FISHING FOR RESILIENCE

RESTORING COASTAL SYSTEMS IN ACCRA

1

COASTAL ACCRA
FANNY FRICK NAYANI NASA CHIKA OHASHI SANTA PEDONE MANDIRA THAKUR ISAAC YIELEH CHIREH

FISHERMEN LOOKING FOR FISH PHOTOGRAPH BY SANTA PEDONE

LANDING BEACH IN JAMESTOWN PHOTOGRAPH BY MANDIRA THAKUR

ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

Table of Contents
1 Acknowledgements 2 Abbreviations 3 Executive Summary 4 Introduction
4.1 Background 4.2 Objectives

5 Analytical framework
5.1 Conceptual Framework 5.2 Hypothesis and Research questions

6 Methodology and Limitations 7 Findings

7.1 Contributions to Resilience 7.2 Hindrances to Resilience 7.3 Coping and Adaptation Strategies 7.4 Interim conclusion

8 Strategies
8.1 Introduction 8.2 Improvement of Livelihoods 8.3 Waste Management 8.4 Natural Resource Management

9 Conclusion Bibliography Appendices

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1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the following people for their valuable contributions: Facilitators: Paul Nii Ankamah Adjn-Tettey (Fisheries Commission) Charles Blay (MoFA) Naa Arday-Acquah (GHAFUP) Mensah Owusu (PD) tienne von Bertrab (DPU) Rita Lambert (DPU) Adriana Allen (DPU) Alexandre Apsan Frediani (DPU) Matthew Wood-Hill (DPU)

Asare (Revenue accountant, Ashiedu Keteke Sub-Metropolitan District Council) Ayikwa (Canoe owner in Jamestown) Bismarck Nettey (Ex-President GNAFF; Canoe Owner in Chorkor) Divine Odotoy (Coordinating director, Ashiedu Keteke Sub-Metropolitan District Council) Daniel Adjin-Tettey (Chorkor resident / ex-fisherman) Daniel Ocansey (Supervisor, Zoil Services Limited) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Emanuel-Mark McHansen (Zoil Services Limited; fisherman in Jamestown) Nana Tambia IV (Queen of Nleshie Amanflo; Organiser of the GAMA market women association) Fatawu Giwah (Coordinator, Zoil Services Limited) Ivy (Fisheries Commission) W. Odame Larbi (Executive secretary, Lands Commission) Patricia Makrey (Fisheries Commission) Prof. Irene K Odotei (University of Ghana) Scott Apawudza (Greater Accra regional director, MoFA) Samuel Quarshie (Waste Management Department, Ashiedu Keteke Sub-Metropolitan District Council) Samuel (Ghana National Canoe Fisherman Council) Nii Teiko Tagoe (Project Director, GAMADA) We would like to thank the fishing communities in Jamestown and Chorkor for their warm welcome and invaluable support for our fieldwork.

FOCUS GROUP IN JAMESTOWN LANDING BEACH PHOTOGRAPH BY N.N.

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2 ABBREVIATIONS
AMA COU EIA EPA CBMC Accra Metropolitan Assembly Canoe Owners Union Community Based Management Committees Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Protection Agency Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Greater Accra Metropolitan Authority Ga Mashie Development Agency

FAO

GAMA

GAMADA GCLME GNAFF GIS GHAFUP

Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem Ghana Federation of the Urban Poor Geographic Information System Ghana National Association of Farmers and Fishermen Ghana National Canoe Fishermen Council Integrated Coastal Management Integrated Coastal Resource Management Integrated Coastal Zone Management Large Marine Ecosystem Millennium City Initiative 5

GNCFC ICM ICRM LME MCI

ICZM

NAFAG NGO PD PPPs UA WACAF WMD WRC ZGL

National Fisheries Association of Ghana Non-Governmental Organisation Policies/Plans/Programmes Urban Agriculture Peoples Dialogue on Human Settlements

West and Central African Regional Seas Programme Waste Management Department Water Resource Commission Zoomlion Ghana Limited

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3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
his research tries to build on the past 3 years of work carried out by the University College London (UCL) students from the Development Planning Unit (DPU), which focused on exploring the potentials and constraints of Urban Agriculture (UA) as a planning tool for an environmentally just urbanisation in Accra. This year, the research area, on which our team has focused, is the coastal strip of Accra, which stretches from Jamestown to Chorkor. Within this area, we identified a long established traditional food production system dating back to the XIX century: the artisanal fisheries sector. From our secondary research, the manifestation of resilience amongst the artisanal fishing communities within Accras ever growing urban boundaries was striking. This is especially true when looking at the industrialisation of the fisheries sector, an increasing depletion of fish

stock and the privatisation of the coastal strip of Accra. What Harvey (2006: 98) calls uneven geographical development arising from capitalistic agglomeration economies is well evident in this neglected Old Accra. This striking resilience inspired the aim of this research work: finding the structural reasons of such resilience, identifying its vulnerabilities and developing a coherent strategy to counterbalance the impacts of these vulnerabilities on the fishing communities and the city of Accra as a whole. Within this uneven and therefore unjust urbanisation process, the artisanal fisheries sector stands out as a main contributor towards the food security of the city and this importance needs to be acknowledged by all stakeholders in order to trigger an environmentally just urbanisation process.

JAMESTOWN LANDING BEACH PHOTOGRAPH BY MANDIRA THAKUR

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It was found that the traditional structure of the artisanal fishery provides social and economic resilience through hierarchical organisation and division of labour in which women play an important role in securing income and food for the fishing communities and beyond. Ecological resilience is built through traditional rules and practices. However, as environmental degradation and industrialised fishery is continuously depleting fish stock, artisanal fishing communities have recently been forced to adopt less sustainable practices in order to cope with these impacts. Such practices of mal-adaptation are

reproduced as long as plans and programs ignore urban and marine social-ecological systems, and are therefore blind to the underlying causes of the degradation of livleihoods in these communities. To restore resilience in artisanal fishing communities in Accra, it is reckommended that a more integrated approach in coastal urban management is implemented, for which the Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem Project (GCLME) provides a suitable framework. Examplatory strategies for implementation of an integrated coastal urban management are outlined.

WOMEN ON THEIR WAY TO BUY FISH IN JAMESTOWN PHOTOGRAPH BY MANDIRA THAKUR

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BUILT-UP AREA IN 1903

BUILT-UP AREA IN 1929

BUILT-UP AREA IN 1943

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BUILT-UP AREA IN 1966

BUILT-UP AREA IN 1990

BUILT-UP AREA IN 2000 MAPS 1.1-1.6_URBAN EXPANSION IN ACCRA BASED ON: ANGEL, S. ET AL. 2010. ATLAS OF URBAN EXPANSION, CAMBRIDGE, MA: LINCOLN INSTITUTE OF LAND POLICY

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4 INTRODUCTION

4.1 Background
he environmentally unjust urbanisation in Accra is rooted in the colonial times when a clear divide was made between economic activities in the area inhabited by indigenous Ga communities around the harbour (Old Accra) and residential areas for the European settlers. After independence in 1957, Accras port was relocated to Tema in order to reduce the migration pressures in the city. The former colonial administrative and residential areas around the European town and Central Business District

were reorganized and opened for commercial and residential uses. Consequently, Jamestown was no longer attractive for commercial activities and therefore no longer functioned as a development node. The densely populated borough was facing increasing levels of poverty, exacerbated by the economic recession in the 1980s. The marginalisation of Old Accra continued as the liberalisation policies since the 1980s have encouraged economic investment in suburban areas (Grant & Yankson, 2002).

