properly stow all galley equipment.
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CARRIAGE OF PASSENGERS AND CARGO Passengers are only to be accommodated in parts of the aeroplane specifically designed for the seating of passengers. The Commander may permit a passenger temporary access to other parts of the aeroplane to take action for the safety of the aeroplane, persons, animals, and goods on board or to the cargo areas of the aeroplane if such areas are designed for access in flight. The Operator must implement procedures to ensure that no persons are hiding on board the aeroplane. Likewise, procedures are to be established making sure that no unauthorised cargo is loaded on to the aeroplane. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIAL PASSENGER CATEGORIES In order to make sure that people with injuries or disabilities that affect movement (persons with reduced mobility PRMs) and babies are carried with as little disruption as possible, operators must establish procedures for seating such persons so as not to hinder emergency egress from the aircraft, and for their evacuation in the event of an emergency. Inform the Commander when carrying such passengers.
Likewise, when carrying certain categories of passengers subject to judicial deportation, give notification to the Commander that such passengers are on board. These include: Over wing emergency exits (Metroliner) Inadmissible passengers: Passengers refused the right of entry into a destination state and are being returned to the state of departure; Deportees: Passengers judicially deported from a state under due process of law; Persons in custody: Passengers under police arrest, restrained or free.
PERSONS ON THE FLIGHT DECK Access to the flight deck is to be strictly controlled and ultimately only the Commander has the right to admit a person other than constituted flight crew to the flight deck during flight time. Occasionally, persons who are not crewmembers may be admitted to the flight deck, but these are limited to persons whose duty, as defined in the Operations Manual and representatives of the authority responsible for licensing, certification, or inspection, require temporary access to the flight deck. If the flight deck has an access door, the door must lock from the inside. SAFETY CONCERNS The safety of the passengers and crew are of the utmost importance and as such, operators must establish and maintain flight safety and accident prevention programmes. The Operator must have measures in place ensuring that no-one acts in a reckless or negligent manner, endangering an aeroplane.
The use of portable electronic devices on board an aeroplane that can interfere with the aeroplane systems is prohibited. Nobody is permitted to enter an aeroplane or be in an aeroplane when under the influence of alcohol or drugs, to such an extent that the presence of that person endangers the aeroplane or its occupants.
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The ultimate authority on board during flight time is the Commander, and the Operator empowers the Commander in accordance with the Law of the State of Registration and the State of the Operator accordingly. Those on board must obey all lawful commands given by the Commander for the safety of the aeroplane. Where the Commanders commands are not complied with, or must be forcefully imposed, the person failing to obey the Commander is subject to prosecution in the State of Destination or in any State in which the Commander elects to land the aeroplane for that purpose.
DOCUMENTS
FLIGHT DOCUMENTS International agreements require proper documentation of aircraft engaged in scheduled and nonscheduled commercial aviation to prove the status of the aeroplane and crew and also the airworthiness of the aeroplane.
The Authority granting the AOC may demand inspection of the documents and the Operator is to make them available immediately or within a reasonable period. Carry these documents on all flights, including: The Certificate of Registration The Certificate of Airworthiness The original copy of the Noise Certificate (if applicable to the type and mark of aircraft) The original or a copy of the AOC The Aircraft Radio Licence The original, or a copy, of the third party liability Insurance Certificate To enable the crew to carry out their duty and for reference when required, the following manuals (or extracts from manuals) must be carried on all flights: Parts of the Operations Manual containing the duties of the crew Parts of the Operations Manual pertaining to the conduct of the flight The current aeroplane flight manual, unless the Authority has agreed that the Operations Manual contains all that is necessary for that aeroplane The Operator must not conduct the flight without certain documents and forms applicable to that particular flight on board. Representatives of the Authority may inspect these at any time or the Commander may be requested to make them available for inspection within a reasonable period. The documents are: A copy of the Operational Flight Plan The aeroplane technical log Details of the filed ATS flight plan Appropriate NOTAM/AIS briefing material Appropriate meteorological information Mass and balance documentation Notification of special categories of passengers (such as security personnel if not carried as crew, PRMs and inadmissible passengers, deportees and persons in custody) Notification of special loads including written particulars for the Commander of dangerous goods Maps and charts, etc. Other documentation that any of the States involved in the flight may require Forms required for reporting purposes. It is not necessary for all of the documents above to be in paper form. They can be on electronic media or in any method, providing accessibility, usability, and assuring reliability. Operational Procedures 2-5
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DOCUMENTATION TO BE KEPT ON THE GROUND Kept on the ground are certain documents or copies of documents for the duration of a flight or a series of flights. If there is a need to carry such documents in the air, they are to be carried in a fireproof container. These include:
A copy of the operational flight plan Copies of the relevant parts of the technical log Route specific NOTAM if edited by the Operator Mass and balance documentation Specific loads notification
PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS The Operator must preserve the original documents relating to aircraft for the stated retention period, even if the aircraft is scrapped or sold. Crewmembers must retain certain documents (logbooks, licence, documentation, etc.) and make them available to new operators in the event that the crewmember changes employment to another operator.
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LEASING OF AEROPLANES BETWEEN JAA OPERATORS Wet lease-out If a JAA operator retains all functions and responsibilities prescribed in Subpart C of JAROPS when providing an aeroplane and complete crew to another JAA Operator, then that operator remains the operator of the aeroplane.
All leases except wet lease-out Any leasing activity other than the wet lease out described above, requires approval of the appropriate JAA authority.
LEASING OF AEROPLANES BETWEEN A JAA OPERATOR AND ANY BODY OTHER THAN A JAA OPERATOR Dry lease-in A JAA operator may not dry lease-in an aeroplane from any entity other than a JAA operator, unless approved by the Authority. Any conditions that are part of this approval must be included in the lease agreement. The JAA operator shall ensure that, with regard to aeroplanes that are dry leased-in, any differences from the prescribed instrument, navigation, communication and safety equipment are notified to, and are acceptable to, the Authority.
Wet lease-in A JAA operator shall not wet lease-in an aeroplane from a body other than a JAA operator without the approval of the Authority. The JAA operator shall ensure that, with regard to aeroplanes that are wet leased-in: The safety standards of the lessor with respect to maintenance and operation are equivalent to the JAR regulations The lessor is an operator holding an AOC issued by a State which is a signatory to the Chicago Convention The aeroplane has a standard Certificate of Airworthiness issued in accordance with ICAO Annex 8. Standard Certificates of Airworthiness issued by a JAA Member State other than the State responsible for issue the AOC will be accepted when issued in accordance with JAR 21, and Any JAA requirement made applicable by the lessee's Authority is complied with. Dry lease-out A JAA operator may dry lease-out an aeroplane for the purpose of commercial air transportation to any operator of a State which is signatory to the Chicago Convention. In this case, the JAA Authority exempts the JAA operator from the relevant provisions of JAR-OPS Part 1. Further, after the foreign regulatory authority accepts responsibility in writing for surveillance of the maintenance and operation of the aeroplane(s), the aeroplane(s) will be removed from the JAA operator's AOC. Part of the leasing agreement is the maintainence at the aeroplane(s) according to an approved maintenance programme.
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LEASING OF AEROPLANES AT SHORT NOTICE In circumstances where a JAA operator faces an immediate, urgent, and unforeseen need for a replacement aeroplane, the required approval may be deemed as given, provided that the lessor is an operator holding an AOC issued by a State which is a signatory to the Chicago Convention, the lease-in period does not exceed 5 consecutive days, and the Authority is immediately notified of the use of this provision.
AEROPLANE MAINTENANCE
The Operator is responsible for ensuring that any aeroplane used for international commercial aviation fits the purpose. This means the aircraft must be maintained to an appropriate standard, and that after servicing it is released to service in accordance with the approved procedures. To meet the requirements for a JAA Operator, the aircraft must be maintained in accordance with JAR 145 by an organisation approved under JAR 145. The pre-flight inspections do not require carrying out by a JAR 145 approved organisation (i.e. the airline itself may employ personnel to carry out the pre-flight inspections rather than use the contracted maintenance organisation). The standards for maintenance are laid down in JAR 145 for a JAA Operator, and in accordance with Authority approved schedules based on the manufacturers recommended maintenance schedule for non-JAA operators. Failure to maintain the aeroplanes accordingly, results in the suspension/withdrawal of the AOC. If a JAA Operator chooses to have the aeroplanes maintained by a non JAR 145 maintenance organisation, the Operators quality system must include the maintenance of the aircraft including audit arrangements and inspections of aircraft during maintenance. The quality system may also require that all engineers engaged in maintenance of the Operators aircraft be licensed in accordance with ICAO or JAR 145 procedures. If the JAA Operator chooses a JAR 145-approved organisation for maintenance, the requirements for JAR 145 approval include the provision of a quality system, which the Operator can rely on. In either case, the Operator must provide an Operators Maintenance Management Exposition (exposition a detailed explanation), which explains the maintenance process and defines who in the organisation is responsible for maintenance.
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The Operator must also produce a maintenance programme, must include details of the servicing to be carried out and the frequency of inspections, and the servicing cycle.
Because the technology used in aircraft and aircraft maintenance is progressing faster than the regulatory process, the use of alternative means of compliance with the requirements of JAR 145 regarding maintenance is recognised by the Authority. Such technology when approved may be used instead of the specified procedures. The process of determining the acceptability of such technology is defined as the Equivalent Safety Case.
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CONTENT
The OM must conform to the standards laid down in Annex 6 or JAR OPS (for a JAA Operator). The material contained should be original (i.e. produced by the Operator) but where included material is extracted from or copied from other documents or sources, a statement of the fact must also be included. The Operator remains responsible for the accuracy of any included material in the OM, regardless of the source of the material. The OM for a JAA Operator is to be produced in four parts: Part A General/Basic Part B Aeroplane Operating Matters Type related Part C Route and Aerodrome Instructions and Information Part D Training
ACCEPTABILITY
The OM must be approved by the Authority. To this end, standardisation is the key to an acceptable document. IEM (interpretative and explanatory material) to JAR OPS 1.1045 lays down the recommended structure of an acceptable OM. This follows the ICAO model in Annex 6. The LOs require the student to list the contents of the OM.
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Part A contains the following: 0 Administration and Control of the OM 1 Organisation and Responsibilities 2 Operational Control and Supervision 3 Quality System 4 Crew Composition 5 Qualification Requirement 6 Crew Health Precautions 7 Flight Time Limitation 8 Operating Procedures 9 Dangerous Goods and Weapons 10 Security 11 Handling of Incidents and Occurrences 12 Rules of the Air Part B contains the following: 0 General Information and Units of Measurement 1 Limitations 2 Normal Procedures 3 Abnormal and Emergency Procedures 4 Performance 5 Flight Planning 6 Mass and Balance 7 Loading 8 Configuration Deviation List (CDL) 9 Minimum Equipment List (MEL) 10 Survival and Emergency Equipment including Oxygen 11 Emergency Evacuation Procedure 12 Aeroplane Systems Part C contains details of the routes flown by scheduled operations and details of the aerodromes used including take-off, enroute and destination alternative aerodromes. It also contains as much information concerning the services and facilities available along the route and details of agents and organisations contracted or affiliated for use in a diversion situation. Part D includes the following: 1 Training Syllabi and Checking Programmes - General 2 Training Syllabi and Checking 3 Procedures 4 Documentation and Storage
USABILITY
The OM is not just a regulatory requirement. It is meant as a working document and a reference for the operations personnel at work. Selective parts, carried in the aeroplane, assist the Commander in the decision making process and to detail procedures for use in abnormal circumstances. As the employment market in commercial aviation is volatile, operators must standardise the paragraph numbering in OMs so that new employees can readily equate data from the new employers OM to that of their previous employer. Likewise, certain procedures appear at the discretion of the Operator (e.g. Flight Time Limitation) whereas in practice these are strictly regulated and the published procedures must comply exactly with the approved Authority procedures. 3-2 Operational Procedures
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PROCEDURES
TAXIING OF AIRCRAFT
Occasions occur when aircraft must be moved on the ground. Whilst it is always desirable to have a pilot at the controls, this may not always be possible. Ground engineers may, if approved by the Operator, taxi aircraft on the ground. In this situation, the person at the controls must be: Authorised by the Operator (or agent) Fully competent to taxi the aeroplane Qualified to use the aircraft radio Have received instruction from a qualified person regarding: 1. The aerodrome layout 2. Traffic routes 3. Aerodrome signs, markings and lights 4. ATC signals and instructions including RTF phraseology and procedures 5. The operational standards for safe movement of aircraft on the ground
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FLIGHT PREPARATION
DOCUMENTATION
Before commencing any flight, the Commander must be satisfied that the aeroplane is fit and the flight is properly planned (the Rules of the Air require the proper planning of each flight). Specific documentation (retained for three months) is to be prepared and properly certified confirming that: The aeroplane is airworthy The necessary equipment (instruments and systems) is installed and adequate for the flight A maintenance release has been issued for the aeroplane The mass of the aeroplane and the centre of gravity (CofG) location are such that the flight can be conducted safely taking into account the flight conditions expected Any load carried is properly distributed and safely secured The aircraft operating limits have been checked and can be complied with The operational flight plan procedure has been complied with
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PASSENGER BRIEFINGS
Given to all passengers is a briefing before take-off covering the safety and emergency procedures followed. The traditional briefing is given by the cabin crew but modern technology is permitting its replacement with an audio-video tape presentation. The briefing is to contain instructions concerning smoking, seat positions for take-off and landing, emergency exits, floor lighting and markings, stowage of hand baggage, use of portable electronic devices, and the location of the safety brief card. The briefing includes a demonstration of the use of the seat belts, the oxygen equipment and the location and use of the life preservers.
OXYGEN SUPPLY
Modern aeroplanes fly at altitudes where the partial pressure of oxygen is insufficient to support life. For this reason, aeroplanes are pressurised to a much lower altitude where the normal mixture of gasses and the atmospheric pressure is life supporting. A pressurisation system, designed for this purpose, makes this possible.
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In the event of a pressurisation failure (for whatever reason) supplemental oxygen must be supplied to crew and passengers until the aeroplane reaches an altitude where the composition of the gasses in the atmosphere is life-supporting. The Operator must ensure that a flight in a pressurised aeroplane does not commence without a sufficient supply of stored oxygen for all the crew and passengers for the period when (for whatever reason) the cabin atmospheric pressure is below 700 hPa (mb) (above approximately 10 000 ft AMSL). If conducting the flight at altitudes above 25 000 ft (376 hPa) or at altitudes below 25 000 ft and the aircraft cannot descend to 13 000 ft (625 hPa) in 4 minutes, there must be at least 10 minutes of oxygen supplied for the occupants of the passenger compartment. For flights in non-pressurised (or partially pressurised) aircraft where the cabin altitude may exceed 10 000 ft (700 hPa), the flight must not commence unless the Operator ensures that the flight carries sufficient stored oxygen for all crewmembers and 10% of the passengers for any period exceeding 30 minutes when the cabin pressure is between 700 hPa (10 000 ft) and 625 hPa (13 000 ft), and all the crew and passengers for any period when the cabin pressure is below 625 hPa (13 000 ft). DC6 flight crew oxygen supply Crewmembers must use breathing oxygen continuously whenever circumstances requiring the use of oxygen exist. For flights above 25 000 ft, the Operator must fit the flight deck with quickdon oxygen masks.
COMMANDER/PILOT IN COMMAND
Until recently, the office of Pilot-in-Command (PIC) was synonymous with Commander. However, with the introduction of cruise relief crews and the sharing of the responsibility of the role of PIC, especially on long-haul operations, the title Commander is more formal and many of the responsibilities once assumed by the PIC are now the sole concern of the Commander. JAR OPS states that one pilot qualified as PIC is to be appointed as Commander. The definition of PIC remains that of the pilot responsible for the safety of the aircraft during flight time. In reality, the PIC sits in the left hand seat of the flight deck (right hand seat on a helicopter) and operates the controls of the aeroplane for take-off and landing. The PIC may delegate the duty to the co-pilot (if qualified) whilst he/she is absent from the flight deck for comfort reasons. The Operator confers the status of both PIC and Commander. There can be only one Commander, as on a ship, and the regulations require that the nominated post-holder is a pilot. 3-6 Operational Procedures
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To qualify for appointment as Commander and PIC, the pilot requires knowledge of the operation, the routes flown, and the aerodromes intended for use. JAR OPS requires that the route knowledge qualification has a validity of 12 months. Additionally, JAR OPS requires an appointee as Commander to have completed a command course and have passed an operator proficiency check whilst acting as Commander. To act as PIC a pilot must complete at least three take-offs and landings in an aeroplane of the same type within the preceding 90 days.
DUTIES
Annex 6 specifies the duties of the PIC. In this context, PIC is synonymous with Commander. JAR OPS states that the duties of the flight crew are to be detailed in the OM. ICAO requires the PIC to be responsible for the operation and safety of the aeroplane and for the safety of all persons on board during flight time. The PIC must also ensure that all checklists are completed. The PIC must also notify the nearest appropriate authority by the quickest means of any accident involving the aeroplane resulting in serious injury or death of any person or substantial damage to the aeroplane or property. At the end of the flight the PIC is responsible for notifying the Operator of any aircraft defects (known or suspected). The PIC is also to complete the journey log book or the general declaration (if required by the State of Destination). If the aircraft is subject to unlawful interference, the Commander is, on landing, to submit a report without delay to the appropriate local authority. In the event that for safety reasons or in an emergency, the Rules of the Air or local procedures/regulations are violated when taking the necessary action, the Commander is to make a report to the authority of the State over which the violation occurred. Submit the report without delay (within 10 days) and send a copy to the Authority of the State of the Operator.
CO-PILOT
The status of co-pilot is conferred by the Operator. For appointment as co-pilot, a pilot must serve as PIC or co-pilot at the controls of an aeroplane of the same type in the preceding 90 days, or otherwise demonstrate competence to act as co-pilot.
FLIGHT NAVIGATOR
If the State of the Operator considers it necessary for the safe navigation of the aeroplane, a licensed flight navigator is included in the flight crew. Operational Procedures 3-7
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LINE CHECKS
JAR OPS requires the Operator to ensure that each flight crewmember demonstrate competence on normal line operations as per the OM. The period of validity of a line check is 12 months. When line-checked within the final three months of a period of validity, the new period of validity extends for 12 months from the expiry date of the previous period of validity.
DUTY STATIONS
The OM for JAR OPS, and Annex 6 for ICAO specify when flight crewmembers should be at their duty stations. All detailed operating flight crewmembers (excluding cruise relief crew) should be at their stations on the flight deck for take-off and landing. Whilst in the cruise enroute, detailed flight crewmembers (including cruise relief crew when required) are to remain at their duty stations except when absence is required in the discharge of their duty, or for comfort needs.
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All operating flight crewmembers must be strapped into their seats using the appropriate harness. If the use of a shoulder harness interferes with the performance of duty, dispense the use of the shoulder harness.
JOURNEY LOG
The Commander is responsible for completing the journey log. Whilst only applicable to the current flight, retain the journey logs for 3 months to provide a record of the operation. Complete the log in ink or indelible pencil (which cannot be erased or altered), a complete record of the flight. Many Operators provide a pre-formatted form for the journey log, whist others include the log as part of the flight information and briefing package prepared by the FOpsO/FDO before the flight. The British Airways briefing system, called Sword, consists of a folder full of fan-fold material. Each flight crewmember has an individual copy. The ICAO recommendation for the journey log content is: Aeroplane nationality and registration Date Names of the crew and duty assignment Point and time of departure Point and time of arrival Flight duration Type of flight (scheduled or non scheduled) Incidents and observations (if any) Signature of the Commander
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We would like to thank and acknowledge: For photographs and assistance Page 4-6 Page 4-7 Mr. Ashley Gibb Virgin Atlantic Airways with special thanks to Mr. J. Jasper of Virgin Atlantics Cabin Crew Training, Horley.
