Textile

Textile Fiber
Fiber is the fundamental component required for making textile yarns and fabrics. There are two types - natural and synthetic. Natural fibers come from animals (sheep, goats, camelids, etc.) or vegetable-based fibers (cotton, flax, linen, and other plant fibers). Mineral fibers (asbestos, etc) are also classified as natural fiber. Synthetic fibers are man-made and manufactured from synthetic chemicals (byproducts of the petrochemical industries) nylon, polyester, acetates.The characteristics of fibers directly affect the properties of the fabric it is woven into. The history of fibres is as old as human civilization. Traces of natural fibres have been located to ancient civilizations all over the gobe. For many thousand years, the usage of fiber was limited by natural fibres such as flax, cotton, silk, wool and plant fibres for different applications. Fibers can be divided into natural fibres and man-made or chemical fibres. Flax is considered to be the oldest and the most used natural fibre since ancient times. A unit of matter which is capable of being spun into a yarn or made into a fabric by bonding or by interlacing in a variety of methods including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, twisting, or webbing, and which is the basic structural element of textile products. It is a smallest textile component which is microscopic hair like substance that may be man made or natural. They have length at least hundred times to that of their diameter or width.
Types of Fibers
There are four types of fibers: natural, manufactured, synthetic, and minor miscellaneous types. Natural fibers include Cotton, Linen, Flax, Wool (any form of animal hair including human hair; not just sheep wool as most associate with wool), and various other minor novelty fibers such as Hemp and Spun Corn. These fibers you can pick up and spin right into a fabric. Manufactured fibers are types that come from cellulose and protein such as Rayon and Acetate. Rayon was the first manufactured fiber in 1949 and is also known as artificial silk since it was developed to mimic the costly silk fabrics of the time. Many people consider Rayon a natural fiber but technically it is not. Rayon is spun from naturally occurring polymers that replicates a natural fiber. Synthetic man-made fibers could take up a whole book alone with the many styles and varieties. New fibers are developed all the time. Common fibers include Polyester, Microfiber, and Nylon to name a few. Special use fibers are less common, but people may not realize that they come into contact with them on a daily basis. Surprisingly fibers such as rubber are used in Spandex. Metal such as stainless steel is used in carpets, and other metals such as silver and gold are woven into fabrics. New an innovative uses for fibers are being developed every day.
Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Classification of Fibers
Fiber Properties
Reading a fabric bolt label is comparable to reading a food label. Often the consumer does not understand the ingredients, why some cost more, and what exactly do they do? Understanding each ingredient of a fabric helps sewers answer questions such as Why are there blends? and A natural fiber seems better, why should I use synthetic? There are many answers to these questions. One fabric may have a blend because it was cheaper to produce, another might be that the cotton crop had a shortage so they had to blend with a synthetic, yet another might be technical since cotton is a weaker fiber, the blend helps to create a stronger yarn for fabric production enabling garments created from the fabric to last longer. Fibers are like vitamins in that you are customizing characteristics to get a certain result in your fabric. It sounds complicated, but it is really simple to the consumer. Educate sewers about the basics and they will be much happier with their fabric selections. Some basic fiber properties, pros, and cons that are applicable to the home sewing consumer include: Natural Cellulose Fibers: Cotton and Flax are examples of natural cellulose fibers. These have good absorbency and are a good conductor of heat. They wrinkle easily and pack tightly. They are heavy fibers, very flammable, and printed easily. Natural Protein Fibers (Wool): These fibers have an animal origin. They resist wrinkling. They are hygroscopic-comfortable in cool, damp climate but weaker when wet because they shrink. Natural protein fibers are harmed by dry heat. They are flame resistant and dye well.
Synthetic Fibers: These are fibers made from chemicals. They are heat sensitive and they melt easily. They are resistant to moths and fungi, have low absorbency, and are abrasion-resistant. Synthetic fibers are strong and easy to care for. They are less expensive and readily available
Properties essential to make a Fiber.

Each fibre has particular properties which help us to decide which particular fibre should be used to suite a particular requirement. Certain fibre properties increase its value and desirability in its intended end-use but are not necessary properties essential to make a fibre. Thus it is very essential to know the individual aspects and specific properties of each kind of fibre.
Basic Textile Fiber Properties

There are several primary properties necessary for a polymeric material to make an adequate fiber.Certain other fiber properties increase its value and desirability in its intended end-use but are not necessary properties essential to make a fiber. Such secondary properties include moisture absorption characteristics, fiber resiliency, abrasion resistance, density, luster, chemical resistance, thermal characteristics, and flammability. Some Primary Properties of Textile Fibers are: Fiber length to width ratio, Fiber uniformity, Fiber strength and flexibility, Fiber extensibility and elasticity, and Fiber cohesiveness.
Fiber Properties for specific requirements

Utility of fibers are broadly catagorized into 2 different uses- one is Apparel or Domestic use and the other is Industrial use.In order to be used in each of these each of these catagories the fiber has to meet some specific requirements. They are:
Apparel/Domestic Requirements
Tenacity: 3 - 5 gramddenier Elongation at break: 10 - 35% Recovery from elongation: 100% at strains up to 5% Modulus of elasticity: 30 - 60 gramddenier Moisture absorbency: 2 - 5% Zero strength temperature (excessive creep and softening point): above 215C High abrasion resistance (varies with type fabric structure) Dye-able Low flammability Insoluble with low swelling in water, in moderately strong acids and bases and conventional organic solvents from room temperature to 100c Ease of care
Industrial Requirements
Tenacity: 7 - 8 graddenier Elongation at break: 8 - 15% Modulus of elasticity: 80 graddenier or more conditioned, 50 graddenier wet Zero strength temperature: 250 C or above
How heat affects Textile Fiber's properties

Examples of Fiber Shapes
Heat helps the fiber /fabric to gain certain special qualities at certain times and are also harmful at other times.But under special guidance,heat helps fiber acquire the following characteristics Softening, melting, or decomposition temperatures Tendency of the fiber and fabric to shrink when heat-relaxed, or stretch when heated and under tension Ability of the fabric to heat set Ability of the fabric to function properly at elevated temperatures in one time or repeated use Ability of the fabric to function properly at room temperature (or some other lower temperature) after exposure at high temperature for a given period of time
Thermal Properties of Common Fibers

Fiber Natural Fibers Cotton Flax Silk Wool Melting Point Softening Sticking Point Safe Ironing Temperature F C F C F C Nonmelting Nonmelting Nonmelting Nonmelting 425 450 300 300 350 464 300-350 218 232 149 149 177 240 149-176
Manmade Fibers Acetate 446 230 364 184 Arnel Triacetage 575 302 482 250 Acrylic 400-490 204-254 Aramid Does not melt, carbonizes above 800F Glass 1400-3033 Modacrylic 410 210 300 149 Novoloid Nonmelting Nylon6 414 212 340 171 Nylon66 482 250 445 229 Olefin 275 135 260 127 Polyester PET 480 249 460 238 Polyester PCDT 550 311 490 254 Rayon Nonmelting Saran 350 177 300 149 Spandex 446 230 347 175 Vinyon 285 140 200 93
200-250 300 350 150 325 350 375 Do not iron 300 Do not iron
93-121 149 177 66 163 177 191 149
Density and Moisture Regain of Fibers

Fiber Density (g/cc) Moisture Regain Density: Ratio of weight of a given volume of fiber to an equal volume of water. Natural Fibers Cotton 1.52 7-11 Flax 1.52 12 Silk 1.25 11 Wool 1.32 13-18 Man-made Fibers Acetate 1.32 6.0 Arnel Triacrylic 3.2 Acrylic 1.17-1.18 1.3-2.5 Aramid 1.38-1.44 4.5 Flurocarbon 2.20 0 Glass 2.49-2.73 0-0.3 Modacrylic 1.30-1.37 0.4-4.0 Nylon 1.14 4.0-4.5 Nylon Qiana 1.03 2.5 Olefin 0.91 0.01-0.1 Polyester 1.22/1.38 0.4-0.8 Rayon 1.50-1.52 15 Rayon HWM 11.5-13 Spandex 1.20-1.22 0.75-1.3
Chemical composition of some common fibers Type of fiber Cellulose Lignin Pentosan Ash Seed flax 43-47 21-23 24-26 5 Kenaf (Bast) 44-57 15-19 22-23 2-5 Jute (Bast) 45-63 21-26 18-21 0.5-2 Hemp 57-77 9-13 14-17 0.8 Ramie 87-91 5-8 Kenaf (Core) 37-49 15-21 18-24 0.8 Jute (Core) 41-48 21-24 18-22 Abaca 56-63 7-9 15-17 1-3 Sisal 43-62 7-9 21-24 0.6-1 Cotton 85-96 0.7-1.6 1-3 0.8-2
Diameter of Natural and Meltblown Fibers Diameter Mean Value (microns) Coeff Variation (%) 3.57 12.90 25.50 13.30 16.20 13.80 14.8 24.8 25.6 2.4 3.1 6.1
Material Spider silk B. mori Silk Merino Wool Polyester Nylon 6 Filament Kevlar 29
Effects of Acids on Common Fibers - Comparison Fiber Effects of Acids Acrylic Resistant to most acids Modacrylic Resistant to most acids Polyester Resistant to most mineral acids disintegrated by 96% sulhric Rayon Disintegrates in hot dilute and cold concentrated acids Acetate Soluble in acetic acid, decomposed by strong acids Triacetate Similar to acetate Nylon 66 Decomposed by strong mineral acids, resistant to weak acids Olefin Very resistant Glass Resists most acids. Etched by hydrofluoric acid and hot phosphoric acid Cotton Similar to rayon Wool Destroyed by hot sulfuric, otherwise unaffected by acids
Effects of Alkalies on Common Fibers - Comparison Fiber Effects of Alkalies Acrylic Destroyed by strong alkalies at a boil, resists weak alkalies Modacrylic Resistant to alkalies Polyester Resistant to cold alkalies, slowly decomposed at a boil by strong alkalies Rayon No effect by cold, weak alkalies, swells and loses strength in concentrated alkalies Acetate Saponified, little effect from cold weak alkalies Triacetate Not effected up to pH 9.8,205' F; better than acetate Nylon 66 Little or no effect Olefin Very resistant Glass Attacked by hot weak alkalies and concentrated alkalies Cotton Swells when treated with caustic soda but is not damaged Wool Attacked by weak alkalies, destroyed by strong alkalies
Effects of Organic Solvents on Common Fibers - Comparison Fiber Effects of Organic Solvents Acrylic Unaffected Modacrylic Soluble in warm acetone, otherwise unaffected Polyester Soluble in some phenolic compounds, otherwise unaffected Rayon Unaffected Acetate Soluble in acetone, dissolved or swollen by many others Triacetate Soluble in acetone, chloroform and swollen by others Nylon 66 Generally unaffected, soluble in some phenolic compounds Olefin Soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons above 160' Glass Unaffected Cotton Resistant Wool Generally resistant
Effects of Sunlight on Common Fibers - Comparison Fiber Effects of Sunlight Acrylic Little or no effect Modacrylic Highly resistant, some loss of strength and discoloration after constant exposure Polyester Some loss of strength, no discoloration, very resistant behind glass Rayon Generally resistant, loses strength after long exposure Acetate Approximately same as rayon Triacetate Resistant, loses strength after long exposure Nylon 66 No discoloration, strength loss after long exposure Olefin Very resistant, retains 95% strength after 6 months exposure Glass None Cotton Strength loss on long exposure Wool Strength loss, dyeing is affected
Natural Fibres - fibres from the nature

All fibres which come from natural sources (animals, plants, etc.) and do not require fibre formation or reformation are classed as natural fibres. The natural fibres are vegetable, animal, or mineral in origin. Some of the natural fibres like vegetable fibres are obtained from the various parts of the plants. They are provided by nature in ready-made form. It include the protein fibres such as wool and silk, the cellulose fibres such as cotton and linen, and the mineral fibre asbestos.
Textile fibers are normally broken down into two main classes, natural and man-made fibers. All fibers which come from natural sources (animals, plants, etc.) and do not require fiber formation or reformation are classed as natural fibers. Natural plant and animal fibres have provided the raw materials to meet our fibre needs. No matter which climatic zone humans settled, they were able to utilize the fibres of native species to make products such as clothes, buildings and cordage. The use of composite materials dates from centuries ago and it all started with natural fibres. Natural fibre is any hair like raw material directly obtainable from animals, vegetables or mineral source and convertible into nonwoven fabrics such as felt or after spinning into yarns or woven cloth. Natural fibres from vegetable fibres are obtained from the various parts of the plants. These fibres are classified into three categories depending on the part of the plant from which they are extracted. Those three categories are bast or stem fibres (jute, mesta, banana etc.), leaf fibres (sisal, pineapple, screw pine etc.) seed fibres (cotton, coir, old palm etc.). Many of the plant fibres such as coir, sisal, jute, banana, pineapple and hemp find applications as a resource for industrial materials. Properties of natural fibres depend mainly on the nature of the plant, locality in which it is grown, age of the plant, and the extraction method used. A natural fibre also may be further defined as a agglomeration of cells in which the diameter is negligible in comparison with the length. In some applications, natural fibres are replacing glass fibres in reinforced polymers, where the tensile strength of the fibre is not as important as the specific stiffness. Natural fibre reinforced polymers are generally restricted for use in non-structural products. In contrast, fibers from natural sources are provided by nature in ready-made form. Natural fibers include the protein fibers such as wool and silk, the cellulose fibers such as cotton and linen, and the mineral fiber asbestos. Plant fibers can be further on classified as: Fibre occurring on the seed (raw cotton, java cotton) Phloem fiber (flax, ramie, hemp, jute) Tendon fibre from stem or leaves (manila hemp, sisal hemp etc) Fibre occurring around the trunk (hemp palm)
Fibre of fruit/ nut shells (coconut fibre Coir)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Fibres