4.2 Objectives
oday, fishing is the only significant economic sector remaining in Jamestown (Yeboah, 2008). The artisanal fishing communities have persisted in Accra since pre-colonial times coping with socio-economic, political and environmental pressures. The aim of this report, therefore, is to identify factors that contribute and hinder resilience in the coastal communities in Accra in order to develop strategies towards adaptive governance of urban systems in coastal Accra. The report begins by introducing the conceptual framework created and the main hypothesis developed; following which a summary of the methodology used is stated. An analysis of the key findings is presented in the succeeding chapter which is followed by a set of strategies.
MAP 2_STUDY AREA

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5 ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

5.1 Conceptual Framework

10

rbanisation may be understood as a process of creating spaces that provide urban services such as housing, jobs and infrastructure (Ernstson et al., 2010).This process is highly dynamic because it is shaped by perpetual changes in socio-cultural, economic, political, physical and environmental systems not only within the city, but also at the regional, national and global scale (Ernstson et al., 2010; Swyngedouw & Heynen, 2003). Systems are linked through material and informational fluxes (Swyngedouw & Heynen, 2003), hence changes in one system trigger changes in another. Ideally, fluxes between urban systems would create equilibrium such that changes in one system are compensated by another. In this ideal state, the urban social-ecological system would provide conditions for equal access to livelihoods and recognition of rights among all citizens (Figure 1). In reality, however, the web of socioecological relations is highly dynamic and unequal urban geographies are constantly reshaped, reflecting cross-scale power relations amongst different urban actors (Cumming, Cumming & Redman 2006; Swyngedouw & Heynen, 2003). As a consequence of these complex and obscure relations, the creation of benefits for some tends to result in vulnerabilities for others as the systems react. For instance, the creation of economic opportunities in Osu and suburban areas through structural adjustment programs (change in economic and political systems) has triggered urbanisation

and investment in infrastructure in these areas, while no improvement was made in Old Accra/ Ga Mashie area and Chorkor (changes in physical system). Moreover, along with the commoditisation of ecosystems for urban purposes in the suburbs came the degradation of ecosystem services, such as natural storm-water drainage (changes in ecosystem). As a consequence,

FIGURE 1_ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

communities in the coastal area of Accra have been facing a double risk of exposure to natural hazards of flooding and pollution, and loss in income opportunities (Bremer, 2002; Yeboah, 2000). These impacts have contributed to todays

ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

conditions of overcrowding and unemployment (change in socio-cultural system)(Yeboah, 2008). Finally, the conditions of non-equilibrium and unpredictability of urban systems is exacerbated by uncertainties arising from migration, climate change and changes in the capacity of ecosystems to sustain services (Ernstson et al., 2010). In the coastal communities of Accra, this is felt most strongly in the decline of fish stock in recent years, an outcome of industrialisation of the fishery sector, climate change and marine pollution.

Therefore, urban systems need to be concurrently resilient to shocks and amenable to transformation, given the constantly changing environment (Ernstson et al., 2010; Walker et al., 2006). Only then can the negative impacts from (both planned and unplanned) changes in one or several systems on the marginalised communities be prevented, thereby strengthening environmentally just forms of urbanisation. Planning for environmental justice in urban areas therefore requires an adaptive approach in governance rather than static solutions (Evans, 2011).

5.2 Hypothesis and Research Questions

he hypothesis developed in this report is:

This hypothesis is analysed through the following research questions: 11

Potentially, the artisanal fisheries in Jamestown and Chorkor can contribute to resilience at three levels: household, community and city level, through enhancement in livelihood strategies, organisational structures, food security and ecological resilience.

How does the organisational structure of fishing communities contribute towards building resilience? How is the artisanal fisheries included in the city, and how does it contribute to food security and creation of livelihoods? What are the challenges in the fisherys contribution towards ecological resilience? What are the impacts of current urban planning initiatives on the coastal area? What is the vision among key stakeholders toward the future of the artisanal fisheries? These questions particularly focused on the convergence and divergence of perceptions among the public authorities and decisionmakers on one hand, and amongst the community members and other non-governmental actors on the other hand.

POLI AND TOGA CANOES PHOTOGRAPH BY CHIKA OHASHI

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6 METHODOLOGY AND LIMITATIONS

I
n order to analyse the above stated questions the group used different techniques. A summary of the methodology used is provided in the table below:
TABLE 1_METHODOLOGY
STAGE I: SECONDARY RESEARCH January 26th April 2012

However, the fieldwork was marked by certain limitations. Firstly, the research took place over a period of two weeks limiting the depth and scope of the research. Therefore, the study does

Extensive secondary research together with lectures throughout the term from the tutors helped to provide valuable insight This was used to define the research task and develop hypothesis to be tested in the field work Transect walks

STAGE II: FIELD WORK 27TH April- 10th May 2012 Focus group discussion with: - 2 Chief Fishermen - Crew members in 2 groups of 6-7 fishermen - Fishmongers 4-5 groups of 5-6 women - Queen mother with secretary, vice-president of the Tuesday Market Association - Canoe Owners 1 group of 4 One to one interviews and seminars with: - Environment Protection Agency (EPA) - Fisheries Commission - Asheidu-Keteke Sub-Metro - Prof. Irene K Odotei - Ga Mashie Development Agency (GAMADA) - International Water Management Institute (IWMI) - Institute of Local Government Studies - Peoples Dialogue - Ghanas Federation for the Urban Poor - Town and Country Planning Participatory mapping exercises with groups of fishermen and fishmongers Data processing and analysis Output: - Final Presentation - Video - Final Report

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STAGE III 14th May to 31st May 2012

not claim to have examined the said community in all its complexities. Secondly, gender, nationality and ethnicity may also have influenced the direction and interpretation of the findings. The researchers hailing from different backgrounds had their own perceptions and consequent biases. Though the facilitators were of immense help, it was a challenge to interpret the problems. This is because some of them were policy implementers

who have their own biases. Lastly, the presence of canoe owners (as they represent a higher level in the hierarchy) made it extremely difficult to reach the lower levels of the hierarchy to get their inputs during the focus group discussions.

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FISHERMEN IN CHORKOR PHOTOGRAPH BY MANDIRA THAKUR

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MAPPING EXERCISE IN JAMESTOWN PHOTOGRAPH BY MANDIRA THAKUR

FOCUS GROUP WITH MARKET WOMEN AND QUEEN MOTHERS IN CHORKOR PHOTOGRAPH BY PAUL NII ANKAMAH ADJIN-TETTEY

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7 FINDINGS

7.1 Contributions to Resilience

ccras artisanal fishing communities do not merely provide employment opportunities, but are a traditionally and culturally embedded way of life, which is visible throughout the factors identified as building resilience as explained below.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE
14 The fishing communities in Jamestown and Chorkor follow a typical structure (Figure 2) headed by a chief fisherman who is responsible for (1) representing the community at all levels (2) resolving disputes at community level (3) enforcing the traditional Tuesday ban on fishing. This ban is enforced all over the country and is linked to the very old tradition of considering Tuesday as a sacred day for the sea god. The chief fisherman is followed by the canoe owner who selects the first Bosun (first captain)
Processing

and the second Bosun ( s e c on d captain) a m o n g the crew. The crew members can be up to 20 in the case of poli canoes, which are the biggest in size. In FIGURE 2_COSTUMARY ORGANISATION relation to the resilience building capacities of the canoe owner, it was found that he is not only the owner and manager of the canoe but he has a social obligation to help crew members in times of crisis. Moreover, as it is been highlighted by different interviewees, when a crew member gets married, the canoe owner sometimes provides accomodation for the newlyweds.

DIVISION OF THE CATCH

Mens share (Without profit)

Men sell the fish to the women

50% to canoe owners wife/wives 50% to crew members wives

Women sell in the market

Womens share (Profit margin)

Canoe owner

Crew members

According to the traditional practices, fishermens female relatives get the right of first refusal over the catch. The division (Figure

Savings groups

Maintenance

FIGURE 3_DYNAMICS IN SHARE OF THE CATCH

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3) reflects the social hierarchy: 50% of the catch goes to the canoe owners wife and the other 50% goes to the crewmembers wives. Women buy from men at a fixed rate set according to the supply and demand depending on the bounty or meagre season. They often buy on credit from the men and then sell the produce in the markets. The revenue without profit margin is subsequently divided into three equal parts: one third to the canoe owner, one third is shared between the crewmembers and the remaining is kept for maintenance of the canoe and the gears. The profit margin is retained by the women who usually form savings groups in Chorkor.

price paid for the catch. They work to achieve the best final price for the product and hence translate fish into money.