INTRODUCTION
The Operator must make sure that the aeroplane is fit for the task. The Commander must also be satisfied that the aeroplane is loaded properly and that the equipment and fuel are sufficient for the flight. The FOpsO/FDO carries out the majority of the tasks necessary at the pre-flight planning stage. If the schedule is an established one, this is largely repetitious, perhaps on a day to day basis or even for multiple repetitions per day. Certainly, the ATS FPL is a repetitive FPL (RPL), and when activating the RPL for the next flight, the ATS authority informs the FOpsO/FDO. One aspect of the operation that may change on a flight-by-flight basis is the requirement for fuel. Meteorological conditions, ATS route availability, and availability of alternate aerodromes require the addition of more or less fuel to the basic route requirement. Annex 6 specifies the carrying of additional fuel for different types of aeroplanes and the nomination requirement for an alternate destination aerodrome. The criteria for deciding if it is necessary for an alternate destination aerodrome are below.
ALTERNATE AERODROMES
Things can go wrong and they often do! When flying under IFR an Operator must specify an alternative course of action to follow in the event that, for whatever reason, the chosen destination aerodrome is not available. The alternate aerodrome is the aerodrome specified in the alternate plan (colloquially the alternate). The need for an alternate aerodrome can occur at any time during the flight for technical reasons, whereas operational reasons usually force a change of destination. For the three phases of the flight, departure, enroute, and arrival, alternates must be nominated.
TAKE-OFF ALTERNATE
The Operational Flight Plan (OFP) specifies the take-off alternate. However, if something goes wrong on take-off that requires an immediate (emergency) landing (no time to dump fuel down to max landing mass) make an immediate return to the departure aerodrome. If more time is available and the departure aerodrome is not suitable or is unavailable (or it is not prudent to use it), use the take-off alternate. The weather conditions at the nominated alternate, at the time of take-off, must be above the aerodrome minima for the operation. Operational Procedures 4-1
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The criteria for the choice of a take-off alternate are: Aeroplanes with two engines: Not more than 1 hour flying time with one engine inoperative; or for operators with ETOPS approval (see below), the approved ETOPS diversion time up to a maximum of 2 hours. Aeroplanes with three or more engines: Not more than 2 hours flying distance at the oneengine-out cruise speed.
DESTINATION ALTERNATE
An operator must select at least one destination alternate for each IFR flight unless: Case 1 The duration of the planned flight from take-off to landing does not exceed 6 hours. Two separate runways are available at the destination and meteorological conditions prevailing are such that for the period from one hour before until one hour after the expected time of arrival at destination, the approach from the relevant minimum sector altitude and the landing can be made in VMC or: Case 2 The destination is isolated and no adequate destination alternate exists. An operator must select two destination alternates when the appropriate weather reports or forecasts for the destination, or any combination thereof, indicate that: 1. During a period commencing 1 hour before and ending 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival the weather conditions are below the applicable planning minima 2. When no meteorological information is available
ALL AEROPLANES The basic rule is that a flight shall not commence unless the aeroplane carries sufficient fuel and oil to ensure that it can safely complete the flight. In calculating this amount of fuel, allow for the actual and expected meteorological conditions and any forecast delays. Additionally, carry a reserve to cover unforeseen circumstances. The requirements are specified in two categories: propeller driven aircraft and turbo jet aircraft. PROPELLER-DRIVEN AEROPLANES Two cases are considered, where an alternate is required, and the other, where it is not required. In both situations, carry sufficient fuel to accommodate the flight and the alternate course of action.
When a destination alternate aerodrome is required, either: 1. Fly to the aerodrome planned for the flight, then to the most critical (in terms of fuel consumption) alternate aerodrome, plus a period of 45 minutes; [Total fuel = Route fuel + worst case diversion fuel + 45 minutes] Or
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2. Fly to the alternate aerodrome via any predetermined point, and then for 45 minutes, provided that this is not less than the amount required to fly to the planned destination aerodrome, plus the lesser of: a. 45 minutes plus 15% of the flight time planned to be spent at the cruising level(s), [Total fuel = Route fuel + 45 minutes + 15% of cruise fuel]; b. Two hours [Total fuel = Route fuel + 2 hrs] When a destination alternate aerodrome is not required: 1. Case 1 above, fly to the aerodrome planned for the flight, plus a period of 45 minutes [Total fuel = Route fuel + 45 minutes] Or 2. Case 2 above, fly to the aerodrome planned for the flight, plus the lesser of the following: a. 45 minutes plus 15% of the flight time planned to be spent at the cruising level(s), [Total fuel = Route fuel + 45 minutes + 15% of cruise fuel] b. Two hours [Total fuel = Route fuel + 2 hrs]
AEROPLANES EQUIPPED WITH TURBO-JET ENGINES Consider the same two cases concerning the alternative course of action. Carry sufficient fuel to allow the aeroplane:
When a destination alternate aerodrome is required, either: 1. Fly to and make an approach and a missed approach, at the planned destination, and then to fly to the nominated destination alternate, and then fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 450 m (1500 ft) over the alternate (using ISA conditions), and then make an approach and landing. An additional amount of fuel is also required to provide for any increased consumption due to any potential contingencies specified by the operator to the satisfaction of the State of the Operator. [Total fuel = Route fuel + diversion fuel + 30 minutes holding fuel + additional contingency] Or 2. Fly to the alternate aerodrome via any predetermined point plus 30 minutes holding at 450 m (1500 ft) above the alternate aerodrome, provision made for additional fuel sufficient to provide for any increased consumption on the occurrence of any of the potential. The fuel carried cannot be less than the amount of fuel required to fly to the aerodrome planned for the flight plus two hours at normal cruise consumption. [Total fuel = Route fuel + 30 minutes holding fuel + additional contingency fuel, or Route fuel + 2 hours, whichever is greater] When a destination alternate aerodrome is not required: 1. Case 1 above, fly to the planned destination and additionally to fly 30 minutes at holding speed at 450 m (1500 ft) above the planned aerodrome (ISA conditions); and have an additional amount of contingency fuel. [Total fuel = Route fuel + 30 minutes holding fuel + additional contingency] Or
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2. Case 2 above, fly to the planned destination aerodrome and remain airborne for two hours at normal cruise consumption. [Total fuel = Route fuel + 2 hours cruising fuel] If necessary, a flight may be re-planned to another aerodrome, if the requirements of the above can be met from the point where the flight is re-planned.
WEATHER CONDITIONS
Conducted flights are under IFR or VFR (see Air Law notes for detailed explanation of the flight rules). Flight under VFR, by definition, can only be elected when the meteorological conditions are VMC. Part of a route may be flown under VFR if the forecast indicates that VMC exists for that part of the route. To begin a flight under IFR, the information must indicate that meteorological conditions at the destination aerodrome or at least one nominated alternate aerodromes is equal to or better than the aerodrome operating minima. VMC ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) defines VMC as follows: Airspace Class A, B, C, D & E (Note 3) F Above 900 m (3000 ft) AMSL or above 300 m (1000 ft) above terrain, whichever is higher G At and below 900 m (3000 ft) AMSL or 300 m (1000 ft) above terrain whichever is higher Clear of cloud and in sight of the surface 5 km (Note 2)
1500 m horizontally 300 m (1000 ft) vertically 8 km at and above 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL 5 km below 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSLA (Note 1)
Notes: 1. When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL, use FL100 in lieu of 10 000 ft. 2. When the ATS authority prescribe: a) Lower flight visibilities to 1500 m may be permitted for flights operating: 1) At speeds that, in the prevailing visibility, give adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision, or 2) In circumstances in which the probability of encounters with other traffic is normally low (e.g. in areas of low volume traffic and for aerial work at low levels). b) Helicopters may be permitted to operate in less than 1500 m flight visibility, if manoeuvred at a speed that gives adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision 3. The inclusion of VMC minima for Class A airspace does not imply permitted VFR in Class A airspace. Table 1 - ICAO VMC Criteria
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VMC JAR OPS Criteria Appendix 1 to JAR OPS 1.465 defines the minimum visibilities for VFR operations as follows: Airspace Class Distance From Cloud Flight Visibility F B
Clear of Cloud
G
At and below 900 m (3000 ft) AMSL or 300 m (1000 ft) above terrain whichever is higher Clear of cloud and in sight of the surface 5 km (Note 2)
CDE
Above 900 m (3000 ft) AMSL or above 300 m (1000 ft) above terrain, whichever is higher 1500 m horizontally 300 m (1000 ft) vertically
8 km at and above 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL 5 km below 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSLA (Note 1)
Notes: 1. When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL, FL 100 should be used in lieu of 10 000 ft. 2. Cat A and B aeroplanes may be operated in flight visibilities down to 3000m provided the appropriate ATS authority permits use of a flight visibility less than 5 km and the circumstances are such that the probability of encounters with other traffic is low, and the IAS is 140 kt or less.
Table 2 - JAR OPS VMC Criteria The main difference is that JAR-OPS applies a lower standard for Class B than ICAO, and makes no mention of VMC criteria for Class. The student is advised to use caution when answering questions concerning VMC in the Operational Procedures examination in this respect.
ADEQUATE AERODROMES
The regulations require the aerodromes used to be adequate. Broadly speaking, any aerodrome which the operator considers satisfactory is adequate. However, a satisfactory aerodrome is one which the topography and runway layout allows the performance requirements of the aeroplane to be met. The aerodrome also has to be properly equipped (ancillary services, ATS, lighting, communications, weather reporting, navaids, and emergency services). Additionally, for an aerodrome to be considered adequate for ETOPS, ATC must be available and at least one let down aid (ground radar would suffice) for an instrument approach must be available.
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ETOPS
The use of large twin-engine aeroplanes for long haul services (B777, 767, A330, etc.) requires special procedures to cope with the situation following the failure of an engine. Whilst these aeroplanes have complex and very powerful engines, the simple fact is that if one engine fails on a four-engine aeroplane there are three left, whereas for a two engine aeroplane, there is only one left, and if that stops it is a disaster.
The Airbus A330 is now one of the many types to have gained ETOPS approval Before permitting such extended range operations (i.e. transatlantic) the aeroplane requires certification that it can function adequately on the one remaining engine. In addition, the possibility of a failure due to normal operation requires reduction to virtually nil. This requires advanced engine and component design and exhaustive fatigue testing to determine the exact life of parts, etc. Added to this, strict quality procedures are needed to ensure that standards of maintenance and manufacture are adhered to. To cover any unforeseen events, the engines have staggered life, requiring one of the engines to have not less than half its maintenance life remaining at any time. The route is then chosen to make sure that in the event of a failure, the aeroplane can land within specified distances or times as determined for each aeroplane by the performance class. The operator must determine the speed maintained with one engine inoperative assuming: ISA conditions, level flight, maximum continuous thrust from the remaining engine, and aeroplane mass from worst-case calculation.
PERFORMANCE CLASS A For Perf A aeroplanes with passenger seating of 20 or more or MTOM of 45 360 kg or more, do not fly the aeroplane further than 60 minutes flying time at the one-engine-out speed calculated as above, from an adequate aerodrome. For other Perf A aeroplanes, 120 minutes (180 minutes for certain types of turbojet aircraft if approved by the authority). PERFORMANCE CLASS B OR C For Perf B and C aeroplanes, 120 minutes at the one-engine-out speed or 300 nm whichever is less.
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DITCHING CONSIDERATIONS
Part of the design and testing procedures for aeroplanes is to determine the types ditching characteristics. This is done using computer modelling and accurately scaled models in large tanks. Once determined, the ditching characteristics are compared with the established requirements for airworthiness. Aeroplanes which do not comply with the requirements and which have approved passenger seating of more than 30 are not to be flown more than 120 minutes at cruising speed or 400 nm (whichever is less), from land suitable for making an emergency landing.
LANDING REQUIREMENTS
The operator must make sure that the destination aerodrome is adequate. This includes assessing the landing distance, determined by performance class. However, for all classes, it is thought that the pilot crosses the threshold of the landing runway (screen height) at 50 ft. This may be modified for larger aeroplanes and reflected in higher minimum eye height for visual approach slope indicators (VASIs and PAPIs).
PERFORMANCE CLASS A The Operator is to ensure that at the ETA, the mass of the aircraft allows it to come to a halt after landing safely on the runway.
For turbojet aircraft, this should be achieved within 60% of the landing distance available (LDA) on a dry runway, and for turboprop aircraft, 70%. If the runway is forecast to be wet, the LDA is at least 115% of the landing distance required.
PERFORMANCE CLASS B AND C For dry runways, the requirement is to stop the aircraft within 70% of the LDA. For wet runways, the LDA is equal to or exceeds the landing distance required. Shorter distance may be acceptable if the aircraft Flight Manual specifies distances for wet runaways.
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COMMANDERS CONSIDERATIONS
The basic requirement of the Rules of the Air is that the flight requires proper planning. The Commander is responsible for this and the Operator must ensure that the Commander has all the necessary information to plan the flight. The Operator invariably delegates this responsibility to an FOpsO/FDO. However, the ultimate responsibility for any flight rests with the Commander and as such, a flight must not be commenced unless the Commander is satisfied that: i. The aeroplane is airworthy; ii. The aeroplane is not operated contrary to the provisions of the Configuration Deviation List (CDL); iii. The instruments and equipment required for the flight are available; iv. The instruments and equipment are in operable condition except as provided in the MEL; v. Those parts of the operations manual required for the flight are available; vi. The documents, additional information, and forms required are on board; vii. Current maps, charts, and associated documentation or equivalent data are available to cover the intended operation of the aeroplane including any diversion which may reasonably be expected; viii. Ground facilities and services required for the planned flight are available and adequate; ix. The provisions specified in the operations manual in respect of fuel, oil and oxygen requirements, minimum safe altitudes, aerodrome operating minima and availability of alternate aerodromes, where required, can be complied with for the planned flight; x. The load is properly distributed and safely secured; xi. The mass of the aeroplane, at the commencement of take-off roll, is such that the flight is within the specified performance limitations; and xii. Any operational limitation in addition to those covered by sub-paragraphs (ix) and (xi) above can be complied with.
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We would like to thank and acknowledge: For diagrams and assistance Page 5-5 Page 5-7 Page 5-13 Page 5-8 Page 5-10 Page 5-12 Mr. Ashley Gibb.
Aerzur Virgin Atlantic Airways with special thanks to Mr. J. Jasper of Virgin Atlantics Cabin Crew Training, Horley. NASA Langley
INTRODUCTION
In addition to the minimum equipment necessary for the issue of a Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A), the instruments, equipment, and flight documents fitted to or carried in the aeroplane have to be adequate for the operation. The operator includes the minimum equipment list (MEL) in the operations manual, allowing the Commander to decide whether to commence a flight or continue from any intermediate stop if any instrument, equipment, or system becomes unserviceable. Additionally, the operator provides operations staff and flight crew with an aircraft-operating manual, for each aircraft type operated, which contains the normal, abnormal, and emergency procedures relating to the operation of the aircraft. The manual also includes details of the aircraft systems and of the checklists used.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS
An aeroplane has to be equipped with instruments allowing the flight crew to control the flight path of the aeroplane, carry out any required procedural manoeuvres, and comply with the operating limitations of the aeroplane in the expected operating conditions. Other equipment carried in the aeroplane is necessary for either safety, navigation, or regulatory reasons.
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Where a compartment not usually occupied passengers has an emergency exit, the door leading from the passenger compartment to that area must have an openable door. If passage through a doorway is necessary in the event of an emergency, the door (or curtain) requires a means of securing it in the open position. Such doors (or curtains) require signs attached indicating that the doorway leads to an emergency exit. The crew requires a means of unlocking any door that passengers can lock (toilet doors).
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BREAK-IN MARKINGS
Areas of the fuselage suitable for break-in by rescue crews in an emergency are to be marked by red or yellow lines, and if necessary, they are outlined in white to contrast with the background. If the corner markings are more than 2 m apart, intermediate lines 9 cm x 3 cm are inserted so there are no more than 2 m between adjacent markings.
3 cm
9 cm
Not over 2m
9 cm
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There are 3 cases: Case 1 Aircraft with C of A issued on 1 April 1998 or later; multi-engine turbine; max passengers more than 9; MTOM greater than 5700 kg. After 1 April 2002, aircraft with C of A issued on or after 1 January 1990 up to and including 31 March 1998; multi-engine turbine; max passengers more than 9; MTOM of 5700 kg or less. Any aeroplane with C of A issued before 1 April 1998 and MTOM over 5700 kg.
Case 2
Case 3
CVRs OPERATION, CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION For Case 1 and Case 3, the CVR has to be capable of retaining the information recorded during at least the last 30 minutes of its operation. For case 2, the CVR has to be capable of recording the last 2 hours of data (ICAO Annex 6 requires this for aircraft with C of A issued after 1 Jan 2003).
The construction, location, and installation of CVRs are to provide maximum practical protection for the recordings in order to preserve, recover, and transcribe the recorded information. Flight recorders must meet the prescribed crashworthiness and fire protection specifications, and are required to have a device fitted to assist underwater location. Prior to the aeroplane first moving under its own power, the CVRs must automatically switch on and record until the termination of the flight.
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An example of a Flight Data recorderwith the emergency locator beacon The regulatory requirements for the carriage of FDRs occupy many pages in both Annex 6 and JAR-OPS but the LOs for Operational Procedures require the student to have knowledge only of the parameters recorded; the rules for retention of data, and the rules regarding location, construction installation and operation of FDRs as detailed in Annex 6 only.
PARAMETERS RECORDED The parameters recorded are dependent upon the type of FDR fitted.
Annex 6 defines three types: Type I FDR records parameters required to determine accurately the aeroplane flight path, speed, altitude, engine power, configuration, and operation Type II FDR records the same parameters as Type I but with the addition of configuration of the lift and drag devices Type IIA FDR records the same parameters as Type II (for aeroplanes with MTOM 5700 kg or less)
DATA LINK COMMUNICATIONS For aeroplanes with C of A issued after 1 January 2005, the FDRs fitted to aeroplanes that have CVRs fitted, and which use data link systems for communication, are to be capable of recording all the data link communications. This becomes a general requirement with effect from 1 January 2007. RECORDING DURATION Type I and Type II FDRs are capable of recording at least the last 25 hours of their operation. Type IIA FDRs are capable of recording the last 30 minutes of operation.
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CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION Clearly, the FDR must be capable of withstanding any disaster that befalls the aeroplane, and it must be capable of location after an accident. It must be constructed, located, and installed to provide maximum practical protection for the recordings.
Specifications laid down are for crashworthiness and fire resistance, and JAR-OPS applies the standards specified by the European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment (EUROCAE). The FDR should be located close to the rear pressure bulkhead, or as far aft as possible. The electrical supply should be from a bus bar that gives the maximum reliability of power supply without jeopardising essential or emergency electrical loads. The FDR system must be capable of being functionally checked before flight.
OPERATION OF FDRs Do not switch off FDRs during flight time. Following an accident or an incident, de-activate the FDR after landing and do not switch it on again until cleared for use after the conclusion of any investigation.
COMBINATION RECORDERS
JAR-OPS permits recorders which act as both an FDR and a CVR. Such a combination recorder may be fitted to aeroplanes with MTOM of 5700 kg or less, or to larger aeroplanes if two of the combination recorders are fitted.
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STANDBY HORIZON
All aeroplanes of a maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5700 kg introduced into service after 1 January 1975 are fitted with an emergency power supply, independent of the main electrical generating system, for operating and illuminating an attitude indicating instrument (artificial horizon), clearly visible to the pilot-in-command, for a minimum period of 30 minutes. The emergency power supply is to automatically operate after the total failure of the main electrical generating system and give a clear indication on the instrument panel, that the attitude indicator is being operated by emergency (stand-by) power.