Advantages Producible with low investment at low cost, which makes the material an interesting product for low-wage countries. Thermal recycling is possible, where glass causes problems in combustion furnaces. Low specific weight, which results in a higher specific strength and stiffness than glass. This is a benefit especially in parts designed for bending stiffness It is a renewable resource, the production requires little energy, CO2 is used while oxygen is given back to the environment. Disadvantages
Price can fluctuate by harvest results or agricultural politics. Lower durability, fibre treatments can improve this considerably. Moisture absorption, which causes swelling of the fibres. Lower strength properties, particularly its
Cotton
Cotton today is the most used textile fiber in the world. Its current market share is 56 percent for all fibers used for apparel and home furnishings and sold in the U.S. Another contribution is attributed to nonwoven textiles and personal care items. The earliest evidence of using cotton is from India and the date assigned to this fabric is 3000 B.C. There were also excavations of cotton fabrics of comparable age in Southern America. Cotton cultivation first spread from India to Egypt, China and the South Pacific. Cotton is a soft, staple fiber that grows in a form known as a boll around the seeds of the cotton plant, a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, India and Africa. The fiber most often is spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathabletextile, which is the most widely, used natural-fiber cloth in clothing today. The English name derives from the Arabic (al) qutn , which began to be used circa 1400. Each cotton fiber is composed of concentric layers. The cuticle layer on the fiber itself is separable from the fiber and consists of wax and pectin materials. Properties of Cotton
Cotton is a soft fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant. Cotton fibre grows in the seed pod or boll of the cotton plant. Each fibre is a single elongated cell that is flat twisted and ribbon like with a wide inner hollow (lumen). 90% cellulose, 6% moisture and the remainder fats and impurities The outer surface is covered with a protective wax like coating which gives fibre an adhesive quality
Cotton is a natural fiber that is grown in countries around the world. It is a crop that requires adequate moisture and heat to mature and produce quality fibers. Cotton growing tends to be in warmer climates. Cotton is a true commodity in the world markets and supply and demand truly affect prices of raw cotton. Cotton fibers are mainly made up of cellulose. Cellulose does not form unless temperatures are over 70 F (21 C). The cotton fibers are attached to the seeds inside the boll of the plant. There are usually six or seven seeds in a boll and up to 20,000 f ibers attached to each seed. The length of these fibers (also called staples) is the main determining factor in the quality of the cotton. In general, the longer the staple grows the higher the quality of the cotton. Staple lengths are divided into short, medium, and long (and extra long, in some cases): Short staple cotton is between 3/8 to 15/16 (.95cm to 2.4cm) in length Medium staple cotton is between 1 to 1-1/8 (2.54cm to 2.86cm) in length Long staple cotton is between 1-3/16 to 2-1/2 (3cm to 6.35cm) in length
Properties of Cotton Products Comfortable there are no surface characteristics of cotton that make it irritating to human skin. Cotton feels good against skin; it has a soft hand. Hydrophilic cotton has a natural affinity for water it attracts moisture away from your body. Moisture passes freely through cotton aiding in evaporation and cooling Good Heat Conductivity Cotton allows heat to dissipate making it a wonderful fiber to maintain a comfortable sleeping temperature. Strong and abrasion resistance The unfavorable attributes of cotton include its lack of resiliency (cotton tends to wrinkle) and its lack of luster (colors are usually dull).
Properties of Cotton Fiber It has 8% moisture regain The cellulose is arranged in a way that gives cotton unique properties of strength, durability, and absorbency It is fresh, crisp, comfortable, absorbent, flexible, has no pilling problems and has good resistance to alkalis It has poor wrinkle resistance, shrinkage, poor acid resistance, less abrasion resistance, susceptible to damage by moths and mildew, needs lots of maintenance and stains are difficult to remove Its fibre length ranges from inches to 2inches It has 10%increase in strength when wet. It has a flat twisted tube shap
Long Staple Cotton In general, long staple cottons are needed to spin the yarns needed in the weaving of the finer down proof cotton fabrics. Long staple cottons are considered to be finer quality because they can be spun into finer yarns and those finer yarns can be woven in to softer, smoother, stronger, and more lustrous fabrics. Long staple cottons make stronger yarns, especially in fine yarns, as there are less fibers in a given length of yarn and the longer fibers provide more points of contact between the fibers when they are twisted together in the spinning process. Common areas that grow long staple cottons in the world would be Egypt, Sudan, the United States (Pima cottons grown in the west and southwest are long staple cottons), and Western China. The two most widely known long staple cottons are Egyptian cotton and Pima cotton. Pima cottons are grown mainly in the United States, but also in Peru, Israel, and Australia. The fibers are sent to a textile mill where carding machines turn the fibers into cotton yarn. The yarns are woven into cloth that is comfortable and easy to wash but does wrinkle easily. Cotton fabric will shrink about 3% when washed unless pre-treated to resist shrinking. Cotton is prized for its comfort, easy care, and affordability and is ideal for clothing, bedding, towels, and furnishings.
Classing Cotton Cotton buyers judge cotton on the basis of samples cut from the bales. Skilled cotton classers grade or "class" the cotton according to standards established by the US Department of Agriculture such as cleanliness, degree of whiteness, length of fiber, and fiber strength.
The classers pull a sample. They discard most of the cotton until just a pinch of well-aligned fibers remains. They measure the length of the fibers, referred to as staple fibers. Longer staple fibers are higher-grade cotton and are sold at higher prices. Long staples range from 1.1 inches to 1.4 inches long.
Harvesting Cotton was once harvested by hand, often by slave labor or tenant farmers. As recently as 1965, over a fourth of the U.S. cotton crop was picked by hand. Today, harvesting cotton is highly mechanized. Harvesting machines called strippers and pickers efficiently remove the cotton, while leaving the plants undisturbed. Spindle harvester, also called a picker, has drums with spindles that pull the cotton from the boll in one or two rows at a time. Even a one row mechanical picker can do the work formerly done by 40 hand pickers. In stripper harvesting, the stripper moves along rows of plants, passing them between revolving rollers or brushes that pull off the cotton. Strippers also pull twigs and leaves with the cotton. Cotton gins separate the fibers, called lint, from the seeds. After ginning, the cotton goes to the bale press that packs it into 480 pound bales about the size of a large refrigerator.
Cotton Ginning From the field, seed cotton moves to nearby gins for separation of lint and seed. The cotton first goes through dryers to reduce moisture content and then through cleaning equipment to remove foreign matter. These operations facilitate processing and improve fiber quality. The cotton is then air conveyed to gin stands where revolving circular saws pull the lint through closely spaced ribs that prevent the seed from passing through. The lint is removed from the saw teeth by air blasts or rotating brushes, and then compressed into bales weighing approximately 500 pounds. Cotton is then moved to a warehouse for storage until it is shipped to a textile mill for use. A typical gin will process about 12 bales per hour, while some of todays more modern gins may process as many as 60 bales an hour.
Ginning Process Flowchart
Kapok Fibers
Kapok fiber is one of the natural cellulostic fibers which grow on the kapok plant. It has a hollow body and a sealed tail, which are desirable features of candidates for functional textiles of this nature. However, the low volume weight of kapok is (specific density 0.29g/cm3), and the short length and smooth surface of the fibers, causing poor inter-fiber cohesion, have prevented kapok from being processed by modern spinning machines. Kapok are silky fibers that clothe the seeds of the ceiba tree of the family Bombacaseae. Kapok fibers have rich oiliness and do not have high strength and, therefore cannot be spun economically. It is conventionally used as a stuffing, especially for life preservers, bedding, and upholstery, and for insulation against sound and heat. The Kapok fiber has a hollow structure with external radius around 8.25 (4) _m, internal diameter around 7.25 (4) _m, and length around 25 (5) mm. Combined with the specific material density of 1.3 g/cm3 , large pore volume in Kapok assembly is available for NAPL sorption. Typical analyses indicate that the Kapok fibers comprise 64% cellulose, 13% lignin and 23% pentosan. Besides these constituents, they also contain wax cutin on the fiber surface which makes them water repellent notwithstanding they are preponderantly composed of cellulose Kapok Tree
The Kapok tree is a deciduous tree that can be found in the forests of Asia and Middle America. It grows up to 70m and it has capsular fruits, which are picked and opened by hand. The fibers of the fruits are air-dried and not treated with chemicals. Kapok is a natural fiber that is completely biodegradable. The natural bitter constituents of the Kapok fiber are anti-bacterial and anti-microbial therefore Moths, mites and other microorganisms cannot infest the toy.
Kapok Fiber Usage
Kapok finds use in bedding and upholstery industries, in the production of life-saving equipment, and in the construction of thermally insulated and soundproof covers and walls. On account of its buoyancy, freedom from water-logging and weight-bearing capacity, it is the material par excellence for the manufacture of lifebuoys and belts, waistcoats and other naval life-saving appliances. The buoyancy of kapok is about five times as great as that of cork and about three times that of reindeer hair. During the war, kapok was employed for insulating tanks, for lining aviation suits, for filling floats of army assault-bridges, and generally for replacing cork wherever lightness, moistureresistance and floating power were needed. The kapok fiber once used in floatation vests and has been used as building insulation has a hollow fiber and looks like glass fiber under the microscope. The hollow fiber has air inside allowing combustion deep inside the material. Smoldering fire and open flame travel quickly within the material. Kapok was considered unsuitable for textile purposes, because the fibre is brittle, smooth and slippery. Refined kapok seed oil is used for the same purposes as refined cottonseed oil. The wood is light and soft and is suitable for making canoes and toys. It is used for matches. The root bark yields a fibre.
Kapok Fiber characteristics comparison with others Kapok fibre is light, brittle, elastic, lustrous and white or pale yellow in colour. Individual fibres are cylindrical, each being a single cell with a bulbous base. The cells of the inner epidermis of the epicarp form the fibres, which are about 1-2 cm long. The air-filled lumen is broad and the wall rather thin. The fibre is, therefore, fragile, which together with smoothness of the outer surface, makes spinning impossible. Characteristics Kapok Cotton Air Average linear density 0.064tex 0.12tex Average diameter 20.5m 14m Average length 20mm 48mm Moisture regain 10% 8~13% Mass density 1.17kg/m3 Thickness 1mm Specific heat 1027Ws/kgK Conductivity 0.026
Coir Fiber
Coir or coconut fibre belongs to the group of hard structural fibres. It is an important commercial product obtained from the husk of the coconut. Industries based on coir have developed in many coconut producing countries especially India, Tanzania, Kenya, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Ghana etc. In India, coir manufacture is a traditional industry, which has taken deep roots in the economic structure of the rural areas in the coastal states. The industry sustains over half a million people and contributes substantial foreign exchange to the national exchequer. India was ranked first among the coconut producing countries of the world until 1921, since then, the position has changed. Indonesia and Philippines have increased their production and India now occupies a third place. These three countries together account nearly 65 percent of the world production (4.5 m mt) out of which Indias share is about 25 percent. Harvesting and Processing The fruits are harvested when still green to obtain the best quality coir. Husk usually forms 35.45 percent of the weight of the whole nut, when ripe. Husks from ten to eleven month old nuts have been found to give superior quality fibre possessing a golden yellow colour. The fibre from the husk is extracted on a commercial scale, either by natural retting process or by mechanical decortication. Natural Retting The process involves soaking of the husks in water preferably saline water for a certain period until the fibre becomes loose and soft. The soaking is done either in pits dug near lagoons or by the sides of backwaters where water flows in and out with the rise and fall of the tide.In some areas soaking is done in enclosures erected in shallow brackish waters with coconut leaves and petioles. After the husks are filled in the soaking pits, nets or enclosures, they are covered with coconut leaves and mud and weighted down to prevent floatation when immersed in water. During the retting process, the husk becomes soft and a number of substances like carbohydrates, glycosides, tannins and nitrogen compounds are brought into solution. The carbohydrates and nitrogen compounds are acted upon by a great variety of anaerobic organisms, which produce various organic acids and gas. When the fermentation progresses, the temperature of the husk increases, water becomes turbid due to gas formation and frothing, and the pectin in the middle lamella of the husk slowly dissolves subsequently, the rate of fermentation slows done and the water becomes clear without the evolution of gases and the consequent frothing. At this stage, the husks are ready for removal. The period of retting is longer (8-10 months) in saline water and shorter (4-6 months) in fresh water. Mechanical Methods Mechanical methods of retting are employed in areas where facilities for natural retting do not exist. Either dry or green husks are soaked in cement tanks for a period varying from a few hours to three weeks and the fibre extracted manually or mechanically. In one method, the husks are first crushed through a series of corrugated iron rollers, a machine called husk crusher. Then the husks are thrown into a retting tank where they undergo fermentation for a minimum period of 72 hours. This process, however, does not yield fibre of spinnable quality as in the case of natural retting, but yields only bristles and mattress fibres. Chemical Methods Various chemical methods have also been developed for the retting of husk. The advantages claimed includes higher yield of uniform quality fibre and a considerable saving of time. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Nanji Process. The green or dry husks are partially crushed and treated under steam pressure of 36.4-45.4 kg/sq. inch. With sodium sulphate or sodium carbonate containing traces of aluminium sulphate for 1-2 hours . During this process the pith is loosened from the fibre and removed by washing. The fibre obtained is of good quality but slightly darker than that of natural retting. Elod and Thomas Process. The crushed husks are immersed in hot water twice. Slaked lime or similar substance is added during the second immersion in order to avoid discolouration. Subsequently, the fibre is extracted mechanically. Rowel Process. The crushed husks are subjected to a high steam pressure and the fibre come out loose from the steaming chambers. Vander Jaget Process. The husks are first split into pieces. The pieces are than boiled with a weak solution of caustic-soda and squeezed. The compressed fibres are reopened, softened and cleaned. It is claimed that good quality fibre could be produced using this technique in less than two hours. Caraan Process. The husk is fermented for four days at 37C with the aid of the fungus Aspergillus sp., previously isolated from partially retted husks. This process is reported to give 37 percent fibre output.
Extraction of Fibre After retting, the husks are taken out of water and washed. Outer skin peeled of, placed on wooden blocks and beaten with a wooden mallet for separating the fibres from the pith. After fibres are separated from the pith, these are cleaned and then spread on shade for drying. The fibres spread for drying are occasionally beaten and tossed up with poles to remove the remnants of pith and impurities still adhering to the fibre. For making superior types of fibre, especially for spinning, improved methods exist. It is estimated that the annual production of coir in India nearly amounts to 1 m mt. Three classes of fibre are recognized in the trade. They are Mat, Curl (toe or mattress)and Bristle fibre. The bulk of fibre produced in the west coast of India is mat fibre. Mat fibre is sometimes used as a substitute for hemp in certain cordages. Curl fibre is obtained mostly from unretted husk and is short; it is used for mattresses or for stuffing upholstery, cushions etc. Bristle fibre, which is coarse and thick, is used for making brushes, and brooms. Bristle fibre is not produced in India, but mostly imported from Sri Lanka. Fibre Structure Individual fibres are 0.3-1.0 mm long and 0.01-0.0.2 mm in diameter; the ratio of length to diameter being 35. The lumen is medium to large, polygonal-rounded, or elliptic. The vascular bundle is collateral and is surrounded by thick sclerenchymatous sheath. Lignin and hemicelluloses, which form the cementing materials of fibre cells, increase with the age of the fibre and the pectin decreases. As the lignin content increases, the fibre becomes stiffer and tougher. Length of the fibre determines its spinnability and commercial utility. Spinnability may be defined as the ease with which textile fibres may be twisted into continuous, uniform yarns, having commercially acceptable properties. Fineness of a fibre is usually expressed by its diameter in microns or by the weight of the fibre per unit length- dinier. The compactness and strength of a yarn or cord depends on the cohesion between individual fibres. Strength or tensile strength of a fibre is determined by its ability to resist strain or rupture induced by tension , and is a determining factor in the selection of a fibre. Elongation at rupture is a criterion of practical value and is an index of the work that could be performed by the fibre within the limits of its breaking load. Torsional rigidity. Stresses in the fibre due to twisting and bending or important factors which affect the diameter of the yarn, its ability to snarl, its pliability and elastic recovery from small strains and internal pressures.
The chemical composition of coconut husk and coir fibre: Properties Total water solubles Pectins etc. soluble in boiling water Hemi-celluloses Lignin Cellulose Percentage 26.00 14.25 8.50 29.23 23.81
Coir fiber is classified according to its length. Following lengths are commonly visible Long fibres (15 cms. And above) Medium ( 12-15 cms.) Short ( 6-8 cms.) Very short (4 cms.)
Deterioration
Coir has been found to be remarkably resistant to both fungal and bacterial decomposition.
Spinning Spinning of coir yarn is mainly a cottage industry in India and abroad. It is produced either by wheel spinning or hand spinning or mechanized spinning. Handspun yarn is soft and the twist and thickness are even. Wheel spun yarn has a hard twist; it is stronger and more uniform in size and twist than handspun yarn. The classification of coir yarn is based on variations of color, twist, pitch, scorage etc. and also area of production like; Anjengo, Aratony, Alapat, Beach, Rope yarn, Parur, Muppiri etc. Weaving Coir yarn is treated with dilute solution of sulphuric acid, which improves its colour and gives a certain amount of brightness for the production of mats, Coir mats, fibre mats, speciality mats, Mattings, rugs, mourzouks, carpets etc. Dyeing and Printing Colour and design play an important part in the marketing of coir products. Dyed yarn is exported to Australia for the manufacture of matting. The following dye stuffs are employed in coir dyeing. Chrysodin YS, Bismarck Brown, Methyl Violet, Malachite Green, Magenta, Naphthalene orange, Naphthalene Red, Naphthalene Green etc. Ropes & Cordages
Coir is resistant to the action of water and has the property of elongation without breaking. By virtue of these properties, coir has long been used for ropes and cordages. Very short (4 cms.)
Uses of Coir Besides its main use as floor covering and in rope making, coir fibre finds extensive use as packaging material to protect goods against shock in transport. Coir fibre finds its use in the production of activated carbon, artificial horse hair, paper pulp, roofing tiles, writing boards, thermal insulations, high stretch paper, manufacture of olive oil filters etc. In Germany, coir is rubberized for making cushion seating for automobiles and railways. The rubberization is brought about by Splashing layers of coir fibre and rubber with the help of a specialized machine. Coir yarn has been found to be ideal lead for hop wines which is used in brewery in U.S.A Coir bags are used in tea estates for collecting tea leaves and for transportation: and also for lifting coal from mines. Coir yarn is used for making fenders which are attached to ships and boats for preventing collision and shock. Coir mats are used for commercial packaging purposes and circular brush mats are used for packing. Coir mattings after bituminisation offer possibilities of being used as floor covering in godowns to withstand moisture adsorption by stored goods. Rubber backed coir mats are sol-proof, sound absorbent and do not scratch polished floor. Heavy matting made out of thick coir rope is being used for transporting gas cylinder. It is used as a strainer in tube wells in place of wire mesh. Hardboards made of coconut husk shorts and coir dusts are durable, smooth, insect proof, fire retarding and water-repellent. They may be sawed, nailed, glued and finished into particular requirement. Coir waste has been recently used in the manufacture of Coirolite by incorporating with resins and other ingredients by the usual techniques of plastics manufacture. The powder so obtained is hotpressed to obtain articles of any shape using appropriate moulds. It is a tough and hard material and possesses good strength and electrical resistance.
Banana Fiber
Banana fiber, a ligno-cellulosic fiber, obtained from the pseudo-stem of banana plant (Musa sepientum), is a bast fiber with relatively good mechanical properties. Plant fibers are schlerenchymatous cells with heavily lignified cell walls having a narrow lumen in cross section. Fiber cells are dead at maturity and serve as a support tissue. Natural fibers possess several advantages over synthetic fibers such as low density, appropriate stiffness and mechanical properties and also high disposability and renewability. Also, they are recyclable and biodegradable. Banana fibers can be used for various purposes such as in textile, paper or handicrafts industry. Banana paper is versatile as it is waterproof and stronger than wood-pulp paper, meaning it can be used in packaging and even as a basis for building materials.
Hemp
Hemp belongs to the Angiosperm phylum since it has vessel elements in the woody core (xylem) like hardwood. It belongs to the eudicotyledons like hardwoods, numerous bushes and herbs, since it has two cotyledons (i.e. seed leaves). The long and flexible hemp fibres are embedded in the bark (cortex) on the surface of the stem. Hemp originates from Central Asia but can be cultivated from the Equator to the polar circle.
Hemp Fiber One of the reasons hemp fiber has been valued is because of its length. The primary bast fibers in the bark are 540 mm long, and are amalgamated in fiber bundles which can be 15 m long (secondary bast fibers are about 2 mm long). The woody core fibers are short about 0.55 mmand like hardwood fibers are ce- mented together with considerable lignin. The core fibers are generally considered too short for high grade paper applications (a length of 3 mm is considered ideal), and too much lignin is present. While the long bast fibers have been used to make paper almost for 2 millennia, the woody core fibers have rarely been so used. Other desirable features of hemp fibers are strength and durability (particularly resistance to decay), which made hemp useful in the past for rope, nets, sail-cloth, and oakum for caulking. During the age of sailing ships, Cannabis was considered to provide the very best of canvas, and indeed this word is derived from Cannabis.
The hemp fibres are present in bundles as long as the stems, which can easily be peeled off the xylem surface by hand or machine. The fresh stem consists of a hollow cylinder of 1-5 mm thick xylem covered by 10-50 m cambium, 100-300 m cortex, 20-100 m epidermis and 2-5 m cuticle. The pith is empty space in dry stems.
Hemp Plant Highly selected forms of the fiber cultigen possess features maximizing fiber production. Since the nodes tend to disrupt the length of the fiber bundles, thereby limiting quality, tall, relatively unbranched plants with long internodes have been selected. Another strategy has been to select stems that are hollow at the internodes, with limited wood, since this maximizes production of fiber in relation to supporting woody tissues. Similarly, limited seed productivity concentrates the plants energy into production of fiber, and fiber cultivars often have low genetic propensity for seed output. Selecting monoecious strains overcomes the problem of differential maturation times and quality of male (staminate) and female (pistillate) plants (males mature 13 weeks earlier). Male plants in general are taller, albeit slimmer, less robust, and less productive. Except for the troublesome characteristic of dying after anthesis, male traits are favored for fiber production, in contrast to the situation for drug strains noted below. In former, labor-intensive times, the male plants were harvested earlier than the females, to produce superior fiber. The limited branching of fiber cultivars is often compensated for by possession of large leaves with wide leaflets, which obviously increase the photosynthetic ability of the plants. Since fiber plants have not generally been selected for narcotic purposes, the level of intoxicating constituents is usually limited. Typical architecture of categories of cultivated Cannabis sativa. Narcotic plants are generally low, highly branched, and grown well-spaced. Plants grown for oilseed were traditionally well-spaced, and the plants developed medium height and strong branching. Fiber cultivars are grown at high density, and are unbranched and very tall. Dual purpose plants are grown at moderate density, tend to be slightly branched and of medium to tall height. Some recent oilseed cultivars are grown at moderate density and are short and relatively unbranched. Degree of branching and height are determined both by the density of the plants and their genetic background.
Fiber Processing Unlike flax, hemp long fiber requires water retting for preparation of high-quality spinnable fibers for production of fine textiles. Improved microorganisms or enzymes could aug- ment or replace traditional water retting. Steam explosion is another potential technology that has been experimentally applied to hemp. The traditional procedure for production of fibres from hemp is field retting, a natural process which results in fibres of variable quality due to differences in weather conditions. During this process fungi and yeasts colonise the hemp and produce polysaccharide-degrading enzymes, which macerate and disrupt the parenchyma cells. This process can be replaced with the more controllable water retting procedure in which the plant stems are placed in tanks with 30-40C hot water for 4 days. After retting, the woody core is broken into small pieces that can be separated from the fibres by decortification. This is industrially done with pairs of rotating rollers, which crush the shives. In lab-scale, the fibres are isolated with hand peeling. The extracted fibres are in the form of large fibre bundles useful in non-woven fibre mats, which are made by air-drying and needle punching with uncontrolled and thereby random fibre orientation. Production of aligned fibre assemblies can also be done at laboratory scale by combing the fibres in water, stretching them and air-drying them. Defibration During water retting, the hemp bast is separated into large fibre bundles. Additional treatment is required to defibrate the fibre bundles into single fibres and small fibre bundles useful for production of hemp yarn. It is done by degradation or disruption of the middle lamellae between the single fibres. Enzyme treatment, wet oxidation and NaOH treatment can degrade pectin and lignin in the middle lamellae between the single fibres.
Yarn Formation The retted fibre bundles of 0.5-2 m length are traditionally used directly for production of yarn for rope production. First hackling is done in two steps to straighten the fibres and remove short disordered fibres with a metal-pinned brush; this results in a sliver of parallel fibres useful for spinning. At industrial scale, the hackling is performed using metal-pinned brushes and rotating rollers to pull the fibres forward. This technique is basically also used to make sliver of shorter fibres like flax fibres. By manual yarn spinning, some fibres from the sliver are mounted on a rotating hook. The fibres are stretched during the twisting process and more fibres are added, while the hand is moved backward to elongate the spun amount of yarn and keep a constant yarn thickness. At industrial scale, the stretching part of this process is called drafting. In drafting, the fibres become straightened by passing the sliver through a series of rollers with increasing rotational speed in the forward direction. The drafting process elongates the thick sections of the filament so they get the same thickness as the thinner sections, resulting in a uniform sliver ready for spinning. The most common spinning method is ring spinning, in which slivers delivered from the drafting rollers become twisted by the traveller that is freely rotating on a ring. The ring distributes the yarn onto a rotating bobbin. Each traveller rotation introduces one twist. Increased delivering speed from the drafting rollers decreases the number of twists per length. The twisting forces the fibres to take a helical structure and results in inherent sliding friction between the fibres and in axial strength in the yarn. The produced yarn can be wound on a metal frame to get aligned fibre assemblies, ready for composite production.
Hemp Product Usages Hemp paper is useful for specialty applications such as currency and cigarette papers where strength is needed. The bast fiber is of greatest interest to the pulp and paper industry because of its superior strength properties compared to wood. However, the short, bulky fibers found in the inner part of the plant (hurds) can also be used to make cheaper grades of paper, apparently without greatly affecting quality of the printing surface. Hemp is not competitive for newsprint, books, writing papers, and general paper (grocery bags, cof- fee cups, napkins), although there is a specialty or novelty market for those specifically wishing to support the hemp industry by purchasing hemp writing or printing paper despite the premium price. Specialty pulp (cigarette paper, bank notes, technical filters, and hygiene products) Composites for autos Construction & thermal insulation materials Geotextiles Fiberboard Cement (Concrete) and Plaster
Alpaca Fiber
Alpaca fiber is a specialty fiber and comes in a variety of different colors. It is five times warmer and more durable than sheep wool fiber. It is also lightweight and contains no oils or lanolin. Fibers contain microscopic air pockets giving it lightness high thermal capacity. Typically fiber quality is judged on fineness, length, fiber type, medullation, and tensile strength. Breeding, nutrition, and management can influence all these characteristics. Alpaca fleece grows approximately five to 10 inches each year and can weigh anywhere from one to eight pounds from a mature animal. The suri alpaca fiber has unique fiber characteristics growing parallel to the body and hang in long, non-crimped pencil locks, making them look as if they have dreadlocks. Suri fiber is lustrous, soft, and has been compared to cashmere. It is durable and warm, far more so than sheep wool. The huacaya alpaca fiber is dense, crimped and wooly in appearance. This gives them a soft, huggable, teddy-bear like look and makes them overwhelmingly popular in the industry. While not as rare as the suri fiber, they still produce a highly-prized fleece. Alpacas are fiber producing animals. Alpaca fiber is one of the finest animal fibers in the world. It is comparable to mohair, cashmere and other rare fibers. The fiber is very soft, light and warm without the prickle of sheeps wool. The fibers are semi-hollow; giving Alpaca fiber added insulating value. Alpacas have one of the finest hands of any natural fleece. Alpacas are shorn annually in the spring and produce on average 4 lbs of fiber. The fiber sells retail in the U.S. Cottage Industry between $2.00 & $3.00 per ounce. The first fleece or baby fleece is the finest, softest fleece the animal will produce and the mostly highly prized and expensive. Alpacas lack the natural body oils produced by most animals. For processing these oils are often washed out with chemicals or harsh soaps. This washing process and the natural oils can make it unbearable for some people to wear traditional sheeps wool. Alpacas have a single coat which lacks guard hairs. Guard hairs are coarser than the soft undercoat which they are designed to protect. Alpaca fiber is very soft and can be worn next to the skin without irritation. Alpacas board range of natural colors eliminates the need to dye. These colors come in different shades of white, fawn, brown, grey, black and many in-between colors. These attributes make Alpaca fiber a highly sought after product. In the breeding market some colors are rarer than others. For generations the South American culture has been drawn to bright colors which are not found in livestock naturally. This requires dyeing, thus a white fleece producing animal has been the standard. Today in the U.S. Alpacas of a rare color bring higher prices. There are many outlets for Alpaca Fiber. The highest price is brought in the Hand-spinners market. Some of the U.S. Alpaca fiber is sent through the North American Alpaca Fiber Co-op to South American for processing and sent back to the U.S. in yarn and finished goods. There are several small regional co-ops being created to deal with the growing amount of North American Fiber. They are beginning to produce some fine Alpaca products from fiber grown in the U.S. and products produced here in the U.S. There are some small processors in the U.S. working with Alpaca fiber and the number grows annually. The U.S., Italy, and Japan are the largest consumers of Alpaca fiber. Italy has long used the fiber in its fine clothing which it sells to the upper class. Tipper Gore wore an alpaca suit to the 1997 inauguration. In 1999 the associated press of Australia published an internet post stating that the economic crisis in Asia has not hurt the alpaca fiber market in Japan. Fiber Grading Super Fine Cria - Is from the Prime area of an Alpaca under one year old. Normally used in very fine and soft shawls and knitting yarn. Very soft with medium staple length (2-4 inches). Prime (sometimes called blanket) - Comes from the area of an Alpaca where a horse blanket would fit. Typically the finest fleece from an adult alpaca. Soft with long staple length. Typically used in blankets, afghans and sweaters. (3-7 inches). Seconds - Similar or slightly coarser to prime with shorter staple length. Used to produce Socks, Gloves Hats and Scarves (2-5 inches). Thirds - Coarsest of all alpaca fiber with varying staple length. Used to make braided rugs, baskets and show leads ( 1 inch or longer).
Qiviut
The soft brownish underhair of the muskox is called qiviut. The qiviut of the muskox is perhaps the finest wool in the world. It is stronger than sheeps wool and eight times warmer. It is finer and softer than cashmere. Qiviut is spun into wool and used to make warm woolen clothing, hats, scarves and mitts. It is very valuable. Qiviut can be collected on the range of muskox during the spring and summer, when the muskox shed their coats. The wool becomes attached to bushes as the muskox walk by. Inuit on Nunivak Island, in Alaska, collect the naturally shed wool clinging to bushes and tundra plants, and spin it by hand. Using large captive herds for qiviut production is under study. Muskox domestication projects have been tried in several places Qiviut Fibers Qiviut, pronounced kiv-ee-ute, is one of the finest natural fibres obtainable. Qiviut is the downy-soft underside wool from the arctic musk ox - oomingmak - umimmak in Greenlandic. Eight times warmer than wool and finer than cashmere, qiviut is hypoallergenic and will not shrink. Extremely rare, it is one of the most luxurious fibers you can choose for a garment. In contrast to wool, qiviut is soft, non-irritating to the skin, and is very durable. Qiviut garments are worn for years and can be hand washed in mild detergent. It does not shed, is odorless and retains warmth even when wet. It is an extremely warm, yet lightweight fiber that preserves heat in the winter, while also providing cool, breathable comfort in warmer weather. Being so light, qiveut has a very elegant drape. If someone were to put a touch of qiveut fiber in your hand with your eyes closed, you would not feel the fibre touch your hand. Musk ox wool is proven to he the softest natural fibre in the world. Musk ox yarn does not crimp or felt. It is easy to care for, can be washed with mild shampoo or wool detergent. It responds well to dyeing. Follow are the characteristics of Qiviut fibers:
Extremly rare Unsurpassed warmth and softness Light as air Musk ox yarn is hypoallergenic Will not shrink or shed Odorless when wet Retains heat when wet Easily maintained
Every spring, muskoxen rapidly shed their qiviut in anticipation of warmer summer days. The downy wool is combed from the animals as it works its way through the long guard hairs. No shearing or clipping is necessary. Because shedding is fairly synchronous, large fleecy sheets of qiviut can be combed from the shoulder and flank areas of animals. Qiviut has been described as the cashmere of the north, and is considered by experienced spinners to combine several of the best fiber properties, such as fineness, length, strength and warmth. Qiviut lacks scales and crimp found in sheep wool, so it is very soft and non-irritating and it will not shrink or felt. These same qualities means care must be taken when selecting a project using qiviut. 100% qiviut tends to sag; it will not retain its shape as well as sheep wool. It is better suited forscarves and shawls. Blending in a small amount of fine sheep wool, such as merino, will add memory to a hat or sweater and yet will retain the wonderful softness and warmth of qiviut. Qiviut also blends well with other fibers such as alpaca, cashmere and silk. Musk ox yarns are used for: Shawls, sweaters, gloves, hats, scarves Hats, gloves or mittens
Silk - the Natural Protein Fiber