WOMENS ROLE
As fish traders, women are very important because they are the ones who determine the

As fish processors, PHOTOGRAPH BY MANDIRA THAKUR their activity is embedded in the food culture of the population, which demands the fish to appear in a certain marketable form: smoked fish that can last 7-8 months; salted or fried fish (less common) that can last up to 1-2 months. This becomes more important considering that these communities do not have cooling facilities and in case of bumper harvest, the fish need to be processed quickly to avoid deterioration. In this regard, women can be considered one of the main actors providing food

FISHMONGERS SCALING FRESH FISH IN JAMESTOWN

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STRUCTURES OF RESILIENCE

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security not only to their communities but to the city as a whole.

women are organised in 4-5 groups of 100 women each, subdivided into groups of 30, headed by a queen mother. In summary, the fishing community is built along very strong ties. The husbands serve as an important source of credit for their wives when the fish is sold to the women. The women, on the other hand, serve as a major source of interest-free loans for the fishermen. Furthermore, the women integrate the fish into the city.

POLITICAL CAPITAL
The artisanal fisheries sector is represented at national level by the Ghana National Canoe Fishermen Council (GNCFC), which is part of the National Fisheries Association of Ghana (NAFAG), within which the industrial and semiindustrial fisheries sectors are also represented. Each fishing community is represented by its traditional Chief Fisherman appointed to sit in a regional artisanal fishermen committee. These committees are united in the Union, which represents the artisanal fishermen in the Ministry of Fisheries and other organisations. The Council distributes the fishing subsidies to the fishermen and imposes a small levy on those inputs. In this way, the Council has some resources to work with (FAO, 2007). Furthermore, there are also Community Based Management Committees (CBMCs) formed by representatives from Government, Chief Fishermen and community members. The main idea is to enable a flow of information by allowing the members to voice their concerns.

FISHMONGER SHOWING CHORKOR SMOKING OVEN PHOTOGRAPH BY MANDIRA THAKUR

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As bankers, women provide the money needed to purchase and upgrade inputs. This is crucial in such an informal sector, where fishermen have many constraints on borrowing money from professional lenders since they dont have a regular income due to wide seasonal fluctuations. In general, fishing communities have low incomes, about two thirds of national per capita income (Bortei-Doku, 2000). In order to carry out the role of informal lenders, women usually form savings groups which are the major source of interest-free loans for the fishermen. In Chorkor,

NATIONWIDE LANDINGS OF CATCH BY SECTOR IN GHANAIAN WATERS SOURCE: ATTA-MILLS 2004

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7.2 Hindrances to Resilience

Although the factors elaborated above make the fishing communities of Jamestown and Chorkor resilient, they still face certain threats. This can sometimes lead to the appointment of a Chief who was not traditionally a fisherman, creating disputes as it is felt that the lack of experience in fishing will lead to a lack of SEWER OUTFALL INTO KORLE LAGOON understanding of the PHOTOGRAPH BY MANDIRA THAKUR fishermen problems and therefore to a scarce representation of the communitys real needs.

WEAKNESSES OF POLITICAL CAPITAL

Given the advantages of the political capital, the fieldwork however also revealed many impediments created by the same. Many of the canoe owners interviewed were dissatisfied with the Chief being the only one able to legally represent them at national level. This is because of the hereditary nature of the chieftaincy ensuring the restriction of political capital to certain families.

(OLD FADAMA)

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IMPACTS HINDERING RESILIENCE

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In response to this issue, the canoe owners formed the Canoe Owners Union (COU). This however, is still not represented at the National level (cf. Figure 4). Furthermore, even the CBMCs have been discarded over the years. Therefore, there seems to be growing dissent amongst the community members with respect to their representation.
OPEN SEWER IN CHORKOR, FILLED WITH RUBBISH PHOTOGRAPH BY SANTA PEDONE

Appendix 1.2). Again, Jamestown and Chorkor are the final points of discharge of this contaminated water. Solid waste dumping in open drains also increases the risks of flooding (Baabereyir,, 2009). This is heightened by wide-spread lack of awareness on waste management at household and community level. In particular, the informal dumping of non-degradable plastic bags (e.g. water sachets) creates a problem of blockage and pollution. The outfalls of sewers and open dumping sites in the study area are shown in Appendix 1.3. Moreover, the shoreline in these areas has been constantly eroding at a rate of 1.7 metres per year over the past decades (Addo, 2009), which is likely to increase further. Climate change has also created changes in up-welling patterns leading to further depletion of the fish stock.

GAPS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE ECOSYSTEM AND PHYSICAL SYSTEM

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Environmental degradation has severe implications for the coastal areas which are particularly vulnerable. Coastal vulnerability is further exacerbated by climate change. The increasing sealing and compressing of soils in upstream areas enhances surface water runoff, increasing flood risk particularly in river mouths. As a result of inadequate drains, dumping of refuse into drains and development on vulnerable areas, seasonal flooding is nowadays occurring almost annually in Accra and is particularly strong in the coastal area (cf. Appendix 1.1) (Twumasi & AsomaniBoateng, 2002). As a result, the majority of the untreated industrial and household waste water is discharged, converting water streams into open sewers (cf.

INCREASING COMPETITION WITH SEMI-INDUSTRIAL TRAWLERS

The tragedy of commons further hinders the resilience of the community. Semi-industrial trawlers tend to ignore the demarcation of the sea waters and intrude THE PROBLEM OF LIGHTFISHING, DESCRIBED BY PAUL NII into the 30 metre ANKAMAH ADJIN-TETTEY depth zone while PHOTOGRAPH BY SANTA PEDONE using illegal fishing methods such as light fishing, and in the process destroying the nets of the artisanal fishermen. This has created many conflicts between the semi-industrial trawlers and artisanal canoes. As it was pointed out during an interview with the Greater Accra regional director, Scott Apawudza, the Government has tried to offer out of court settlements by creating arbitration committees. However, due to the recognition given to the trawlers (as they help in generating foreign exchange through their exports), these committees are often accused of favouring the

GRAPH 1_LOSS IN CATCH OF HERRING BETWEEN 2000 AND 2009 SOURCE: FAO 2009

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industrial sector.

CURRENT POLICIES AND INSTITUTIONAL GAPS

The implementation of infrastructure and services for urban environmental management is mainly the responsibility of the AMA/GAMA, and regulated through the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency Act 1994; Environmental Assessment Regulations 1999) and the Water Resporce Commission (WRC) (Water Resource Commission Act 1996). Additional services are provided by private companies such as Zoomlion Ghana Limited (ZGL), a national company for solid waste management. Projects in infrastructure have further been initiated and implemented

by international aid agencies and companies. However, up to date, such projects have not been sustained due to a lack of commitment and coordination among different institutions involved. As a consequence, the infrastructure needed for adequate service provision in water and waste management is lacking. A desastrous example of this omnipresent failure in environmental management in Accra is the disfunctional high-tech waste water treatment plant and Marine Disposal Site Lavender Hill at the Korle Lagoon (cf. Appendix 2.1). Internationally designed initiatives such as the Millennium City Initiative (MCI) are shaping current visions of urban development in Accra. The latter has a particular impact on coastal communities as one of its core projects is the regeneration of the harbour in Jamestown. The analysis of discourse in the MCI and among

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COPING STRATEGIES

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interview partners from AMA and private waste management companies reveals that current actions and visions for urban development conceive the citys coastal area as an aesthetic asset and are focused on creating visible changes, whereas the underlying vulnerabilities are by and large ignored. For instance the cleaning up activities of beaches by Zoil (a subsidiary of Zoomlion) is limited to solid waste collection on beaches, but no action is taken to reduce the pollution from liquid waste. Likewise, the proposal of the MCI is to protect artisanal fishing communities for their value as cultural heritage but without acknowledging the likely socio-cultural implications of such development initiatives. The government has also laid down some laws with respect to fishing specified under the Fisheries Act 2002 and the Fisheries Regulations 2010 (L.I. 1986). Besides the statutory laws the fishing community is also self-governed by customary laws (cf. Appendix 2.2). The statutory fisheries policies appear to be limited to the management of fish stock, and once again like the urban policies ignore the socio-economic importance together with the gender-based division of labour in these communities. This is exemplified by the failed attempt to introduce a wholesale market in the community (Bortei-Doku, 1993) which was bypassing the crucial role of women. Despite the existence of policies, different stakeholders (Figure 4.), statutory and customary laws there is still a crucial missing link. Current

policies are poorly implemented in the local context of Accra, let alone in the coastal communities of Jamestown and Chorkor, assemblies and sub-metro offices. Policies/plans/programmes (PPPs) (cf. Appendix 2) are designed sectorwise at regional, national and international level, whereas their implementation is transferred to district and local assemblies who lack capacity in
MOFA Fisheries Comission
Fisheries Act, 2002 Fisheries Regulations, 2010

NAFAG National Inland Canoe Fishermen Council Co-operative Fisheries Association Ghana National Canoe Fishermen Council Trawlers Association

EPA
WASTE MANAGEMENT
ACCRA METROPOLITAN ASSEMBLY MILLENNIUM CITY INITIATIVE ACADEMIA RESEARCHERS IWMI SWITCH

Ghana National Canoe Owners Union National Federation of the Urban Poor Peoples Dialogue

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FIGURE 4_STAKEHOLDER MAP

skills, resources and time. The complexities of PPPs are particularly strong in the context of the communities analysed, where urban and marine policies accumulate. The lack of coordination amongst different governmental bodies creates overlapping of authorities leading to shirking of responsibilities.