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NIGHT OPERATIONS
All aeroplanes, when operated at night require lighting. In addition to the instrumentation required for IFR, aircraft equipped for night flight must have: The lights required by Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) for aircraft in flight or operating on the movement area of an aerodrome Two landing lights Illumination for all instruments and equipment that are essential for the safe operation of the aeroplane that are for use by the flight crew Lights in all passenger compartments An electric torch for each crewmember station
REMOTE AREAS
When operated across land areas where search and rescue is difficult, aeroplanes are equipped with the signalling and life-saving equipment (including means of sustaining life; food, water, etc.) as may be appropriate to the area to be over-flown (i.e. Desert, Arctic, Jungle, and Ocean).
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WEATHER RADAR
When carrying passengers in pressurised aircraft, the aeroplane is fitted with serviceable weather radar whenever operating the aeroplane in areas where thunderstorms or other potentially hazardous weather conditions that can be detected with airborne weather radar are expected to exist along the route. JAR-OPS expands the requirement to include unpressurised aeroplanes with MTOM greater than 5700 kg; and any unpressurised aeroplane with more than 9 passenger seats after 1 April 1999. For propeller driven aeroplanes with MTOM not exceeding 5700 kg and not more than 9 passenger seats, a suitable system for detecting thunderstorms and other potentially hazardous conditions may be used instead of radar.
MACHMETER
All aeroplanes with speed limitations expressed in terms of Mach number (limiting Mach) are equipped with a Mach number indicator (Machmeter). This does not stop the use of the airspeed indicator to derive Mach number for ATS purposes.
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The GPWS shall provide, as a minimum, warnings of the following circumstances: Excessive descent rate Excessive terrain closure rate Altitude loss after take-off or go-around Unsafe terrain clearance while not in landing configuration Gear not locked down Flaps not in a landing position Excessive descent below the instrument glide path Additionally, from 1 January 2003 all turbine-engine aeroplanes with maximum certificated takeoff mass in excess of 15 000 kg or authorised to carry more than 30 passengers, are fitted with a GPWS incorporating a predictive terrain warning hazard system.
COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT
An aeroplane used for commercial air transport must be fitted with radio communication equipment capable of conducting two-way communication with ATC for aerodrome control purposes and receiving meteorological information at any time during flight. JAR-OPS requires two independent VHF radio systems to be fitted. The communications equipment must also be capable of tuning to other stations on the frequencies specified by the Authority of the State being over-flown. Essentially, the equipment must be able to transmit/receive on the aeronautical emergency frequency 121.500 MHz.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
Aeroplanes must have a public address (PA) system and a crew intercommunications system (crew interphone or intercom). The PA system is required (by JAR-OPS) for all aeroplanes engaged in commercial air transport with more than 19 passenger seats. The crew interphone is required for all aeroplanes with MTOM greater than 15 000 kg or having more than 19 passenger seats, if the C of A was issued on or after 1 April 1965 and the aeroplane was registered in a JAA state on 1 April 1995.
AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL (ASP) The crew interphone system (between the flight crew) also carries the incoming audio output from the radio equipment to the pilots headset or loudspeaker. Each position of the flight deck must have an ASP so that the crewmember can select (by switching and volume control) the audio services required.
Typically and ASP permits the audio output from the VHF and HF radios, VOR, DME, ADF, markers, and ILS to be routed to the headset. Usually, the ASP has a microphone selector switch to connect the pilots microphone to the transmitter circuit of equipment that can transmit audio frequency (VHF and HF).
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NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
The aeroplane is fitted with navigation equipment enabling it to fly in accordance with its operational flight plan, within the limits specified for RNP types, and as required by ATC. It is assumed that flights under VFR fly by visual reference to landmarks. For flights in areas where minimum navigation performance specifications (MNPS) are specified, an aeroplane is fitted with navigation equipment which continuously provides indications of adherence to or departure from track to the required degree of accuracy at any point along that track. The MNPS and the procedures governing their application are published in Regional Supplementary Procedures (Doc 7030). For flights where RVSM of 300 m (1000 ft) is applied between FL 290 and FL 410, an aeroplane is fitted with equipment capable of indicating the flight level flown, automatically maintaining a selected flight level, providing an alert to the flight crew when a deviation occurs from the selected flight level (the threshold for the alert shall not exceed 90 m (300 ft)), and automatically reporting pressure-altitude (Mode C).
INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES When operating the aeroplane under IFR and instrument procedures are required to comply with IFR departure and arrival procedures, the aeroplane is to be fitted with not less than one; VOR; ADF and DME; one ILS (or MLS); one marker 75 MHz beacon receiver. The requirement for VOR/DME/ADF doubles where navigation along a route based on that aid alone. INSTALLATION The equipment installation is such that the failure of any single unit required for either communications or navigation purposes, or both, does not result in the failure of another unit required for communications or navigation purposes.
WINDSHIELD WIPERS
Windshield wipers (or an equivalent means of clearing precipitation) must be fitted at each pilot station if the MTOM is greater than 5700 kg.
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The Aeroplane
TAKE-OFF The aeroplane must, in the event of a critical power-unit failing at any point in the take-off, be able to discontinue the take-off and stop within the accelerate-stop distance available, or to continue the take-off and clear all obstacles along the flight path by an adequate margin until the aeroplane is in a position to comply with the enroute criteria.
In determining the length of the runway available, account is taken of the loss of runway length due to alignment of the aeroplane prior to take-off.
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ENROUTE ONE POWER UNIT INOPERATIVE The aeroplane must, in the event of the failure of the critical engine at any point along the route, be able to continue the flight to an aerodrome at which the landing standard can be met, without flying below the minimum flight altitude at any point. ENROUTE TWO POWER UNITS INOPERATIVE In the case of aeroplanes having three or more engines, where the probability of a second powerunit becoming inoperative must be allowed for, the aeroplane must be able, in the event of failure of any two engines, to continue the flight to an enroute alternate aerodrome and land. LANDING The aeroplane must be able to land within the landing distance available, at the aerodrome of intended landing and at any alternate aerodrome, after clearing all obstacles in the approach path by a safe margin. Make allowance for expected variations in the approach and landing techniques, if no such allowance is made in the scheduling of performance data. AEROPLANE PERFORMANCE OPERATING LIMITATIONS The LOs require the student to be able to state the aeroplane performance operating limitations. This is a separate subject in its own right and detailed instruction is given during the study of subject 032 Performance. Remember, however, that matters discussed in Performance lectures are examinable in the OP examination.
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INTRODUCTION
Before actually beginning the flight, there are further aspects of aircraft operation to take into account, namely the actual performance of the aeroplane on the day and the specific route to be flown. The FOpsO/FDO together with the loading team must prepare the load sheet and check that the aircraft is balanced (the aircraft centre of gravity (C of G) is within the defined limits). The achievable performance is compared with the required aerodrome operating minima, any ATC regulations (restrictions) applicable, the preferred runway, and the meteorological conditions (specifically the temperature deviation from ISA, and the wind component for the runway). When complete, the Commander has all the information needed to make the final operational decisions about the flight. This chapter covers the required aeroplane performance for the selection of minimum cruising altitude and the aerodrome operating minima with specific consideration to low visibility operations.
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The gradient of the net flight path must be positive at least 1000 ft above all terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (5 nm) on either side of the intended track. OR The net flight path must permit the aeroplane to continue flight from the cruising altitude to an aerodrome where a landing can be made. The net flight path must clear vertically, by at least 2000 ft, all terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (5 nm) on either side of the intended track with regard to the conditions set out below: a. The engine is assumed to fail at the most critical point along the route Take into account the effects of winds on the flight path Fuel jettisoning is permitted to an extent consistent with reaching the aerodrome with the required fuel reserves, if using a safe procedure The aerodrome where the aeroplane is assumed to land after engine failure must meet the following criteria: (1) The performance requirements at the expected landing mass are met (2) Weather reports or forecasts, or any combination thereof, and field condition reports indicate that a safe landing can be accomplished at the estimated time of landing Where the navigation accuracy cannot meet the 95% containment level an operator can increase the width margins to 18.5 km (10 nm). COMPLIANCE The high terrain or obstacle analysis required may be carried out in one of two ways: a. Make a detailed analysis of the route using contour maps of the high terrain and plotting the highest points within the prescribed width margins. The next step is to determine whether it is possible to maintain level flight with one engine inoperative 1000 ft above the highest point of the crossing. If this is not possible, or if the associated weight penalties are unacceptable, work out a drift-down procedure based on engine failure at the most critical point and clearing critical obstacles during the drift-down by at least 2000 ft. The minimum cruise altitude is determined by the intersection of the two drift-down paths, taking into account allowances for decision making. This method is time consuming and requires the availability of detailed terrain maps. b. Alternatively, the published minimum flight altitudes (Minimum Enroute Altitude, (MEA), or Minimum Off Route Altitude, (MORA)) may be used for determining whether one engine inoperative level flight is feasible at the minimum flight altitude or it is necessary to use the published minimum flight altitudes as the basis for the drift-down construction shown below. This procedure avoids a detailed high terrain contour analysis but may be more penalising than taking the actual terrain profile into account.
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Minimum Cruise Altitude (para b.) Minimum Cruise Altitude (para a.)
Minimum Flight Altitude Minimum Flight Altitude Para b. 2000 ft Para a. Fig 2 - Drift-down Construction Note: MEA or MORA normally provides the required 2000 ft obstacle clearance for drift-down. However, neither is for use directly at and below 6000 ft altitude, as ensured clearence is only 1000 ft. 2000 ft
PERFORMANCE CLASS A AEROPLANES WITH THREE OR MORE ENGINES, TWO ENGINES INOPERATIVE
The operator must ensure that at no point along the intended track is an aeroplane with three or more engines more than 90 minutes, at the all-engines long range cruising speed at standard temperature in still air, away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements applicable at the expected landing mass are met unless it complies with the details set out below. The two engines inoperative enroute net flight path data must permit the aeroplane to continue the flight, in the expected meteorological conditions, from the point where two engines are assumed to fail simultaneously, to an aerodrome at which it is possible to land safely. The net flight path must clear vertically, by at least 2000 ft all terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (5 nm) on either side of the intended track. If using ice protection systems take into account the effect of their use on the net flight path data. If the navigational accuracy does not meet the 95% containment level, an operator must increase the width margin to 18.5 km (10 nm). Assume the two engines fail at the most critical point of the route where the aeroplane is more than 90 minutes, at the all engines long range cruising speed at standard temperature in still air, away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements are met. The net flight path requires a positive gradient at 1500 ft above the aerodrome where making the assumed landing after the failure of two engines. Fuel jettisoning is permitted if using a safe procedure.
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The expected mass of the aeroplane at the point where the two engines are assumed to fail must not be less than that which would include sufficient fuel to proceed to an aerodrome where making the assumed landing, and to arrive at least 1500 ft directly over the landing area and thereafter to fly level for 15 minutes.
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PERFORMANCE CLASS C AEROPLANES WITH THREE OR MORE ENGINES, TWO ENGINES INOPERATIVE
At no point along the intended track, will an aeroplane with three or more engines be more than 90 minutes at the all-engine long range cruising speed at standard temperature in still air, away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements applicable at the expected landing mass are met unless it complies with the following: The two-engines inoperative flight path shown must permit the aeroplane to continue the flight clearing all obstacles within 9.3 km (5 nm) either side of the intended track by a vertical interval of at least 2000 ft, to an aerodrome at which the performance requirements are met. Assume the failure of the two engines at the most critical point of that portion of the route where the aeroplane is more than 90 minutes away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements applicable at the expected landing mass are met. The expected mass of the aeroplane at the point where assumed failure of the two engines occurs, must not be less than that including sufficient fuel to proceed to an aerodrome where the landing is assumed to be made, and to arrive there at an altitude of a least 450 m (1500 ft) directly over the landing area and thereafter to fly level for 15 minutes. The available rate of climb of the aeroplane shall be taken to be 150 ft per minute less than that specified. If not, increase the width margins to 18.5 km (10 nm) if the navigational accuracy does not meet the 95% containment level. Fuel jettisoning is permitted as long as the aircraft can reach the aerodrome with the required fuel reserves. A safe procedure must be used.
ENDURANCE
When flying for endurance, use the lowest possible fuel flow. To achieve this, fly at the highest levels where drag is minimum, therefore fuel flow is lower for the required speed. To improve the handling of the aeroplane at these high levels, slightly increase the required speed at lower flight levels and higher flight levels. Effectively, the economy is being obtained because of the reduced density of the air. Remember, the temperature is isothermal above the tropopause so there is no inherent gain in engine performance by climbing.
MAXIMUM RANGE
Achieve the greatest range by using the cruise climb technique, whereby the aeroplane climbs to the most economical level for the mass, and the speed is set at 1.3 times the endurance speed. From then on, as the aeroplane mass reduces, the aeroplane naturally climbs. Maintain this until the descent point when the aeroplane descends rapidly. This technique is only possible in uncongested airspace. Concorde used cruise climb between FL570 and FL650 but there were not many other aeroplanes at that level.
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SHORTEST TIME
This is achieved by operating the aeroplane at maximum cruise thrust to obtain the highest mach number for a given mass, pressure altitude, and temperature. The flight manual normally quotes two speeds: high-speed cruise (0.85 Mach) and long-range cruise (0.82 mach). For fuel economy, usually the lower speed is used and the time penalty accepted. For both speeds the fuel flow decreases as mass decreases and climbing to height for weight increases the efficiency, known as Stepping. For long range flights, a compromise is to use the stepped climb technique, where the aeroplane flies a constant mach number until it is capable of climbing to a higher level at which time a climb is requested and once achieved, the Mach number is regained. Repeat this at approximately 2 hour intervals. In any event, where maintaining a lower level (usually due to ATC requirements, weather, etc.), a penalty in either time or increased fuel usage occurs.
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We would like to thank and acknowledge: For photographs and assistance Page 7-4 Page 7-6 Page 7-9 Page 7-11 Mr. Ashley Gibb.
INTRODUCTION
Each aerodrome is different and requires different consideration for the efficient and expeditious operation of aeroplanes. The Operator must establish by law Aerodrome Operating Minima (AOM), which specify the minimum meteorological conditions necessary and specific requirements for pilots to achieve before operating aircraft into or from the aerodrome. The AOM are not universally applied but are specific to the aerodrome, the type of aeroplane, the type of operation, the qualification of the crew, and many other criteria. However, the minima specified by the Operator are not to be less than those approved by the Authority of the State in which the aerodrome is located which, in turn, is not less than the minima stated in Annex 6 and JAR-OPS. In specifying the minima, the Operator needs to take into account: The type, performance, and handling characteristics of the aeroplane The composition, competence, and experience of the crew Dimensions and characteristics of the runway used Adequacy and performance of ground aids Aeroplane equipment for navigation and/or the control of the aeroplane during the takeoff, approach, the flare, the landing, the roll-out, and the missed approach Obstacles in the approach, missed approach and climb-out areas The obstacle clearance height/altitude (OCH/A) for instrument approaches The means of determining and reporting meteorological conditions
AIRCRAFT CATEGORISATION
In deciding the regulatory minima, ICAO, JAA, and the Authorities use aircraft speed as the determining factor. The most critical speed is the speed at which the aeroplane is required to cross the threshold (VAT). This calculates as follows: VAT = 1.3 x VSO (the stalling speed), or 1.23 x VS1G (the 1G stalling speed in the landing configuration)
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Where both VSO and VS1G are available, the higher resulting VAT is used. Aeroplane Approach Category Aeroplane Category VAT A Less than 91 kt B From 91 to 120 kt C From 121 to 140 kt D From 141 to 165 kt E From 166 to 210 kt
TERMINOLOGY
Terms used in this chapter have the following meaning: Circling The visual phase of an instrument approach to bring an aircraft into position for landing on a runway, not suitably located for a straight-in approach. Low Visibility Procedures (LVP) Procedures applied at an aerodrome for ensuring safe operations during Category II and III approaches and Low Visibility Take-offs. Low Visibility Take-Off (LVTO) A take-off where the Runway Visual Range (RVR) is less than 400 m. Flight control system A system that includes an automatic landing system and/or a hybrid landing system. Fail-Passive flight control system A flight control system is fail-passive if, in the event of a failure, there is no significant out-of-trim condition or deviation of flight path or attitude but the landing is not completed automatically. For a fail-passive automatic flight control system the pilot assumes control of the aeroplane after a failure. Fail-Operational flight control system A flight control system is fail-operational if, in the event of a failure below alert height, the approach, flare and landing, can be completed automatically. In the event of a failure, the automatic landing system operates as a fail-passive system. Fail-operational hybrid landing system A system that consists of a primary fail-passive automatic landing system and a secondary independent guidance system enabling the pilot to complete a landing manually after failure of the primary system. Note: A typical secondary independent guidance system consists of a monitored head-up display providing guidance which normally takes the form of command information but it may alternatively be situation (or deviation) information. Visual approach When either part or all of an instrument approach procedure is not completed and the execution of the approach is with visual reference to the terrain.
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TAKE-OFF MINIMA
GENERAL
Take-off minima established by the operator must be expressed as visibility or RVR limits, taking into account all relevant factors for each aerodrome planned to be used and the aeroplane characteristics. Where there is a specific need to see and avoid obstacles on departure and/or for a forced landing, additional conditions (e.g. ceiling) must be specified. The Commander cannot commence take-off unless the weather conditions at the aerodrome of departure are equal to or better than the minima for landing at that aerodrome, unless a suitable take-off alternate aerodrome is available. Where meteorological visibility is below that required for take-off and no report of RVR exists, commencement of a take-off may only commence if the Commander can determine that the RVR/visibility along the take-off runway is equal to or better than the required minimum.
VISUAL REFERENCE
Select the take-off minima to ensure sufficient guidance to control the aeroplane in the event of a discontinued take-off in adverse circumstances and a continued take-off after failure of the critical power unit.
REQUIRED RVR/VISIBILITY
For multi-engine aeroplanes, whose performance is such that, in the event of a critical power unit failure at any point during take-off, the aeroplane can either stop or continue the take-off to a height of 1500 ft above the aerodrome while clearing obstacles by the required margins. The take-off minima established by an operator are expressed as RVR/Visibility values not lower than those given in the following table. RVR/Visibility For Take-Off Facilities RVR/Visibility (Note 3) Nil (Day only) 500 m Runway edge lighting and/or 250/300 m centreline marking (Notes 1 and 2) Runway edge and centreline 200/250 m lighting (Note 1) Runway edge and centreline 150/200 m lighting and multiple RVR (Notes 1 and 4) information Notes 1. The higher values apply to Category D aeroplanes. 2. For night operations, at least runway edge and runway end lights are required. 3. The reported RVR/Visibility value representative of the initial part of the take-off run can be replaced by pilot assessment. 4. The required RVR value must be achieved for all of the relevant RVR reporting points with the exception given in Note 3 above.
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For multi-engine aeroplanes whose performance is such that they cannot comply with the performance requirements in the event of a critical power unit failure, there may be a need to reland immediately and to see and avoid obstacles in the take-off area. Such aeroplanes may be operated to the following take-off minima provided they are able to comply with the applicable obstacle clearance criteria, assuming engine failure at the height specified.
200 metres visibilitysee the DC6? The take-off minima established by an operator must be based upon the height from which the one engine inoperative net take-off flight path can be constructed. The RVR minima used may not be lower than either of the values given in the following table: Take-Off RVR/Visibility - Flight Path Assumed engine failure RVR/Visibility height above the take-off (Note 2) runway < 50 ft 200 m 51 - 100 ft 300 m 101 - 150 ft 400 m 151 - 200 ft 500 m 201 - 300 ft 1000 m > 300 ft 1500 m (Note 1) Notes 1. 1500 m is also applicable if no positive take-off flight path can be constructed. 2. The reported RVR/Visibility value representative of the initial part of the take-off run can be replaced by pilot assessment. When reported RVR, or meteorological visibility is not available, the Commander shall not commence take-off unless it can be determined that the actual conditions satisfy the applicable take-off minima.
