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1. Introduction
In architecture and structural engineering, a truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes. External forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members which are either tensile or compressive forces. Moments (torques) are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes.[1] A structure that is composed of a number of bars pin connected at their ends to form a stable framework is called a truss. It is generally assumed that loads and reactions are applied to the truss only at the joints. A truss would typically be composed of triangular elements with the bars on the upper chord under compression and those along the lower chord under tension. Trusses are extensively used for bridges, long span roofs, electric tower, and space structures. Trusses are statically determinate when the entire bar forces can be determined from the equations of statics alone. Otherwise the truss is statically indeterminate. A truss may be statically (externally) determinate or indeterminate with respect to the reactions.[2]
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2. Characteristics of a Truss
A truss consists of straight members connected at joints. Trusses are composed of triangles because of the structural stability of that shape and design. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed. In comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape
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3. Truss Types
There are three basic types of truss:
The pitched truss, or common truss, is characterized by its triangular shape. It is most often used for roof construction. Some common trusses are named according to their web configuration. The chord size and web configuration are determined by span, load and spacing.
The parallel chord truss, or flat truss, gets its name from its parallel top and bottom chords. It is often used for floor construction.
A combination of the two is a truncated truss, used in hip roof construction. A metal plate-connected wood truss is a roof or floor truss whose wood members are connected with metal connector plates.[3]
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5. Statics of Truss
A truss that is assumed to comprise members that are connected by means of pin joints, and which is supported at both ends by means of hinged joints or rollers, is described as being statically determinate. Newton's Laws apply to the structure as a whole, as well as to each node or joint. In order for any node that may be subject to an external load or force to remain static in space, the following conditions must hold: the sums of all (horizontal and vertical) forces, as well as all moments acting about the node equal zero. Analysis of these conditions at each node yields the magnitude of the forces in each member of the truss. These may be compression or tension forces. Trusses that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically indeterminate, and the application of Newton's Laws alone is not sufficient to determine the member forces. In order for a truss with pin-connected members to be stable, it must be entirely composed of triangles. In mathematical terms, we have the following necessary condition for stability: m = 2j - 3 where m is the total number of truss members, j is the total number of joints and r is the number of reactions (equal to 3 generally) in a 2-dimensional structure. When m = 2j 3, the truss is said to be statically determinate, because the (m+3) internal member forces and support reactions can then be completely determined by 2j equilibrium equations. Given a certain number of joints, this is the minimum number of members, in the sense that if any member is taken out (or fails), then the truss as a whole fails. Their member forces depend on the relative stiffness of the members, in addition to the equilibrium condition described.[5]
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6. Truss Analysis
For the truss analysis, it is assumed that: Bars are pin-connected. Joints are frictionless hinges. Loads are applied at the joints only. Stress in each member is constant along its length. The objective of analyzing the trusses is to determine the reactions and member forces. The methods used for carrying out the truss analysis with the equations of equilibrium and by considering only parts of the structure through analyzing its free body diagram to solve the unknowns. There are 3 basic methods for determination of axial forces in members: Method of joints Methods of Sections Graphical Method
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1. Solve the reactions of the given structure, 2. Select a joint with a minimum number of unknown (not more than 2) and analyze it with Fx = 0 and Fy = 0, 3. Proceed to the rest of the joints and again concentrating on joints that have very minimal of unknowns, 4. Check member forces at unused joints with Fx = 0 and Fy = 0, 5. Tabulate the member forces whether it is in tension (+ve) or compression (-ve) reaction From fig.21, the forces in each member can be determine from any joint or point. The best way to start by selecting the easiest joint like joint C where the reaction Rc is already obtained and with only 2 unknown, forces of FCB and FCD. Both can be evaluate with Fx = 0 and Fy = 0 rules. At joint E, there are 3 unknown, forces of FEA, FEB and FED, which may lead to more complex solution compare to 2 unknown values. For checking purposes, joint B is selected to shown that the equation of Fx is equal to Fy which leads to zero value, Fx = Fy = 0. Each value of the members condition should be indicate clearly as whether it is in tension (+ve) or in compression (-ve) state. Trigonometric Functions: Taking an angle between member x and z
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In fig.23,a virtual cut is introduce through the only required members which is along member BC, EC, and ED. Firstly, the support reactions of Ra and Rd should be determine. Again a good judgment is require to solve this problem where the easiest part would be consider either on the left hand side or the right hand side. Taking moment at joint E (virtual pint) on clockwise for the whole RHS part would be much easier compare to joint C (the LHS part). Then, either joint D or C can be consider as point of moment, or else using the joint method to find the member forces for FCB, FCE, and FDE. Note: Each value of the members condition should be indicate clearly as whether it is in tension (+ve) or in compression (-ve) state.
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7. Design of Members
A truss can be thought of as a beam where the web consists of a series of separate members instead of a continuous plate. In the truss, the lower horizontal member (the bottom chord) and the upper horizontal member (the top chord) carry tension and compression, fulfilling the same function as the flanges of an I-beam. Which chord carries tension and which carries compression depends on the overall direction of bending. The diagonal and vertical members form the truss web, and carry the shear force. Individually, they are also in tension and compression, the exact arrangement of forces is depending on the type of truss and again on the direction of bending. In addition to carrying the static forces, the members serve additional functions of stabilizing each other, preventing bucklingThe inclusion of the elements shown is largely an engineering decision based upon economics, being a balance between the costs of raw materials, off-site fabrication, component transportation, on-site erection, the availability of machinery and the cost of labor. In other cases the appearance of the structure may take on greater importance and so influence the design decisions beyond mere matters of economics. Modern materials such as prestressed concrete and fabrication methods, such as automated welding, have significantly influenced the design of modern bridges.