7.3 Coping and Adaptation Strategies

In order to face the challenges presented in the previous section, the fishing communities have developed some coping strategies, which can be summarized as follows: The decreasing fish stock and the subsequent loss in income have pushed the fishermen to migrate seasonally in search of higher catch. Besides increasing income, this strategy allows them to save money by avoiding some of the social and economic obligations (cf. Obeng, 2010). Another way of bypassing the social structure, which in the lean season represents an obstacle for many fishermen, is the practice of landing on other landing beaches, where they can sell the

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catch to the highest bidder. This helps them to avoid sharing the catch with the canoe owner. Reduced catches and competition with industrial and semi-industrial trawlers dictate the necessity to use illegal fishing techniques such as light fishing in order to attract more fish as a desperate measure. This has also encouraged the use of nets with illegal mesh sizes (allowing fishermen to exploit juvenile fish) together with disregard of the traditional fishing ban on Tuesdays. Formation of womens saving groups as explained earlier.

Creation of COU in order to compensate for the lack of representativeness of the Canoes Fishermen Council to which only Chiefs have access. Fishmongers use coconut shells in order to replace the costly firewood for the Chorkor ovens. Women buy and process imported frozen fish, in Tema especially during the lean season. The necessity to fish in deeper waters and the need to adapt to new technologies have encouraged the useage of outboard motors (introduced in 1956).

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WOMEN BUYING FROZEN FISH FROM TEMA FOR PROCESSING PHOTOGRAPH BY SANTA PEDONE

REUSE OF PLASTIC BAGS AS SHELTER FROM SUN PHOTOGRAPH BY CHIKA OHASHI

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7.4 Interim Conclusion

n summary, the lack of participation by the traditional fishing community, poor representation within this community, lack of recognition of their traditional structures and their importance for the city implies no protection of the interests of coastal communities. The question raised is:

resilient structures. Secondly, processes of urbanisation have had negative impacts particularly on the ecological and the socio-cultural systems. There is thus a need of a paradigm shift in planning of coastal social-ecological systems in Accra towards human-in-the-environment perspectives (Folke, 2006: 263) which would integrate not only urban but also marine policy making. In the present context of fragmented planning and overlapping responsibilities, this seems to be a major obstacle in Accra. Nevertheless, the analysis of current proposals, initiatives and informal actctivities allows to identify room for manoeuvre (cf. Appendix 3). In particular the Guinnea Current Large Marine Ecosystem Project (GCLME) provides a useful framework for improved integration of urban coastal management issues. Strategies for implementation of this project in the specific context of Accras artisanal fishing communities are proposed in the following section.

Who protects the coastal ecosystem which is a source of livelihood for the communities residing there, who provide food security and are a key contributor to the resilience of the city?
Two main conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of the findings. Firstly, processes at the scale of the city, at National and at global level seem to be the root cause of vulnerabilities created in coastal communities. However, as traditional structures become weakened, dynamics within the community are likewise contributing to a loss in

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JAMESTOWN PHOTOGRAPH BY MANDIRA THAKUR

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8 STRATEGIES

8.1 Introduction
The fieldwork findings showed that gaps in coordination across institutions and lack of public participation are currently hindering Accras coastal communities to adapt to the changes. In order to overcome these hindrances, planning for Accras coastal communities needs to shift to a more cross-sectoral approach, integrating regional and local PPPs (cf. Appendix 2) ranging from waste management, environmental planning, freshwater management, marine resource management to urban development. The involvement of multiple stakeholders, including the communities themselves as well as other formal and informal institutions, throughout the process of design and implementation of plans would be the key to success for an integrated approach that enables adaptive governance. ICZM projects worldwide, it is currently focused on rural areas, and therefore fails to fully address the double burden of urban and marine pressures that communities in Jamestown and Chorkor are facing.

NEXT STEPS
The lessons learnt in the pilot implementaion of ICM in urban areas in the Philippines have highlighted the importance of a multi-stakeholder taskforce drawing members from public and private organisations and the community. (PEMSEA, 2006). Therefore, the current proposal to create a similar body in the form of a District FIshery Assembly must be ratified. GCLME recommended that strategic action be taken in several areas. Among them, four can be identified as crucial to achieve the objectives of ICM in the context of Accra. These are improvement of livelihoods, waste management, resource management and the creation of employment opportunities. Activities for implementation of strategic action in these areas are suggested to link existing PPPs and activities at regional, urban and community level with GCLME projects, as outlined in the following chapter. For the strategies proposed, and for waste management in particular, the currently implemented GCLME pilot project on Waste Stock Management in Ghana (cf. Annex 3) provides a supportive context. 23

INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT

Two examples of such approaches are the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and the Integrated Coastal Resource Management (ICRM), which have emerged as successful strategies to reduce the multidimensional pressures currently degrading the coastal ecosystems in Accra (Kay & Alder, 2005). The approach is to coordinate competing uses in coastal areas through spatial zoning and participative stakeholder planning and implementation. In Ghana, the framework of ICZM has been introduced at national level through the Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem (GCLME), (cf. Appendix 3.1). However, similar to most

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8.2 Improvement of Livelihoods

TABLE 2_STRATEGY FOR LIVELIHOOD

STRATEGY FOR LIVELIHOODS

ACTIONS Participation of fishermen and fishmongers in the planning and the implementation of regeneration of the harbour To ensure creation of jobs in uploading and regeneration doesnt hinder their work Invitation disseminated through radio; suggested time of meetings Saturday INDICATORS Number of meetings at all stages Participation methods documented Number of participants from different groups ACTORS Fisheries Commission Earth Institute/Developers District Fisheries Assembly Queen mother and fishmongers Canoe Owners Council Chief-fishermen and fishermen Peoples Dialogue Community based management committees TIME-SCALE Long Term

Creation of Saving Groups in Jamestown

Number of savings group formed

Ghana Federation of the Urban poor

Long Term

Community

24

Making charcoal from coconut shells collected as waste to be used as a substitute for firewood bought from inland by the fishmongers

Number of coconut shell charcoal production sites The amount of charcoal produced The reduction in the purchase of fuel-wood

Community members Federation of the Urban Poor NGOs Universities

MediumTerm

Though the plan for regeneration of the harbour (MCI, cf. Appendix 2.1.1) is still a work in progress, it has presently created a lot of dissatisfaction amongst the Ga community. To this regard a first step has been taken by the NGO Ga Mashie Development Agency (GAMADA) by establishing a conflict management plan aiming at providing solutions to any dissent created. This plan requires the involvement of a larger spectrum of stakeholders than what it currently includes such as the Fisheries Commission and COU and, most importantly, the community members. The focus group discussions should be interactive so as to allow cross flow of information. Selection of day and timing must be such so as

to ensure maximum participation by all. To fulfil this objective, the NGO Peoples Dialogue on Human Settlements (PD) and the CBMCs can provide the much needed impetus. The groups fieldwork revealed that Saturday was the most suitable day as this is the least productive day for both men and women.