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Exceptions: Subject to the approval of the Authority, and provided the requirements in paragraphs a. to e. below have been satisfied, an operator may reduce the take-off minima to 125 m RVR (Category A, B and C aeroplanes) or 150 m RVR (Category D aeroplanes) when: Low Visibility Procedures are in force High-intensity runway centreline lights spaced 15 m or less and high-intensity edge lights spaced 60 m or less are in operation Flight crewmembers have satisfactorily completed training in a simulator approved for this procedure A 90 m visual segment is available from the cockpit at the start of the take-off run The required RVR value has been achieved for all of the RVR reporting points Subject to the approval of the Authority, an operator of an aeroplane using an approved lateral guidance system for take-off may reduce the take-off minima to an RVR less than 125 m (Category A, B and C aeroplanes) or 150 m (Category D aeroplanes) but not lower than 75 m provided runway protection and facilities equivalent to Category III landing operations are available.
VISUAL REFERENCE
A pilot may not continue an approach below MDA/MDH unless at least one of the following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot: Elements of the approach light system The threshold The threshold markings The threshold lights The threshold identification lights The visual glide slope indicator The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings The touchdown zone lights Runway edge lights Other visual references accepted by the Authority Operational Procedures 7-5
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REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for non-precision approaches are: Non-Precision Approach Minima Full Facilities (Notes 1, 5, 6, and 7) MDH RVR/Aeroplane Category A B C D 250-299 ft 800 m 800 m 800 m 1200 m 300-449 ft 900 m 1000 m 1000 m 1400 m 450-649 ft 1000 m 1200 m 1200 m 1600 m 650 ft and above 1200 m 1400 m 1400 m 1800 m Non-Precision Approach Minima Intermediate Facilities (Notes 2, 5, 6, and 7) MDH RVR/Aeroplane Category A B C D 250-299 ft 1000 m 1100 m 1200 m 1400 m 300-449 ft 1200 m 1300 m 1400 m 1600 m 450-649 ft 1400 m 1500 m 1600 m 1800 m 650 ft and above 1500 m 1500 m 1800 m 2000 m Non-Precision Approach Minima Basic Facilities (Notes 3, 5, 6, and 7) MDH RVR/Aeroplane Category A B C D 250-299 ft 1200 m 1300 m 1400 m 1600 m 300-449 ft 1300 m 1400 m 1600 m 1800 m 450-649 ft 1500 m 1500 m 1800 m 2000 m 650 ft and above 1500 m 1500 m 2000 m 2000 m
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Non-Precision Approach Minima Nil Approach Light Facilities (Notes 4, 5, 6, and 7) MDH RVR/Aeroplane Category A B C D 250-299 ft 1500 m 1500 m 1600 m 1800 m 300-449 ft 1500 m 1500 m 1800 m 2000 m 450-649 ft 1500 m 1500 m 2000 m 2000 m 650 ft and above 1500 m 1500 m 2000 m 2000 m Notes 1. Full facilities comprise runway markings, 720 m or more of HI/MI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on. 2. Intermediate facilities comprise runway markings, 420-719 m of HI/MI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on. 3. Basic facilities comprise runway markings, <420 m of HI/MI approach lights, any length of LI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on. 4. Nil approach light facilities comprise runway markings, runway edge lights, threshold lights, runway end lights or no lights at all. 5. The tables are only applicable to conventional approaches with a nominal descent slope of not greater than 4. Greater descent slopes will usually require that visual glide slope guidance (e.g. PAPI) is also visible at the Minimum Descent Height. 6. The above figures are either reported RVR or meteorological visibility converted to RVR as in sub-paragraph (h) below. 7. The MDH mentioned in these tables refers to the initial calculation of MDH. When selecting the associated RVR, there is no need to take account of a rounding up to the nearest ten feet, which may be done for operational purposes, e.g. conversion to MDA.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
For night operations, at least runway edge, threshold, and runway end lights must be on.
DECISION HEIGHT
An operator must ensure that the decision height used for a Category I precision approach is not lower than: The minimum decision height specified in the Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM), if stated The minimum height to which the precision approach aid can be used without the required visual reference The OCH/OCL for the category of aeroplane, or 200 ft
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VISUAL REFERENCE
A pilot may not continue an approach below the Category I decision height, unless at least one of the following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot: Elements of the approach light system The threshold The threshold markings The threshold lights The threshold identification lights The visual glide slope indicator The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings The touchdown zone lights Runway edge lights
REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for Category I operations are: Decision Height (note 7) 200 ft 201 to 250 ft 251 to 300 ft 301 ft and above Category I Minima Facilities/RVR (note 5) Full (notes 1 & 6) 550 m 600 m 650 m 800 m Inter (notes 2 & 6) 700 m 700 m 800 m 900 m Basic (notes 3 & 6) 800 m 800 m 900 m 1000 m Nil (notes 4 & 6) 1000 m 1000 m 1200 m 1200 m
Notes 1. Full facilities comprise runway markings, 720 m or more of HI/MI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on. 2. Intermediate facilities comprise runway markings, 420-719 m of HI/MI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on. 3. Basic facilities comprise runway markings, <420 m of HI/MI approach lights, any length of LI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on. 4. Nil approach light facilities comprise runway markings, runway edge lights, threshold lights, runway end lights or no lights at all. 5. The above figures are either the reported RVR or meteorological visibility converted to RVR in accordance with paragraph h. 6. The Table is applicable to conventional approaches with a glide slope angle up to 4. 7. The DH mentioned in these tables refers to the initial calculation of DH. When selecting the associated RVR, there is no need to take account of a rounding up to the nearest ten feet, which may be done for operational purposes, (e.g. conversion to DA).
NIGHT OPERATIONS
For night operations, at least runway edge, threshold, and runway end lights must be on. 7-8 Operational Procedures
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DECISION HEIGHT
An operator must ensure that the decision height for a Category II operation is not lower than: The minimum decision height specified in the AFM, if stated The minimum height to which the precision approach aid can be used without the required visual reference The OCH/OCL for the category of aeroplane The decision height to which the flight crew is authorised to operate 100 ft
VISUAL REFERENCE
A pilot may not continue an approach below the Category II decision height unless visual reference containing a segment, which includes at least three consecutive lights of, the centre line of the approach lights, touchdown zone lights, runway centre line lights, runway edge lights, or a combination of these, is attained and can be maintained. This visual reference must include a lateral element of the ground pattern, i.e. an approach lighting crossbar or the landing threshold or a barrette of the touchdown zone lighting.
Approach lighting at Jersey showing clearly the lateral elements of the approach lighting
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REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for Category II operations are: Decision Height 100 to 120 ft 121 to 140 ft 141 ft and above Category II Minima Auto-Coupled to Below DH (Note 1) RVR/Aeroplane RVR/Aeroplane Category A, B, and C Category D 300 m 300 m (Note 2) /350 m 400 m 400 m 450 m 450 m
Notes: 1. The reference to 'auto-coupled to below DH' in this table means continued use of the automatic flight control system down to a height that is not greater than 80% of the applicable DH. Thus, airworthiness requirements may, through minimum engagement height for the automatic flight control system, affect the DH applied. 2. 300 m may be used for a Category D aeroplane conducting an autoland.
CATEGORY III A OPERATIONS A precision instrument approach and landing using ILS or MLS with decision height lower than 100 ft, and RVR not less than 200 m. CATEGORY III B OPERATIONS A precision instrument approach and landing using ILS or MLS with decision height lower than 50 ft, or no decision height, and RVR lower than 200 m but not less than 75 m (JAR OPS) or 50 m (Annex 6).
Note: Where the decision height (DH) and runway visual range (RVR) do not fall within the same Category, the RVR determines in which Category the operation is considered.
CATEGORY III C OPERATIONS A precision instrument approach and landing, usually ILS or MLS, with no decision height and no RVR requirement.
DECISION HEIGHT
For operations using a decision height, an operator must ensure that the decision height is not lower than: The minimum decision height specified in the AFM, if stated The minimum height to which the precision approach aid can be used without the required visual reference The authorised decision height to which the flight crew operates
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VISUAL REFERENCE
For Category IIIA and IIIB operations with fail-passive flight control systems, a pilot may not continue an approach below the decision height unless a visual reference containing a segment of at least 3 consecutive lights of, the centreline of the approach lights, touchdown zone lights, runway centre line lights, runway edge lights, or a combination of these, and can be maintained. For Category IIIB operations with fail-operational flight control systems using a decision height, a pilot may not continue an approach below the Decision Height unless attaining a visual reference containing at least one centreline light, which can be maintained. For Category III operations with no decision height there is no requirement for visual contact with the runway prior to touchdown.
REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for Category III operations are: Category III Minima Decision Height Roll Out Control/ Guidance System Less than 100 ft Not Required Less than 100 ft Less than 50 ft Less than 50 ft or no DH at all Fail Passive Fail Passive Fail Operational
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CIRCLING
The lowest minima for use by an operator for circling are: A 400 ft 1500 m Lowest Circling Minima B C 500 ft 600 ft 1600 m 2400 m D 700 ft 3600 m
VISUAL APPROACH
An operator shall not use an RVR of less than 800 m for a visual approach.
LV TAKE-OFF
An operator shall not conduct low visibility take-offs in less than 150 m RVR (Category A, B and C aeroplanes) or 200 m RVR (Category D aeroplanes) unless approved by the Authority.
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AERODROME CONSIDERATIONS
An operator shall not use an aerodrome for Category II or III operations unless the aerodrome receives approval for such operations by the State in which the aerodrome is located. An operator shall verify the establishment of the Low Visibility Procedures (LVP), and enforce those procedures, at those aerodromes where conducting the low visibility operations.
OPERATING PROCEDURES
An operator must establish procedures and instructions to be used for Low Visibility Take-Off and Category II and III operations. These procedures must be included in the Operations Manual and contain the duties of flight crewmembers during taxiing, take-off, approach, flare, landing, roll-out and missed approach as appropriate. The Commander shall verify that: The status of the visual and non-visual facilities is sufficient prior to commencing a Low Visibility Take-Off or a Category II or III approach. Appropriate LVPs are in force according to information received from Air Traffic Services, before commencing a Low Visibility Take-off or a Category II or III approach. The flight crewmembers are properly qualified prior to commencing a Low Visibility Takeoff in an RVR of less than 150 m (Category A, B and C aeroplanes) or 200 m (Cat D aeroplanes) or a Category II or III approach.
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT
An operator must include in the Operations Manual the minimum equipment that has to be serviceable at the commencement of a Low Visibility Take-off or a Category II or III approach in accordance with the AFM or other approved document. The Commander shall verify that the status of the aeroplane and of the relevant airborne systems is appropriate for the specific operation conducted.
CONTROLLING RVR
The touchdown zone RVR is always controlling. Where the reported and relevant mid point and stop end RVRs are also controlling then the following apply (Relevant means that part of the runway used during the high speed phase of the landing to a speed of approximately 60 kt): the minimum value for the mid point is 125 m or the required RVR value for the touch down zone if less, and 75 m for the stop end. Where an aeroplane is fitted with a roll out guidance or control system the minimum value for the mid point RVR is 75 m. Operational Procedures 7-13
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SPECIAL VFR
In the chapter of the Air Law notes, it discusses the regulations concerning Special VFR (SVFR) concerning the Rules of the Air. JAR OPS lays down criteria for the visibility for SVFR operations. Annex 2 states that a SVFR flight must not commence when the ground visibility at an aerodrome within a CTR is less than 1500 m. JAR-OPS 1.465 on the other hand, states that SVFR flights must not commence when the visibility is less than 3 km. Annex 2 further states that SVFR flights must not continue if the flight visibility is less than 1500 m, whereas JAR-OPS states that SVFR flights must not continue if the visibility is less than 1500 m. Students must be aware of the difference and be careful in the examinations.
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We would like to thank and acknowledge: For photographs and assistance Page 8-2 Page 8-9 Page 8-12 (both) Page 8-13 Page 8-16 Page 8-18 Page 8-23 Page 8-17 Page 8-27 (top) Mr. Ashley Gibb.
INTRODUCTION
Whilst aviation is inherently safe due mainly to strong legislation and strict enforcement of safety procedures, the elements of nature often conspire to create situations that pose hazards to operations which, if not dealt with, could result in the aircraft and people on board being placed in danger or worse. All authorities publish information concerning hazards and offer advice in addition to the strict enforcement of regulations where such hazards likely occur. In the UK the CAA publishes pink AICs which contain information relating to safety matters. This chapter looks more closely at some of the potential hazards and the procedures operators must apply.
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For ice to form on an airframe three considerations are necessary: water in a liquid state must be present, the outside air temperature must be below 0C, and the aeroplane airframe temperature must be below 0C.
ICE REMOVAL
The law requires the removal of all ice from an aeroplane before any flight begins. The operator must establish procedures for ground de-icing, anti-icing, and related necessary inspections of the aeroplane(s). De-icing is removal of ice from the aircraft. Anti-icing is the prevention of ice forming. A flight cannot commence unless the external surfaces have been cleared of any contaminant or deposit that might affect the performance of the aeroplane, and the aeroplane is certificated and equipped for flight in icing conditions if there are known or expected icing conditions. At night, the aeroplane must be equipped with a means to illuminate or detect the formation of ice. Any illumination used must be of a type that does not cause glare or reflection affecting crewmembers in the performance of their duties.
DE-ICING ON THE GROUND A pilot can find information on the de-icing and anti-icing of aeroplanes in the operations manual, and ICAO DOC 9640 Manual of Aircraft Ground De-Icing/Anti-Icing. For a contaminated aircraft on the ground there are three approved de-icing methods:
1. The application of de-icing fluids 2. Heating the airframe by use of hot air 3. Manually sweeping the aircraft The carrying out of de-icing/anti-icing on the ground is in a one step or two step procedure: One Step Two Step De-icing/anti-icing is done at the same time. Ice removal is achieved first and then followed with anti-icing.
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DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING FLUIDS De-icing fluids melt the ice and then prevent ice from forming until a much lower temperature, or it slows down the ice forming process. Anti-icing fluids slow down the ice forming process. Because the only difference is in the ability to melt the ice, they are effectively the same compounds. There are three types in use:
1. Type I (unthickened) Fluid 2. Type II (thickened) Fluid 3. Type IV (thickened) Fluid
HOLDOVER TIMES The fluids are applied neat or diluted depending on the holdover time. Holdover protection is achieved by a layer of anti-icing fluid remaining on and protecting aircraft surfaces for a period of time.
For a one-step procedure the holdover time begins at the commencement of de-icing/anti-icing. With a two-step procedure the holdover time begins at the commencement of the second step. The holdover times are published and vary with type of agent used and air temperature. At the expiry of the holdover time, the aircraft is treated again and a new holdover period starts from then.
CARBURETTOR FIRE A carburettor fire can start when a rich fuel mixture or neat fuel ignites by exhaust gasses or poor starting techniques or a malfunction of the engine. The standard drill for dealing with a carburettor fire is as follows:
If the engine has not started: 1. Move the mixture control to idle-cutoff. 2. Open the throttle fully. 3. Continue to operate the starter motor. If the engine has started, keep the engine going. In both cases, if the fire does not go out, execute the Engine Fire Drill.
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ENGINE FIRE Take account of whether the aeroplane is in the air or on the ground. The following are general considerations and are not specific to type.
Piston Engine Fire: 1. Fuel off 2. Allow the engine to run dry 3. The system should then be purged of fuel 4. Ignition off Jet Engine Fire: 1. Close the thrust lever 2. Engine start lever to cut-off 3. Pull the engine fire warning switch If the warning continues, operate the fire extinguisher system. If this does not work, after 30 seconds, operate the second fire extinguisher system. Turboprop Engine Fire Same as for the Jet Engine Fire except that at some stage the propeller needs feathering.
HAND FIRE EXTINGUISHERS Provided are hand fire extinguishers for use in crew, passenger, and cargo compartments, and galleys. The type of extinguisher must be suitable for the kinds of fires likely to occur in the compartment where the intended use of the extinguisher is and, for personnel compartments, to minimise the hazard of toxic gas concentration.
At least one hand fire extinguisher, containing Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluromethane, CBrCIF2), or equivalent as the extinguishing agent, must be conveniently located on the flight deck for use by the flight crew. At least one hand fire extinguisher must be located in, or readily accessible for use in, each galley not located on the main passenger deck. At least one readily accessible hand fire extinguisher must be available for use in each Class A or Class B cargo or baggage compartment and in each Class E cargo compartment that is accessible to crewmembers in flight.
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The number of hand fire extinguishers required in the passenger compartments is listed below: Requirements for Hand Fire Extinguishers Maximum approved passenger seating configuration 7 to 30 31 to 60 61 to 200 201 to 300 301 to 400 401 to 500 501 to 600 601 or more Number of Extinguishers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
When two or more extinguishers are required, they must be evenly distributed in the passenger compartment. The hand fire extinguishers that may be used in an aircraft are: Types and Use of Hand Fire Extinguishers Extinguisher Halon 1211 BCF Water CO2 Dry Powder Colour Green Red Black Blue Use General Domestic fires Electrical fires Electrical and liquid fires Remarks Anywhere on aircraft Nil Not on flight deck Not on flight deck
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BRAKE OVERHEAT When overheated brakes occur, this presents a danger that the tyres and brakes may explode. Fire crews should be in attendance in a situation involving overheated breaks . This can take a substantial time. If approaching the aircraft, do so from the front or rear, not from the side. CRASH AXES AND CROWBARS An aeroplane with a MTOM > 5700 kg or having a passenger seating configuration of more than nine requires a crash axe or crowbar on the flight deck. Where the seating configuration is more than 200, required in the rearmost galley is a crash axe or crowbar. Do not make these items visible to passengers.
SMOKE
Smoke in any form at any location is hazardous to life, and when airborne it is particularly dangerous. Smoke reduces the absorption of oxygen into the lungs. In extreme cases this leads to asphyxiation and death. It also causes panic which can lead to irrational behaviour. Other effects include stimulation of the mucus membranes, irritation of the lungs, and obviously, reduced vision. On the flight deck, smoke distracts the pilots from their duty and one or both must take action with the necessary check list to identify the source of the smoke and stop it. To reduce or negate the physiological effects of smoke on the flight deck, pilot positions have smoke hoods and /or goggles together with oxygen masks that do not mix the oxygen with cabin air. Smoke in the passenger cabin is most likely from a malfunction in the galley, or from passengers illegally smoking in the toilet compartments. In the event of smoke in the passenger compartment requiring the use of the drop-out oxygen masks, passengers are reluctant to cover their mouths. The cabin crew must be forceful in ensuring compliance with the Commanders instructions to don the oxygen masks. Necessary drills and training are in the Operations Manual.
SMOKE IN THE CARGO COMPARTMENT On the flight deck or in the passenger compartment, smoke is immediately obvious and the drills can be actioned. Usually unmanned, any smoke present in the cargo compartment may escape attention until warning devices indicate increased temperature due to the fire. To overcome this, linked smoke detectors (similar to domestic smoke detector) are in cargo compartments and crewmembers must visit the compartment (if possible) at regular intervals.
SECURITY REQUIREMENTS
TRAINING PROGRAMMES
All operators must ensure that all appropriate personnel are familiar, and comply with the relevant requirements of the national security programmes of the State of the operator. An operator must establish, maintain and conduct approved training programmes which enable the operator's personnel to take appropriate action to prevent acts of unlawful interference such as sabotage or unlawful seizure of aeroplanes and to minimise the consequences of such events should they occur.
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WEAPONS
In order to carry Weapons of War (as defined by JAR OPS) in an aircraft, the operator must obtain the permission of every State overflown. If States are pre-warned, the crew and the Operator cannot then be accused of gun running in the event of a non-scheduled diversion. When carrying such weapons, carry them in accordance with the rules and, if classified as Dangerous Cargo, apply the rules in full. Other weapons may be carried on board by law enforcement officers and other persons acting in the discharge of their duty providing the rules and regulations laid down by the states involved are adhered to.