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8. Design of Joints
After determining the minimum cross section of the members, the last step in the design of a truss would be detailing of the bolted joints, e.g., involving shear of the bolt connections used in the joints, see also shear stress. Based of the needs of the project, truss internal connections (joints) can be designed as rigid, semi rigid, or hinged. Rigid connections can allow transfer of bending moments leading to development of secondary bending moments in the members.
9.Applications
Component connections are critical to the structural integrity of a framing system. In buildings with large, clearspan wood trusses, the most critical connections are those between the truss and its supports. In addition to gravity-induced forces , these connections must resist shear forces acting perpendicular to the plane of the truss and uplift forces due to wind. Depending upon overall building design, the connections may also be required to transfer bending moment. Wood posts enable the fabrication of strong, direct, yet inexpensive connections between large trusses and walls. Exact details for post-to-truss connections vary from designer to designer. Solid-sawn timber and glulam posts are generally notched to form a truss bearing surface. The truss is rested on the notches and bolted into place. A special plate/bracket may be added to increase connection load transfer capabilities.[7]
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Index
Topics
1. Introduction 2. Characteristics of a Truss 2.1 Planar Truss 2.2 Space Frame Truss 3. Truss Types 4. Truss Types used in Bridges 4.1 Allan Bridge 4.2 Bailey Bridge 4.3 Baltimore Truss 4.4 Bollman Truss 4.5 Bowstring Arch Truss 4.6 Cantilevered Truss 4.7 Flink Truss 4.8 Howe Truss 4.9 Kingpost Truss
Pg. No.
1 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6
4.10 Lattice Truss 4.11 Lenticular Truss 4.12 Long Truss 4.13 Parker Truss 4.14 Pegram Truss 4.15 Post Truss 4.16 Pratt Truss 4.17 Queenpost Truss 4.18 Truss Arch 4.19 Warren Truss 4.20 Whipple Pratt Truss 4.21 Vierendeel Truss 5. Statics of truss 6. Truss Analysis 6.1 Method of Joints 6.2 Method of Sections 6.3 Graphical Method
7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 12 13 15 17
18 19 19
Bibliography
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truss 2. http://www.civilcraftstructures.com/civil-subjects/3-methods-fortruss-analysis/ 3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truss#Truss_types 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truss_bridge#Truss_types_used_in_bri dges 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truss#Statics_of_trusses 6. http://www.civilcraftstructures.com/civil-subjects/3-methods-fortruss-analysis/ 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truss#Applications
Pictures Reference
Fig.1 Railway Track http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RRTrussBridgeSideView.jpg Fig. 2 Planar Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trusses_008.jpg Fig.3 Space Frame Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SpaceFrame02.png Fig.4 Allan Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hampden_Bridge_Wagga_design.jpg Fig.5 Bollman Bridge http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bollman-bridge-1.jpg Fig.6 Bowstring Arch Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FortPittBridge.jpg Fig.7 Cantilevered Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CooperRiverBridge.svg Fig.8 Fink Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bridges_20.png Fig.9 Howe Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Howe_truss.PNG Fig.10 Kingpost Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:King_post_truss.png Fig.11 Lattice Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lattice_truss.png Fig. 12 Long Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Long_Truss_Bushing_CB_(Versailles_SP)_00003 r.jpg Fig.14 Post Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Post_truss.svg
Fig.15 Pratt Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pratt_truss.PNG Fig.16 Queenpost Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_post_truss.png Fig.17 Warren Bridge http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Warren_truss.PNG Fig.18 Vierendeel Truss http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vierendeel_truss.png Fig.19 Statics of Truss http://www.civilcraftstructures.com/civil-subjects/3methods-for-truss-analysis/ Fig.20 Method of Joints http://www.civilcraftstructures.com/civil-subjects/3methods-for-truss-analysis/ Fig.21 Joint B,C and E http://www.civilcraftstructures.com/civil-subjects/3methods-for-truss-analysis/ Fig.22 Method of Sections http://www.civilcraftstructures.com/civil-subjects/3methods-for-truss-analysis/ Fig.23 Cutting Section http://www.civilcraftstructures.com/civil-subjects/3methods-for-truss-analysis/ Fig.24 Graphical Method http://www.civilcraftstructures.com/civil-subjects/3methods-for-truss-analysis/
Acknowledgement
We are greatly indebted to Mr. Sukhvinder Singh, our worthy and highly respected Mechanics Teacher who inspired us to undertake this project and provided us with very valuable guidance in the preparation of the report. We express our deep and sincere gratitude to him Abhishek Sharma (12811502810) Ashish Kumar Singh (12911502810) Gaurav Nigam (13011502810) Mridul Malik (13111502810)
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the reportt entitled Truss submitted by ,Abhishek Sharma,Ashish Kumar Singh,Gaurav Nigam and Mridul Malik, of branch ECE-2 is a record of the project was carried by them. They have worked under my guidance and supervision and has fulfilled the requirements for the submission of the report, which to my knowledge has reached a requisite standard.
Head of Department
Date
Professor Incharge