Silk fibers are produced from various types of ectodermal glands in the mites, spiders, and several groups of insects. Commercial silk is obtained from the cocoons spun by certain caterpillars (larvae of moths and butterflies) before pupation. Until the discovery of nylon and other synthetic fiber polymers, the silk of domestic silkworm, Bombyx mori, was an economically and, at the time of war, also strategically important commodity. Silk is an animal fibre, produced by caterpillars belonging to the genus Bombyx. A single silk filament is the product of a series of stages derived from the cultivation of mulberry trees for feed to the propagation of the domesticated silkworm, Bombyx mori. During the caterpillar phase, the worm wraps itself in a liquid protein secreted by two large glands in its head. This secreted protein hardens upon exposure to the air. The resulting filament is bonded by second secretion, sericin, which forms a solid sheath or cocoon. Under natural conditions, a moth eventually breaks through the cocoon. In sericulture, the larva is killed in the cocoon by steam or hot air in the chrysalis stage before its metamorphosis. Sustained heat processing softens the hardened sericin so that the filament can be unwound. The silk filament is a continuous thread of great strength measuring from 500-1500 metres in length. Single filaments are too thin for utilization. For production purposes, several filaments are combined with a slight twist into one strand. This process is known as "silk reeling or filature". Silk is a premium priced agricultural commodity, although its sheer volume is less than 1 percent of the market for natural textile fibres . The international demand for high quality silk has multiplied. Appropriate cocoon-drying techniques and reeling operations are vital to supply good quality silk. Silk Reeling Silk Reeling is the process by which a number of cocoon baves are reeled together to produce a single thread. This is achieved by unwinding filaments collectively from a group of cooked cocoons at one end in a warm water bath and winding the resultant thread onto a fast moving reel. Raw silk reeling may be classified by direct reeling method on a standard sized reel, indirect method of reeling on small reels, and the transfer of reeled silk from small reels onto standard sized reels on a re-reeling machine. The last technique is primarily applied in modern silk reeling processes. Hand Spinning Wheel This primitive spinning apparatus is operated by two hands - one to drive the wheel and the other to feed in cocoons. One end of the reeling thread is wound onto each wheel, while cocoons are boiled in a separate pot. Automatic Reeling Machine In raw silk production, the continuing increase of labour costs has mandated automation. Around 1950, the Automatic reeling machine, which controls the number of reeling cocoons per thread, was invented. Shortly thereafter, it was replaced by a second Automatic reeling machine, which could automatically control the size of the reeling thread. The Automatic reeling machine mechanizes the processes of groping ends, picking ends; cocoon feeding to reeling thread and separation of dropped end cocoons during the reeling process. The efficiency of the Automatic reeling machine compares favourable with the manual Multends reeling machine. The Automatic reeling machine though built to replace manual reeling, still requires manpower for problems with the reeling thread, which must be corrected by hand. A moderate amount of cooked cocoons are carried to the newly cooked cocoon feeder and then removed into the groping end part. The end groped cocoons go to the picking end part and the correctly picked end cocoons are dispensed to the cocoon supplying basket which continuously rotates around the reeling basin on an endless chain belt. Usually, the reeling method is classified into the fixed cocoon feeding system and moving cocoon-feeding system.
Physical Characteristics of Cocoon The silk glands of the Bombyx mori are structured like tubes consisting of a Posterior, Middle and Anterior section. The Posterior is long and thin. The Middle is short with a diameter measuring 3-4 mm. The Anterior is extremely thin, leading to the spinneret in the head of the larvae from which the silk is excreted. Description Color is a characteristic particular to the species. It is the presence of pigments in the sericin layers, which cause the colour. Color This colour is not permanent and washes away with the sericin during the degumming process . There are diverse hues of colour including but limited to white, yellow, yellowish green and golden yellow. Cocoon shape, as colour, is peculiar to the given species. Generally, the Japanese species is peanut-shaped, the Chinese Shape elliptical, European a longer elliptical and the polyvoltine species spindle-like in appearance. Hybrid cocoons assume a shape midway between the parents. The deflossed cocoon has many wrinkles on its surface. Wrinkles are coarser on the outer layer than within the interior Wrinkle layer. It is recognized that coarse wrinkled cocoons reel poorly. The most significant commercial feature of cocoons is weight. Cocoons are sold in the marketplace based on weight as this Cocoon Weight index signals the approximate quantity of raw silk that can be reeled. Pure breeds range from 2.2 to 1.5 g, while hybrid breeds weight from 1.8 to 2.5 g. The thickness of the cocoon shell is not constant and changes according to its three sections. The central constricted part of Thickness/ Weight the cocoon is the thickest segment, while the dimensions of the expanded portions of the head are 80 to 90 percent of the of Cocoon Shell central constricted . The weight of the silk shell is the most consequential factor as this measure forecasts raw silk yield. Cocoon hardness correlates to shell texture and is affected by cocoon spinning conditions. The degree of hardness also influences air and water permeability of cocoons during boiling. A hard shell typically reduces reelability (during the Hardness or Compactness cocoon reeling process), while a soft-shell may multiply raw silk defects. In short, moderate humidity is preferred for good quality cocoons. It is essential to quantify the ratio of the weight of the silk shell versus the weight of the cocoon. This value gives a satisfactory indication of the amount of raw silk that can be reeled from a given quantity of fresh cocoons under Shell Percentage transaction. In newly evolved hybrids, recorded percentages are 19 to 25 percent, where male cocoons are higher than female cocoons. The normal range is 65 to 84 percent for the weight of the cocoon shell and 12 to 20 percent for the weight of the whole Raw Silk Percentage fresh cocoon. Filament Length determines the workload, rate of production, evenness of the silk thread and the dynamometric properties Filament Length of the output. Range of total length is from 600 to 1 500 m of which 80 percent is reelable while the remainder is removed as waste. Reelability is defined as the fitness of cocoons for economically feasible reeling. Reelability is greatly affected by careful Reelability action during cocoon spinning, drying, storage, pre-processing, reeling machine efficiency and operator skill. The measured range is from 40 to 80 percent with serious deviations depending on the type of cocoon. The measure denier expresses the size of silk thread. A denier is the weight of 450 m length of silk thread divided into 0.05 Size of Cocoon g units. At the coarsest section of cocoon filament from 200 to 300 meters, the denier increases. Once more these dimensions become finer and finer as the process approaches the inside layer . The average diameter of cocoon filament is Filament 15 to 20 microns for the univoltine and bivoltine species. A series of minor defects may be found in cocoon filament such as loops, split-ends, fuzziness, nibs and hairiness . While Defects these defects are observed among silkworm varieties, mounting conditions seem to contribute to their incidence. These filament defects directly affect raw silk quality. Hair-like projections in the silk fibre are called Lousiness. Another factor promoting lousiness is mounting of over-mature Lousiness larvae. When fabrics woven with these defects are dyed, it looks as if the fabric is covered with dust or is a paler shade than the rest. In fact, the protruding fibril is more transparent and has a lesser capacity to absorb dyes. Characteristic
Cocoon Composition
The composition of the whole cocoon is defined as the cocoon shell, pupa and cast off skin . The pupa makes up the largest portion of its weight. Note that much of the cocoon content is water. Therefore it is necessary to remove the water to improve the cocoon filament for reeling and to better preserve the cocoon over a long period. Composition Description The silk filament forming the cocoon shell is composed of two brins (proteins) named fibroin and covered by silk gum or sericin. The amount of sericin ranges from 19 to 28 percent according to the type of cocoon.
Composition of Cocoon Shell
Fibroin -- 72-81 percent Sericin -- 19-28 percent Fat and wax -- 0.8-1.0 percent Coloring matter and ash -- 1.0-1.4 percent The silk of Bombyx mori is composed of the proteins fibroin and sericin, matter such as fats, wax, sand pigments plus minerals. Fibroin in the Bombyx mori comprises a high content of the amino acids glycine and alanine, 42.8 g and 32.4 g respectively. The key amino acids in sericin are serine (30.1 g), threonine (8.5 g), aspartic acid (16.8 g) and glutamic acid (10.1 g) Gravity: The bave specific gravity on average of sericin and fibroin measures from 1.32 to 1.40. Generally, the specific gravity of sericin is slightly higher than that of fibroin. Tenacity: Tenacity indicates the quantity of weight a given fibre can support before breaking. the typical tenacity of a bave is 3.6 to 4.8 g per denier. Elongation: Elongation defines the length to which a fibre may be stretched before breaking. Raw silk has an elongation of 18 to 23 percent of its original length.
Structural Features of Silk
Physical and Chemical Properties
Hygroscopic Nature Effect of Light Electrical Properties Action of Water Effect of Heat Degradation by Acids, Alkalis Proteolytic Enzymes
11 percent is the accepted moisture regain coefficient for silk; the mercantile weight of silk is derived based on this factor. Continuous exposure to light weakens silk faster than cotton or wool. Raw silk is more resistant to light than degummed silk. Silk is a poor conductor of electricity and accumulates a static charge from friction. This trait can render it difficult to handle in the manufacturing process. This static charge can be dissipated by high humidity or by maintaining a R.H. of 65 percent at 25C. Silk is a highly absorbent fibre, which readily becomes impregnated with water. Water, however, does not permanently affect silk fibre. Silk strength decreases about 20 percent when wet and regains its original strength after drying. The fibre expands but does not dissolve when steeped in warm water. Note that the fibre will also absorb dissolved substances present in water. If white silk is heated in an oven at 110C for 15 minutes, it begins to turn yellow. At 170C, silk disintegrates and at its burning points releases an empyreumatic odour. Treatment of silk fibres with acid or alkaline substances causes hydrolysis of the peptide linkages. The degree of hydrolysis is based on the pH factor, which is at minimum between 4 and 8. Degradation of the fibre is exhibited by loss of tensile strength or change in the viscosity of the solution. Proteolytic enzymes do not readily attack fibroin in fibrous form apparently because the protein chains in silk are densely packed without bulky side chains. Serious degradation may be caused by water or steam at 100C. Oxidizing agents may attack proteins in three possible points. Hydrogen peroxide is absorbed by silk and is thought to form complexes with amino acid groups and peptide bonds.
Oxidation
At the side chains At the N-terminal residues At the peptide bonds of adjacent amino groups
Other Agents
Chlorine attacks fibroin more vigorously than does sodium hypochlorite. The oxidation is mainly at the tyrosine residues. A Series of natural circumstances will produce variations in cocoon quality. Some of the most noteworthy include:
Cocoon Quality
Differences in cocoon quality in the same batch Differences in cocoons produced in the same location by different farmers who have reared the same species Seasonal influences. In Japan for example, cocoons produced in the spring and late autumn are higher in quality than those in early autumn and summer Environmental conditions affect cocoon reelability such as temperature and humidity Processing technique in reeling will impact reeling efficiency as well as raw silk quality Bivoltine cocoons are superior quality compared to multivoltine silkworm species traditional farmed in tropical zones.
Manmade /Artificial fibres