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If required, a fuel jettisoning system must be capable of jettisoning enough fuel within 15 minutes to enable the aeroplane to meet the performance climb requirements, assuming that the fuel is jettisoned under the conditions found least favourable during flight tests. During the flight tests it must be shown that: The fuel jettisoning system and its operation are free from fire hazard The fuel discharges clear of any part of the aeroplane Fuel or fumes do not enter any part of the aeroplane The jettisoning operation does not adversely affect the controllability of the aeroplane Fuel should not be jettisoned below 10 000 ft. In winter, in exceptional circumstances, this can be lowered to 7000 ft. In summer in exceptional circumstances, this can be lowered to 4000 ft. The fuel jettisoning valve must be designed to allow flight personnel to close the valve during any part of the jettisoning operation. Unless it is shown that using any means (including flaps, slots, and slats) for changing the airflow across or around the wings does not adversely affect fuel jettisoning, there must be a placard, adjacent to the jettisoning control, to warn flightcrewmembers against jettisoning fuel while using the means that change the airflow. The fuel jettisoning system must be designed so that any reasonably probable single malfunction in the system does not result in a hazardous condition due to unsymmetrical jettisoning of, or inability to jettison, fuel.
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PRESSURISATION FAILURE
Failure of the pressurisation system of an aeroplane is potentially life threatening. At altitudes above that at which the partial pressure of oxygen is no longer sufficient for normal respiration, exposure to ambient pressure causes hypoxia (lack of oxygen) leading to reduced brain functioning and failure of vital life systems in the body. Death results in a relatively short time. Unfortunately, the body is not very efficient at recognising the onset of hypoxia because the major effect is drowsiness and a gradual drift to unconsciousness. For this reason, aircraft have pressurisation failure warning systems to alert the crew when the required cabin pressure cannot be maintained. If any failure of the pressurisation system occurs above a level where the outside atmosphere can not support life, commence a descent to such a level immediately. Inform ATC of the descent (the RTF call preceded by MAYDAY x 3) and the pilot should broadcast level passing information and advise when stabilised at the lower level. Failure of the pressurisation system can be caused by a general failure of the conditioning system, ruptures in the pressure hull of a size such that the system cannot cope with the rate of loss of cabin air, total power failure (all engines out) or mishandling of the system by the crew. The classification of failures is by the rate of decompression of the cabin air: slow, rapid, or explosive. Slow decompression occurs over a period of time because the system is trying to replace the lost air and only losing the battle slowly. A failed door seal, stuck pressure discharge valve, or an open window are likely causes. As the cabin altitude slowly climbs above 10 000 ft (700 mb), a warning horn sounds and the drop out system operates after a delay at approximately 14 000 ft. It is possible that physiological changes were noticed prior to this, especially by trained personnel, particularly ears popping, the onset of tunnel vision, pain in body cavities, and excessive venting of air from the body. Particularly affected is night vision, although this may not be immediately noticed. Rapid decompression is when a door opens or the hull ruptures and the system cannot replace the lost air at all. An explosive decompression is the result of a catastrophic failure of the pressure hull resulting from say, a bomb blast or impact by a missile. The difference between rapid and explosive decompressions is somewhat academic as the response by the crew is the same. The crew attempts to regain control of the aeroplane and execute a rapid descent to a level where the ambient pressure of oxygen is life sustaining. There may be extreme physiological effects such as exploding sinuses and teeth cavities, rupturing of ear drums, extensive abdominal distension, and rupturing of internal organs.
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Chapter 3 covers the requirements for the carriage of supplemental oxygen, but they are reiterated here. Requirements for the Carriage of Supplemental Oxygen Supply For
All occupants of flight deck seats
Notes:
1. 2.
3.
4.
5.
The supply provided must take account of the cabin pressure altitude and descent profile for the routes considered. The required minimum supply is that quantity of oxygen necessary for a constant rate of descent from the aeroplanes maximum certificated operating altitude to 10 000 ft in 10 minutes followed by 20 minutes at 10 000 ft. The required minimum supply is that quantity of oxygen necessary for a constant rate of descent from the aeroplanes maximum certificated operating altitude to 10 000 ft in 10 minutes followed by 110 minutes at 10 000 ft. The required minimum supply is that quantity of oxygen necessary for a constant rate of descent from the aeroplanes maximum certificated operating altitude to 15 000 ft in 10 minutes. For the purpose of this table, passengers means passengers actually carried and includes infants.
Flight crewmembers use a quick donning oxygen mask, which is a mask that can be donned within 5 seconds using one hand, and permits normal radio communications to be maintained. The masks used by passengers are of no use when there is smoke in the cabin as the smoke mixes with the oxygen. The number of oxygen dispensing units and outlets must exceed the number of seats by at least 10%.
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A windshear encounter can affect large aircraft suddenly by displacing them beyond the pilots powers of recovery.
METEOROLOGICAL FEATURES
Severe windshear is associated with cumulonimbus or towering cumulus clouds. However, windshear can also be experienced in association with other features such as the passage of a front, a marked temperature inversion, a low-level wind maximum, or a turbulent boundary layer. Topography or buildings can make the situation worse when there is a strong wind.
Towering cumulonimbus
THUNDERSTORMS The study of thunderstorms in Meteorology covers the physical properties of these phenomena and this section of the notes describes the wind flows in and around the thunderstorm which cause the most severe windshear. The shears and draughts associated with the thunderstorm can affect an aircraft from any angle. This makes assessment of angle of attack and the onset of the stall difficult to predict.
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Gust Front The gust front is a well-defined area of cold air flowing out from a downdraught in all directions. The gust front leads the storm along its line of movement and affects the area out to 24 to 32 km from the storm centre, and from the surface up to about 6000 ft. The area is subject to turbulence and possibly vertical shear because of the out flowing cold air undercutting inflowing warm air. If the leading edge has no associated precipitation, weather radar does not detect the gust front. With some gust fronts, a roll cloud may be present which may be associated with the onset of precipitation. Microbursts A microburst is a highly concentrated, powerful downdraught of air, typically less than 5 km across, lasting from 1 to 5 minutes, with downdraughts up to 60 knots and possible wind speed at the surface of 90 knots. Microbursts are either wet or dry. The dry microburst has no associated precipitation, which makes detection difficult. The wet microburst is associated with the precipitation that falls below a cumulonimbus cloud.
A microburst
FRONTAL PASSAGE
The greatest risk of windshear is from well-developed active fronts with narrow surface frontal zones, and marked temperature differences between the two air masses. Sharp changes in wind direction as the front passes indicate the possibility of windshear. Signs to look for are a temperature difference of 5C or more across the frontal zone, and the speed of movement of the front, especially if 30 kt or more. The cold front poses the greater risk with the windshear occurring just after the surface passage. The period of windshear for a warm front is longer and precedes the passage.
INVERSIONS
A strong vertical shear can occur when a low-level jet forms in association with a strong radiation inversion. These normally develop at night under clear skies. Low-level inversions may develop where a strong upper flow is above a calm flow next to the surface. Windshear can be experienced across the boundary.
TOPOGRAPHICAL WINDSHEAR
Natural or man made features affect the wind flow and can cause windshear. The direction of flow and wind speed determines the severity of the windshear, mountain waves being the best example.
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Shear Line
30 kt IAS 130 kt Groundspeed 100 kt IAS 110 kt Groundspeed 100 kt
10 kt
As shown in the diagram, the loss of airspeed when passing through the shear line is sudden. The inertia of the aircraft keeps it at its original ground speed of 100 kt and power is needed to accelerate the aircraft back to its original air speed. This takes time and there is sinking, as lift is lost. The headwind was a form of energy and when it dropped 20 kt, an equivalent amount of energy loss occurred.
Shear Line
30 kt IAS 120 kt Groundspeed 100 kt 10 kt IAS 140 kt Groundspeed 100 kt
The opposite effect happens when taking off. Assume a climb with a 10 kt headwind, which changes to a 30 kt headwind. The target climb speed is 120 kt. The effect of a sudden transition to a 20 kt increase of headwind increases the lAS by the same amount until the momentum of the ground speed is lost. The aircraft climbs more rapidly with the added lift.
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SUMMARY
Effect of Windshear IAS Headwind Increase Headwind Decrease Tailwind Increase Tailwind Decrease Increase Decrease Decrease Increase Effect Climb Descent Descent Climb
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When there is an indefinite risk of windshear, it may be possible to use a longer runway or one that points away from an area of potential threat. Rotating at a slightly higher speed may be possible. The high power setting and high pitch angle after rotation put the aircraft an optimum configuration should a microburst strike. In both approach and take-off cases. Vital actions are: Use the maximum power available as soon as possible. Adopt a pitch angle of around 15 and try to hold that attitude. Do not chase airspeed. Be guided by stick shaker indications when holding or increasing pitch attitude, easing the backpressure as required to attain and hold a slightly lower attitude. Windshear warning can be provided in several ways: Meteorological warning ATS warning Pilot warning On board pre-encounter warning On board encounter warning and/or guidance
WAKE TURBULENCE
AIRCRAFT WAKE VORTEX CHARACTERISTICS
Wake vortices are present behind every aircraft in forward flight. They are most hazardous to aircraft with a small wing span during the take-off, Initial climb, final approach, and landing phase. The characteristics of the wake vortex system generated by an aircraft in flight are determined initially by the aircraft's gross mass, wingspan, aircraft configuration, and attitude. Two counter-rotating cylindrical air masses trailing behind the aircraft make up the vortex system in the wake of an aircraft. The two vortices are separated by about three quarters of the aircraft's wingspan. In still air, the vortices tend to drift slowly downward and either level off, usually not more than 1000 ft below the flight path of the aircraft, or, approaching the ground, move sideways from the track of the generating aircraft at a height roughly equal to half the aircraft's wingspan. The tangential airspeed can be up to 300 ft/sec immediately behind a large aircraft. This decays slowly with time.
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Wake vortex generation begins when the nose wheel lifts off the runway on take-off and continues until the nose wheel touches down on landing. Vortex strength increases with the weight of the generating aircraft. With the aircraft in a given configuration, the vortex strength decreases with increasing aircraft speed, and for a given weight and speed the vortex strength is greatest when the aircraft is in a clean configuration. For a given weight and speed, a helicopter produces a stronger vortex than a fixed-wing aircraft. It is normal for aircraft to take off into wind. The wake vortex generated by an aircraft taking off drifts on the wind, and may be a hazard to an aircraft taking off from a point on the same runway, short of where the first aircraft rotated. Cross winds cause the vortex to drift sideways and may present a hazard to aircraft using adjacent parallel or near parallel runways.
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Apply the minima when operating behind another aircraft or when crossing the path of an aircraft at the same altitude or 1000 ft below. Note in the table below, there is no allowance made for aircraft of the same type. The standard ATC departure separation of 1 minute between take-offs (minimum of 45 track divergence) covers this case. Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima Departures Leading Aircraft Heavy Medium Heavy Medium Following Aircraft Medium or light Light Medium or light Light Minimum Spacing at the Time Aircraft are Airborne Departing from the same position Departing from an intermediate point on the same runway 2 minutes 2 minutes 3 minutes 3 minutes
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA DISPLACED LANDING THRESHOLD Use a spacing of two minutes between medium or light aircraft following a heavy aircraft, and light aircraft following a medium aircraft when operating on a runway with a displaced threshold when:
A departing medium or light aircraft follows a heavy aircraft or a departing light aircraft follows a medium aircraft An arriving medium or light aircraft follows a heavy aircraft departure, or an arriving light aircraft follows a departing medium aircraft Expecting the projected flight paths to cross
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA OPPOSITE DIRECTION A spacing of two minutes between a medium or light aircraft and a heavy aircraft, and between a medium aircraft and a light aircraft whenever the heavier aircraft is making a low or missed approach and the lighter aircraft is:
Taking-off on the same runway in the opposite direction Landing on the same runway in the opposite direction Landing on a parallel opposite direction runway separated by less than 760 m
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WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA CROSSING AND PARALLEL RUNWAYS When parallel runways separated by less than 760 m are in use, consider these runways as single runways. WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA INTERMEDIATE APPROACH On intermediate approach, apply a minimum wake turbulence spacing of 5 nm between a heavy and a medium or light aircraft following or crossing behind.
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Dangerous Goods Transport Document A document which is specified by the Technical Instructions. Completion of this document is by the person who offers dangerous goods for air transport and contains information about those dangerous goods. The document bears a signed declaration indicating that the dangerous goods are fully and accurately described by their proper shipping names and UN numbers (if assigned) and that they are correctly classified, packed, marked, labelled, and in a proper condition for transport. Freight Container A freight container is an article of transport equipment for radioactive materials, designed to facilitate the transport of such materials, either packaged or unpackaged, by one or more modes of transport.
NOT a recommended loading technique! Handling Agent An agency which performs on behalf of the operator some or all of the latter's functions including receiving, loading, unloading, transferring, or other processing of passengers or cargo. Over pack An enclosure used by a single shipper to contain one or more packages and to form one handling unit for convenience of handling and stowage. Package The complete product of the packing operation consisting of the packaging and its contents prepared for transport. Packaging Receptacles and any other components or materials necessary for the receptacle to perform its containment function and to ensure compliance with the packing requirements.
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Proper Shipping Name The name used to describe a particular article or substance in all shipping documents and notifications and, where appropriate, on packaging. Serious Injury An injury sustained by a person in an accident and which: Requires hospitalisation for more than 48 hours, commencing within seven days from the date the injury was received; or Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes or nose); or Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, muscle or tendon damage; or Involves injury to any internal organ; or Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of the body surface; or Involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation. State of Origin The Authority in whose territory the dangerous goods were first loaded on an aircraft. Technical Instructions The latest effective edition of the Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air (Doc 9284-AN/905), including the Supplement and any Addendum, approved and published by decision of the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organisation. UN Number The four-digit number assigned by the United Nations Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods to identify a substance or a particular group of substances. Unit Load Device Any type of aircraft container, aircraft pallet with a net, or aircraft pallet with a net over an igloo. Note: An over pack is not included in this definition. For a container containing radioactive materials see the definition for freight container.
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REQUIREMENTS
An operator must comply with the provisions contained in the Technical Instructions on all occasions when carrying dangerous goods, irrespective of whether the flight is wholly or partly within or wholly outside the territory of a State. Articles and substances, otherwise classed as dangerous goods, are excluded from the provisions of this Subpart, to the extent specified in the Technical Instructions, provided: 1. 2. 3. 4. They must be aboard the aeroplane in accordance with the relevant JARs or for operating reasons. They are carried as catering or cabin service supplies. They are carried for use in flight as veterinary aid or as a humane killer for an animal. They are carried for use in flight for medical aid for a patient, if: a. Gas cylinders were manufactured specifically for the purpose of containing and transporting that particular gas. b. Drugs, medicines, and other medical matter are under the control of trained personnel during the time when they are in use in the aeroplane. c. Equipment containing wet cell batteries is kept, and when necessary secured, in an upright position to prevent spillage of the electrolyte. d. Proper provision is made to stow and secure all the equipment during takeoff and landing and at all other times when deemed necessary by the Commander in the interest of safety. They are carried by passengers or crewmembers.
5.
LOADING RESTRICTIONS
An operator shall ensure that dangerous goods are not carried in an aeroplane cabin occupied by passengers or on the flight deck, unless otherwise specified in the Technical Instructions.
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CARGO COMPARTMENTS
An operator shall ensure that dangerous goods are loaded, segregated, stowed, and secured on an aeroplane as specified in the Technical Instructions.
INFORMATION TO CREWMEMBERS
An operator shall ensure the provision of information in the Operations Manual to enable crewmembers to carry out their responsibilities concerning the transport of dangerous goods, including the actions to be taken in the event of emergencies arising involving dangerous goods.
CONTAMINATED RUNWAYS
TERMINOLOGY
Terms used in this section have the following meaning: Contaminated runway A runway is considered to be contaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface area (whether in isolated areas or not) within the required length and width used is covered by the following: Surface water more than 3 mm (0.125 in) deep, or by slush, or loose snow, equivalent to more than 3 mm (0.125 in) of water; Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further compression and holds together or breaks into lumps if picked up (compacted snow); or Ice, including wet ice. Operational Procedures 8-23
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Damp runway A damp runway is where the surface is not dry, but the moisture on it does not give it a shiny appearance. Dry runway A dry runway is one which is neither wet nor contaminated, and includes those paved runways, specially prepared with grooves or porous pavement, and maintained to retain effectively dry braking action even when moisture is present. Wet runway A wet runway is a water covered surface, or equivalent, less than as defined in Contaminated runway above or when there is sufficient moisture on the runway surface to cause it to appear reflective, but without significant areas of standing water. Contaminant Depth If exceeding the following limits, then do not attempt a take-off: Dry snow Very dry snow Water, slush or wet snow > 60 mm > 80 mm > 15 mm
AQUAPLANING (HYDROPLANING)
Aquaplaning is the effect of the tyres of an aeroplane riding over water on the surface of a runway. As the speed of the aeroplane on the ground increases a bow wave of water builds up in front of the tyre and eventually the tyre is lifted off the surface. This allows the tyre to slow, and creates a friction boundary between the tyre and the surface of the runway. The heat generated by the friction can cause the tyre to scald and the rubber to melt with the possibility of tyre explosion. In any event, when a tyre is aquaplaning there is a loss of adhesion and thus loss of directional control. This is not such a problem for normal take-off except in the case of a rejected take-off. It is a major concern for aircraft landing on to a contaminated runway especially in a cross wind condition. Aquaplaning does not generally begin at a speed less than the critical speed given by the formula:
V = 9P
Where: V is the groundspeed (kt) P is the tyre pressure (lb per in2)
However, once hydroplaning starts, it continues to speeds well below the critical speed. There are three types of hydroplaning: Dynamic Hydroplaning Dynamic hydroplaning is a condition where the tyre lifts completely above the surface of the runway. As little as 2.5 mm of water is sufficient to produce dynamic hydroplaning. Viscous Hydroplaning Viscous hydroplaning can occur at slower speeds and rather than the water lifting the tyre from the pavement, the tyre slips on a thin film. This occurs on smooth runways.
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Reverted Rubber (Steam) Hydroplaning Hard braking during a rejected takeoff or long landing may causes the brakes to lock, although the maxaret units should act in the same manner as the ABS systems in cars. If brake locking occurs on a wet runway, the tyre track area heats up due to friction causing some of the rubber to revert back to a gummy state, trapping water. The water turns to steam and steam pressure lifts the tyre from the runway.
STATIONARY TYRE Studies show that a tyre that is not rotating does hydroplane at a lower speed than a rotating tyre. NASA has evaluated the speed as 7.7 x P. There is a question in the question bank concerning non-rotating tyres. RECOMMENDATIONS It is nearly impossible to land an aeroplane at a speed below the critical speed, but using the following techniques can reduce the effects of hydroplaning:
Approach to land at the slowest airspeed consistent with safety; that is, use the short-field landing technique. Land firmly, rather than making the smooth, greaser type landing. Lower the nose wheel to the surface as soon as the main wheels are firmly on the surface. Know the hydroplaning critical speed and avoid heavy braking above this speed. Retract the flaps immediately after landing to place more weight on the tyres. Divert to an alternate aerodrome when conditions indicate a potential hydroplaning hazard on runways experiencing a strong crosswind. Tyre Pressure Vs. Hydroplaning Speed Tyre Pressure lb/Bar Hydroplaning Speed Knots 30 /2.0 49 50/3.45 100/5.5 150/10.35 200/13.8 225/15.5 64 90 110 127 (B737) 135 (B777)
If the surface is covered by a contaminant other than water, then divide P by the specific gravity of the contaminant. Tyre configuration, treading, etc., increase the speed at which aquaplaning begins. Beware: there is a question in the exam where the given tyre pressure is in Bar. (1 Bar = 14.5 psi).