ROLE OF FISHMONGERS
Fishmongers have a considerable potential to develop entrepreneurial skills. It is suggested that any future attempt to enhance the artisanal fishery value chain should first assess its impacts on the organisational structure, which is crucial for the survival of the sector itself. So far, no such assessment has been carried out by the authorities. Also the Ghana Federation of the Urban Poor

ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

(GHAFUP) could help in the enhancement of savings groups, which at the moment are not widespread (Mrs. Arday-Acquah, the groups facilitator and representative of GHAFUP, expressed an interest in engaging in this area).

ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOOD STRATEGY: USE OF COCONUT SHELLS TO MAKE CHARCOAL

Besides the creation of cold storage facilities (as suggested by MCI), a community level adaptation can be achieved in short to medium term. One of the possible strategies could be the use of charcoal made from coconut shells. This can possibly serve as a more sustainable measure of livelihoods and resource management in fish processing of Chorkor and Jamestown. The commercial practice of carbonising coconut shells to charcoal exists in Ghana (Hall, 2012). However, this is not widely acknowledged in the communities. In Nigeria, there have been attempts to replace raw fuel wood with sawdust (Akande et al., 2005) in order stop the destruction of mangroves.

FUEL-WOODS FOR FISH SMOKING IN CHORKOR PHOTOGRAPH BY CHIKA OHASHI

The production of coconut shell charcoal is considered more sustainable than buying fuel wood because: it protects the forest, it reduces transport costs, provides livelihood opportunities (coconuts can be bought from local coconut collectors and processed into charcoal at the smoking location). Thus, there can be a reliable supply because of the close proximity to the smoking site. Furthermore, coconut shell charcoals provide better product quality with better texture and sweet smell to the smoked fish.

25

8.3 Waste Management

DESIGNING THE STRATEGY
Based on the key stakeholders identified in the pilot project of the GCLME (cf. Annex 3), a committee for the design of actions and their implementation should include stakeholders from the public sector (AMA, sub-metro officers, EPA), the private sector like Gbi Hanjer Ghana Limited.(cf. Appendix 3), NGOs and the community, represented through the COU and womens savings groups. This committee should be linked to the national GCLME Project on Combating Living Resources Depletion and Coastal Area Degradation within which a network has been set up to develop strategies on
SOLID WASTE IN KORLE LAGOON PHOTOGRAPH BY EMMANUAL-MARK MC HANSEN

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TABLE 2_STRATEGY FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT

WASTE MANAGEMENT1
ACTIONS INDICATORS ACTORS2 TIME-SCALE RECYCLING AND EMPLOYMENT DIVERSIFICATION OPPORTUNITIES Encourage industry to use recyclable plastics, making mandatory the existing proposal of adding biodegradable additives NATIONAL Number of companies using recyclable plastics Number of compounds participating Number of facilities created EPA (for monitoring and record keeping) National Association of the Sachet Water Producers Ghana Plastic Management Association Long Term

26

Training of teachers to educate primary school children about the environment, and environmental management at household level Creating facilities and markets for re-use and recycling

Number of teachers trained

AMA Community

Medium Term

CITY Number of recycling facilities in use Gbi Hanjer Ghana Limited and other private waste management companies Producers of plastic products Organisations such as Global Mamas COMMUNITY Canoe owners council ZOIL Long Term

Sea clean-up days on which Fishermen take plastic waste to the beach instead of throwing it back into the sea Creation of collection facilities at the compound level

Canoe owners council publish who participated and create a competition Amount of recyclable bags collected Number of collection facilities created in compounds

Short Term

AMA submetro offices Ashiedu Keteke and Ablekuma South Community members, particularly women

Medium Term

1 2

Refer to Appendix 2.1.3 Additional actors and responsibilities are recommended to be specified by the executive committee on waste management

ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

waste collection, disposal and recycling by the private sector in Ghana. By bringing together these various stakeholders, existing proposals (e.g. SWITCH project (Adank, Darteh et al., 2011), the GCLME project), initiatives (e.g. Accra Sewerage Improvement Project (OCIN, 2005) and informal actions (e.g. coconut shells for reuse in smoking Chorkor ovens) can be merged into one coherent strategy. Activities should be prioritised and include the replacement of current non-degradable water sachets with biodegradable plastics through formal regulation, as well as the creation of recycling markets to encourage formal and informal engagement in recycling activities. The latter strategy combines the creation of employment opportunities and economic benefits created at city and national level for small and medium scale enterprises. Additional activities should focus on awareness raising through education of school children (to trigger a long term change) and through immediate actions such as sea clean up days, in reference to Zoils clean-up of beaches . On such days, fishermen could be encouraged to collect plastic caught with the fish and bring it to the shore instead of throwing it back into the sea which is currently a common practice. Incentives could be the nomination of the most environmentally friendly fisherman through the publications and awards by the COU.

recommended that the Riparian Buffer Zone Policy is implemented in the entire Densu River water basin not only through integration of riparian land use criteria in land use planning and environmental assessments of future projects, but moreover through revision of existing permits for water extraction and use based on these criteria. More comprehensive monitoring practices of water pollution are moreover considered crucial for effective liquid waste management, engaging stakeholders in both freshwater and marine water management (i.e. WRC, EPA, MoFA, Fisheries Comission, farmers and fishermen). A starting point for a more comprehensive monitoring would be a register of waters returned to water streams, based on the data gathered by the WRC when granting permits. This could be complemented by measurement of water qualities, in order to establish separate thresholds for return of contaminated waters for each water stream discharged in Accra. A strong colaboration between research institutes and governmental institutions is recommended for the latter.

SIDE STRATEGY: USING ORGANIC WASTE FROM FISH PROCESSING AS COMPOST

As a side strategy, good management of organic waste can help in reducing financial and stakeholder pressures on coastal communities. Much of the waste generated during fish processing (fish intestines) is commonly discarded generating negative impacts such as unhygienic conditions in the landing beaches and markets. Composting of the discarded waste products is a useful way of reclaiming nutrients from organic refuse. It saves valuable landfill space and possible contamination of land and water due to leaching. It improves soil conditions and can be used as a fertilizer in UA and coastal regeneration (Chirapaisarnkul, 2011).

27

LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Although the direct impact of contaminated waters on decline in marine fish stock is neglected by most interviewees, including representatives of the EPA and MoFA, a strategy for management of liquid waste is likewise important in order to maintain and improve livelihoods in coastal communities, and to prevent any impact on fish stock from liquid waste that has not been documented to date. In this context it is to be

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8.4 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

TABLE 2_STRATEGY FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
ACTIONS INDICATORS ACTORS TIME-SCALE Enforcement of Customary Law and Fisheries Law Mid-Long term Fish stock: Introducing EPA fishing log system of catch MOFA at two layers by fishermen NAFAG and authorities Fisheries Commission Monitoring: Continuous Community-Based implementation of Fisheries Management monitoring on discharge Committees and sea water quality Canoe Owners Council WRC AMA Universities Creation of nursery for juvenile fish for the future sustainable fishstock Mid-Long term Wildlife Department Creation of management plan (Plan for nursery Ministry of Environment site/community-based Science and Technology management) EPA Develop a mechanism that District and Metropolitan moderates the Assemblies participatory process that Ministry of Food and involves wide stakeholders Agriculture and local communities Survey and Meteorological Provide a strategic plan of Services Department action ensuring the Ministry of Lands and establishment of user Forestry rights and self monitoring Forestry Department processes by local Council for Scientific and communities Industrial Research (CSIR) Implementation of Centre for African mangrove restoration Wetlands Management (to Capacity development coordinate wetlands among engaged research for the West stakeholders African sub-region) The amount of fish stock Water Resources regenerated Commission Densu Basin Board Ghana Education Service Universities NGOs (e.g. Ghana Wildlife Division)

Better coordination in monitoring and enforcement of laws though District Fishery Assemblies

Mangrove Restoration

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REGENERATION OF NURSERY FOR JUVENILE FISH FOR THE FUTURE SUSTAINABLE FISH STOCK
In order to ensure the future sustainability of fish stock harvested by the traditional fishing communities in Accra, there is a need to create a city linkage connecting Accra with fishing communities in Jamestown and Chorkor.