Man-made fibres are fibres in which either the basic chemical units have been formed by chemical synthesis followed by fibre formation or the polymers from natural sources have been dissolved and regenerated after passage through a spinneret to form fibres. These fibre came to success when the researchers obtained a product by condensation of molecules presenting two reactive aminic groups with molecules characterised by two carboxylic reactive groups. The fibre came to success when the researchers obtained a product (polymerised amide, from which the name polyamide) by condensation of molecules presenting two reactive aminic groups (hexamethylenediamine) with molecules characterised by two carboxylic reactive groups (adipic acid). In order to be differentiated from other polymers belonging to same chemical class, this polymer was marked with the acronym 6.6 which indicates the number of carbon atoms (that is 6) in the two molecules forming the repetitive polymer unit. Polyester fibre This is the most important man-made fibre, with a production of 22 million tons in 2003 (58% continuous filament/42% staple fibre), which since some years overcame cotton production. The number of plants installed in the world is estimated already now at more than 500. Another aspect of considerable importance under the geographic-economic point of view is the fact that 75% of the production is located in Asia. Polyester wrung the record of most produced synthetic fibre out from the polyamide fibre already in 1972, when it reached a share of 65% in the synthetic fibre market. Its success is due to its particular characteristics, to its versatility in the various application sectors and to the relatively low raw materials and production costs. Polyamide fibre This fibre category practically opened the textile market to fibres with no connection to the world of nature. The production, performed world-wide by about 300 plants, amounts to 3,9 million tons (2003) and is distributed into polyamide type 6 (about 60%) and polyamide type 6.6 (about 40%); it is composed mainly of continuous filament (85%), against 15% of staple fibre. The major producing countries are still Europe and USA (45% of the market). Acrylic fibre The production of this fibre is estimated at 2,6 million tons (2003) and West Europe is still today the area with the highest production (30%). This fibre found its main use in the traditional wool sectors and is being produced in practice only in form of discontinuous or staple fibre. It shows negligible production increases and consequently its share in the man-made fibre market fell from 20% in 1970 to 9% in 2002. Polypropylene fibre This is the last-born man-made fibre and, as it is used also in near sectors (as in the plastic industry), its importance in thetextile sector was not always adequately monitored. In fact, even excluding such sectors, the production for merely textile uses (carpeting, clothing , technical uses) can be estimated at 3,0 million tons and shows steady growth rates. The most significant producer areas are Europe and USA. Other man-made fibres Within the group of fibres with high-tech performance, the elastane fibre (spandex) stands out for its characteristics of elongation and elasticity: its consumption in 2001 has been estimated at 160.000 tons. Aramid fibres are appreciated for their mechanical and fireproof properties (consumption estimate in 2001: 33.000 tons), while carbon fibres are used in composite materials for hi-tech applications estimated consumption in 2001: 13.000 tons). Elastane is produced mainly in Korea and in Taiwan (other producers: USA, Japan, Germany); aramid and carbon fibres are mostly produced in USA and in Japan.
Development of synthetic fibres world production Manmade Fiber Classification
Characteristics and usage of Manmade Fibers

Type Characteristic Major Uses
ACETATE
Luxurious feel and appearance Wide range of colors and lusters Excellent drapability and softness Relatively fast-drying Shrink-, moth-, and mildew-resistant
Apparel: Blouses, dresses, and foundation garments. Lingerie, linings, shirts, slacks, sportswear. Fabrics: Brocade, crepe, double knits, faille, knitted jerseys, lace, satin, taffeta, tricot. Home Furnishings: Draperies, upholstery. Other: Cigarette filters, fibrefill for pillows, quilted products Apparel: Dresses, infant wear, knitted garments, ski wear, socks, sportswear, sweaters. Fabrics: Fleece and pile fabrics, face fabrics in bonded fabrics, simulated furs, jerseys. Home Furnishings: Blankets, carpets, draperies, upholstery. Other: Auto tops, awnings, hand-knitting and craft yarns, industrial and geotextile fabrics.
ACRYLIC
Soft and warm Wool-like Retains shape Resilient Quick-drying Resistant to moths, sunlight, oil and chemicals
ARAMID
Does not melt Highly flame-resistant High strength High resistance to stretch Maintains its shape and form at high temperatures Thermal bonding Self bulking Very fine fibers Unique cross sections The functionality of special polymers or additives at reduced cost Soft, strong, absorbent Good dyeability Fibrillates during wet processing to produce special textures
Hot-gas filtration fabrics, protective clothing, military helmets, protective vests, structural composites for aircraft and boats, sailcloth, tires, ropes and cables, mechanical rubber goods, marine and sporting goods.
BICOMPONENT
Uniform distribution of adhesive, Fiber remains a part of structure and adds integrity, Customized sheath materials to bond various materials, Wide range of bonding temperatures, Cleaner, environmentally friendly (no effluent), Recyclable, Lamination / moulding / densification of composites.
LYOCELL
Dresses, slacks and coats.

White and dyeable Flame resistance and low thermal conductivity High heat dimensional stability Processable on standard textile equipment
MELAMINE
Fire Blocking Fabrics: Aircraft seating, fire blockers for upholstered furniture in high-risk occupancies (e.g., to meet California TB 133 requirements) Protective Clothing: Firefighters' turnout gear, insulating thermal liners, knit hoods, molten metal splash apparel, heat resistant gloves. Filter Media: High capacity, high efficiency, high temperature baghouse air filters. Apparel: Deep pile coats, trims, linings, simulated fur, wigs and hairpieces. Fabrics: Fleece fabrics, industrial fabrics, knit-pile fabric backings, non-woven fabrics. Home Furnishings: Awnings, blankets. Carpets, flame-resistant draperies and curtains, scatter rugs. Other: Filters, paint rollers, stuffed toys. Apparel: Blouses, dresses, foundation garments, hosiery, lingerie and underwear, raincoats, ski and snow apparel, suits, windbreakers.
MODACRYLIC
Soft Resilient Abrasion- and flame-resistant Quick-drying Resists acids and alkalies Retains shape
NYLON
Exceptionally strong Supple Abrasion-resistant
Type
Characteristic
Major Uses

OLEFIN
Lustrous Easy to wash Resists damage from oil and many chemicals Resilient Low in moisture absorbency Unique wicking properties that make it very comfortable Abrasion-resistant Quick-drying Resistant to deterioration from chemicals, mildew, perspiration, rot, and weather Sensitive to heat Soil resistant Strong; very lightweight Excellent colourfastness Strong Resistant to stretching and shrinking Resistant to most chemicals Quick-drying Crisp and resilient when wet or dry Wrinkle- and abrasion-resistant Retains heat-set pleats and creases Easy to wash Highly flame resistant Outstanding comfort factor combined with thermal and chemical stability properties Will not burn or melt Low shrinkage, when exposed to flame.
Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, carpets, draperies, curtains, upholstery. Other: Air hoses, conveyor and seat belts, parachutes, racket strings, ropes and nets, sleeping bags, tarpaulins, tents, thread, tire cord, geotextiles.
Apparel: Pantyhose, underwear, knitted sports shirts, men's half hose, men's knitted sportswear, sweaters. Home Furnishings: Carpet and carpet backing, slipcovers, upholstery. Other: Dye nets, filter fabrics, laundry and sandbags, geotextiles, automotive interiors, cordage, doll hair, industrial sewing thread.
POLYESTER
Apparel: Blouses, shirts, career apparel, children's wear, dresses, half hose, insulated garments, ties, lingerie and underwear, permanent press garments, slacks, suits. Home Furnishings: Carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets and pillow cases. Other: Fiberfil for various products, fire hose, power belting, ropes and nets, tire cord, sail, V-belts.
PBI
Suitable for high-performance protective apparel such as firemen's turnout coats, astronaut space suits and applications where fire resistance is important.

Highly absorbent Soft and comfortable Easy to dye Versatile Good drapability
RAYON
Apparel: Blouses, coats, dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings, millinery. Rainwear, slacks, sports shirts, sportswear, suits, ties, work clothes. Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, blankets, carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets, slipcovers, tablecloths, upholstery. Other: Industrial products, medical,: surgical products, non-woven products, tire cord.

SPANDEX
Can be stretched 500 percent without breaking Can be stretched repeatedly and recover original length Light-weight Stronger and more durable than rubber Resistant to body oils
Articles (where stretch is desired): Athletic apparel, bathing suits, delicate laces, foundation garments, golf jackets, ski pants, slacks, support and surgical hose.
Manmade Cellulosic Fibers The first man-made fibres which were developed and produced used polymers of natural origin, more precisely of cellulose which is a raw material available in large quantities in the vegetable world. Cellulose is the natural polymer that makes up the living cells of all vegetation. It is the material at the center of the carbon cycle, and the most abundant and renewable biopolymer on the planet. Cotton linters and wood pulp, viscose rayon, Cupra-ammonium, Cellulose Acetate (secondary and triacetate), Polynosic, High Wet Modulus (HWM). Rayon Originally, the word rayon was applied to any cellulose-based manufactured ber, and therefore included the cellulose acetate bers. However, the de- nition of rayon was claried in 1951 and now includes textiles bers and laments composed of regenerated cellulose, excluding acetate. In Europe the bers are now generally known asviscose, the termviscose rayon being used whenever confusion between the ber and the cellulose xanthate solution (also called viscosesee below) is possible. (In this article the termsregenerated cellu-losics, rayon, and viscose rayontend to be used interchangeably.) Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulosic fiber. It is the first man made fibre . It has a serrated round shape with smooth surface. It loses 30-50% of its strength when it is wet. Rayon is produced from naturally occurring polymers and therefore it is not a synthetic fiber, but a manufactured regenerated cellulosic fiber. The fiber is sold as artificial silk Cellulose is one of many polymers found in nature. Wood, paper, and cotton all contain cellulose. Cellulose is an excellent fiber. Cellulose is made of repeat units of the monomer glucose. The three types of regenerated cellulosic fibres are rayon, acetate and triacetate which are derived from the cell walls of short cotton fibres called linters. Paper for instance is almost pure cellulose
There are two principal varieties of rayon namely viscose and cupra ammonium rayon. Acetate A manufactured fiber in which the fiber forming substance is cellulose acetate.Acetate is derived from cellulose by reacting purified cellulose from wood pulp with acetic acid and acetic anhydride in the presence of sulfuric acid. The Acetate Fiber Characteristics Luxurious feel and appearance Wide range of colors and lusters Excellent drapability and softness Relatively fast drying Shrink, moth and mildew resistant Special dyes have been developed for acetate since it does not accept dyes ordinarily used for cotton and rayon.
Acetate fibers are the manufactured fibers in which the fiber-forming substance is cellulose acetate. The cellulose esters triacetate and acetate are formed through acetylation of cotton linters or wood pulp using acetic anhydride and an acid catalyst in acetic acid. Acetate and triacetate fibers are very similar in appearance to the regular-tenacity viscose rayons.Acetates and triacetates are moderately stiff fibers and possess good resil iency on bending and deformation, particularly after heat treatment. The abrasion resistance of acetate and triacetate is poor, and these fibers cannot be used in applications requiring high resistance to rubbing and abrasion; however, the resistance of these fibers to pilling is excellent. While acetate and triacetate are moderately absorbent, their absorbencies
cannot compare with the pure cellulosic fibers. The hand of acetate fabrics is somewhat softer and more pliable than triacetate, which possesses a crisp firm hand. Fabrics of both fibers possess excellent draping characteristics. Fabrics of acetate and triacetate have a pleasing appearance and a high degree of luster, but the luster of these fabrics can be modified through addition of delusterants. Both acetate and triacetate are susceptible to attack by a number of household chemicals. Acetate and triacetate are attacked by strong acids and bases and by oxidizing bleaches. Acetate has only fair sunlight resistance, whereas the sunl ight resistance of triacetate is superior. Both fibers have good heat resistance below their melting points. Acetate and triacetate cannot be dyed by dyes used for cellulosic fibers. These fibers can be satisfactorily dyed with disperse dyes at moderate to high temperatures to give even, bright shades. Acetate and triacetate dry quickly and may be tumble dried or drip dried. Regenerated Protein Fibers Azlon is the generic name given to manufactured fibers composed of a regenerated natural protein. Azlon is produced by dissolving proteins like casein from milk, soya bean protein, and zein from corn in dilute alkali and forcing these solutions through a spinneret into an acid-formaldehyde coagulating bath. Many of the properties of these fibers resemble the natural protein fibers, but they suffer from low dry and wet strength and sensitivity to alkalies. Protein-Polyacrylonitrile Graft Copolymer A fiber consisting of a copolymer of casein protein (25%-60%) grafted with 40%-75% acrylic monomers, of which at least half is acrylonitrile, has been developed in Japan under the tradename Chinon. The casein dissolved in aqueous zinc chloride and grafted with acrylonitrile is wet or dry spun into fibers. The fiber has a tenacity of 3.5-5 g/d (32-45 g/tex) dry and 3-4.5 g/d (27-40 g/tex) wet and an elongation at break of 15%25% wet or dry. It recovers 70% from 5% elongation. The fiber has a moisture regain of 4.5%-5.5% and a specific gravity of 1.22. It dyes readily with acid dyes, but basic and reactive dyes can be used also. The fiber is marketed as a substitute for silk. Synthetic Fibers The synthetic man-made fibers include the polyamides (nylon), polyesters, acrylics, polyolefins, vinyls, and elastomeric fibers, while the regenerated fibers include rayon, the cellulose acetates, the regenerated proteins, glass and rubber fibers. Polyamides Fibres - manmade artificial fibres The polyamide fibres include the nylons and the Aramid fibres. Both fibre types are formIntroduction A group of fully synthetic fiber materials, which are manufactured in a melt spinning process. Characteristics: highly elastic, tear and abrasion free, low humidity absorption capability, fast drying, no loss of solidity in a wet condition, crease-free, rot and seawater proof. Application: fine stockings (for example nylon), outer sporting and motorcycle garments (for example Tactel, Cordura), female underclothes (for example Perlon), parachutes. In the middle of the 1930s nylon, a polyamide, was brought to the market by the American chemical company DuPont. It was the first material fully obtained from basic chemical elements. A sure sign for the economic breakthrough of syntheticfine chemical fibers was the triumph of nylon stockings at the beginning of the 1950s. The textile industry concentrated above all on space research and during the years of the Cold War on equipment for soldiers. At the end of this, the industry had to look for new sales markets. During the last ten years a series of new synthetic textiles and techniques for processing textiles has been developed, in which war and space technology has been matched with innovative novelties from design laboratories. A milestone: the active breathing microfibers (such as Gore-Tex). Polyamide FibersSynthetic man-made account for the largest part of the raw material used in manufacturing nonwoven bonded fabrics. In this group of synthetic nonwoven bonded fabrics, polyamide fibres are the not only the oldest ones used in production, they also increase the serviceability of the product. This improved quality is of importance for various purposes, e.g.: where nonwoven bonded fabrics are subjected to frequent folding, as in the case of paper reinforced with synthetic fibres where exceptional resistance to abrasion is required, as is the case with needled floor coverings
The polyamide fibers include the nylons and the aramid fibers. Both fiber types are formed from polymers of long-chain polyamides. The nylons generally are tough, strong, durable fibers useful in a wide range oftextile applications. The fully aromatic aramid fibers have high temperature resistance, exceptionally high strength, and dimensional stability. The number of carbon atoms in each monomer or comonomer unit is
commonly designated for the nylons. Therefore the nylon with six carbon atoms in the repeating unit would be nylon 6 and the nylon with 6 carbons in each of the monomer units would be nylon 6,6. Type of Polyamides
The two main types of fibre are polyamide 6, usually known as Perlon, and polyamide 6.6, which is generally called Nylon to distinguish it from Perlon. The number or numbers after the word polyamide indicate how many carbon atoms there are in each molecule making up the polyamide. The fact that there is only one number in one instance and two in the other shows that polyamide 6 contains only one basic module and polyamide 6.6 contains two, with six carbon atoms in each molecule. Nylon 6 and 6.6 Polyamide 6 is made from caprolactam, and polyamide 6.6 from hexamethyldiamine and adipic acid. For fibre production, the resulting polyamide has to have the capacity to be spun into filaments, i.e. it must have the capacity to be melted without decomposing and to be forced through a jet the molten mass must be such that the filaments that are still ductile when formed do not break during cooling. Certain conditions must be met, one of them being a minimum prescribed length for the macromolecule
These nylon polymers form strong, tough, and durable fibers useful in a wide variety of textile applications. The major differences in the fibers are that nylon 6,6 dyes lighter, has a higher melting point, and a slightly harsher hand than nylon 6. Aramid Fibers The aramid polyamide fibers are formed from a long chain of synthetic polyamides in which at least 85% of the amide linkages are attached toaromatic rings. These essentially fully aromatic polyamides are characteristically high melting and have excellent property retention at high temperatures and excellent durability. They are unaffected by moisture and most chemicals and are inherently flame retardant. The fibers have high strength and can be used in a number of unique high-strength applications. Common trade names for aramid fibers include Nomex and Kevlar (duPont). Aramid fibers are extremely strong and heat resistant. Fabrics from the aramids have a high luster with a fair hand and adequate draping properties. The fibers are light yellow unless bleached and exhibit moderate moisture absorption characteristics. The fibers recover readily from stretching and bending deformation and are extremely abrasion resistant. They do tend to pill due to the high strength of the fiber. Other Polyamides Several other polyamides have been introduced for use as fibers in specialty applications where certain combinations of properties are desired. The major specialty nylons include Qiana, nylon 4, nylon 11, nylon 6,10, and biconstituent nylon-polyester.
Manufacturing of Polyamide Filaments
The molten mass is forced through the holes in the spinneret by pressure pumps and metering pumps, after which it is pulled off in the form of filaments. They cool rapidly in the (air) blasting chamber and are then either baled or wound onto bobbins at a constant speed. The macromolecules are still randomly distributed in the filaments, which is why they are stretched so that molecules are more longitudinally oriented. Once they have this orientation, the filaments take on their characteristic physical properties and can be cut to the lengths needed to make the fibres. Then the filaments of staples are prepared to ensure that they retain their processing properties.
Elastomeric Fibers Elastomeric fibers are those fibers that possess extremely high elongations (400%-8001) at break and that recover fully and rapidly from high elongations up to their breaking point. Elastomeric fibers include the crosslinked natural and synthetic rubbers, spandex fibers (segmented polyurethanes), anidex fibers (crosslinked polyacrylates) and the side-by-side biconstituent fiber of nylon and spandex (Monvelle). The fibers are all used in special ized appl ications where high elasticity is necessary within thetextile structure. RUBBER Rubber fibers from natural sources have been known for over 100 years. Natural rubber in commerce is derived from coagulation of Hevea brasiliensis latex and is primarily -polyisoprene, a diene polymer. Rubber fibers exhibit excellent elastic properties but are sensitive to chemical attack, thereby limiting their usefulness. Rubber fibers are manufactured by several companies as rubber fiber or under trade names such as Buthane, Contro, Hi-Flex, Lactron, Lastex, and Laton. Rubber fibers show good elastomeric properties and reasonable aesthetic properties particularly as the core of atextile yarn structure. SPANDEX Spandex fibers are elastomeric fibers that are >85% segmented polyurethane formed through reaction of a diisocyanate with polyethers or polyesters and subsequent crossl inking of polyurethane units. The spandex fibers resemble rubber in both stretch and recovery properties, but are far superior to rubber in their resistance to sunlight, heat, abrasion, oxidation, oils, and chemicals. They find the widest use of any of the elastomeric fibers. Spandex is widely used and sold as an elastomeric fiber under that designation or under such trade names as Cleerspan, Glospan, Lycra, or Numa. Spandex possesses excellent elastomeric properties and acceptable aesthetics for use in constructions requiring such a fiber. Spandex is dull, but luster may be improved with brighteners.
Anidex Anidex fibers are defined as fibers containing polymers that are at least 50%of one or more polymerized acrylate esters. Anidex fibers are formed through emulsion copolymerization of acrylate esters with reactive crosslinkable comonomers such as -methylolacrylamide. Anidex fibers apparently did not have sufficient differences in properties to become an economic success and are no longer being produced. Nylon-Spandex Biconstituent Fiber An inherent problem with elastomeric fibers is their low strength and limited abrasion resistance. A new biconstituent elastomeric fiberMonvelle-- has been introduced to answer these problems. The fiber is a side-by-side bicomponent fiber containing nylon and spandex. The fiber is melt spun by special spinnerets to form the fiber. Polyolefin Fibers Polyolefin fibers are those fibers produced from polymers formed by chain growth polymerization of olefins (alkenes) and which contain greater than 85% polymerized ethylene, propylene, or other olefin units. The fibers are unaffected by solvents at room temperature and are swollen by aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons only at elevated temperatures. Common trade names for polyolefin fibers include Herculon, Marvess, and Vectra. Polyolefins are lustrous white translucent fibers with good draping qual ities and a characteristic sl ightly waxy hand . They have excellent abrasion resistance and exhibit fair wrinkle resistance. The polyolefins--particularly polypropylene--have found a number of applications particularly in home furnishing s and industrial fabrics. Uses include indoor-outdoor carpeting, carpet backing, upholstery fabri cs, seat covers, webbing for chairs, nonwoven s , laundry bags, hosiery and knitwear (particularly as a blended fiber), fishnet, rope, filters, and industrial fabrics. Vinyl Fibers Vinyl fibers are those man-made fibers spun from polymers or copolymers of substituted vinyl monomers and include vinyon, vinal, vinyonvinal matrix (polychlal), saran, and polytetrafluoroethylene fibers. The vinyl fibers are generally specialty fibers due to their unique properties and uses. All of these fibers have a polyethylene hydrocarbon backbone with substituted functional groups that determine the basic physical and chemical properties of the fiber. VINYON Vinyon is defined as a fiber in which at least 85% of the polymerized monomer units are vinyl chloride. Vinyon fibers have high chemical and water resistance, do not burn, but do melt at relatively low temperatures and dissolve readily in many organic solvents, thereby limiting their application. Vinyon as pure polyvinyl is marketed as PVC-Rhovyl, while vinyon HH is a copolymer. The fiber is of low strength but has properties that make it useful in apparel where heat is not a factor. It is difficult to dye. VINAL Vinal fibers are made from polymers containing at least 50% vinyl alcohol units and in which at least 85% of the units are combined vinyl alcohol and acetal crosslink units. The fiber is inexpensive, resembles cotton in properties, and is produced in Japan. Vinal resembles cotton and other cellulosics in end-use properties. Kuralon and Manryo are names under which vinal fibers are marketed. Vinal fiber has good strength and excellent abrasion and pilling resistance. Fabrics of vinal have a warm comfortable hand, are absorbent, and exhibit good drapabi 1ity. The fiber has a silklike appearance and luster. It has excellent sunlight resistance and fair heat resistance. It dyes readily with dyes for cellulosics.
VINYON-VINAL MATRIX FIBER In response to the need for a fiber of low flammabil ity (LOI of 31) and low toxic gas formation on burning, Kohjin company developed and marketed a vinyonvinyl (50:50) matrix (polychlal) fiber under the trade names Cordela and Cordelan. Vinyonvinyl matri x fiber is used primarily in applications where low flammability in apparel is desired and has been used extensively in children's sleepwear. SARAN Saran is the generic name for fibers made from synthetic copolymers that are greater than 80% vinylidene chloride. The fiber is generally not used in apparel but rather in automobile upholstery, outdoor fabrics, home furni shings, and industrial appli cations. POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE Tetrafluoroethylene is better known by its trade name--Teflon--and is widely used in many applications including specialty fibers. Poly tetrafluoroethylene fiber is extremely hydrophobic and chemically and thermally stable and is used in applications where such stability and inertness is needed. Its hydrophobicity has permitted is to be used to form breathable but water repellant composite materials for textile usage, particularly in outdoor and rainwear. Miscellaneous Fibers Fibers which do not logically "fit" under other classifications are 1isted--novaloid, carbon, poly-phenylenedibenzimidazole and polyimide fibers. These fibers were developed for specific industrial applications and do not find wide use in consumer goods. NOVALOID Novaloid is the designation assigned by the FTC for a class of flame retardant fibers made from crosslinked phenol-formaldehyde polymer. The fibers of this class in U.S. production are called Kynol and are manufactured by American Kynol, Inc. The fiber is golden yellow in color and possesses good physical and chemical properties. Novaloids are characteristically used in flame retardant protective clothing and in apparel and home furnishings applications where low fiber flammability is desired. CARBON Carbon or graphite fibers have been developed recently for use in industrial and aerospace applications. The carbon fibers are prepared from rayon, acrylic, or pitch fibers by controlled oxidation under tension in limited oxygen atmosphere at 300-400C. Carbon fibers are extensively used in reinforcing fibers for resins and plastics in high performance fiber-polymer composites and are marketed as Celion, Hi-Tex, and Thornel. POLY-m-PHENYLENEDIBENZIMIDAZOLE (PBI) PBI was developed by the U.S. Air Force and Celanese as a flame retardant fiber for use in aerospace applications. The fiber is spun from dimethylacetamide followed by derivatization with sulfuric acid to form a golden fiber. In recent years, it has shown potential as a replacement for asbe stos, as a flue gas fi1ter material, and as an apparel fabric in specialized applications. POLYIMIDE An aromatic polyimide has been introduced by Upjohn Company for use in flame retardant, high-temperature applications. The fiber is spun from the polymer by wet or dry processing techniques using a polar organic solvent such as-dimethylformamide.
Discussing with other Fibers Ramie and linen which are called vegetable fibers are actually the skin (inner bark or bast) of a bush height plant. Ramie is from ramie plants, and linen is from flax plants. Therefore, theoretically, the fiber length can be as long as the length of the stem, but for making yarn, we usually make it into about 4 to 7 for spinning. Wool, Lambs wool and Angora rabbit hair are all hairs of animals .The length of these hair ranges from 3 to 8 proper for spinning into yarn. Other than cotton vegetable fibers and wool, everything else) polyester, nylon, acrylic, acetate and rayon etc) is synthetic fiber of continuous or indefinite length .However in order to make spun yarn we cut the fiber into 5 to 8 length for spinning. Spun yarn is sometimes made in 2ply or 3ply.The following is how we call them: 20/2 means 20 count 2-ply 20/3 means 20 count 32-ply 10/2 means 10 count 2-ply 60/4 means 60 count 4-ply
Yarn Spinning
Yarn spinning is the process of manufacturing yarn from different types of fibres into a continuous length from one or more type of fibers. Spinning is the most important and the initial step in fabric manufacturing. The major goals of spinning is to produce the quality yarn from raw material, then remove the process faults followed by winding the short length bobbins on Cones. There are different types of spinning, the most commonly forms of spinning are: Ring, Rotor, Air Jet, Friction etc.
Textile Yarn's Construction