WHEEL BRAKING ON WET RUNWAYS The retardation effect of an aircraft braking system relies on friction with the surface of the runway. If the surface is not dry then the amount of friction is reduced. The reduction in friction can be given in a factor known as the co-efficient of braking, defined by the value of friction of the runway at an instant in time, determined by measurement, divided by the value of friction for the same runway when dry. If the runway is dry, the coefficient of braking is 1. If not dry, the coefficient is less than 1.
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All paved runways of 1200 m or longer require calibration for co-efficient of braking. When wet, good braking action is possible to calculate. RTF reports the presence of water on a runway as follows: Dry Damp Wet Water Patches Flooded The surface is dry. The surface shows a change of colour due to moisture. The surface is soaked, but no significant patches of standing water are visible. Significant patches of standing water are visible. Extensive standing water is visible.
INTERPRETATION When a runway is reported as dry, damp, or wet, pilots may assume an acceptable level of braking friction is present. Water patches or flooded means that braking may be affected by hydroplaning and appropriate adjustments should be considered. Water patches will be reported if at least 25% of the runway is affected.
When a runway is notified as slippery when wet, take-offs and landings in wet conditions should only be considered if the distances equal or exceed the distances required for icy runways as defined in the aircraft manual.
SNOW, SLUSH, OR ICE ON A RUNWAY Whenever a runway is affected by snow, slush, or ice and it has not been possible to clear the precipitant fully, assess the condition of the runway, and the friction coefficient measured.
The table below, with associated descriptive terms, was developed from friction data collected in compacted snow and ice and should not be taken as absolute values applicable in all conditions. Friction Co-efficient Measured Coefficient 0.40 and above 0.39 to 0.36 0.35 to 0.30 0.29 to 0.26 0.25 and below Estimated Braking Action Good Medium to good Medium Medium to poor Poor Code 5 4 3 2 1
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If the surface is affected by snow or ice and the braking action reported as good, pilots should not expect to find conditions as good as on a clean dry runway (where the available friction may well be greater than that needed in any case). The value good is a comparative value and is intended to mean that aeroplanes should not experience directional control or braking difficulties especially when landing.
BIRD HAZARDS AND STRIKES When a potential bird hazard is observed, the Commander immediately informs the local ATSU. Where a bird strike occurs then a written bird strike report is submitted to the authority after landing, if the aircraft sustains significant damage. If the Commander is unable to do this, then the operator must submit the report. IBIS ICAO established a system to collect and disseminate information concerning bird strikes, known as IBIS (ICAO Bird Strike Information System). Other sources of information include pilot reports, NOTAMS, ground radar detections, and aerodromes VCR observations. Where specific aerodromes are on migratory routes, local information may be broadcast on ATIS or a BIRDTAM may be promulgated.
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Initiate power reduction at or above 800 ft 800 ft Takeoff Thrust V2 + 10 to 20 kt (Or V2 + 20 to 40 kmh)
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On reaching 3000 ft transition smoothly to enroute climb speed 3000 ft Not before 800 ft with a positive rate of climb accelerate to VZF and reduce power with the initiation of the first flap/slat retraction or When flaps/slats are retracted with a positive rate of climb reduce power and climb at VZF + 10 to 20 kt
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STABILISED APPROACH A method of reducing noise from approaching aircraft is to use a procedure known as stabilised approach. This method requires the aircraft to adopt the required rate of descent (usually 300 ft/nm) from the IAF all the way to the threshold of the landing runway. The Approach Controller or Approach Radar Controller requests the aircraft to fly at a certain speed (usually about 210 kt) and by accurate radar vectoring, the aircraft arrives at the outer marker or FAP at the glide path height. This procedure allows the pilot to set the throttles, lift/drag enhancers, and gear at a very early stage in the approach (in the case of Heathrow at FL70) and use attitude to adjust speed for separation.
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We would like to thank and acknowledge: For photographs and assistance Page 9-6 Mr. Ashley Gibb.
OPERATIONAL APPROVAL AND AIRCRAFT SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS FOR FLIGHT IN THE NAT MNPS AIRSPACE
INTRODUCTION
The reference for transoceanic flight is the North Atlantic MNPS Airspace Operations Manual Ninth Edition. The North Atlantic Area (NAT) consists of five oceanic FIRs, four of which are known as Oceanic Control Areas (OCAs). These are Shanwick, Santa Maria, Gander, and New York. The fifth is the Reykjavik Oceanic FIR. The ICAO Procedures for Oceanic and polar flight also apply to operations in the Bod and Sonderstrom OCAs. All of these FIRs are Class A airspace from FL55 up to FL660. Below FL55, the airspace is class G. Additional material relating to North Atlantic aircraft operations are in the following documents: ICAO Annexes PANS/RAC (Doc.4444) Regional Supplementary Procedures (Doc.7030) State AIPs Current NOTAMs
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MNPS AIRSPACE
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RVSM
RVSM applies within MNPS airspace. Air Law notes cover RVSM (reduced vertical separation minima) in detail. Briefly, where applying RVSM, the vertical separation of aircraft remains at 1000 ft above FL300 rather than increasing to the standard 2000 ft in accordance with the rules of the air. RVSM is applied between FL290 and FL410 inclusive.
ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are for use in conjunction with subsequent chapters.
ACC ADC AFTN AIC AIP AIS ARINC ASR ATA ATM AWPR BRNAV CAR CDU CMA CTA DCPC DME DR ELT ETOPS EUR FDE FIR FL FLAS FMC FMS GLONASS GMU GNE GNSS GP GPS Area Control Centre Air Data Computer Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network Aeronautical Information Circular Aeronautical Information Publication Aeronautical Information Service Aeronautical Radio Incorporated Aviation Safety Report Actual Time of Arrival Air Traffic Management Automatic Waypoint Reporting Basic Area Navigation Caribbean Control Display Unit Central Monitoring Agency Control Area Direct Controller/Pilot Communications Distance Measuring Equipment Dead Reckoning Emergency Locator Transmitter Extended Range Twin-engine Aircraft Ops Europe Fault Detection and Exclusion Flight Information Region Flight Level Flight Level Allocation Scheme Flight Management Computer Flight Management System Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System GPS (Height) Monitoring Unit Gross Navigation Error Global Navigation Satellite System General Purpose Global Positioning System HMU LRNS MASPS MEL MNPS MTT NAM NAR NAT NAT SPG NDB nm OAC OCA OTS PRM PTS RA RAIM RMI RNP RVSM SELCAL SID SSB SSR SST TA TAS TCAS TLS TMI WAH WATRS Height Monitoring Unit Long Range Navigation System Minimum Aircraft System Performance Spec Minimum Equipment List Minimum Navigation Performance Spec Minimum Time Track North America North American Route North Atlantic North Atlantic Systems Planning Group Non Directional Beacon Nautical Mile Oceanic Area Control Centre Oceanic Control Area Organised Track System Preferred Route Message Polar Track Structure Resolution Advisory Receiver-Autonomous Integrity Monitoring Remote Magnetic Indicator Required Navigation Performance Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum Selective Calling Standard Instrument Departure Single Sideband Secondary Surveillance Radar Supersonic Transport Traffic Advisory True Airspeed Traffic Collision Avoidance System Target Level of Safety Track Message Identification When Able Higher West Atlantic Route System
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GENERAL
All flights in MNPS airspace must achieve the highest standards of horizontal and vertical navigation performance and accuracy. Aircraft operating within MNPS Airspace must meet a Minimum Navigation Performance Specification (MNPS) in the horizontal plane through the mandatory carriage and use of a specified level of navigation equipment. Aircraft operating at RVSM levels in NAT MNPS Airspace must be equipped with altimetry and height keeping systems which meet RVSM Minimum Aircraft System Performance Specifications (MASPS). The ultimate responsibility for checking that a NAT MNPS/RVSM flight has the necessary approval rests with the Commander.
LATERAL NAVIGATION
There are two navigational requirements for aircraft planning to operate in MNPS Airspace: 1. The necessary navigation performance achieved, in terms of accuracy. 2. The need to carry standby equipment with comparable performance characteristics. For approval of unrestricted operation in the MNPS Airspace, an aircraft must be equipped with two fully serviceable Long Range Navigation Systems (LRNSs). Each LRNS must be capable of providing to the flight crew a continuous indication of the aircraft position relative to desired track. A LRNS may be one of the following: One Inertial Navigation System (INS) One Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) One navigation system using the inputs from one or more Inertial Reference System (IRS) or any other sensor system complying with the MNPS requirement
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SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE PENETRATION OF MNPS AIRSPACE BY NON-MNPS APPROVED AIRCRAFT
The responsible ATC unit may clear an aircraft to climb/descend in MNPS Airspace provided the completion of the climb or descent is within the coverage of selected VOR/DMEs or NDBs and/or within radar coverage of the ATC unit issuing the clearance and the aircraft is able to maintain Direct Controller/Pilot Communications (DCPC) on VHF; and MNPS approved aircraft operating in that part of the MNPS Airspace affected by any climb or descent are not penalised. Non-MNPS Approved aircraft may also be cleared to climb or descend through MNPS Airspace for the sole purpose of landing at or departing from an airport which underlies MNPS Airspace but which does not have serviceable short range navaids, radar or DCPC. Details are in the AIS publications of the appropriate ATS Provider State.
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GENERAL
North Atlantic (NAT) air traffic contributes to two major alternating flows: 1. A westbound flow departing Europe in the morning, and 2. An eastbound flow departing North America in the evening. The effect is to concentrate the traffic at 30W: 1. Peak westbound traffic occurring between 1130 UTC and 1800 UTC, and 2. Peak eastbound traffic occurring between 0100 UTC and 0800 UTC Use of OTS tracks is not mandatory. Aircraft may fly on random routes which remain clear of the OTS or may fly on any route that joins or leaves an outer track of the OTS. There is also nothing to prevent an operator from planning a route which crosses the OTS. At and above FL55 the NAT Region is Class A airspace and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) apply at all times. Airspace utilisation is achieved by the application of Mach Number Technique, and RVSM.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of the use of Mach Number Technique is to achieve improved utilisation of the airspace on long route segments where ATC has no means other than position reports of ensuring that the longitudinal separation between successive aircraft does not reduce below the established minimum.
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PERIODS OF VALIDITY
The hours of validity of the two Organised Track Systems (OTS) are normally as follows: Daytime Night-time OTS OTS 1130 UTC to 1800 UTC at 30W 0100 UTC to 0800 UTC at 30W
Changes to these times are negotiated between Gander and Shanwick OACs and the specific hours of validity for each OTS are indicated in the NAT Track Message. For flight planning, operators should take account of the times specified in the relevant NAT Track Message(s). Oceanic airspace outside the published OTS is available, subject to application of the appropriate separation criteria and NOTAM restrictions. It is possible to flight plan to join or leave an outer track of the OTS.
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C 57/10 59/20 59/30 58/40 56/50 SCROD VALIE EAST LVLS NIL WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 EUR RTS WEST NIL NAR N242B N248B N250C N252BD 56/10 58/20 58/30 57/40 55/50 OYSTR STEAM EAST LVLS NIL WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 EUR RTS WEST NIL NAR N224C N228A N230B N232B(NAT-2/2 TRACKS FLS 310/390 INCLUSIVE OCTOBER 8/ 1130Z TO OCTOBER 8/ 1800Z PART TWO OF TWO PARTSE 55/10 57/20 57/30 56/40 54/50 CARPE REDBY EAST LVLD NIL WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 EUR RTS WEST NIL NAR N204A N208A N210B F MASIT 56/20 56/30 55/40 53/50 YAY EAST LVLS NIL WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 EUR RTS WEST VIA DEVOL NAR N184B N188B N192BG 49/15 48/20 45/30 42/40 38/50 35/60 HENCH EAST LVLS NIL WEST LVLS 320 340 360 EUR RTS WEST VIA GUNSO NAR NIL REMARKS: 1. TRACK MESSAGE IDENTIFICATION NUMBER IS 281 AND OPERATORS ARE REMINDED TO INCLUDE THE TMI NUMBER AS PART OF THE OCEANIC CLEARANCE READBACK 2. MNPS AIRSPACE EXTENDS FROM FL285 TO FL420. OPERATORS ARE REMINDED THAT SPECIFIC MNPS APPROVAL IS REQUIRED TO FLY IN THIS AIRSPACE. IN ADDITION, RVSM APPROVAL IS REQUIRED TO FLY BETWEEN FL310 AND FL390 INCLUSIVE 3. EIGHTY PERCENT OF GROSS NAVIGATION ERRORS OCCUR AFTER A REROUTE. ALWAYS CARRY OUT WAYPOINT CROSS CHECKS END OF PART TWO OF TWO PARTS
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GENERAL
A Polar Track Structure (PTS) consists of 10 fixed tracks in Reykjavik, CTA, and 5 fixed tracks through Bod OCA. The PTS tracks through Bod OCA are a continuation of the PTS tracks in Reykjavik CTA. The routes are not mandatory. A recommendation for operators proposing to fly between Europe and Alaska from FL310 to FL390 inclusive is to submit flight plans in accordance with one of the promulgated PTS tracks.
ABBREVIATED CLEARANCES
An abbreviated clearance may be issued to an aircraft to follow one of the polar tracks throughout its flight. When an abbreviated clearance is issued it includes: the clearance limit, normally the destination airfield, the cleared track specified by the track code, the cleared flight level(s), and the cleared Mach number (if required). On receipt of an abbreviated clearance, the pilot must read back the contents of the clearance message and, in addition, the full details of the track specified by the track code.
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GENERAL
The Organised Track System and the Polar Track Structure are the most significant route structures within NAT MNPS Airspace. Other route structures within and adjacent to MNPS Airspace are below.
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Other Route and Route Structures Within or Adjacent to NAT MNPS Airspace
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ROUTINGS
During the hours of validity of the OTS, operators are encouraged to flight plan in accordance with the OTS, along a route to join or leave an outer track of the OTS, or on a random route to remain clear of the OTS. Outside of the OTS periods operators may flight plan any random routing, with the proviso that during the two hours prior to each OTS period the following restrictions apply: Eastbound/Westbound flights that cross 30W less than one hour prior to the incoming/pending OTS should plan to remain clear of the incoming/pending OTS structure. Any opposite direction flights crossing 30W between one and two hours prior to the incoming OTS where the route beyond 30W coincides with the incoming/pending OTS structure at any point, should plan to join an outer track at any point, or backtrack the length of one of the incoming/pending tracks.
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FLIGHT LEVELS
Flight levels for use under RVSM are published in the UK and Canada AIPs, as the Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS). The FLAS as published in the AIPs applies only to the current phase of NAT RVSM operations. Different flight level allocation schemes which apply when implementing subsequent phases of RVSM operations are similarly published as and when these new phases occur. During the OTS Periods (eastbound 0100-0800 UTC, westbound 1130-1800 UTC) aircraft intending to follow an OTS Track for its entire length may plan at any of the levels as published for that track on the current daily OTS Message. Flights planned to remain entirely clear of the OTS or which join or leave an OTS Track (i.e. follow an OTS track for only part of its published length), are referred to as Random Flights. Pilots intending to fly on a random route or outside the OTS time periods should normally plan flight level(s) appropriate to the direction of flight.
APPROPRIATE DIRECTION LEVELS These are specified by the Semi-circular Rule, ICAO Annex 2, Appendix 3 and NAT RVSM implementation (FL290-FL410 inclusive). Appropriate Direction Eastbound levels are therefore: FLs 270, 290, 310, 330, 350, 370, 390, 410 ,450, etc., and appropriate Direction Westbound levels are therefore FLs 260, 280, 320, 340, 360, 380, 430, 470, etc.
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON THE ORGANISED TRACK SYSTEM If planning the flight to operate along the entire length of one of the organised tracks, the intended track is used in item 15 of the flight plan using the abbreviation 'NAT' followed by the code letter assigned to the track. If it is planned to use part of, or leave, an organised track at some intermediate point, consider this a random route aircraft. Specify full route details in the flight plan and the track letter must not be used to abbreviate any portion of the route in these circumstances.
The planned Mach number and flight level for the organised track should be specified at the last domestic reporting point prior to oceanic airspace entry or the organised track commencement point. Geographical co-ordinates in latitude and longitude or as a named waypoint must specify each point at which a change of Mach number or flight level is planned. For flights operating along the whole length of one of the organised tracks, estimates are only required for the commencement point of the track. 13-2 Operational Procedures
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FLIGHTS PLANNING ON RANDOM ROUTE SEGMENTS AT/OR SOUTH OF 70N The requested Mach number and flight level should be specified at either the last domestic reporting point prior to oceanic airspace entry or the OCA boundary. The route of flight should be specified in terms of the following significant points, with estimates included in item 18 of the flight plan:
The last domestic reporting point prior to the oceanic entry point; The OCA boundary entry point (only required by the Shanwick, New York and Santa Maria OACs); Significant points formed by the intersection of half or whole degrees of latitude, with meridians spaced at intervals of ten degrees of longitude from the Zero degree E/W (Greenwich) Meridian to longitude 70W; The OCA boundary exit point (only required by the Shanwick, New York and Santa Maria OACs); and The first domestic reporting point after ocean exit. Each point at which a change of Mach number or flight level is requested must be specified and followed in each case by the next significant point.
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON A GENERALLY EASTBOUND OR WESTBOUND DIRECTION ON RANDOM ROUTE SEGMENTS NORTH OF 70N Flight planning requirements are identical to those listed for flights on random route segments at/or south of 70N except that the route should be specified at 20 longitude intervals at whole degrees of latitude to 60W. FLIGHTS PLANNING ON RANDOM ROUTES IN A GENERALLY NORTHBOUND OR SOUTHBOUND DIRECTION Flight planning requirements for flights are identical to those listed for flights operating on random route segments at/or south of 70N except that the route should be specified in terms of whole degrees of longitude with specified parallels of latitude which are spaced at 5 intervals from 20N to 90N. FLIGHTS PLANNING ON THE POLAR TRACK STRUCTURE (PTS) If the flight is planned to operate along the whole length of one of the Polar tracks, the intended track should be defined in item 15 of the flight plan using the abbreviation 'PTS' followed by the track code. Flights wishing to join or leave a polar track at some intermediate point are considered as following a random route and full track details must be specified in the flight plan. The track code must not be used to abbreviate any portion of the route in these circumstances.
Estimated times over significant points must be specified in item 18 of the flight plan. The requested Mach number and flight level should be specified at the commencement point of the PTS or at the NAT Oceanic boundary. Each point at which a Mach number or flight level change is planned must be specified as geographical co-ordinates in latitude and longitude followed in each case by the abbreviation 'PTS' and the track code.
FLIGHTS PLANNING TO OPERATE WITHOUT HF COMMUNICATIONS The carriage of HF communications is mandatory for flight in the Shanwick OCA. Aircraft with only functioning VHF communications equipment should plan their route outside the Shanwick OCA and ensure that they remain within VHF coverage of appropriate ground stations throughout the flight.
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GENERAL
Oceanic Clearances are required for all flights within the NAT Airspace at or above FL55. Pilots should request Oceanic Clearances from the ATC unit responsible for the first OCA within which they wish to fly. The clearances are applicable only from the entry point. Pilots should request their Oceanic Clearance at least 40 minutes prior to the Oceanic entry point ETA and should include the next preferred alternative if requesting an OTS track.
PERFORMANCE LIMITATION
When requesting an oceanic clearance, the pilot should notify the OAC of the maximum acceptable flight level possible at the boundary. The aircraft must be within radar coverage during any climb. The pilot must notify the OAC of any required change to: The oceanic flight planned level Track Mach number
CLEARANCE DELIVERY
Methods of obtaining Oceanic Clearances include: Use of published VHF clearance delivery frequencies By HF communications to the OAC through the appropriate radio station (at least 40 minutes before boundary/entry estimate) A request via domestic or other ATC agencies By data link when arrangements have been made with designated airlines to request and receive clearances using on-board equipment At some airports situated close to oceanic boundaries, pilots must obtain the Oceanic Clearance before departure. They can do this either by contacting the OCA directly on the VHF frequency published or via ATC.