Despite the ecological benefits of preserving their resources, including mangroves that serve as sites of nursery for marine juvenile fish, wetlands have been widely used as waste lands or considered as areas served for mosquitoes breeding (Ministry of Lands and Forestry, 2001). There has been indiscriminate exploitation of wetlands due to lack of regulation. The recognition of the importance of wetlands with Ramsar Convention (1971) gradually came into force, and therefore the

ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

Ministry of Lands and Forestry has established the national wetlands conservation strategy, managing Ghanas wetlands: a National Wetlands Conservation Strategy (1999). Therefore, effective mangrove restoration programmes will be a key to regenerate fish stock by restoring more breeding and feeding sites of the juvenile marine fish species which eventually

add towards the sustainability of fish stock of the Greater Accra Region. To achieve this, initiatives related to sustainable management of coastal resources need to be coordinated at city, regional and national levels as well as at sub-regional level, such as GCLME and the West and Central African Regional Seas Programme (WACAF) by UNEP.

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MAP 3_PROPOSAL FOR MANGROVE RESTORATION

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9 Conclusion
I
n the past, traditional fishing communities of Jamestown and Chorkor have been resilient to political, economic and environmental changes due to their strong socio-cultural structures and adaptive capacity. Today, however, gaps in policy implementation and the neo-liberal forms of urban development undermine the resilience of these communities. In order to gain an understanding of their contribution to the resilience of Accra, the study developed a conceptual framework which was used to analyse the findings. It was found that they are forced to adopt short-term coping strategies which are often not sustainable. Therefore, in order to maintain their resilience in the future, these communities need to be protected. In order to achieve this objective, the strategy suggested in the study, is an integrated management of urban and marine systems. However, given the limitations of the study and the importance of this community together with the unique urban setting of Accra, further research must be conducted in the future. This must be with respect to: Assessing the impacts of constantly changing environmental interactions related to changes in up-welling, destruction of wetland areas, coastal erosion and flooding on the livelihoods of the communities. Monitoring the changing dynamics of stakeholder interactions over time. Close monitoring of the water quality both in the sea and freshwater by measuring Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and others. At regional level the saturation of the artisanal fishery sector, the ensuing unemployment among the fishermen combined with high migration rate to GAMA have been verified (Atta Mills, op. cit; Obeng, 2012). Therefore, future research should investigate fishermen unemployment rate in Ga Mashie and assess migration trends in order to establish if a coherent strategy for employment diversification is needed.

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CHILDREN PLAYING ON A CANOE PHOTOGRAPH BY CHIKA OHASHI

ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adank, M., Darteh, B., & al., e. (2011). Deliverable D1.1.6 Towards integrated urban water management in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area Current status and strategic directions for the future. Retrieved 04 08, 2012, from http:// www.switchurbanwater.eu/ Addo, K. (2009). Detection of coastal erosion hotspots in Accra, Ghana. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa , 11 (4), pp. 253-265. Atta-Mills, J. et al., (2004). The decline of a regional fishing nation: The case of Ghana and West Africa, Natural Resources Forum 28, 13-21. Baabereyir, A. (2009). Urban Environmental Problems in Ghana: a case study on social and environmental injustices in solid waste management in Accra and Sekondi Takoradi. Thesis submitted to the School of Geography University of Nottingham, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Nottingham. Bortei-Doku Aryeetey Isser, E., (1993). Kinsfolk and workers: social aspects of labour relations among da-dagme coastal fisherfolk in Bard Franois-Xavier (ed.), Koranteng K.A. (ed.), Dynamics and use of sardinella resources from upwellling off Ghana and Ivory Coast : acts of DUSRU meeting. Paris Bremer, A. (2002). Conflict Moderation and Participation - Prospects and Barriers for Urban Renewal in Ga Mashie, Accra. In R. Mills-Tettey, & K. Adi-Dako, Visions of the City - Accra in the 21st Century (pp. 106-116). Accra: Goethe Institut Nationales Accra. Chirapaisarnkul (2011). Financing Mechanisms for Climate Change Adaptation Initiatives. Available online at: https://moodle.ucl. ac.uk/file.php/5081/ESD/2010-2011/ C H I R A PA I S A R N K U L _ A d a _ - _ M S c _ Dissertation_s.pdf [Accessed 27/05/2012] Cumming, G. S., Cumming, D. H., & Redman, C. L. (2006). Scale mismatches in social-ecological systems: causes, consequences, and solutions. Ecology and Society , 1 (14). Denutsui, D., Akiti, T., Osae, S., Dampare, S. B., Tutu, A. O., Blankson-Arthur, S., et al. (2011). Assessment of pollution into the Densu Delta Wetland using instrumental neutron activation analysis. Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences , 3 (6), 772-781. Entsua-Mensah, M., Ofori-Danson, P. K., & Koranteng, K. A. (2000). Management isues for the sustainable use of lagoon fish resources. In E. K. Abban, C. M. Casal, T. M. Falk, & R. S. Pullin, Biodiversity and sustainable use of fish in the coastal zone (pp. 63-71). Accra: ICLARM Conf. Proc. Ernstson, H., Leeuw, S. E., Redman, C. L., Meffert, D. J., Davis, G., Alfsen, C., et al. (2010, July 29). Urban Transitions: On Urban Resilience and Human-Dominated Ecosystems. AMBIO , 2010 (39), pp. 531-545. Evans, B., Joas, M., Sundback, S., & Theobald, K. (2006). Governing local Sustainability. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management , 49 (6), pp. 849-867. Evans, J. P. (2011). Resilience, ecology and adaptation in the experimental city. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers , 2011 (36), pp. 223237. FAO, (2007). Ghana Fishery country profile (available at: www.fao.org/fi/website/FISearch. do?dom=country) FAO, (2009). Capture production by species, fishing areas and countries or areas, in Fishery and aquaculture statistcs (available at ftp://ftp.fao. org/FI/CDrom/CD_yearbook_2009/navigation/

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index_content_capture_e.htm Grant & Yankson 2002. Accra City profile. Cities 20 (1), pp. 65-74. Hall, G. M. (2011). Fish processing: sustainability and new opportunities. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Harvey, D. 2006. Spaces of global capitalism: Towards a theory of uneven geographical development. London and New York: Verso. Interim Guinea Current Commission. (2009). Proceedings of the GCLME Regional Workshop, Douala, 2009. Fisheries Management Plans and Implementation Strategies in the GCLME. Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem Project. Kwame Anku, S. (2006, September 21). Managing wetlands in Accra, Ghana. Retrieved May 29, 2012, from http://www.unep.org/urban_environment/PDFs/ManagingAccraWetlands.pdf Lefebvre, B. (2002). The Role of Historic Centres in Urban Development. In R. Mills-Tettey, & K. Adi-Dako, Visions of the City - Accra in the 21st Century (pp. 129-133). Accra: Goethe Institut Nationales Accra. Ministry of Lands and Forestry (2001, March 12). Managing Ghanas wetlands: a national wetlands conservation strategy.Retrieved May 30,2012,from http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documents-wurl-policies--managing-ghana-s/main/ ramsar/1-31-116-162%5E21180_4000_0__ MWRWH (2011). Riparian Buffer Zone Policy for Management of Freshwater Bodies in Ghana. Available online at http://www.wrc-gh.org/docs/ wrc_4014e_20120224_1330067407_.pdf. Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y., & Gordon, C. (1991, August). Coastal wetlands management plans: Ghana. Retrieved May 24, 2012, from http:// www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/ WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/10/29/00 0334955_20091029014758/Rendered/PDF/511 660ESW0Whit10Box342025B01PUBLIC1.pdf Obeng-Odoom , F. (March 2012). Neoliberalism and the Urban Economy in Ghana: Urban Employment, Inequality, and Poverty in Growth

and Change Vol. 43 No. 1, pp. 85109. OCIN. 2005. Accra Sewerage Improvement Project (ASIP). (A. D. Fund, Ed.) Appraisal Report . PEMSEA. 2006. Securing the future through ICM: The case of the Batangas Bay Region. (G. R. Asia, Ed.) PEMSEA Technical Report. Punchihewa, P. G., & Arancon, R. N. 1999, . Coconut: post-harvest operations. Retrieved May 30, 2012, from http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inpho/docs/Post_Harvest_ Compendium_-_Coconut.pdf Swyngedouw, E., & Heynen, N. C. (2003). Urban Political Ecology, Justice and the Politics of Scale. Antipode , pp. 898-918. Twumasi, Y. A., & Asomani-Boateng, R. 2002. Mapping Seasonal Hazards for Flood Management in Accra, Ghana Using GIS. Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS '02. 2002 IEEE International. IGCC/UNIDO (2010). Report of the Round Table for Private Sector: Waste Collection, Disposal and Recycling Systems. Available online at: http://gclme.iwlearn.org/documentscentre/demo-projects/demo-wsm-ghana/reportdemo-waste-stock-management/at_download/ file UNEP (2012). Progress in implementing the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities at the National Level. available online at: http://www.gpa.depiweb.org/docman/doc_ view/180-unepgpaigr3inf3rev1.html United Nations. (2002). Ghana Country Profile. Johannesburg Summit 2002. Walker, B. H., Gunderson, L. H., Kinzig, A. P., Folke, C., Carpenter, S. R., & Schultz, L. (2006). A handful of heuristics and some propositions for understanding resilience in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society , 1 (13). Wellington, H. (2002). Kelewele, Kpokpoi, Kpangalo: A random Search for Accra's Urban