Yarn count, yarn ply and yarn construction interrelate to form the characteristics of yarn. Yarn construction is classified as:
Simple /Conventional yarn: These are two or more simple single yarns plied or twisted together. They are referred to as two, three, four, five or six ply yarn. Size and number of plies may be changed for different weaves or fabric structures. Complex/Novelty yarns: These are single or plied yarn structures characterized by internationally introduced irregularities in size and twist effects. The irregularities of novelty yarns may be uniform or random. Metallic yarns: A monofilament flat yarn produced by lacquering aluminium pigment or by laminating aluminium foil between layers of plastic. After this webs are cut into wide coils and the rolls are slit into fine ribbon like yarn. After slitting the yarn is wound onto spools or coils depending on type of ribbon. Since metallic yarns are flat rather than round most as most of other man-made fiber yarns, the size of the yarn is specified in inches. Textured Yarns: Textured yarns are the end result of physical, chemical or thermal manipulation of fibers and yarns so that they are no longer straight or uniform. The manipulation process of textured yarn results in the modification and altering of the arrangement of the fiber and yarn. Texturizing produces a permanent change in the physical structure of the yarn. The fibers no longer lie parallel to the other. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Bulked/High Bulked/Lofted Yarns: Texturising of yarns also produce bulked yarns. High bulk yarns are created and processed by nonlinearity or loop formation in individual filaments. The process introduces crimps, loops, curls and crinkles into the yarn. Bulk yarn may also be shrunk and stretched introducing shrink differentials. The resulting yarns of these processes are bulked, fluffed, puffed and twisted yarns. Stretch Yarns: Almost all man-made and natural fibers can be treated to produce yarns with some degree of stretch and recovery. Stretch properties may be applied to yarns by chemical or mechanical methods. Not all methods or fibers will achieve equally effective stretch properties.
Spinning
The term 'spinning' can be refer to the whole activity or just to the final process of making the yarn from fibers. This involves attenuating (stretching) the yarn to the required tex giving the thread strength by adding twist and winding to on a bobbin. The object of spinning and of the process that precede it is to transform the single fibers into a cohesive and workable continuous length yarn. Basically, in the case of natural fibers, the processing involves opening, blending, carding (in some cases also combing), drawing and roving to produce the material for the spinning frame. This isfollowed by the spinning itself.
Open-End or Rotor or Break Spinning

The most successful of the new spinning systems is open end rotor spinning which is now termed as conventional spinning system. The success of rotor spinning is due to the increase of its productivity. Open-end (also known as Rotor spinning or break spinning) spinning systems have come into wide use for spinning of short and medium staple fibers directly from sliver to yarn in one step without carding or roving.It is relative a new product invented in early 1970s.OE is spun by means of air current and not by spindles.(when it is spun by spindles it is called ring spun yarn). Sliver is fed into a breaking or opening unit to separate the fibers from one another, and the fibers are then forced by air pressure into a hollow rotor rotating at high speeds The fibers are deposited by centrifugal force on the sides of the hollow rotor, and the resulting yarn is removed continuously by a stationary tube mounted with in the rotor. The rotating rotor provides twist to the yarn and produces a yarn with somewhat greater higher pitch and bulk and somewhat lower strength than ring spun yarns. It is more even in size than ring spun yarn. It has no nub. The great advantages are the evenness and no nub because unevenness and nubs are cause of defects in fabric. However, there is a disadvantage, if we use it to make fabric for brushing; the result will not be good as the fiber in the OE yarn cannot be brushed out easily.
Advantages of rotor spinning:

Lower labor cost Less power consumption Cheaper raw material Larger package size Higher productivity, because of higher speed Elimination of roving, no use if simples m/c Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Easy handling Less Floor space
Limitations

Wide range of count cannot be spun Very finer count cannot be spun Yarn strength and quality is lower than ring yarn More bulky yarn Higher twist factor
Production of Rotor spinning

Production/hour per m/c in kg = Rotor speed (rpm) 60* yarn tex --------------------------- * -- ------------------ *Eff% * No of Rotor Twist per meter 1000* 1000
Air-Jet/Air Vortex Spinning

Air-Jet/Air-Vortex spinning is similar to open-end spinning but utilizes a stationary tube rather than a rotor. A high speed air vortex is created in the tube that deposits fibers with in the tube and simultaneously provides twist due to the vortex. The yarn is continuously withdrawn as in the case of open end spinning.The air-jet spinning system which are now commercially available are capable for processing of short polyester and its blend of medium to fine count range .Compared to other modern spinning systems it has the advantage of being able to spin fine yarn and at present it cannot be used for spinning coarser yarns.
Disadvantages of Air-jet Spinning

Twist characteristics is different along the length Very short staple fiber cannot be spun Produce harsh and compact yarn structure 100% cotton cannot be spun Variation of C.V of C.S.P yarn is more
Advantages

Strength of yarn is more Bending modules is higher
Production
Count Speed Ne 45 poly/cotton 140m/mt Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Ne 60 poly Ne Cotton
140m/mt. 130m/mt.
Degree of textile Yarn Twist/Twist Tension/Yarn Tension:

The degree or amount of yarn twist may vary from slight or almost no twist at all to tightly or highly twisted. The amount of yarn twist is measured in the number of turns per inch (TPI). The amount of twist required to hold the fibers and yarns together depends on the diameter or size of yarns. Thicker yarn will require less twist to hold them together and are referred to as low twist yarns. Finer yarns will require more twist to hold them together and are referred to as high twist or hard twist yarns. Spun yarns are twisted tightly in order to hold the short staple together. Filament yarns do not require high twist unless producing textured or crepe yarns. Degree of yarn twist affects the yarn in the following ways:

Diameter of fineness Softness or hardness Bending behavior Specific volume Covering power Permeability Tensile strength Strength Stress distribution Extension and recovery Resistance to creases and abrasion piling behavior
Degree of yarn twist affects the fabrics:

Hand Appearance Texture Drapability qualities Performance expectation Durability Serviceability
Degree of Yarn twist and uses Degree of yarn twist Uses No twist/Untwisted Novelty fabrics, Losely woven fabrics, Damask and brocade. Low/Soft Twist Soft surfaced fabrics, Napped fabrics, As a filling yarn Slack Twist Silk filament yarns, Man-made filament yarns Moderate/Average Twist Staple fibers warp yarns High/Hard Twist Compact yarns, harder smooth surfaced fabrics Twist-on-twist Yarns with high number or turns per inch, Rough, pebbly or crinkled fabrics
Warp Spinning
The warp or hollow spindle spinning system uses the technique of wrapping, a continuous filament yarn round a central core of parallel staple fiber and this system can be used for both short and long staple. Warp spinning is considered as complementary to the ring and not a complete replacement. It is suitable for coarse count up to 30s.
Limitations of Warp Spinning:

Only used for short staple fibers Using a binder is a cost factor Fabric appearance s not good due to presence of binder Yarn has no self strength
Count Production 50 tex 89 meters/mt 143 tex 134meters/mt 500 tex 250 meters/mt
Integrated Composite Yarn Spinning

A composite yarn is formed by melt extruding fibers from a spinneret or by coating filaments with a molten polymer followed by coating the emerging fibers with short staple fibers. The resulting matrix is immediately twisted causing the staple fibers to imbed in the extruded fibers before cool ing. The resulting composite yarn is formed at a very rapid rate on the Bobtex spinning apparatus developed for this process.
Twistless Spinning
In twistless systems liquid or powdered polymer adhesives are applied to sliver or filament tow and the adhesive activated by heating or steam to cause the individual fibers to adhere to one another. In some systems, after textile substrate formation from the twist1ess yarns the adhesive is removed to improve the aesthetics of the resulting textile. Adhesives used include polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl alcohol. and starch.
Coverspun Spinning
Covers pun is both the name of a spinning system and a yarn. In this system staple rovings are drafted in a conventional manner, and then the roving is passed into a hollow vertical spindle. On the outside of the spindle a filament yarn, from a cylindrical spool rotating at 20,000 to 30,000 rpm, is fed into the top of the hollow vertical spindle with the roving. The rotating filament spindle causes the filament to wrap around the core of the staple to produce a wrapped yarn consisting of 80% to 95% staple.
Self-Twist Spinning
In self-twist spinning, two parallel sl ivers are fed between two reciprocating rollers which form identical left hand or right hand twists in each of the slivers alternating down the length of the sliver. The resulting false-twisted yarns are then brought together so that the right hand twist segment of one sliver is phased with the left hand twist of the other sliver. On relaxation, the slivers untwist over one another to form a stable yarn. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Fasciated Spinning
In fasciated spinning long staple sliver without twist is introduced into a I imited space and subjected to a torque jet operating at right angles to the flow of the sliver thereby imparting a fal s e twist to the sliver. As the sliver exits the torque jet it rapidly untwists, and the outer fibers tend to break away from the sliver and wrap around the inner sliver to give a strong yarn consisting of mostly parallel fibers with some fibers tightly twisted around the outside.
Friction Spinning
The basic principle of friction spinning is that it is an opening system, it is a variation of the open-end spinning system and often referred to as the DREF system.T he fibers are carried with an air flow forward, to the collecting area between the two friction surfaces. Friction spinning like AirJet spinning is limited in practice by the yarn quality. Finer count yarn produced in friction spinning than ring or Rotor spinning with comparatively production level.In this system, one or more slivers are fed onto a rapidly rotating card drum which opens the sl iver to form single fibers. The separated single fibers are blown from the card drum by a stream of air onto the junction of two parallel perforated drums turning in the same direction. The rotating perforated drums under suction cause the fibers to be compressed and twist around one another to form a uniform yarn which is continuously removed onto a spool. The resultant yarns are bulky and have properties similar to woolen yarns.
Yarn Formation/Spinning
The Fibre formation process includes change in shape, structure and properties of the thermoplastic polymer. The polymer pellets or granules are fed into an extruder where, through heating, their melting temperature is exceeded. The polymeric melt is then transported, under pressure, to the spinneret..Yarn formation methods were originally developed for spinning of natural fibres including cotton, linen, wool and silk.
YARN
The thickness of yarn is measured as Counts. Yarns are made in different counts like 2s, 4s, 10s, 16s, 20s, 24s, 25s, 30s, 34s, 36s, 38s, 40s, 60s, 80s, 100s, etc. We can consider like this. 0s counts are cotton fiber. 20s counts yarn is thicker than 24s yarn. Likewise 30s yarn is thicker than 34s. So when the yarn counts are increasing, the thickness becomes lesser. We can see, the higher the counts, the lesser the thickness. Yarn prices based on the thickness. Price of 20s yarn is lesser than 24s. Price of 30s yarn is lesser than 34s yarn. We must know, higher the counts, higher the prices. There are 2 qualities of yarn. Combed and Carded. Combed is superior quality. The cotton fibers are in different lengths from 0.25 inches to 2.5 inches. According to the technical parameters, the fibers with more length are considered to be better. These long fibers give more evenness and more strength for yarns. Also the short fibers areincreasing hairiness whereas the long fibers are decreasing hairiness in yarns. Hence in order to get uniformity in fiber lengths, the short length fibers are to be eliminated from the long length fibers. For this purpose, a special process is being done. This process is called Combing. Because of the same longer length of fibers, the yarn will be very even with lesser hairiness. Hence after knitting or weaving, the fabric will have very even look. Carded yarn is inferior in quality. As the above said combing process is not being done, the carded yarn will be made of the fibers in different lengths. Hence the yarn strength will be lesser than combed yarn. Also carded yarn will have more hairiness and due to this, the fabric made with carded yarns will have more unevenness. Because of this extra process, the Combed yarn price is higher than Carded yarn. Also Combed yarn quality is superior to Carded yarn. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Yarn Formation
Yarn is continous strand which is made up of filaments or fibers. It is used to make fabric/textiles of different kinds. Yarn formation methods were originally developed for spinning of natural fibers including cotton, linen, wool and silk. Since the overall physical characteristics of the fibers and processing factors needed differed from fiber to fiber, separate processing systems were developed. As synthetic fibers were introduced, synthetic spinning systems for texturized and untexturized cut staple were developed as modifications of existing staple systems, whereas spinning systems for texturized and untexturized filament were developed separately.
Mixing and Blending

Mixing: It is generally meant as the intermingling of different classes of fibers of the same grade e.g. USA Pima grade2, CIS Blending: IT is meant as the intermingling of different kinds of fibers or different grade of same fibers e.g. polyester & cotton, Viscose & cotton. Objectives of missing or blending

Economy Processing performance Functional properties
Grams per Square Metre (GSM)

GSM is the short form of Grams per Square Metre. GSM is the very most important thing which defines the weight of the fabrics of knit garments. Garment price and quality based on many things like GSM, fabric quality, colours, finishing, prints, embroidery, style, etc. But GSM is the most important thing to be decided when confirming the prices between the sellers and buyers. GSM is the weight of 1mtr x 1mtr fabric. It means 100cm x 100cm = 10,000 sq.cms. It can be found out by any one of the below ways. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
By the weight of 100cm x 100cm fabric bit. By the weight of 50cm x 50cm fabric bit multiplied by 4. By the weight of 25cm x 25cm fabric bit multiplied by 16. By the weight of 10cm x 10cm fabric bit multiplied by 100.
We must be aware that if we use the smaller size bit, accurate GSM can not be achieved. The bigger size of fabric bit is better used to get exact or closer GSM. If we have fabrics, then we dont have any problem in finding GSM, as we can cut any dimension to find GSM. But most of the times, we will have only the garments to find GSM. And we will have to keep the garment for style, making and other references. So we will be allowed to cut a small bit from the garments. Hence nowadays, round cutters are used. This system is used worldwide. With the help of this round cutter, the fabric will be cut into a small bit. Then the GSM of the fabric can be found out by multiplying the weight of this round bit by 100. This round bit is to be weighed in an electronic scale with milligram accuracy. As this bit is very small and as the weight has to be multiplied by 100, the fabric has to be cut very sharply to get the exact GSM. Hence the blades of this round cutter are to be sharp and new to get the exact GSM.
Thread Numbering System