CRITICAL FAILURE
If an aircraft has a critical in-flight equipment failure enroute to the NAT Oceanic Airspace or at dispatch and is unable to meet the MEL requirements for RVSM or MNPS approval on the flight, the pilot must advise ATC at initial contact when requesting Oceanic Clearance.
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DIFFERENT ROUTE
If the cleared oceanic route differs from the original request and/or the oceanic flight level differs from the current flight level, the pilot is responsible for obtaining the necessary domestic reclearance to ensure that the flight complies with its Oceanic Clearance when entering oceanic airspace.
CLEARANCE ELEMENTS
There are three elements to an Oceanic Clearance: Route Mach number Flight level These elements serve to provide for the three basic elements of separation: lateral, longitudinal, and vertical. The Oceanic Clearance issued to each aircraft is at a specific flight level and cruise Mach number. Do not make flight level or Mach number changes without prior ATC clearance.
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CONTENTS OF CLEARANCES
An abbreviated clearance is issued by Air Traffic Services when clearing an aircraft to fly along the whole length of an Organised Track or along a Polar Track within the Reykjavik CTA and/or Bod OCA. When an abbreviated clearance is issued, it includes: Clearance Limit, which is normally the destination airfield Cleared track specified as Track plus code letter or Polar Track plus code identification Cleared flight level(s) Cleared Mach number The phrase SEND MET REPORTS if the aircraft is designated to report MET information enroute Procedures exist for an abbreviated read back of an Oceanic Clearance issued on VHF. A typical example of such a clearance is as follows: Atlantic 442 is cleared to Toronto via Track Bravo, from 56N 010W maintain Flight Level three five zero, Mach decimal eight zero. The flight crew confirms that they are in possession of the current NAT Track message by using the TMI number in the read-back of the Oceanic Clearance, as follows: Atlantic 442 is cleared to Toronto via Track Bravo 283, from 56N 010W maintain Flight Level three five zero, Mach decimal eight zero. If the TMI number is included in the read-back, there is no requirement for the pilot to read back the NAT Track coordinates even if the cleared NAT Track is not the one originally requested. If any doubt exists as to the TMI or the NAT Track coordinates, the pilot should request the complete track coordinates from the OAC. Similarly, if the pilot cannot correctly state the TMI, the OAC reads the cleared NAT Track coordinates in full and requests a full read-back of those coordinates.
OCEANIC CLEARANCES FOR FLIGHTS INTENDING TO OPERATE WITHIN THE NAT REGION AND SUBSEQUENTLY ENTER THE EUR OR NAM REGIONS Oceanic Clearances issued to most flights in this category are strategic clearances intended to provide a safe separation for each flight from oceanic entry to oceanic track termination point. If pilots receive a clearance on a track other than originally flight planned, they must check that the landfall and domestic routings are fully understood. OCEANIC CLEARANCES FOR RANDOM FLIGHTS INTENDING TO OPERATE WITHIN THE NAT REGION AND SUBSEQUENTLY ENTER REGIONS OTHER THAN NAM OR EUR Oceanic Clearances issued to flights in this category are similar to domestic ATC clearances in that clearances are to destination on the assumption that coordination is effected ahead of the aircraft's passage. In this case, the flight profile may be changed enroute, prior to hand-over from one centre to another, depending upon traffic conditions in the adjacent area.
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OCEANIC FLIGHTS ORIGINATING FROM THE CAR OR SAM REGIONS AND ENTERING NAT MNPS AIRSPACE VIA THE NEW YORK OCA Pilots are reminded that Oceanic Clearances from the New York OAC do not need to be requested until first contact with New York is established on HF frequencies. Note that Oceanic Clearances are not required for entry to or transit of that portion of the New York OCA outside MNPS Airspace.
WAYPOINT INSERTION ERRORS Experience has shown that many of the track-keeping errors that occur result from:
Failure to observe the principles of checking waypoints to be inserted in the navigation systems against the ATC cleared route Failure to load waypoint information carefully Failure to cross check on-board navigation systems
ATC SYSTEM LOOP ERROR An ATC system loop error is any error caused by a misunderstanding between the pilot and the controller regarding assigned FL, Mach number, or assigned route. Such errors can arise from incorrect interpretation of oceanic clearances or re-clearances by pilots. Errors of this nature that are detected by ATC from pilot position reports are normally corrected. However, timely intervention cannot always be guaranteed especially as it may depend upon HF communication.
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HF COMMUNICATIONS
Most NAT air/ground communications are conducted on single side-band HF frequencies.
VHF COMMUNICATIONS
The carriage of HF communications equipment is mandatory for flight in the Shanwick OCA. Aircraft with only functioning VHF communications equipment should plan their route outside the Shanwick OCA and ensure that they remain within VHF coverage of appropriate ground stations throughout the flight.
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Information provided about the aircrafts future altitude ability is not automatically interpreted by ATC as an advance request for a step climb. It is used as previously indicated to assist ATC in planning airspace utilisation. However, should the pilot wish to register a request for one or more future step climbs, this may be incorporated in the WAH report by appropriately substituting the word request for the word able. Example: Atlantic 442, 42 North 40 West at 1215, Flight Level 330, Estimating 40 North 50 West at 1310, 38 North 60 West Next. Request Flight Level 340 at 1235, Able Flight Level 350 at 1325, Request Flight Level 360 at 1415 Although optimal use of the WAH reports is in conjunction with a Position Report, a WAH report can be made or updated separately at any time. Example: Atlantic 442, Able Flight Level 360 at 1035, Request Flight Level 370 at 1145, Able Flight Level 390 at 1300 ATC acknowledgement of a WAH report (and any included requests) is NOT a clearance to change altitude.
METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS
From among the aircraft intending to operate on the organised track system, OACs designate those that are required to report routine meteorological observations at and midway between each prescribed reporting point. The designation is made by the OAC when issuing the Oceanic Clearance using the phrase SEND MET REPORTS and is normally made to designate one aircraft per track at approximately hourly intervals. Pilots flying tracks partly or wholly off the OTS should include routine Met observations with every prescribed report. The midpoint observation should be recorded and then transmitted at the next designated reporting point.
SELCAL
When using HF communications, pilots should maintain a listening watch on the assigned frequency unless SELCAL is fitted, in which case they should ensure the following sequence of actions: 1. 2. Provision of the SELCAL code in the flight plan (any subsequent change of aircraft for a flight requires passing the new SELCAL information to the OAC) Checking the operation of the SELCAL equipment at or prior to entry into Oceanic airspace with the appropriate radio station (This SELCAL check must be completed prior to commencing SELCAL watch) Maintenance thereafter of a SELCAL watch
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HF COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE
Each radio station continuously listens out on its appropriate family/families of NAT HF frequencies. In the event of failure of HF communications, make every effort to relay position reports through other aircraft. An air-to-air VHF frequency for the Region has been agreed upon. When out of range of VHF ground stations on the same or adjacent frequencies, 123.45 MHz may be used to relay position reports. If necessary, initial contact for such relays can be established on 121.5 MHz. Great care must be exercised should this be necessary, as the frequency 121.5 MHz is monitored by all aircraft operating in the NAT Region in case aircraft experiencing emergencies are using it. Therefore, in order to minimise unnecessary use of 121.5 MHz, it is recommended that aircraft additionally monitor 123.45 MHz when flying through NAT airspace.
GENERAL If so equipped, the pilot of an aircraft experiencing a two-way communications failure should operate the SSR transponder on identity Mode A Code 7600 and Mode C. The pilot should attempt to contact any ATC facility or another aircraft and inform them of the difficulty and request they relay information to the ATC facility with whom communications are intended. COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE PRIOR TO ENTERING NAT REGION Due to the potential length of time in oceanic airspace, it is strongly recommended that a pilot experiencing communications failure whilst still in domestic airspace does not enter the OCA but adopts the procedure specified in the appropriate domestic AIP and lands at a suitable airport.
However, if the pilot elects to continue, one of the following procedures should be followed to allow ATC to provide adequate separation: 1. If operating with a received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, the pilot must enter oceanic airspace at the cleared oceanic entry point, level, and speed and proceed in accordance with the received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance. Any level or speed changes required to comply with the Oceanic Clearance must be completed within the vicinity of the oceanic entry point. If operating without a received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, the pilot must enter oceanic airspace at the first oceanic entry point, level, and speed contained in the filed flight plan and proceed via the filed flight plan route to landfall. The initial oceanic level and speed must be maintained until landfall.
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COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE AFTER ENTERING NAT REGION Two situations are considered:
If cleared on the filed flight plan route: The pilot must proceed in accordance with the last received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, including level and speed, to the last specified oceanic route point (normally landfall), then continue on the filed flight plan route. After passing the last specified oceanic route point, the flight should conform to the relevant State procedures/regulations. If cleared on other than the filed flight plan route The pilot must proceed in accordance with the last received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, including level and speed, to the last specified oceanic route point (normally landfall). After passing this point, the pilot should conform with the relevant State procedures/regulations, rejoining the filed flight plan route by proceeding via the published ATS route structure where possible to the next significant point contained in the filed flight plan.
PROCEDURE Aircraft with a destination within the NAT Region should proceed to their clearance limit and follow the ICAO standard procedure to commence descent from the appropriate designated navigation aid serving the destination aerodrome at or as close as possible to the expected approach time. Detailed procedures are promulgated in relevant State AIPs.
OPERATION OF TRANSPONDERS
Unless otherwise directed by ATC, pilots of aircraft equipped with SSR transponders flying in the NAT FIRs operate transponders continuously in Mode A/C Code 2000, however, the last assigned code is retained for a period of 30 min after entry into NAT airspace. Pilots should note that it is important to change from the last assigned domestic code to the Mode A/C Code 2000, since the original domestic code may not be recognised by the subsequent Domestic Radar Service on exit from the oceanic airspace. This procedure does not affect the use of the special purpose codes (7500, 7600, and 7700) in cases of unlawful interference, radio failure, or emergency.
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FLIGHT OPERATION
IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE TIME
The proper operation of a correctly functioning LRNS ensures that the aircraft follows its cleared track. ATC applies standard separations between cleared tracks and assures the safe lateral separation of aircraft. Longitudinal separations between subsequent aircraft following the same track and between aircraft on intersecting tracks are assessed in terms of differences in ETAs/ATAs at common waypoints. Aircraft clock errors resulting in position report time errors can lead to a shortening of longitudinal separation between aircraft. Prior to entry into the NAT MNPS Airspace, the time reference system used during the flight must be accurately synchronised to UTC. The calculation of waypoint ETAs and the reporting of waypoint ATAs are referenced to this system. Pre-flight procedures for any NAT MNPS flight must include a UTC time check and resynchronisation of the aircraft master clock. NAT ATS Provider States have promulgated lists of acceptable time sources for this purpose. The following are examples of acceptable time standards: GPS (Corrected to UTC) WWV-National Institute of Standards (NIST-Fort Collins, Colorado). WWV operates continually H24 on 2500, 5000, 10 000, 15 000, and 20 000 kHz (AM/SSB) and provides UTC (voice) once every minute. CHU-National Research Council (NRC-Ottawa, Canada). CHU operates continually H24 on 3330, 7335 and 14 670 kHz (SSB) and provides UTC (voice) once every minute (English even minutes, French odd minutes). BBC-British Broadcasting Corporation (United Kingdom). The BBC transmits on a number of domestic and worldwide frequencies and transmits the Greenwich time signal (referenced to UTC) once every hour on most frequencies, although there are some exceptions.
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Misuse of the Master Document can result in gross navigation errors (GNEs aircraft more than 25 nm off track). For this reason, establish strict procedures regarding its use. These procedures should include the following: The crew on the flight deck should use only one Master Document. However, this does not preclude other crewmembers maintaining a separate flight log. On INS equipped aircraft, the flight crew should establish a waypoint numbering sequence from the outset of the flight and enter it on the Master Document. The identical numbering sequence should be used for storing waypoints in the navigation computers. For aircraft equipped with FMS databases, FMS generated or inserted waypoints should be carefully compared to Master Document waypoints and cross checked by both pilots. An appropriate symbology should be adopted to indicate the status of each waypoint listed on the Master Document.
IN FLIGHT PROCEDURES
During the initial part of the flight, ground navaids should be used to verify the performance of the LRNSs.
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NAVIGATION PROCEDURES
ENTERING THE MNPS AIRSPACE AND REACHING AN OCEANIC WAYPOINT
When passing waypoints, carry out the following checks: Just prior to the waypoint, check the present position coordinates of each navigation system against the cleared route in the Master Document. Check the next two waypoints in each navigation system against the Master Document. At the waypoint, check the distance to the next waypoint. Confirm that the aircraft turns in the correct direction and takes up a new heading and track appropriate to the leg to the next waypoint. Before transmitting the position report to ATC, verify the waypoint coordinates against the Master Document and those in the steering navigation system. When feasible, read the position report next and next plus 1 waypoint coordinates from the CDU of the navigation system coupled to the autopilot.
APPROACHING LANDFALL
When the aircraft is within range of land-based navaids, and the crew is confident that these navaids are providing reliable navigation information, they should consider updating the LRNSs.
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INTRODUCTION
At high latitudes, magnetic compasses become unreliable due to the dip angle of the Earths magnetic field. Gyrocompasses and grid navigation techniques are one option to overcome this problem. The other more common technique is to use an IRS based on a triple IN system, all feeding data into an FMS. The volumes on Instrumentation and Radio Navigation cover this in depth.
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Grid Navigation
The direction of the datum meridian is Grid North. Any course measured from this datum is known as grid direction. In the diagram above, the grid is aligned to the prime meridian. A line is drawn between A (N85 W030) and B (N85 E030). The Grid Course equals the True Course when the line passes through the 0 meridian. Both True North and Grid North are the same: Grid Course 270 True Course 270
However, the true and grid courses differ at both A and B. By measurement, if transiting from B to A: At B: Grid Course = 270 True Course = 300 At A: Grid Course = 270 True Course = 240
The angular difference between the two is convergence: Where True North is west of Grid North (B), convergence is westerly. Where True North is east of Grid North (A), convergence is easterly. The angular difference between the Grid North and True North is 30. The angular difference between the Reference Meridian (0) and Point A or Point B is 30. Following a simple convention: Convergence west True best Point B Grid Course = True Course - 30 Convergence east True least Point A Grid Course = True Course + 30
True Bearing = Grid Bearing + Longitude West (- Longitude East) The longitude refers to whether True North is to the west of Grid North or to the east.
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Chapter 17
Aircraft Heading
South
135W
180E/W
5
80 N
75 N
1
South 090W
090E
South
2
045W South South 0E/W
045E South
The Grid Headings are: Aircraft 1 Aircraft 2 Aircraft 3 Aircraft 4 Aircraft 5 Grid 000 Grid 225 Grid 315 Grid 000 Grid 090 (270 T) (180 T) (000 T) (090 T) (270 T)
Convergence Factor = ChLong x Sin Lat Convergence Angle = ChLong x Sin Lat The following are examples of the questions asked in the OP exam. 1. On a polar stereographic chart, with a grid referenced on the Greenwich meridian and convergence of 10W, true heading of 300, what is grid heading? a. 290 b. 010 c. 300 d. 310
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Answer: Convergence west true best. True heading = 300, therefore Grid heading = 300 10 = 290 G = A 2. If the grid datum is 054W, position 80N 140E and true heading of 330, what is the grid heading? a. 316 b. 276 c. 164 d. 136
Answer: Convergence is West (54W to 140E). At 140E, True North is to the West of Grid North, hence convergence West. Convergence is 194W. Convergence West True Best, True Hdg = 330 so Grid Hdg = 330 194 = 136 = D
PRECESSION
When an external force is applied a rotating body, the body moves as if the force had been applied 90 further round in the direction of rotation. Therefore, any external force applied to a free gyro produces a rotation at right angles to the force applied. If the body is not free to move, a precession force is induced in the body. When a driver leans a racing motorcycle, the bike turns in the direction of the lean due to the precession forces induced in the rotating wheels. The precession force is proportional to the rate of rotation of the body.
FORCE
PRECESSION
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Chapter 17
TYPES OF GYRO
SPACE (OR FREE) GYRO This gyro has freedom to move in all three planes. It consists of two concentrically pivoted rings called inner and outer gimbal rings. The three planes relate to the three axes of the aeroplane (e.g. side to side or roll axis, lateral or pitch axis, and the normal or yaw axis). Furthermore, there is no means of external control over this type of gyro, a feature which distinguishes it from a tied or earth gyro. This type of gyro would have no practical use in an aeroplane instrument where the gyro is required to be set to and maintain a given direction. TIED (OR DISPLACEMENT) GYRO This type of gyro is basically a space gyro which has a means of external control and has freedom of movement about all three planes. This type is used as a directional gyro (e.g. in the Direction Indicator (DI). EARTH GYRO This type of gyro is a tied gyro, where the controlling force is the gravity of the Earth. This type is used in gyro horizon or artificial horizon instruments. RATE GYRO This gyro has one plane of freedom only; its plane of rotation is 90 removed from its plane of freedom. This type of gyro is used to measure the rate of turn, and employs restraining springs (e.g. in the turn and balance indicator or turn co-ordinator). RATE INTEGRATING GYRO This type of gyro is similar to the rate gyro, having a single degree of freedom. However, it uses the viscosity of a fluid (viscous restraint) to damp the precessional rotation about its output axis instead of restraining springs. The main function of this type of gyro is to detect turning about its input axis by precessing about its output axis. Inertial navigation stablised platforms use this type of gyro. SOLID STATE (RING LASER) GYRO These are not gyros in the true sense, but they behave like gyros and sense the angular rate of motion about a single axis. They consist of a solid block of temperature stable glass within which there is a cavity or laser path filled with a lasing medium, such as helium-neon. Some are triangular in shape (Honeywell), whilst others have four sides (Litton). They both have small tunnels drilled in them, with reflecting mirrors sited at each corner. Two beams of high-energy laser light are passed in opposite directions around the sealed cavity and initially travel at the same speed.
Any rotation of the gyro in the plane of the laser results in a change in the path lengths of each beam. The resultant frequency shift of the beams is measured using a control element. The frequency differential is directly proportional to the angular turning rate.
GYRO WANDER Any deviation of the gyro spin axis from its set direction is known as gyro wander, and is classified as follows:
Real Wander Any physical deviation of the gyro spin axis is called real wander. A gyro should not wander away from its preset direction, but various forces act on the rotating mass of a gyro and cause it to precess, for example, the bearing friction that is always present at the spin axis. If this friction is symmetrical, it merely slows down the rotor, but if it is asymmetrical, it causes the gyro to Operational Procedures 17-5
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Grid Navigation
precess. Similarly, any friction in the gimbal bearings causes the gyro to precess. Wear on the gyro may result in movement of the C of G, which may also result in a precessing force. Such errors are not constant or predictable, and cannot be calibrated for or corrections applied to nullify this error. Apparent Wander In this case, the gyro spin axis does not physically wander away from its pre-set direction, but to an observer, it appears to have changed its direction. This is because the gyro maintains its direction with respect to a fixed point in space, whereas the observer rotates with the Earth. With the passage of time, the gyro appears to have changed direction with reference to an Earth datum. Apparent wander is also made up of horizontal components called drift and vertical components called topple. The rate of drift and topple depends upon the latitude and can vary from zero to a maximum of 15.04 per hour (the rate at which the Earth rotates). Depending on whether a gyro has a vertical or horizontal spin axis, the rotation of the Earth also has a different effect.
HORIZONTAL AXIS GYRO The diagram below shows a horizontal spin axis gyro positioned at the North Pole.