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Quality in a Sea of Globalisation. In R. MillsTetey, & K. Adi-Dako, Visions of the City - Accra in the 21st Century (pp. 79-89). Accra: Goethe Institut Inter Nationes Accra. Yeboah, I. (2000). Structural Adjustment and Emerging Urban Form in Accra, Ghana. Africa Today , 47 (2), pp. 61-89. Yeboah, I. (2008). Ethnic Emancipation and Urban Land Claims: Disenfranchisement of the Ga of Accra, Ghana. Geographical Research , 46 (4), pp. 435445.

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ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

APPENDICES
1. Maps
1.1. Flood risk 1.2. Pollution 1.3. Land use in fishing communities

2.

Plans, Programs, Policies

2.1. Urban environmental management 2.1.1. Millennium City Initiative and Harbour Regeneration 2.1.2. Solid Waste Management 2.1.3. Waste Water Management 2.1.4. Environmental Monitoring 2.2. Regulatory Framework for the Fishing Industry
35

3.

Room for manoeuvre to bridge gaps

3.1 Summary of GCLME

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36

ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

1. Maps
1.1 Flood Risk

1.2 Pollution

1.3 Land Use in Fishing Communities in Jamestown and Chorkor

37

Landing Beach Processing Area Residential and Processing Resort (Private Land) Informal Waste Dumping Dumping (Construction material) Formal Waste Dumping ZOIL clean-up area Open Sewer Outfall Market

Jamestown Chorkor

Data Source (Background Map): Angel, S. et al. 2010. Atlas of Urban Expansion, Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy

Coastal Land Use in Jamestown and Chorkor Accra, Ghana

Project: Environmentally just urbanisation through the lens of urban and peri-urban agriculture in the Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA), Ghana UCL Development Planning Unit London Layout: Fanny Frick Date: May 20, 2012

75 150

300 m

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38

ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

2. Plans, Programs, Policies (PPPs)

2.1. URBAN PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
2.1.1. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING
Environmental Assessment Regulations 1999 Through extending environmental permits based on an environmental impact assessment(EIA), the EPA regulates the introduction of waste waters into the environment (Environmental Assessment Regulations 1999, Part I, 1-2). Water Resource Commission Act 1996 Upstream water pollution is moreover regulated by the water resource commission responsible for regulation and management of water utilization, e.g. through the issue of permits for water utilization and through enforcement of riparian buffer zones. Permits for water extraction are currently granted by the WRC, based on assessment of sustainability of extraction in terms of quantity of water extracted and state of the water returned to public streams. While this procedure helps to prevent heavily polluted waters to be returned into streams, it does not take into account the accumulation of pollution from multiple points of discharge of medium polluted waters. Moreover, extraction for subsistance agriculture is exempted from the requirement of a permit, hence there is hardly any control over pollution from agricultural waste. A severe problem in managing liquid waste is poor monitoring of water quality: While permits of extraction are overlooked in a register, no such register exists for the quantity and quality of waters returned (WRC representative, personal communication 2012). The quality of freshwater bodies is monitored only where water is extracted for potable use. That way it is currently difficult to identify the most problematic sources of contamination affecting water streams in Accra. Riparian Buffer Zone Policy For Managing Freshwater Bodies in Ghana The Riparian Buffer Zone Policy For Managing Freshwater Bodies in Ghana (2011) implemented by the WRC under the Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, provides a framework for managing cumulative water pollution through the restriction of contaminating uses around water bodies. The policy does however not specify strategies for implementation in areas that are already in problematic use (cf. MWRWH 2011).

2.1.2. WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT

Implementation of waste water related regulations is the responsibility of the AMA, with additional services provided by private companies and through self-supply. The current sewerage system limited to central areas of the city, mainly around Makola market and the ministries. The system is connected to a UASB (Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) waste water treatment plant in Jamestown/Korle Lagoon, designed and constructed by international companies from the Netherlands and the UK. However, the plant broke down in 2004, one year after its operation was handed over to the AMA (Adank, 2011). Since then, black waters are discharged without treatment into Korle Lagoon, and from there into the ocean. In addition to waters from sewers, septic tanks are emptied into the outfall of Korle Lagoon at the Marine Disposal Site (Lavender Hill). The high concentration of organic and chemical pollutants have converted Korle Lagoon into a dead water body, and have led to depletion of fish stock around the outfall of the Lagoon. The site is planned to be closed in June 2012, and will be converted into a compostation plant. Along the coastline, outfalls of open sewers discharge grey waters into the sea.

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2.1.3. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management is in the responsibility of the AMA, within the Waste Management Department (WMD). The authority contracts private companies such as Zoomlion Ghana Ltd for picking up waste in the city. Within Zoomlion, Zoil is specialized on the cleaning up of beaches. In Jamestown, Zoil is contracted by the AMA submetro division of Ashiedo Keteke to pick up waste on a daily basis and manage a waste container. Zoil further facilitates occasional clean-up days by providing gears. According to the company, waste collected is brought to dumping sites; however, burning on site seems to be common practice in Jamestown. In addition to clean-ups, the company is engaged in managing problems of open defecation through provision of sanitation facilities and coastal guards to enforce the prohibition of open defecation in Jamestown beach. The vision of Zoil is to restore clean beaches to become a Millennium City (Fataw Giwah, Regional coordinator of Zoil). Informally collected waste from natural products (sugarcane, maize, coconuts) is used to sell to fishmongers as substitutes for firewood in Chorkor. In low income fishing communities, solid wastes including sugar cane leftovers, dry corncobs, and coconut shells are used to smoke fish in open ovens. The collection of these wastes provides employment for people who collect them for sale to fish smokers. (Owusu et al., 2003)

goal of halving extreme poverty by 2015. The MCI top priorities is to attract domestic and FDIs that can create jobs, stimulate domestic enterprise and increase prosperity through more efficient agricultural production and agroprocessing, improved manufacturing and a wider array of export markets (Obeng, 2012). The other key area of focus is on bettering the lives of citizens by helping to improve the delivery of such essential public services as water and sanitation, good safe schools and properly equipped health facilities. Within the MCI, two successive urban planning, policy and design workshops have been undertaken to date addressing Accras public health system and studies on waste-to-energy and bus rapid transit options, solid waste composting, the region-wide e-waste industry now headquartered in Accra and the history of land use policy for the city. Design proposals for improvement of residential and commercial sites in Ga Mashie envisage improvement of water provision services through water towers, market-oriented development of commercial areas and development of the waterfront for touristic use. The current designs include fishing and related activities as important livelihood strategies, but do not provide visions for protection of the artisanal fishery.