Threads are usually made up of several single strands twisted or plied together. The numbering system for threads has two parts: one related to the thickness of the single strand and the other to the number of strands (ply). Whereas the ply is expressed in thickness and the single strand is specified as a ?count? related to the length per unit weight. Cotton Count system, Tex system, and the Metric Ticket system are some of the commonly used thread numbering systems.
Thread Size/Numbering System

Threads are usually made up of several single strands twisted or plied together. The numbering system for threads has two parts: one related to the thickness of the single strand and the other to the number of strands (ply). Whereas the ply is expressed in a straightforward manner, the thickness of the single strand is not specified directly but as a count related to the length per unit weight.
Thus, a 30/2 thread (Nel) is a two-ply thread, and each single strand measures 30 x 300 yd / lb. Note that the count is inversely related to the thickness the higher the count, the thinner the thread. So a 30/2 thread is thinner than a 20/2 thread. (Obviously, for a thread of a particular count, the thickness will be directly proportional to the ply the higher the ply, the thicker the thread. So a 35/3 thread is thicker than a 35/2 thread.) Comparing threads for changing patterns The key point in comparing threads for changing patterns is that the thickness of the thread is its diameter. When reducing or enlarging a pattern, the diameter of the thread should be changed by the same amount so as to keep the ratio between the diameter and the size of the pattern constant. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Measuring the ratio of thicknesses The most obvious way of comparing the thickness of two threads is by measuring their diameters. It is easiest to do this by winding thethread round a ruler and measuring the number of windings over a certain length. To obtain the diameter divide this length by the number of windings.
Consider as an example that we wish to change from a 80/2 thread to a 35/2 thread. When we wind these round a ruler we find that for the 80/2 thread there are 30 windings per cm, whereas for the 35/2 thread there are 20 windings per cm (shown on the right). Thus, the 80/2 thread is thinner than the 35/2 thread by a factor of 20/30, i.e. it is 67% as thick. (Conversely, the 35/2 thread is 150% the thickness of the 80/2 thread). Although the method is not exact because one person may wind more tightly or loosely than another, if the same person makes both windings the result will be accurate enough in practice. Calculating the ratio of thicknesses for the Table Instead of measuring the ratio of thicknesses of two threads, this can easily be calculated if they belong to the same numbering system. The diagram below may help you to follow the calculation. It shows how the cross-section area of athread changes with thread number and ply.
You will see that it is easy to find the relative difference in cross-section area of two threads but, as we want to compare the thicknesses, it is the relative difference in diameter of the threads that we need. It may be obvious to some readers that this will be the square root of the ratios of ply/count for the two threads. However others may wish to check the logic of this below.
As an example, the percentage change in going from a 78/3 to a 35/2 thread is calculated:
This is the value that you will find in the table. For sewing industry all threads can be produced in different thicknesses and the size of a particular thread is the relationship of its length to its weight with exception of Monofilament threads. This relationship of length to weight is known as linear density, yarn count, or size. Selection of correctthread size for particular application is very important as it affects thread performance in a seam of garment. There are fixed weight systems which measure how much thread weighs a given amount, and fixed length systems which measure how heavy is a given length of thread . A pound of fibre is a pound of fibre. It has the same amount raw material in it, no matter how coarsely or finely its spun. Becausethread sizing is based on weight, threads made from different materials can be different in size but have the same number (or have same size but different numbers). Cotton count system, the Tex system, and the metric ticket system care the ones most often used in general sewing.
Equivalent Size
The same size thread can be constructed using different count yarns by varying the number of plies. 30/2 or 45/3 or 60/4 is physically the same size threads. To determine the equivalent size, simply divide the yarn count by the number of plies. All three of these threads have the equivalent size of 15.
Common Numbering Systems

Tex system

Lower the Tex, finer the thread Higher the Tex, thicker the thread Higher the Ticket, finer the thread Lower the Ticket, thicker the thread
is symbolized by (Tex) and is a direct count of thread weight per unit length. It is based on the weight in grams of a thread 1,000 meters (1 kilometre) long. 1,000 meters of Tex 10 (very fine) thread weighs 10 grams, while 1,000 meters of Tex 100 (very coarse) weighs 100 grams. The Tex system measures the entire thread, no matter how many strands or plies it has. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Ticket number
is a system to give easy approximations of the specific size of finished thread and is different for different thread types even if the Tex no is same. To convert Tex into ticket (1000/Tex No) x 3.
Cotton Count system

If you had a single strand of yarn 840 yards long weighing one pound, its count (or size) would be shown as 1/1. This simply means it had a count of one (the first number) and that it was a single strand or yard (the second number). If you then twisted two or those single strands together, the size would then be : One count yarn (the first number), in a two ply construction (the second number). is used for threads made from natural products and is symbolized by Ne. It is based on the number of 840 yard hanks in one pound of thread made from natural fibers and yarns. The size is measure of an individual yarn or strand. Most threads are made from multiple strands or plies. In the cotton count system, 50/2 designates a two-ply thread made from two size 50 yarns. That has the same fibre contents as one size 25 yarn. 8,400 yards of size 10 (coarse) or 84,000 yards or size 100 (extremely fine) is same for one pound of cotton yard in this system. Cotton Count System (Ne) has been the accepted standard in sizing spun threads.
The Hong Kong ticket System

is the same as the cotton count system, just written without the slash. So a cotton count 50/2 thread is a Hong Kong ticket 502 thread.
Denier System
is used for continuous filament synthetic threads and is symbolized by d and is based on the weight in grams of a thread 9 kilometres long. Denier measurements are nine times larger than Tex for the same yarn. However denier is sometimes applied to individual strands of a multi-ply thread, while Tex is always applied to the entire thread. Denier sizes are usually written as 1000d, 200d, and so on.
Metric Count System

is used for synthetic threads and is symbolized by Nm and is based on the number of 1 kilometre hanks in one kilogram of synthetic thread. So size 100 is a fine thread and size 10 is extremely coarse.
Staple Yarn Spinning

The larger part of staple fibre, approx. 33 mio tons are processed in short staple spinning. This part of the spinning industry therefore is of great significance in the world of textile production.
Staple Yarn
Cut staple manmade fibers arrive in boxes at the mill and are ready for carding and processing into yarn. When two or more different staple fibers are mixed, it is critical to provide extensive blending before carding and repeated doubling of the sliver to assure intimate blending prior to roving and spinning. Staple yarn formation involves multiple steps and can include :

Fiber cleaning and opening (as needed for natural fibers); Fiber blending (to assure uniform mixing in natural fibers or in fiber blends); Carding (to al ign fibers and to remove short fibers); Combing (if highly aligned fibers are desired); Drawing and spinning (to reduced the denier of the yarn, to provide twist and to give cohesion to the yarn); and Doubling or plying and twisting of the yarns (as needed to provide greater uniformity).
Filament spinning systems are much less complex because the fibers are continuous and do not need to be highly twisted to give a cohesive strong yarn. Yarns can be made of staple fibres by any one of several techniques. The method used is depended upon factors such as:

Manufacturers preference of equipment Economic implications Fibres to be used Desired properties of the yarn
The value and character of yarn are determined by

Kind and quality of fibre Amount of processing necessary to produce fineness Amount of twist which increases strength in the final yarn
Staple spinning Processes:

Conventional ring spinning Open end spinning or rotor spinning Friction spinning Self twist spinning Electrostatic spinning Vortex spinning Air-jet spinning Twist less spinning (Twilo)
Filament Yarn Spinning

For transforming filament fibres to yarns involve processes such as Wet spinning, Dry spinning, Melt spinning, Bi-
component spinning, Bi-constituent spinning, ICS etc.
Filament yarn spinning systems:

Wet spinning Dry spinning Melt spinning Bicomponent spinning Biconstituent spinning Film splitting Integrated multicomponent yarns Coverspun yarns Selfil tyarns Aerodynamic spinning
Bi-component spinning:

The technique involves extrusion through a spinneret of two different types of the same polymer There are three methods of bicomponent yarn production o Side by side extrusion o Extrusion through one spinneret enclosed in an other o Distribution of drops of molten polymers
Bi-constituent spinning:
This technique utilizes two different polymers that are combined and extruded in the same manner
Film Splitting:
Melt extrusion of polymer through a wide die but with a very narrow slit to form a sheet of film which is later broken /cracked by mechanical means in to a mat of fibres Or embossed with a roller having patterned indentations to fibrillate the film
Integrated composite spinning(ICS):

The process entails passing a monofilament or a multifilament strand (Carrier) through a poly propylene Polymer (binder resin) and then immediately embedding part of the length of staple fibres in to the polymeric resin Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Different types of staples of different sizes and colours can be used to incorporate desirable properties, effects and appearances.
Cover spun:
The technique wraps fine continuous filament man made fibre around a core of untwisted natural or man made staple fibre to produce yarns in a wide range of counts.
Selfil:
The self twisted staple core is initially wrapped with a filament yarn in alternating S and Z phases; a second filament yarn is then wrapped around these in alternating opposite Z and S twists.
Aerodynamic Spinning:
This system passes a continuous Multi filament yarn together with staple fibre through a Pneumatic device which causes the filaments to twist and curl entrapping the staple fibres in the snarls.
Ring Spinning
The Ring Spinning is the most widely used form of spinning machine due to significant advantages in comparison with the new spinning processes. The ring spinning machine is used in the textile industry to simultaneously twist staple fibres into yarn and then wind it onto bobbins for storage. The yarn loop rotating rapidly about a fixed axis generates a surface referred to as "balloon". Ring frame settings are chosen to reduce yarn hairiness and the risk of glazing or melting the fibre.
What is Ring Spinning?
Ring Spinning is the oldest of the present day spinning processes. Fiber material is supplied to the ring-spinning machine in the form of roving. The fiber mass of the roving is reduced by a drafting unit. The twist inserted moves backwards and reaches the fibers leaving the drafting unit. The fibers lay around one another in concentric helical paths. The normal forces encountered by the fibers enhance the adhesive forces between the fibers and prevent fibers from flying or slipping past each other under the tensile strain. It is the process of further drawing out roving to the final yarn count needed, inserting twist to the fibres by means of a rotating spindle and winding the yarn on a bobbin. These three stages take place simultaneously and continuously.
A mechanically driven spindle, on which the yarn package firmly sits, is responsible for twist. A stationary ring is around the spindle, which holds the traveler. Yarn from the drafting unit is drawn under the traveler, and then led to the yarn package. In order to wind the twisted yarn on a bobbin tube carried by the spindle, the traveler is required to cooperate with the spindle. The traveler moves on the ring without any physical drive, but is carried along by the yarn it is threaded with. The rotation rate of traveler is lower than the spindle, and this difference in the speeds of traveler and the spindle enables the winding of the yarn on the tube. A controlled up and down movement of the ring determines the shape of the yarn package, called Cop or Bobbin. Ring spinning technology provides the widest range in terms of the yarn counts it can produce. Ring spinning is a comparatively expensive process because of its slower production speeds and the additional processes (roving and winding) required for producing ring spun yarns. Ring spun yarns produce high quality and are mainly produced in the fine (60 Ne, 10 tex) to medium count (30 Ne, 20 tex) range, with a small amount produced in the coarse count (10 Ne, 60 tex) range. End uses include high quality underwear, shirting, towels.The fibers in the ring yarn are highly parallel and helical in nature, and the fiber arrangement is uniform along the thickness of the yarn. The yarn has a compact structure, with essentially no wrapper or hooked fibers. The self-locked structure is the result of intensive fiber migration, which in turn is influenced by the triangular geometry of the spinning zone and the high spinning tensions. The high axial strength of the yarn is the result of unique self-locked structure.
Basic Principles of Ring Spinning

Some of the basic principles of Ring Spinning are as follows:1. Drafting Mechanism To attenuate roving until the desired fineness is reached.
2. Consolidation(strength) Mechanism To impart strength to the fiber by twisting it.
3. Winding and Package forming Mechanism To wind up the resulting yarn in a package suitable for storage, transportaion and further processing.
Ring-frame
The ring spinning frame, commonly called the ring, is the conventional spinning system and it transforms the roving from the roving frame into spun yarn using the operations of:

->Drawing ->Twisting ->Winding
In the last step of yarn production, the staple fibers are fed to the ring spinning frame, after passing through the blow room (opening and cleaning) and the carding frame, drawing frame and flyer (separation of individual fibers, parallelization, formation of a fiber tape). Here, the finished yarn is produced by drawing and rotating operations.
Some of the Operation involved in ring frame

1. Creel in 2. Drafting 3. Twisting 4. Laying out 5. Building 6. Doffing 7. Winding
Objectives of Ring Spinning

Following are the core objectives of ring spinning : 1. To draft the roving fed to the ring spinning frame i,e to convert roving into very fine strand called yarn. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
2. To impart strength to the yarn by inserting the necessary amount of twist.
3. To collect twisted strand called yarn onto handy and transportable package by winding the twisted thread on a cylindrical bobbin or tube.
How Ring Spinning effects the quality of the yarn?

Ring spinning is the first stage of post spinning in which yarn produced from the roving installed on the hanger on the ring machine. Ring process is the heart of textile plant and there is lot of factors which has an effect on the yarn quality.

Speed of machine makes a major role on the yarn quality, as the speed increase of ring machine, the imperfection (Neps 200%, Thick +50, Thin -50) of yarn increase. Hairiness is also affected in ring production process and mainly produced by the movement of burnt traveler and high speed of machine. CV of count is also very important and ring spinning process is the last stage of process where we can reduce the CV of yarn count. Imperfection of yarn count from quality point of view is so important that every customer required this quality standard, that imperfection should be as minimum as possible. Ring spinning process also effects on twist variation during manufacturing of yarn. It causes major problems during working in the next process
Open-End Spinning
The first functioning of rotor spinning ,machine was presented at the ITMA in 1967.Yarn spinning according to the rotor spinning principle predominates for all non conventional spinning methods.It omits the step of forming a roving.After drafting, the sliver is fed into a rotary beater.This device ensures that the fibers are beaten into a thin supply which enters a duct and gets deposited on the sides of the disc(rotor).The transportation of the fibers is achieved through air currents.
Open-end or Carded or Break or Rotor Spinning
Rotor Spinning is a more recent method of yarn formation compared to Ring Spinning. This is a form of open-end spinning where twist is introduced into the yarn without the need for package Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
rotation. Allowing for higher twisting speeds with a relatively low power cost. In rotor spinning a continuous supply of fibres is delivered from delivery rollers off a drafting system or from an opening unit. The fibres are sucked down a delivery tube and deposited in the groove of the rotor as a continuous ring of fibre. The fibre layer is stripped off the rotor groove and the resultant yarn wound onto a package. The twist in the yarn being determined by the ratio of the rotational speed of the rotor and the linear speed of the yarn. Sliver is fed into the machine and combed and individualized by the opening roller. The fibres are then deposited into the rotor where air current and centrifugal force deposits them along the groove of the rotor where they are evenly distributed. The fibres are twisted together by the spinning action of the rotor, and the yarn is continuously drawn from the centre of the rotor. The resultant yarn is cleared of any defects and wound onto packages. The production rates of rotor spinning is 6-8 times higher than that of ring spinning and as the machines are fed directly by sliver and yarn is wound onto packages ready for use in fabric formation the yarn is a lot cheaper to produce. Rotor spun yarns are more even,somewhat weaker and have a harsher feel than ring spun yarns. Rotor spun yarns are mainly produced in the medium count (30 Ne, 20 tex) to coarse count (10 Ne, 60 tex) range. End uses include denim, towels, blankets socks, t-shirts, shirts and pants. The use of this system has two basic advantages. It is fed by sliver, not as with the ringframe by roving, and so eliminates the speedframe from the process line. It can also be modified to remove any remaining trash, thereby improving the yarn quality. Open-end spinning produces a different type of yarn to ringframe spinning. Open-end yarns tend to be more uniform, lower in strength, more extensible, bulkier, more abrasion resistant and more absorbent. It is likely then with all of these differences, only some of which are beneficial, that open-end spinning will not replace ringspun yarn as originally thought, but will be a complimentary product. Open-end spinning operates at a rate up to five times that of ring spinning and can be effectively used for cotton, polyester-cotton blends, as well as other short and medium staple systems. Synthetic staple fibers such as polyester alone can not be effectively open end spun due to dusting of oligomer from the fibers that interferes with the spinning action of the rotor.
Working of Rotor Spinner's
Rotor spinning involves the separation of fibers by rigorous drafting and the then recollection and twisting of fibers in a rotor. The draw frame sliver is presented to a spring loaded feed plate and a feed roller. A combing roller covered with saw tooth wire clothing then individualizes fibers within the sliver. Once opened, the fibers pass through a transport tube in which they are further separated and parallelized before being deposited on the inside wall of the rotor. Centrifugal forces, generated by the rotor turning at highspeeds , cause the fibers to collect along the walls of the rotor, forming a ring of fibers. This fiber ring is then swept from the rotor by a newly formed yarn, which contains untwisted fibers. With each rotation of the rotor, twist is inserted, converting the Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
fiber bundle into a yarn as it is pulled out of the rotor through a navel. The yarn is then taken up onto a cross-wound package, thus separating the winding process from twisting. As the yarn is drawn from the rotor, some fibers lying at the peeling point may wrap around the yarn, resulting in the formation of random wrapper fibers, which are the characteristic of the open-end yarn structure. The rotor-spun yarn has a three-part structure, with a relatively dense core (80-90% of fibers), a loose but a continuous sheath that wraps around the core (5-20% of fibers) and tightly wound surface coils as wrapper fibers (0.5-2% of fibers). The fiber configuration in the rotor yarn is not nearly parallel as in the ring yarn. These factors make rotor yarn bulkier, and the non parallel fibers explain the inferior tensile properties. The relatively straight core fibers combined with the sheath core structure make the yarn more rigid in terms of tensile and bending properties. The yarn is weaker than ring yarn because of its three-part structure, poor fiber extent and less intensive fiber migration. The yarn is however more uniform as compared to the ring yarn because of the short-term mass leveling action that occurs inside the rotor. Rotor yarn exhibits the properties of high extensibility and elasticity, good abrasion resistance and good insulation properties. But at the same time the limitations faced by the rotor spinning include the requirement of finer and shorter fiber. Extensive opening operation leads to a lot of fiber breakage, especially if the fibers are crimped, thus shorter fibers result in a comparatively weaker yarn. Fiber extent also reduces due to bending and buckling of fibers resulting in poorer strength.
Ring vs. Open-end Spinning

Ring Spinning Bobbin rotates constantly for insertion of twist Cannot handle spools of bigger size Can spin finer yarns Uniform and strong yarn Combed yarns (finer) Yarns for varied applications Stronger Suitable for all staple fibres Open-end Spinning Spool does not need to be rotated to insert twist Much larger spools can be wound 3-5 times faster than ring spinning Uniform but flexible yarn with better dye ability Carded yarns (coarser) Yarns for heavier fabrics such as denims, towels and poplins 20% more twisted but 15-20% weaker as the yarn is coarser Not suitable for man-made staple fibre spinning except rayon as the fibre finish clogs the rotor
Air Jet Spinning