Gyro Drift It shows an observer initially at position A, where the gyro is set so that its spin axis is directly in line with the observer. Six hours later, the Earth having rotated through 90, the observer now views the gyro from position B. The observers own motion is not noticed, and the gyro spin axis appears to have moved clockwise in the horizontal plane through 90. Twelve hours later, the gyro spin axis appears to have moved through 180, and finally after twenty-four hours, with the observer back in the original position, the gyro spin axis again appears as it was first aligned. The apparent motion in the horizontal plane is known as gyro drift. If a horizontal spin axis gyro has its axis aligned in a north/south direction along the equator, during the Earth rotation, the gyro spin axis continues to remain aligned with the local meridian. This occurs because all of the meridians are parallel to one another at the equator, and a gyro aligned with a meridian remains with that meridian over a 24-hour period. This means that the gyros neither drift nor topple when aligned in this manner.
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If the horizontal spin axis gyro is positioned at the poles, it drifts through 360 in 24 hours (maximum drift) (i.e. the rate of drift at the poles is the same as the angular velocity of the Earth at 15.04 per hour, whilst at the equator, the same gyro with its spin axis aligned with the local meridian has zero drift due to Earth rotation). Drift at intermediate latitudes = 15.04 x Sin Latitude per hour.
TRANSPORT WANDER This is an additional form of apparent topple/drift, which principally occurs when the gyro is placed on a platform, such as an aeroplane that is flying in an east or west direction. The gyro is now carried in space in the same way as the Earth and results in transport wander.
Transport drift = Rate of change of longitude per hour x Sin latitude per hour Transport topple = Rate of change of longitude per hour x Cos latitude per hour Transport Wander = (Ground Speed/60 x Tan Lat) Degrees/hr (-East; +West)
EXAMPLES OF GYRO WANDER If a gyro with a horizontal spin axis is set with its axis aligned in an east/west direction at latitude 45N, the attitude of its spin axis will change as the Earth rotates. Since the gyro axis is aligned in an east/west direction at an intermediate latitude, the gyro both drifts and topples.
After 3 hours, the change will be: Drift = 15.04 Sin latitude per hour = 3 x 15.04 x Sin 45 = 31.9 Topple = 15.04 Cos latitude per hour = 3 x 15.04 x Cos 45 = 31.9 Note: In the Northern Hemisphere, the gyro axis drifts clockwise. Drift is anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The spin axis is aligned at 090 + 31.9 = 121.9 / 301.9. The eastern end of the spin axis appears to have risen by 31.9 from the horizontal, and the western end is similarly depressed. If the rate of change of longitude during a flight is 25 in one hour, at latitude 50N, the amount of transport drift present is: Transport drift = Rate of change of longitude per hour x Sin latitude per hour Transport drift = 25 x Sin 50 = 19.15 The following are examples of likely questions in the OP exam: 1. An aeroplane is at 60N 010E and is to fly to 60N 020E. The flight time is 1 hours in still air. The gyro is set with the reference to true north and not corrected in flight for precession. What is the required initial heading if a constant gyro heading is to be maintained? a. 080 b. 076 c. 066 d. 086
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Answer: The formulae for earth rate drift and latitude nut corrections are identical. However, the drift corrections are applied to the gyro in opposite senses. For example, in the Northern Hemisphere, the indications of a DI decrease over time due to the Earths rotation. The idea of the latitude nut is to counteract the earth rate drift so its effect is to increase the direction indications over time. The latitude nut can be adjusted for corrections of earth rate drift in either hemisphere. The formula is 15 x Sin of latitude. For transport wander, the change in direction indication decreases for any transport in an easterly direction in the Northern Hemisphere and increases for transport westerly. Note here that the decreasing error is the same for Northern Hemisphere earth rate drift and easterly transport. Remember that there is no transport wander when travelling directly North or South, but such movement varies the amount of drift due to earth rate. The formula is (groundspeed 60) x Tan mean lat. The trick is to arrange your work in a very methodical and logical manner. The following order of calculations is suggested: Earth Rate ER (This is apparent wander) Lat nut LN (This is real wander but is calibrated to a known amount) Transport TW (This is apparent wander) Random RW (Random wander is real wander and cannot be calculated) Now, apply the general explanation above to the specific question: An aeroplane is at 60N 010E and is to fly to 60N 020E. The flight time is 1 hours in still air. The gyro is set with the reference to true north and not corrected in flight for precession. What is the required initial heading if a constant gyro heading is to be maintained? ER The aircraft remains at 60N for the duration of this flight, therefore: 15 x Sin 60 = 12.99 decrease per hour, so 19.48 in 1.5 hours. LN Not given TW The groundspeed is not given but departure is. 10 long at 60N = 300 nm. So, GS is 200 kt. This speed is used in the TW formula. 200/60 x Tan Lat = 5.77 decrease per hour because flight is easterly. For 1.5 hours, the decrease is 8.65. RW - Not given or asked for. The total expected drift is a 28.13 decreasing. If a pilot followed a constant gyro heading with a decreasing indication, the aircraft would track to the right of track, so the initial gyro heading would be half the expected drift and applied to the left of intended track. Therefore, 090 less 14 = 76. 2. You are at a latitude of 5957N with a heading of 120 showing on a gyro compass. You experience a delay of 2hrs 30mins. What is the effect on your compass? a. -18.5 b. 18.5 c. -32.5 d. 32.5
Answer: During the delay, the Earth rotates and the gyro is subject to Earth Rate Precession over the period. This is: 15.04/hr x Sin Lat = 15.04 x 2.5 x 0.866 = 32.56 The rotation is easterly, so the compass precesses by 32.56 degrees. Answer C
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Operational Procedures
GENERAL
The navigation systems fitted to MNPS approved aircraft are generally very accurate and very reliable. GNEs in NAT MNPS Airspace are rare. For unrestricted operation in MNPS Airspace, an approved aircraft must be equipped with a minimum of two fully serviceable LRNSs. MNPS approved aircraft that have suffered any equipment failures that result in only a single LRNS remaining serviceable may still be flight planned and flown through the MNPS Airspace but only on specified routes established for this purpose. Crew training and consequent approval for MNPS operations should include instruction on what actions to consider in the event of navigation system failures.
DETECTION OF FAILURES
Normally, navigation installations include comparator and/or warning devices, but it is still necessary for the crew to make frequent comparison checks. When an aircraft is fitted with three independent systems, the identification of a defective system should be straightforward.
METHODS OF DETERMINING WHICH SYSTEM IS FAULTY With only two systems on board, identifying the defective unit can be difficult. If such a situation does arise in oceanic airspace, consider any or all of the following actions:
Check malfunction codes for indication of unserviceability. Obtain a fix. It may be possible to use the following: The weather radar (range marks and relative bearing lines) to determine the position relative to an identifiable landmark such as an island The ADF to obtain bearings from a suitable NDB A VOR Contact a nearby aircraft on VHF and compare information on spot wind or ground speed and drift. If such assistance is not available, as a last resort, compare the flight plan wind speed and direction for the current DR position of the aircraft with that from navigation system outputs.
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GUIDANCE ON WHAT CONSTITUTES A FAILED SYSTEM Operations or navigation manuals should include guidelines on how to decide when a navigation system should be considered to have failed. If there is a difference greater than 15 nm between two aircraft navigation systems, it is advisable to split the difference between the readings when determining the aircraft's position. If the disparity exceeds 25 nm, one or more of the navigation systems should be regarded as having failed.The pilot should notify ATC in this case. GPS SATELLITE FAULT DETECTION OUTAGE If the GPS receiver displays an indication of a fault detection function outage (i.e. RAIM is not available), navigation integrity must be provided by comparing the GPS position with the position indicated by another LRNS sensor. If the only sensor for the approved LRNS is GPS, then comparison should be made with a position computed by extrapolating the last verified position with airspeed, heading, and estimated winds. If the positions do not agree within 10 nm, the pilot should adopt navigation system failure procedures until the exclusion function or navigation integrity is regained, and should report degraded navigation capability to ATC. PARTIAL OR COMPLETE LOSS OF NAVIGATION/FMS CAPABILITY BY AIRCRAFT HAVING STATE APPROVAL FOR UNRESTRICTED OPERATIONS IN MNPS AIRSPACE Some aircraft carry triplex equipment (3 LRNSs). If one system fails, even before take-off, the two basic requirements for MNPS Airspace operations may still be met and the flight can proceed normally. The following offers guidance for aircraft equipped with only two operational LRNSs:
One System Fails Before Take-Off The pilot should consider delaying departure if timely repair is possible or obtain a clearance above or below MNPS Airspace. Another option is to plan on the special routes known as the Blue Spruce Routes. Use of these routes is subject to sufficient navigation capability. To ensure that MNPS accuracy can be met by relying on short-range navaids, the pilot files a revised flight plan with the appropriate ATS unit and obtains an appropriate ATC clearance. One System Fails Before the OCA Boundary is Reached The pilot must consider landing at a suitable aerodrome before the boundary, or returning to the aerodrome of departure, diverting via one of the special routes described previously, or obtaining a re-clearance above or below MNPS Airspace. One System Fails After the OCA Boundary is Crossed Once the aircraft has entered oceanic airspace, the pilot should normally continue to operate the aircraft in accordance with the Oceanic Clearance already received, appreciating that the reliability of the total navigation system has been significantly reduced. The pilot should, however, assess the prevailing circumstances in MNPS Airspace, etc., and prepare a proposal to ATC with respect to the prevailing circumstances; advise and consult with ATC as to the most suitable action, and obtain appropriate re-clearance prior to any deviation from the last acknowledged Oceanic Clearance.
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MONITORING
When a flight with a nav system failure continues in accordance with its original clearance (especially if the distance ahead within MNPS Airspace is significant), the pilot should begin a careful monitoring programme to take special care in the operation of the remaining system, bearing in mind that routine methods of error checking are no longer available. Also, check the main and standby compass systems frequently against the information that is still available, and check the performance record of the remaining equipment. If doubt arises regarding its performance and/or reliability, consider the following procedures: Attempt visual sighting of other aircraft or their contrails, which may provide a track indication Call the appropriate OAC for information on other aircraft adjacent to the aircrafts estimated position and/or call on VHF to establish contact with such aircraft (preferably same track/level) to obtain information from them that could be useful (e.g. drift, groundspeed, wind details). The Remaining System Fails after Entering MNPS Airspace The pilot should: Immediately notify ATC Make best use of procedures specified above relating to attempting visual sightings and establishing contact on VHF with adjacent aircraft for useful information Keep a special look-out for possible conflicting aircraft and make maximum use of exterior lights Consider climbing or descending 500 ft if instructions are not received from ATC within a reasonable period. Broadcast the altitude change on 121.5 MHz and advise ATC as soon as possible. This procedure also applies when the remaining system gives an indication of degradation of performance or neither system fails completely, but the system indications diverge widely, and the defective system cannot be determined.
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MNPS SPECIFICATIONS
Within MNPS the lateral track error of any aircraft is expected to be less than 6.3 nm and the mean altimetry error to be no more than 80 ft. This applies to all groups of aircraft. Where an aircraft has a unique avionics system, the altimetry system error must not be more than 200 ft.
FLIGHT PLANNING
Flights are planned along Great Circle Routes.
SEPARATION OF AIRCRAFT
LATERAL SEPARATION Minimum lateral separation is:
60 nm between MNPS aircraft 90 nm between aircraft outside MNPS airspace if one aircraft is not MNPS approved 120 nm between other aircraft The above minima can be referenced to latitude as long as the track does not change latitude by: 3 at or south of 58N 2 between 58N and 70N 1 at or North of 70N At or above 80N, where 1 of latitude is exceeded, the track spacing expression must be in nm.
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LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION Minimum longitudinal separation is 10 minutes when using Mach Number Technique. The aircraft concerned should have reported over a common point and follow the same track. Where aircraft have reported over a common point and the tracks diverge:
10 minute longitudinal separation must occur at the point where tracks diverge. 5 minutes longitudinal separation must occur where 60 nm lateral separation occurs. At least 60 nm lateral separation must occur before the next significant point, or, 90 minutes or within 600 nm of the common point, whichever is first. If aircraft have not reported over a common point the use of radar may ensure the correct separation. If the leading aircraft is faster, then the separation can be between 10 minutes to 5 minutes using the following formulae: Time 9 minutes 8 minutes 7 minutes 6 minutes 5 minutes Lead Aircraft M 0.02 faster than the following aircraft M 0.03 faster than the following aircraft M 0.04 faster than the following aircraft M 0.05 faster than the following aircraft M 0.06 faster than the following aircraft Separation by Mach number For MNPS turbojet aircraft not covered by any of the above spacing, the minimum separation is 15 minutes.
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SEPARATION OF AIRCRAFT
LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION The minimum separation is 3 minutes, provided that the flight is continuously monitored by radar and the distance between aircraft is never less than 20 nm.
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DITCHING
Ditching is the process of landing an aeroplane on the surface of the sea. During the design phase of the aeroplane construction, tests on computer and scale models occur in water tanks to determine the ditching characteristics of the aeroplane. The effects are included in the aircraft manual and pilots must be well briefed regarding the methods of ditching the aircraft during the type rating course. Statistically, 88% of ditchings result in few if any, injuries to crew and passengers. Unfortunately, a much smaller percentage survives the ensuing survival phase, with many deaths caused by drowning after a successful ditching. Surviving the survival phase is all about the speed of rescue. This depends upon the accuracy and extent of the information conveyed to the ATC authority by the crew during the run-up to the ditching.
PROCEDURE Ditching is a controlled operation, with the aeroplane landing deliberately and smoothly (or as smoothly as possible) on to the surface of the sea, not dropped onto the surface during a stall. It is recommended to land the aircraft across the swell (using a crosswind landing technique). If the wind speed is more than 35/40 kt, wave height may well exceed 10 ft, making it more prudent to land into the wind in this case. A significant speed reduction and a definite nose up pitching happens, which can cause high-G rotations leading to possible structural damage and injuries.
To minimise the risk of injury, everybody on board should be securely strapped into their seats and those without shoulder restraint harnesses should adopt a position with the head as far forward (ideally between the knees) and the hands clasped tightly behind the neck holding the head forward. Life jackets should be donned before adopting the position. Cabin crew should ensure that all loose articles are stowed and the seats are correctly positioned before securing themselves. After rapidly coming to rest, providing there is no catastrophic fuselage damage, the aeroplane will float for a considerable time allowing an orderly evacuation via the over-wing exits into the life rafts or dinghies. These should have been released from the in-wing stowages, but are still tethered to the aeroplane. Operational Procedures 20-1
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In-Flight Contingencies
PRECAUTIONARY LANDING
If the command decision is to divert to an enroute alternate, make a MAYDAY or PAN PAN call to ATC. The Rules of the Air section of the Air Law notes, and the IFR and VFR Communications notes cover the procedures for emergency communications. The ATC authority will activate the alerting service and the regional RCC will be informed of the emergency. SAR assets are also alerted. Preparations on the ground occur at the diversion aerodrome nominated to receive the aeroplane. Because the diversion is unplanned, ATC makes every effort to route other traffic out of the way of the aircraft in emergency, but compliance with ATC instructions regarding routing, heights, and speeds must occur (without exacerbating the emergency situation). The possibility that the situation could deteriorate rapidly, requiring a forced landing or ditching with little extra warning, is foremost in the minds of ATC personnel. Measures such as scrambling long-range SAR aircraft and helicopters may appear some what over the top at the time but such preparatory action may be crucial to saving lives later. Within the restrictions of the situations, a normal, controlled landing should be made as well as can be achieved. Once on the ground, the Commander must make a decision whether or not to move the aircraft off the landing runway or bring the aircraft to a stop and immediately evacuate the passengers and crew. This will depend very much on the nature and severity of the emergency situation. In any situation involving fire, all personnel must leave the aeroplane as quickly as possible. The fire/rescue crew will attempt to control the fire until all personnel are evacuated.
PASSENGER BRIEFING
In an emergency situation, fear becomes the main enemy. Even the most seasoned traveller and the most experienced crewmember experience at least apprehension in an emergency. The inexperienced may tend to panic, and the cabin crew should attempt to impose strict discipline to overcome irrational behaviour, not only with regard to the passengers, but toward themselves as well. The most valuable weapon the crew has available is to keep the passengers informed of exactly what is happening. This, together with skill and calmness, provides the passengers the impression that the situation is totally under control, even if this is not exactly the case. Attention to detail (stowing small loose items, removing rubbish, and assisting in donning life jackets, etc.) reassures the passengers. The flight crew should attempt to provide a virtual running commentary over the PA system. This further reassures and occupies the minds of the passengers. When the aeroplane is committed to a course of action: crash landing, ditching, or precautionary landing, a comprehensive brief to the cabin crew and passengers must happen. This must include a strong statement as to the authority of the cabin crew and an order from the Commander for the passengers to do as instructed. Cabin crew should re-brief the emergency procedures covered during the pre-takeoff stage.
EVACUATION
Once the aeroplane has come to a stop after the landing, rapid evacuation is essential to preserve life. Fire is always a risk and the aim must be to get everybody as far away from the aeroplane as possible. During the briefing, the location of exits and the route to the exits should be reiterated. Cabin crews will have trained in the procedures for evacuation, including strict discipline and firm control, and the correct use of all the equipment provided to assist the evacuation. The Operator is responsible for regular training sessions, and the drills to follow should be included in the Operations manual. 20-2 Operational Procedures
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Chapter 20
GENERAL PROCEDURES
If an aircraft is unable to continue its flight in accordance with its ATC clearance, obtain a revised clearance whenever possible, prior to initiating any action, using the radio telephony distress (MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY) signal or urgency (PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN) signal as appropriate. If prior clearance cannot be obtained, obtain an ATC clearance at the earliest possible time. In the meantime, the aircraft should broadcast its position (including the ATS Route designator or the Track Code as appropriate) and its intentions, at frequent intervals on 121.5 MHz (with 123.45 MHz as a back-up frequency). Until a revised clearance is obtained, carefully follow the specified NAT in-flight contingency procedures. Fly the aircraft at a flight level and/or on a track where it is least likely to encounter other aircraft. Make maximum use of aircraft lighting and maintain a good lookout. If the aircraft carries TCAS, use the displayed information to assist in sighting proximate traffic.
SPECIAL PROCEDURES
The general concept of these NAT in-flight contingency procedures is, whenever operationally feasible, to offset from the assigned route by 30 nm and climb or descend to a level which differs from those normally used by 500 ft if below FL410 or by 1000 ft if above FL410.
INITIAL ACTION The aircraft should leave its assigned route or track by initially turning 90 to the right or left. Factors that may affect the direction of turn are:
Direction to an alternate airport Terrain clearance Levels allocated on adjacent routes or tracks
SUBSEQUENT ACTION An aircraft that is able to maintain its assigned flight level should, once established on the offset track:
Climb or descend 1000 ft if above FL410 Climb or descend 500 ft when below FL410 Climb 1000 ft or descend 500 ft if at FL410 Operational Procedures 20-3
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In-Flight Contingencies
An aircraft that is unable to maintain its assigned flight level should, whenever possible, minimise its rate of descent while acquiring the 30 nm offset track; for the subsequent level flight, select a flight level that differs from those normally used by 1000 ft if above FL410 or by 500 ft if below FL410. If these contingency procedures are employed by a twin-engine aircraft as a result of the shutdown of a power unit or the failure of a primary aircraft system the pilot should advise ATC as soon as practicable of the situation, reminding ATC of the type of aircraft involved and requesting expeditious handling.
WAKE TURBULENCE
Any pilot who experiences a wake turbulence incident when flying in NAT MNPS Airspace or within an adjacent RVSM transition area must report it. When flying within NAT MNPS Airspace (but not in adjacent domestic airspace RVSM transition areas), if necessary, the pilot may offset from cleared track by up to a maximum of 2 nm (upwind) in order to alleviate the effects of wake turbulence. The flight crew should advise ATC of this action and the aircraft should be returned to the cleared track as soon as the situation allows.
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