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2.2 REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR THE FISHING INDUSTRY

Fisheries Act, 2002 Act 625 Provides the fisheries regulation and management and the development of the fishing industry though sustainable use of fishery resources FISHING ZONES, GEAR, METHODS AND MANNING OF MOTOR FINING VESSELS Section 82. Destruction of fishing gear of artisanal fishermen in inshore exclusive zone (1) A person aboard a motor fishing vessel shall not destroy or

2.1.2. THE MILLENNIUM CITY INITIATIVE

The Millennium Cities Initiative (MCI) of the Earth Institute (2011), Columbia University was founded by the world-renowned Development Economist, Jeffrey D. Sachs as the Urban Counterpart of the Millennium Villages Project and an outgrowth of the national level work carried out by the United Nations Millennium City Project. MCIs core mission is to help underserved cities across sub-Saharan Africa complete Urban Transformations which are essential to attaining the MDGs including the fundamental

ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

damage an appropriately marked fishing gear of an artisanal fisherman inside the zone. (3) full compensation for the destroyed gear either in kind or in cash, and adequate compensation for lost fishing time. Section 81. Establishment of zones and prohibition of fishing inside zones (2) The zone shall be used exclusively by small semi-industrial vessels, canoes and recreational fishing vessels. (3) A person shall not use a large semi-industrial vessel or industrial fishing vessel for fishing inside the zone. (5) A towing gear shall not be used in a thirty-metre zone or the depth prescribed by the Regulations. FISHING ACTIVITIES Section 84. Closed seasons (1) The Commission may by notice in the Gazette declare closed seasons, including their duration, for fishing in specified areas of the coastal waters or the reverie system. (2) A declaration made under subsection (1) shall be given reasonable publicity and, where possible, shall be given in advance of the closed season. CONSERVATION MEASURES Section 89. Protection of gravid and juvenile lobsters, other crustacean and other juvenile fish (1) A person shall not during fishing knowingly take any: (c) juvenile fish. (2) Where a fish mentioned in subsection (1) is caught accidentally or as a by-catch it shall immediately be returned to the sea, river or lake. (3) A person who contravenes this section commits an offence and is liable on sum-mary conviction to a fine and in addition, the catch, fishing gear or any other apparatus or any combination of them used in the commission of the offence may be forfeited to the Republic. Section 92. Pollution of fishery waters A person who directly or indirectly introduces a deleterious substance into the fishery waters which adversely affects the habitat or health of the fish or any other living aquatic resource commits an offence and is liable on summary conviction to a fine. The Act failed to raise issues such as harmful fishing practices such as light fishing and pair trawling on artisanal and semi-industrial industry,

quality control of fish products and rights to access fishing logistics. Fisheries Regulations, 2010 (L.I. 1968) in tune with modern measures covers all fisheries sectors, including artisanal fisheries, in regards to fishing license, registration of fishing vessels, fishing nets, fishing devices and methods, fishing equipment, compliance measures and monitoring mechanisms. Section 8.(1) A person shall not use (a) a multifilament set-net the mesh size of which is less than fifty millimeters in stretched diagonal length in the marine water or riverine system; (c) a monofilament set-net in the marine waters. Section 10. (1) A person shall not manufacture, import, or sell or use a fishing net or gear, the mesh size of which is less than twenty-five millimeters in stretched diagonal length. Section 11. (1) A person shall not within the fishery waters of this country (a) use any fishing method that aggregates fish by light attraction including use of portable generator, switchboard, bulbs beyond 500 watts or bulbs whose cumulative light intensity attracts fish and long cable to facilitate light production or any other contrivance for the purpose of aggregating fish by light. (d) operate pair-trawling. Customary Law (Under Article 11 of the Constitution) are on the basis of religious beliefs and superstitions in association with fetishes which are enforced by taboos; Tuesday is regarded as the sacred day of the sea god and a long resting period which coincides with the fish sprawling periods. Nevertheless, the conservation of marine resources managed though taboos are sometimes disregarded by some fishermen due to small catches caused by the depletion of fish stock.

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COASTAL

3. Room for manoeuvre to bridge gaps

Gaps in policy-making/implementation Room for manoeuvre in the current policies Improper waste management : - Plans for recycling facilities by Gbi Hanjer Ghana - lack of basic infrastructure, Limited (private waste management company) - lack of commitment from AMA Accra Sewerage Improvement Project (ASIP), - overlapping responsibilities of AMA/subfunded by African Development Fund, implemented metro offices by AMA (to be completed by May 2012) - lack of awareness (informal dumping of o 5 treatment plants to be fully working and non-degradable waste, fishermen throw connected by 2030 plastic back into the sea) - Strategic directions to enhance sewerage treatment capacity identified by Accra Learning Alliance (SWITCH project) as component of integrated urban water management system o Using capacity of natural filtration in ecosystems o Securing/acquiring new sludge treatment sites: protection of mangroves around Korle Lagoon and Kpeshie Lagoon o Capacity building - Informal waste picking activities which can be integrated in formal SWM - Riparian Buffer Zone Policy (implementation by Monitoring of Pollution and Environmental management not working because: Water Resource Commission, WRC) - overlapping responsibilities (WRC, EPA - Strategic Environmental Assessment (manual prepared by EPA; to be implemented by - absence of monitoring of cumulative pollution (documented only for registered GAMA/AMA and private developers) emitters individually, no documentation of - Current project of EPA to build comprehensive informal discharge) aerospace cum GIS database for resources appraisal and state of environment reporting in coastal areas (Ghana Navy, EPA, Ghana Statistical Services) - Ghanas Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation (2011-2015), designed by National Disaster Management Organisation and EPA with support from UNEP; to be implemented by district assemblies (AMA) Representation/Participation of artisanal - Canoe Owners Council: representation of canoe fishermen owners interests - only chiefs consulted by Fishery - Savings groups, market women, queen mothers: Commission (through National Canoe representation of fishmongers interests - Peoples Dialogue and Slum Dwellers International Fishermen Council) (SDI): facilitators for representation of interests by - no consultation of fishermen in MCI initiative for harbour regeneration urban poor communities - uncertainty in the level of representation of long-term migrants Marine Resource Management - GCLME: regional framework for integrated - market-led management aimed at management - District Fishery Assemblies restoring/enhancing total catch, little

42

ENVIRONMENTALLY JUST URBANISATION

3.1 GUINEA CURRENT LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEM PROJECT (GCLME)

This project aims at bringing sustainable development of the environment and resources of the county along the guinea coast. It started out on the initiative of 6 countries namely Benin, Cameroon, Cote dIvoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Togo in 1995 under the name of Water Pollution Control and Biodiversity Conservation in the Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem with aegis of Global Environment Facility together with technical assistance of international organisations such as UNIDO, UNDP, UNEP and others. The project ended in 1999 and now has been extended and renamed as the GCLME with 16 participating countries. This is amongst the first time that the concept of Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) has been used to achieve the UNCED goals. LME are large areas that are distinguished by their hydrography, bathymetry amongst others. In order to assess the current state 5 operational modules are used that help in creating a bridge between science and socio-economic gains for the region. There are (1) ecosystem productivity (2) ecosystem fish and fisheries (3) ecosystem socioeconomic conditions (4) ecosystem governance protocols. This cross- regional effort hopes to restore, protect and augment the current ecosystem both in terms of its capacity and output in the region. To meet this end the project has established labs across the belt helping in data collection, using WHO Rapid Assessment for pollution, GIS system for data generation, promoting community and non-governmental organisation participation, conducting training workshops in all the associated countries amongst others. Furthermore, in its strategic action plan it has reiterated the importance of cooperation and integration amongst the different regions in order to sustain this complex ecosystem. In order to replete the fish stock, improve water quality, restore the environment the main strategies that are to be implemented are (1) integrated coastal area and river basin management (2) strategic environmental assessment (3) creation of marine protected areas (4) cross boundary assessments of the efficiency of government policies, programmes

and initiatives amongst others. This is implemented through the creation of country specific plans and Interim Guinea Current Commission which is later to created into a more permanent body. For implementation of the GCLME, the GCLME Strategic Action Program (SAP) has been developed by the steering Committee of the Interim Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystems (GCLME) in annual meetings between 2005 and 2011. The SAPs are currently translated into National Action Programs (NAPs) in each of the 16 member countries. In Ghana, this process is coordinated by the Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology and supported by consultancy reports and monitoring activities from Ghana Water Research Institute (WRI) and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). As a pilot project, a Waste Stock Exchange Management System is being designed, exploring the options for solid waste recycling and promoting public-private partnerships, scientific research and awarenessraising campaigns (IGCC/UNIDO 2010). 43