Air jet spinning has offered yarn manufacturers the opportunity to produce yarn at relatively high production rate. Unlike other spinning methods in which productivity is limited by the amount of twist in the yarn, Air Jet yarns can be produced at the same production rate regardless of yarn counts. Murata Vortex Spinners are one such leading Air Jet spinning machines which excel at producing finer yarns (Ne 40/1-60/1), because of the improved strength imparted to the smaller fibre bundle.
What is Air-Jet Spinning ?
Air-jet spinning is a pneumatic method which consists of passing a drafted strand of fibers through one or two fluid nozzles located between the front roller of a drafting system and a take up a device.Look at the figure which demonstrates the Murata principle of producing fasciated yarns with two nozzles N1 and N2. This has been shown to be superior to methods employing a single nozzle to spin the yarn. The drafting system S drafts the input material into a ribbon like form with parallel fibers.Air is injected into the two nozzles N1 and N2 at high pressures, which cause swirling air streams in opposite directions. Sliver is fed into the machine and is further drawn out to the final count and twist is inserted by means of a rotating vortex of high pressured air. The resultant yarn is cleared of any defects and wound onto packages ready for use in fabric formation. Some fibers, particularly those at the edges of the ribbon, will not be subjected to the full twisting action imparted to the main body of fibers by the downstream air-jet. Hence they receive less twist than those fibers in the main bundle. When the yarn gets untwisted in the downstream of the twister, the low twist edge fibers get untwisted to a greater degree than their original twist. Therefore they are given a true twist in the direction opposite to that of the upstream twist. The main body of the strand will be untwisted into parallel fibers, forming the core and these will be wrapped around by the edge fibers forming the wrapper fiber layer or the sheath, thus forming a fasciated yarn. The function of the back nozzle is to enhance the cohesion of the strand thus giving greater yarn strength.Since the direction of airflow in the back nozzle is opposite to that of the front nozzle, the back nozzle tends to untwist the wrapper fibers as they are formed inside the front nozzle. This increases the length of wrapping, thus improving the yarn cohesion. The air-jet spun yarn consists of an untwisted core of parallel fibers and a surface wrapping of fibers. The core fibers account for approximately 85-95% of the yarn mass. The surface wrapper fibers are helical in nature unlike the wrapper fibers in the rotor yarn. The wrapper fibers are not uniformly distributed over the length; sometimes they are more on the surface and sometimes very few are on the surface. Their frequency and tightness being influenced by the fiber physical properties and the spinning process parameters. The high level of constriction of the straight core fibers by the surface wrapper fibers results in high bending modulus of air-jet yarns.
The tensile strength is lower than that of rotor and ring yarns. More wrapping turns give better yarn strength, but at the same time higher wrapping frequency leads to higher bending rigidity and lower compressive softness. The untwisted core fibers contribute to very low snarling tendency of the air-jet spun yarns. Surface fibers twisted lightly around the core cause the yarn to be well suited for use as filling in air-jet weaving machines, as it can be propelled across the shed more quickly. The lack of twist in the air-jet yarn core is believed to contribute to the low pilling propensity of these Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
yarns. The pills can still be created from abrasion, but they are not locked into the structure because of the absence of the twist. Pills break away easily after they are formed. Also it has been shown that as the number of the core fibers increase, the proportion of the protruding fibers is reduced, resulting in lower yarn hairiness. The typical yarn properties exhibited by the air-jet yarns are good tenacity, good evenness, low snarling tendency, and low tendency to pilling, high stiffness and high shrinkage. The production rate of air jet/vortex spinning is 3-5 times higher than rotor spinning and 10-20 times that of ring spinning and, like rotor spinning, air-jet spun yarn is a lot cheaper to produce as it also uses fewer production stages. As is the case with rotor spun yarns, air jet yarns are more even, but weaker and have a harsher feel than ring spun yarns. Airjet spun yarns are mainly produced in the medium count (30 Ne, 20 tex) range and are mainly polyester/cotton blended yarns. End uses include woven sheeting and knitted lightweight shirting.
Basic requirements of Air-Jet Spinning Machines
The basic requirement of a successful spinning machine for fasciated yarns includes a good drafting system, false twisting device, a take up unit and the most important is the ability to afford some control over the quantity and distribution of wrapper fibers created on the yarn surface, since this ultimately controls the yarn quality. This was a major deficient in the previous air-jet spinning machines like Dupont which achieved a little commercial success. Murata Jet Spinning (MJS) uses contra-rotating twin jets, to achieve better wrapping of edge fibers. The studies have shown that jet spinning is sensitive to the number of fibers in the cross section. Since the strength directly depends on the wrapper fibers, and the number of wrapper fibers is restricted to the amount of edge fibers on the surface. Thus as the number of fibers in the yarn increases, the percentage of wrapper fibers decreases and the tenacity goes down. Also as the count becomes coarser the wrapping length reduces thereby reducing the tenacity. Thus two issues, namely higher number of wrapper fibers, and longer extent of wrapper fibers needed attention. Murata Vortex Spinning (MVS) technology uses more than two air-jets to create a 3 dimensional air vortex, and addresses some of the issues faced by earlier versions of air-jet spinning systems. Thus changing the system from 2 dimensional to 3 dimensional offers a significantincrease in the number of wrapper fibers by creating more edge fibers. Not only this, the fiber wrapping lengths also seems to have increased providing higher tenacity. The vortex spun yarn shows a two-part structure if small portions of the yarn are untwisted. The amount of untwisting required revealing the yarn structure varies considerably along the length of the yarn.
Why Air-jet Spinning?

Air-jet spinning has offered yarn manufacturers the opportunity to produce yarn at relatively high production rates. Some of the obstacles for the earlier generations of air-jet machinery included difficulty to make 100% cotton yarns and the generally harsh hand of the fabrics produced from them. Yarns are smoother to the touch because of the absence of wrapper fibers and improved fiber alignment. The technology is not suitable for spinning yarn counts coarser than Ne 12/1. Compared to ring yarns made from the same fiber properties, the primary drawback of yarns produced by the air-jet system relates primarily to their lower tenacity. It is also important to note that the system removes significant amounts of short fiber during the spinning process. Waste percentages typically range from 3-8%, depending on whether combed or carded cotton is being used. The removal of short fiber improves the yarns total imperfections and resultant fabric appearance/sheen. In addition, airjet yarns can be made with varying levels of hairiness that can directly influence the fabrics hand/softness while maintaining excellent resistance to pilling and abrasion.
Advantages of Air-jet Spinning

Creates functional & fashionable yarn Integration of three processes; roving, spinning & winding by the MJS Integration of four processes; roving, spinning, winding & doubling by the MTS User-friendly in operation management The spinning speed of 340m/min User-friendly in quality control Totally saves space, labor & energy
Advantages of Air-jet Yarns

Less hariness & Clear appearance High resistance to Pilling & abrasion High moisture absorption Less shrinkage & High wash resistance Can be spun with various other materials such as cotton, synthetic fiber, regenerated fiber and blended fiber. Yarn structure also suitable as core yarn.
Fabrics
Textile fabrics can be produced directly from webs of bres by bonding, fusing or interlocking to make non-woven fabrics and felts, but their physical properties tend to restrict their potential end-usage.The mechanical manipulation of yarn into fabric is the most versatile method of manufacturing textile fabrics for a wide range of end-uses. There are three principal methods of mechanically manipulating yarn into textile fabrics: interweaving, intertwining and interlooping.All three methods have evolved from hand-manipulated techniques through their application on primitive frames into sophisticated manufacturing operations on automated machinery. 1. Interweaving is the intersection of two sets of straight threads, warp and weft, which cross and interweave at right angles to each other.Weaving is by far the oldest and most common method of producing continuous lengths of straight-edged fabric. 2. Intertwining and twisting includes a number of techniques, such as braiding and knotting, where threads are caused to intertwine with each other at right angles or some other angle. These techniques tend to produce special constructions whose uses are limited to very specic purposes. 3. Inter-looping consists of forming yarn(s) into loops, each of which is typically only released after a succeeding loop has been formed and inter-meshed with it so that a secure ground loop structure is achieved.The loops are also held together by the yarn passing from one to the next. (In the simplied illustration this effect is not illustrated.) Fabrics are produced mostly from yarns. Few fabrics are directly produced from fibers. Fabrics are made from yarns and are constructed mostly either by weaving or knitting. Weaving Major portion of the fabrics are produced by weaving. Among the other fabric constructions, lace making is worth mentioning. Felts are fabrics made directly from fibers without making yarns. A wide variety of woven fabrics are available in today's market. An average consumer is unaware of many fabrics and their suitability for a specific end use. Clothing refers to the various articles used to cover the body. Apparel may be divided into two classes. First one the desire for warmth and for protection against elements, Secondly the desire for satisfaction we receive from wearing clothing that makes us appear to advantage. Baby's cloths need not be full of frills or elaborate, since the baby's comfort should be the main criterion. Their clothes are meant to protect them from colds and chills, while allowing enough freedom of movement for the limbs. Clothes should not be tight as they will hamper the circulation and breathing.
The appearance of a garment is greatly influenced by the fabric used for construction, not all fabrics are suitable for all garments. To choose a suitable fabric for a specific end use calls for basic knowledge in fabric construction and types of fabrics available in the market.
What is fabric?
Fabric or cloth is a flexible artificial material that is made by a network of natural or artificial fibers. Cloth is mostly used in the manufacturing of clothing and household furnishings etc. Cloth is made in many varying strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer fabrics to sturdy canvas sailcloths.
Major classification of Fabric Constructions

Woven Fabrics
Woven fabrics are made by using two or more sets of yarn interlaced at right angles to each other. Much variety is produced by weaving. Woven fabrics are generally more durable. They can be easily cut into different shapes and are excellent for producing styles in garments. However the raw edges ravel or fray easily and need to be protected. Fabrics having more fabric count (number of wrap and weft yearns present) keep the shape well. Low count fabrics are less durable and may snag or stretch. Woven fabrics are manufactured in different widths depending on the end use. The fabrics used for apparels usually contain 90 cms width. The Sheeting materials are generally made having a width of 160 cm/140cms and 150cms/180 cms.
Knitted Fabrics
Knitting is the construction of an elastic, porous fabric, created by interlocking yarns by means of needles. Knitted fabrics can be made much more quickly and easily than woven fabrics at comparatively less cost. Knitted fabrics are generally light in weight, comfortable in wear even during travel, but yet require little care to keep their neat appearance. The tendency of knits to resist wrinkling is another factor to boost up their popularity. Knitted fabrics are used for designing active clothing such as sports clothing. Their elastic nature permits for abundant physical activity. Knitted fabrics are produced by two general methods. Warp knitting and weft knitting. They are made as flat or tubular fabrics depending on the end use. Tubular fabrics may not have any seams at the sides where as flat fabrics are treted just like woven fabrics.
Laced Fabrics
Lace is an open work fabric consisting of a network of threads or yarns formed into intricate designs. Laces are developed for beauty and adornment. Lace which looks so delicate is made out of strong yarns looped or twisted together in a more complicated manner than any other methods of construction. Thus they are expensive too. They are manufactured in many widths, shapes and in limitless variety of patterns. Hand made laces are more expensive than machine made laces. As expensive goods are preferred only by few, the machine made laces are more popular among consumers. Laces are Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
produced either in the form of a fabric or in a shape suited for a particular end use. They are mostly used as trimmings, on apparels and home furnishings.
Trimming Laces: A wide variety of patterns are available in laces used for trimmings. They are produced having narrow width ranging from 1 cm or less width. They are available at various costs and certainly with in the range of average consumer. They are used as decorative materials, apparels and other household materials. Nylon Net Laces: Generally these fabrics contains a net back ground on which patterns are made. These fabrics are machine made less expensive and are mostly used as curtains.
Woolen fabrics
Woolen fabrics are made from woolen yarn over wide range. These are generally made in plain weave and sometimes in twill weave. They are loosely woven fabrics. They are characterized by extreme softness and not very durable when compared to worsted. These fabrics are used for coats and for other household purposes.
Worsted fabrics
Worsted's are woven from long tightly twisted fibres of 2-8" in length these fibres are usually woven in to a design or in twill weave, and are given a smooth finish which brings out the luster of the fabric and the design of the weave. Bread cloth and light weighted flannels are examples of fabrics made with worsted yarns for warp and woolen yarns for filling.
Blended Fabrics/Textile Composites

It is important to observe that production of staple yarn is not limited to composition from one kind of fiber the staple of two or more kinds of fibers may be combined for blended at different stages. When different types of fibers are blended, the properties of these fibers are also combined in the blended yarns. Textile composites are generally used for high technology products for industry, the military and aerospace.
Stitch-Through Fabrics
Stitch through or stitch bonding is a relatively new technique for constructing fabrics in which two sets of yarns or masses of fibers are stitched together into a fabric structure by another set of yarns.
Films
Since films are not considered to be true textiles. They are sometimes laminated to textiles. They are sometimes laminated to textiles and therefore may be part of the structure of some textile products. They are synthetic polymers extruded in the form of sheets rather than as fibers. In some cases, these films are eventually made into fibrous form by a process called fibrillation or by cutting the sheet into fibers.
Non Woven
Masses of fibers can be held together into a fabric by interlocking of fibers by mechanical action or by fusing fibers together with heat, adhesive or chemicals. Examples of a few fabrics constructed by these means include felt, bark cloth, spun lace, spun bonded and needle-punched fabrics and bonded webs.
Knotted Fabrics
Some fabrics are created by knotting yarns together. Lace, nets, macrame and tatting are produce by knotting.
Braided Fabrics
Fabrics may be created by plaiting together yarns or strips of fabrics. The components are interlaced in a diagonal pattern over under one another to form a flat or tubular fabric of relatively narrow width.
Type of fabrics
Major kind of fabrics used for clothing, home furnishing and industrial usages - the page briefly describes almost all commonly used fabrics and its characteristics and usages.
Fabric Types
Fabrics are manufactured from various raw-materials which are available from nature or artificially generated or mix of both. Fabrics can be classified based on the origin of fibers and its processes or its end usage. Natural fabrics are those which are created from the fibers of animals coats, the cocoons of silkworms, and plants seeds, leaves and stems. It is breathable and never cause rashes apart from being soft and durable. Natural fabric is the best choice for everyone. It does not change color from UV light and there is no warming until the material looses its tensile strength. Synthetic or man-made fabrics are made from fibers which are either completely made from inorganic materials or organic materials combined with chemicals. Synthetic fabrics have numerous properties with the purpose for which it is produced and finished. Some are lightweight with ultra sheer while others are moisture wicking and fast drying. Few are very luxurious to imitate some other natural fabrics and some are very strong and tough.
Fabrics from Natural Fibers

Cotton Fabric
The fabric which is believed to be most soothing and safe is called as cotton fabric. Immense use of cotton fabric for infant s dresses or beddings is a live testimony of its softness and skin-friendliness. Cotton fabric has a distinctive feature that it adjusts easily with climatic requirements that is why it is called all-season fabric. In summer seasoncotton fabric keeps the body cool and absorbs the sweat easily whereas they give a warm feel if worn in winder season.
Silk Fabric
Silk counts to the strongest natural fabric in the world. Known for its softness, luster, beauty and luxurious look, silk fabric is one of the higher grade fabric providing comfort to the wearer in all types of weather. Keeping the body cool in summer and warm in winter, silk was discovered during 2640 B.C. in china. Today there are different variety of silk available in the market like Chiffon, Georgette, Organza, Crepe de Chine, Duponi, Noil, Pongee, Shantung, Tussar, etc. Because of its sheer variety of designs, weaving and quality, Indian silk textile are popular worldwide. Silk fabric is mainly used for making luxurious and expensive dresses and home furnishings. Indian silk textile is popular worldwide whereas USA is the worlds leading manufacturer of silk products with France and Italy are also involved in the same line producing high value sophisticated silk fabrics in Europe.
Linen Fabric
Linen is called as king of natural fabric. Linen is extensively used for apparel making and home furnishing as well. Linen, being a natural fiber is considered to be safe for all types of skin. Linen fabric is also suggested for sensitive skin as its natural properties makes it resistant for allergies. Linen fabric do not cause problems like irritation, allergic reaction etc. The natural fiber of linen makes it strong and durable. Linen is an easy maintainable fabric. No special treatments are required for linen; it can be simply washed by hands. Although linen is used for all kinds of clothing, yet mostly used for homefurnishing items like table cloth, bedspreads, curtains etc
Wool Fabric
Soft, strong and very durable wool fabric provide warmth and attractive appearance. It is the fabric which keeps the wearer dry while sweating and cool when it is hot. Wicking away perspiration from the body, wool fabric does not wrinkle easily and is resistant to dirt wear and tear. It is also having the quality of not burning when put over the flame, it only smolder. Felt made of wool fabric is used as covers for piano hammers. It is also used in absorbing odors and noise in machinery and stereo speakers. Wool fabric is being used for clothing for over twelve thousand years does not only come from sheep only, whereas widely used kashmiri sweaters are made from goats. Wool fabric is equipped with different characteristics like warm, resists to wrinkle, wear and tear, it is light weight and durable which also absorbs moisture. Have been largely used in blankets and carpets, today almost every wardrobe contains garment made of woolen fabric.
Leather Fabric
Comfortable in both hot and cold condition, leather fabric is not affected by surrounding temperature. Adding a classic luxury, pleasant to touch and comfortable, leather fabric is soft , elastic and firm. Leather fabric is blessed with the quality of absorbing water vapor without loosing dryness and retaining to the original shape when stretched.
Ramie Fabric
Ramie fabric having characteristics like moisture absorption, air permeability are valued as a summer fabric which are not harmed by mild acid and are resistant to alkali.
Hemp Fabric
Highly versatile hemp fabric is used in countless number of products like shoes, furniture, apparel, accessories and home furnishing. Hemp fabric is a fabric which is commonly known for its warmth, softness and durability. Providing beautiful lusture, hemp fabric is best for making apparel which can withstand harsh conditions and last longer. UV protected apparel fabric have an insulative quality that allows clothing to be cool in summer. Having characteristics like durability, absorption, insulation, apparel fabric withstand water better then any other textile product. It is obtained from stem of the plant, the finest hemp fabric is produced in Italy. Acting as a great choice for comfortable work clothes, home decoration, hemp fabric is also used in the manufacturing of clothing, curtains, draperies, upholstery, bedspreads, table linens, sheets, dish towels, canvas, etc.
Jute Fabric
Being among the strong and durable fabric, jute fabric is ideally being used as bags or sacks for packing since aging. The jute fabric is much soughed item for fashionable clothes, homefurnishing and fashion accessories. Bangladesh counts to the largest cultivator of jute fabric with India as the second largest jute goods manufacturer. The most important use of the jute fabric is in the manufacturing of carpets, linoleum, cordage and twines. It is sometimes used as webbing to cover inner springs of the auto seats. Sometimes used as fashion accessory used for fashion garments, tapestries, soft luggage, etc.
Fabrics from Man-made Fibers

Acetate Fabric
Made from the cellulose and obtained by reconstructing cotton or wood pulp, Acetate fabric is resistant to shrinkage, moth and mildew. Acetate fabric is fabric which gives extremely soft and luxurious look just like silk fabric.
Chiffon Fabric
Chiffon basically refers to a light plain woven sheer fabric with a soft drape. Chiffon fabric can be manufactured using different fibers like silk or synthetic, cotton etc. but chiffon is generally associated with fibers like nylon or silk. Chiffon fabric can easily be dyed in contrast to any desired shade. Chiffon is used for bridal gowns and also appears in evening dresses, prom dresses, and scarves. Chiffon can be made using various materials like silk, polyester, or rayon. Chiffon fabric is a classic choice for manufacturing blouses and various types of dresses. Chiffon fabric adds a magical look to the dress and wearer's personality.
Acrylic Fabric
Acrylic fabrics is a kind of the synthetic fibre that is artificially manufactured. Acrylic fabrics can also be referred as the imitation of wool. Acrylic fabrics is used to make loads of apparels and many other things. The main use of the Acrylic fabrics is in outfits like shirts and many other ladies outfits. Also, Acrylic fabrics is used in seats of chairs and sofas as well. Acrylic fabrics are known for their stiffness and ability of wear and tear resistance. Acrylic also does not losses the glaze for a longer period of time. Acrylic fabrics is available mainly in two forms that are 'Courtelle' and 'Orlon'. These fabrics are known for their durability and especially ?Orlon? is reckoned for its light weightiness. These kinds of Acrylic fabrics serve plenty of option in shapes and designs. In the market, there are several manufacturers and suppliers in the business of the Acrylic fabrics. That shows the popularity of Acrylic fabrics amidst masses. People prefer the Acrylic fabrics as they are available at the low rates than any other fabrics. In addition, these fibers are wear resistant stays for longer period of time. Acrylic fabrics is the finest example of the invention of the mankind in the fabric industry. And thence is looked up with a great value of pride when put on.
Organza Fabric
Organza basically refers to a thin, plain weave, a sheer fabric which is made out of continuous filament of silk yarn worms. In modern fashion era many organzas are woven with synthetic filament fibers like nylon and polyester but most of the stylish organzas are woven in silk. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
The most popular item made of organza fabric are bags. Various designs and shapes of organza fabric bags are attracting people towards them. Adding a nice touch with sophistication and uniqueness Organza fabric is the choice of millions.
Lastex Fabric
Lastex fabric basically refers to an elastic fiber that is made from Latex. Moreover, lastex fabric is used with other complex fibers with a intent to made different fabrics like spandex and foundation garments.
Nylon Fabric
The term nylon is derived from the New York and London. Nylon is yet another form of synthetic fibre that is commonly used amidst the masses. Fabric composed of nylon, called nylon fibre is used in variety of uses like clothing, sheets, covers, and many other domestic and industrial appliances. Nylon fabric is preferred amidst all other fabrics as it is really strong and has a strong ability of stretchiness. High elasticity of nylon fabrics makes it prime use in like of luggage baggage, wallets and many more. In addition, nylon fabrics are easy to maintain as gets cleaned and dried without any special effort. Nylon Fabrics are availed in the latest forms that are much more stiff and lighter in weight. Since it is highly durable, nylon fabric makes the cloth or the other long lasting and wears and tears resistant. Nylon is the polymer of amide, termed as polyamide extracted from the petroleum. Nylon is an easy product to manufacture as it needs less time and also lesser attention. That is indeed makes nylon fabrics a nice product to trade and make money. The increasing uses and popularity of Nylon fabrics have made the finest product to trade
Velvet Fabric
Velvet is one of the smoothest and softest amidst all the other kinds of fabrics. Velvets are specially manufactured and process because of its distinctive properties. Velvet fabrics are used in variety of appliances like clothing including trousers, shirts, and many more. Also, velvet fabric is used in bed sheets, covers, curtains and etc. Velvet fabric is no less than silk in any assessments whether be glossiness or be the unending glaze. Velvet fabric, due to its high class looks and price viability has made it the most preferred fabrics. In the modern times, velvet fabrics are availed in the multifarious designs and colors. And also are stronger and elastic than the previous times. The newer velvet fabrics needs less maintenance and can be easily washed and dried. Use of modern innovations in the composition of the velvet fabrics have made it more easily accessible to the common masses. Today in the market, there are numerous brands for velvet fabrics, and many more are too coming. With the healthy competition in the market, brands are offering new designs and colors for the velvet fabrics and that too at the least rates. That is why; market considers the velvet fabrics industry safer and secure place for investment
Polyester Fabric
Polyester is a type of fabric that is not found naturally. The polyester fabric is man made. The polyester fabric is widely used in various applications and is very much in demand in markets. This fabric has various qualities due to those it is so popular like wrinkle resistance and springing back into its smooth shape. The polyester fabric is very strong and soft as well. The polyester fabric can also be mixed with other fabrics to make a strong and durable fabric or to achieve any other motive. For example, In upholstery, polyester is generally blended with wool to eliminate crushing and reduce fading. There are various uses of polyester fabric like it is used in casement curtains, draperies, floor coverings, throw rugs, bedding, and as a cushioning or insulating material. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Taffeta Fabric
Taffeta fabric is a crisp, soft and smooth plain woven fabric which with its slight sheen manufactured out of different fibers like rayon, silk or nylon. Taffeta fabric is widely used in manufacturing of women's garments. The taffeta fabric has a unique rippled or wavy pattern which exhibits similarity to a water stain or mark, with dull and lustrous areas that reflect light differently. The word 'Taffeta' has its origin from Persia, and means "twisted woven". It is generally made with a plain weave, fine warp yarns and heavier filling yarns. A good quality taffeta fabric represents the artwork in optimum manner.
Denim Fabric
Denim fabric is a rugged cotton twill. In denim fabric the weft passes under two or more than two warp fibers that produces the common diagonal ribbing which is identifiable on the back of the fabric. The diagonal ribbing separates the existence of denim fabric from cotton duck. The denim fabric is generally colored with indigo dye to create blue jeans though jean denoted a distinct lighter cotton textile. Denim fabric is used at a large scale all over the world economies. Its vivid texture and ability to provide extreme comfort makes it one of demanding fashion entities all over. With blissful shopping experience, people are moving toward more purchasing new innovative designs of denim fabric.
Rayon Fabric
Rayon fabric is basically that synthetic textile fiber which is obtained by forcing a cellulose solution through fine spinnerets. In other words, rayon fabric is a final result of solidifying filaments. Rayon is a unique type of fabric that cannot be termed either a synthetic fabric or natural one. The process of making rayon is quite distinct; through which natural raw supplies are transformed to make it practical. Rayon is a fabric that can be woven or knit; further ensuring a versatile use. The efficiency of rayon fabric is comparatively much higher than taffeta or other cotton fabric. It is economical too. Apart from this, its soft texture makes rayon one of the most lovable fabrics. Rayon fabric is widely used in making of number of apparels and home furnishing items.
Spandex Fabric
Because of its great shape retention quality, spandex fabric is widely used as fashion fabric. The important point to note about spandex fabric is that it bounce back to its original structure even after stretching up to 600 times. Highly durable superior strength spandex fabric is resistant to dry heat and oil. Providing great comfort and flexibility it does not put on weight on the body of the wearer. With the characteristics like elasticity, retaining back to original shape, resistance to dry heat and abrasion, spandex fabric feel and fits better when blended and of course make one look better. With its great shape retention qualities, spandex is used in making undergarments and support hose. It creates a less confined feel and becomes more stronger and versatile piece of clothing. Providing resistance to perspiration and body oils spandex fabric is more stable and durable.
Georgette Fabric
Georgette is a sheer and strong silk or silk like clothing fabric that often comes with a dull, creped surface. In simple words, it is a sheer lightweight fabric that provides utmost comfort. This is fabric is usually made out of silk or polyester. As compared to chiffon, it is opaque and slightly heavy. If it comes to least expensive and much practical fabric then a large number of couture prefers georgette. Due to its exquisiteness and uniqueness, a georgette fabric proves a demanding item in the fashion industry.
Viscose Fabric
Since its invention, viscose is widely used for coating fabric. Its development with the passage of time has led to viscose being spun into thread for embroidery and trimmings. As the further development take place, viscose had entirely replaced the old wool and cotton and its being widely used for women's stocking and underwear. Due to its perishable nature, viscose is often refused to be used in the manufacturing of solid objects like umbrella handles etc. Nowadays, viscose fabric is widely used for lining and furnishing because it provides the staple for towels and table-cloths.
Grey fabric Fabric

Due to its cost effectiveness, exquisiteness and longevity, grey fabric has been widely used for cloth manufacturing. Uniquely woven grey fabric has become increasingly popular in appreciation of increased market demand. Clothes made out of grey fabric can simply be termed as stunning in each and every aspect. Showcasing immense aesthetics and revealing a tendency of glamor, clothes made using grey fabric are ruling the international market. A blissful shopping could be conducted with the availability of different textures, finishes and sizes of grey fabric.
Polypropylene Fabric
Polypropylene fabric is especially meant for winter seasons, because the only layer of hundred per cent polypropylene rib knit generally stays dry and due to this feature it keeps one's body warmer. A high quality lightweight polypropylene fabric is preferred in winter season because it is allows user to perform any moderate activity in cold weather at ease. Polypropylene fabric basically consists of hydrophobic which relinquishes any possibility of moisture in such fabric and further its pushes the moisture vapor away from the skin. Entailing a large number of features, polypropylene fabric can simply be termed stunning in each and every aspect.
Satin Fabric
Satin fabric is also said to be the most elegant fabrics. The reason behind is its astonishing looks and smooth surface. Satin fabric is used in loads of apparels and many others things. Especially for women, satin fabric is used in variety of apparels like blouse, panties, gowns, and many more clothing. Also, satin fabric is used for bed sheets, curtains and many other decorative purposes. The glossiness of the satin fabric really makes the material high class. At top of that, satin fabric is availed in multifarious color options like black, red, green, purple, blue and etc. Satin fabric is generally composed of silk or rayon and that is why it is so smooth. Also, satin fabrics are availed in various weights and normally are very light. Also, satin are very delicate and are manufactured with a great deal of care and attention. Satin fabrics needs a fine set up of manufacturing and processing unit as each and every strand of the satin Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
fabric must be well knitted. Satin fabric s huge demand amidst the masses is not a new thing as has been the most demanded fabric since a long time. In the present too, with the innovative designer apparels, satin fabric usability range has expanded like never before.
Fabrics for Special Uses

Industrial Fabric
Industrial fabric is a fabric which is usually made from man-made fibers like fiberglass, carbon, and aramid fibers. It covers a wide variety of widths, weights and construction particularly made to meet a specific application. Industrial fabric are used for decorative purposes. Industrial fabric is woven in various thicknesses and constructions in basic weave, namely plain, leno, satin,basket etc. It is primarily used for filtration, marine and recreational products, insulation,electronics, commercial & construction and protective garments etc.
Fiberglass Fabric
Fiberglass is a material that generally consists of extremely fine glass fibers and often used in manufacturing different products like fabric, yarns, insulators and structural objects.
Filter Fabric
A filter fabric is well known for its functionality and longevity. However a filter fabric is known for its high temperature and chemical resistance.
Carbon Fabric
Carbon fabric is generally used in different applications such as Brake linings, Aircraft interiors, Windmill blades, Tooling, Primary and secondary structures, Racing helmets and so on. Widely used in aerospace application, carbon fabric provides maximum degree of stiffness in aircrafts. An exquisitely created carbon fabric is well known for its light weight and hight strength. A carbon fabric is also characterized by different types of features such as Fire resistant, Dimensionally stable, Lightweight, High strength etc.
Vinyl Fabric
It is well observed that a large number of vinyl fabrics satin and spot resistant. Vinyls fabric is generally created with ultraviolet stabilized pigments and this segment proves much crucial if one's application regarding vinyl fabric involves direct exposure to sunlight.
Plain Fabric
Plain fabrics are well known for their soberness and long lasting durability. Clothing made our of plain fabric can simply be termed as the most impressive and exclusive range of clothing available today. With the available different varieties of plain fabric, the choice is endless. Plain fabrics are also well known for their durability and cost effectiveness. The clothing made using plain fabric is totally capable of impressing absolute anybody with its unique qualities and aesthetic appeal. A quality that along with its comfort, palin fabric clothes are extremely popular for leisure wear. Among the vast accumulation of available fabric, plain fabric is most popular fabric. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Blended Fabric
Blended Fabrics are the compositions of the strands extracted either from natural resources or artificially by treating chemicals. There are several kinds of fabric like synthetic fabric, natural fabric and many others. Blended fabric is the special form of the fabrics that constitutes two or more elements properties. The specialty of the blended fabric is that it is different in the composition and looks. Also, blended fabric is stiffer and resistant to any kind of depreciation by any means. There are many forms of the blended fabrics, lets have a look on them

Silk blended fabric: Silk in the blended fabric makes it astonishing in looks and style. It raises the standards of the blended fabrics. Also, silk blended fabrics are known for their smoothness and nonpareil high quality. Jute blended fabric: jute is the finest example of the stiffness and durability. Hence the jute blended fabric is also stiffer and sustains the high quality for a longer period of the time. Also, jute blended fabric is used in various purposes as the fabric is capable of holding any kind of weight. Apart from the above there are several kinds of the blended fabric. Blended fabrics are scientifically approved and found appropriate for any kind of usability.
PTFE Fabric
A PTFE fabric is well renowned for its excellent non-stick surface that allows user to carry his work smoothly and efficiently. It is well observed that a PTFE fabric is resistant to tears and abrasions. Long lasting durable, PTFE fabric remains stagnant even at high temperatures. PTFE fabric is resistant from chemical, corrosion, and moisture. The uniqueness and exquisiteness of PTFE fabric capable of impressing absolutely anybody. A high quality PTFE fabric has gained immense popularity in appreciation of increased market demand.
Crewel Fabric
A wide range of crewel fabric come from Kashmir in north-western India. Because of its versatility, a crewel fabric is widely used for the manufacturing of curtains, light upholstery, bedheads, cushions and bed covers and so on. Due to its longevity, exquisiteness and with its aesthetic appeal, crewel fabric has been ruling the international market. The availability of crewel fabric in subtle lustrous color and rich texture makes it one of the most demanding items. A crewel fabric possess the capability to complement various types of body tones.
Stretch Fabric
Stretch fabric is a fabric referring to the normal fabric, which stretches in all four directions. Simplifying the construction of clothing stretches fabrics are commonly used in swimsuits. They were originally being used in the mid 1980s by large number of fashion designers. Entering mainstream market in the early 1990, Stretch fabrics are widely used in sports wear. Sometimes Stretch fabric is also termed as Stretch woven fabric when it is blended with stable fiber of cotton, wool or synthetic. When it comes to talk about stretching, then Stretch fabric is very easy to Stretch in one or both directions presenting the traditional look and lot of comfort. Stretch fabric have better shape retention and are wrinkle resistance because of which they are more comfortable to wear.
Reflective Fabric
Reflective fabric is the nicest instance of the expanded usability of the fabrics. This has been all possible just because of the continuous innovation in the science field. Reflective fabric is known for their ability to reflect the light to the farthest distance possible. That is why; reflective fabric is used in countless usability, few of them are listed below:
In the streets: - the reflectors and the alerts are made up of the reflective fabric. It is generally red in color as red has the largest ability to reflect. Also, it can be visible from the very long distance that makes the traffic flow smoothly. Especially in the night vision, reflective fabrics are proven to be the boon. Security- life jackets are made by the reflective fabrics. Also, other apparels are made by the reflective fabrics. Reflective fabrics help in notify the person in the crowd or any kind of situations. Coast guards and even police sometimes have their dresses made up of the reflective life jackets.
There are many other numerous usability of the reflective fibers, making it the finest fabrics that are great in durability and usability as well.
Quilted Fabric
Quilting is the art of covering the fabrics for frontal and back, both the sides. The fabrics composed by the sides are generally said to be the quilting fabric. Quilted fabrics are generally made for products like bags, clothing and mattresses. Quilted fabrics can blend any of the material like cotton, polyesters, silk and many more including the wool. Quilted fabrics have been in the daily uses since ages. With the time, quilted fabric has been innovated and modernized in its composition and designs as well. Quilted fabric is also available in countless colors and shapes. Especially, the variety in the quilted fabric can be witnessed in the jackets and mattresses. Quilted fabric is now the new status symbol, as masses take a great matter of pride in owning. Apart from the glaze and astounding looks, other reasons of the popularity of the quilted fabric are its unlimited usability. Quilted fabrics are soft in nature and hence can be threaded easily. Also, needs less maintenance, as is easily washable and dryable. The quilted fabrics can sustain the original high quality for the longer period of time than nay other fabrics availed in the market. At top of that, luxurious looking quilted fabric is priced at the most affordable rates for the common people.
Polyethylene Fabric
Polyethylene fabric is a distinct fabric that is highly acclaimed in the domestic and industrial sectors. Polyethylene fabric is known for its unmatchable density and strength that is superior to all others. Polyethylene fabric is a type of a synthetic fabric that is manufactured in the labs. The polymerizing the ethylene results in the stiffer product called polyethylene that is later used for the fabric. Polyethylene fabric is used for loads of purposes:
Domestic-polyethylene fabric is the finest replacement of the traditional fabrics for all kinds of bags. Polyethylene fabric is able to hold a lot more weight than previous ones. People like it as is very light and is wear and tear resistant. Also, it is highly elastic that makes it stretchy. It is used in various toys like jumping pads. Industrial-polyethylene fabric is used for machineries. Also, the tough woven fabric is used in the industries at the large scale. The newest technology in the polyethylene fabric has enhanced the usability of the fabric, like in manufacturing and packaging units.
Polyethylene fabric has many more purposes than above. That s why in the market, the demand of the polyethylene fabric is climbing day by day.
Narrow Fabric
Fabrics are something that we daily come across. With the clothing to the seats, the fabrics are the integral part of the lives. There are several sorts of the fabrics like synthetic fabrics, natural fabrics and many more depending upon their designs and usability. Narrow fabric is also the most commonly utilized fabrics in our daily lives. Narrow fabrics are the thicker version of the fabrics as its strands are thicker and stronger. That is why; narrow strands are used in the things that are used for heavy duties. The narrow fabric is availed in mainly in the following forms:
Laces- laces are used in shoes and many other tying purposes. Narrow fabrics in the laces make it strong and easy to grip on. In the recent times, there has been a revolution in the designs and shapes of the laces composed of narrow fabric. Now, laces, like ropes are commonly used in the daily appliances. Tapes- narrow fabrics are used to make the tapes. These tapes are great in appearance and stiff in the quality. These tapes are used for wrapping, decorating and many other purposes.
In the modern times, the usability of the narrow fabric has grown as it is light and has a splendid durability. That is why; narrow fabrics are hugely demanded in the global marketplace
Laminated Fabric
Sometimes the apparels, bags, beds are needed to be protected from the dust and other outer particles. This can be carried out through the laminated fabric, used to laminate all kind of clothing, sheets, covers, hand bags and many more. Laminated fabric safeguards the core thing from any kind of external particles that hampers the quality and the glaze. Lamination is carried our by the covering the material with the protective film on all the sides. That does not let water to pass through, making the material completely safe. However it is not completely air tight as moisture is allowed to let in the for the longer life of the fabrics. Laminated fabric adds the durability and sustains the quality. In the recent developments, laminated fabric designs and shapes have been transformed with the undue assistance of the modern tools and techniques. Also, people have shown a great deal of zeal in the laminate fabrics because of its astounding glossiness and superior style. Today, laminated fabric is one of the prime fabrics used for the decoration and giving the interior a luxurious touch. In addition, the availability of the newest kind of the laminated fabric and those too at the most affordable prices has made it own by anyone
Flocked Fabric
Flocked fabrics are the fabrics composed of several fabrics. The combination of different elements makes the flocked fabric inherit all the nicest properties of them. The flocked fabric is greatly demanded in domestic and international market both making it the most money making fabric in the fabric industry. Flocked fabrics are manufactured and traded by the loads of the people as it is one of the fabrics that's demand is rising day and night. Also, the attractive offers for flocked fabrics have made consumers to make most of the profit. The reason behind such a reputable fame is its unending usability. Flocked fabric is used in clothing of all kinds and also in many others purposes as well. Flocked fabrics are used in shirts, pants, trousers, inner garments and etc. in addition is used in laces and as other packaging threads as well. Flocked fabrics are known for their extraordinary gripping capabilities and since are the finest material to carve shoes or others. In seats, carpets, the flocked fabric is the best component as it is resistible all kinds of tribulations. Flocked fabric is availed in loads of nonpareil designs and shapes and can be shaped in any kind of moulds easily
Flame Resistant Fabric

Fire and many other casualties are very common in the daily lives. That is why people prefer fabrics that are flame resistible. The concept of the flame resistant fabric was possible due to the long research and experiments in the labs for several years. The first priority of the flame resistant fabric is that it should be convenient for the user. That means it should neither be too heavy nor too thin. Also, it should have a nice look that attracts the user. The good news is that such a high quality flame resistant fabric is now easily available. The latest flame resistant fabric is simply superb in fa ade and has the longest durability. Flame resistant fabric is used in variety of apparel and many others like curtains, sheets and many more. The flame resistant fabric is composed of chemicals and other components that make it easily hold in any amount of heat and flame. Also, does not loose the glaze or the quality level for a longer period of time. With the awareness in the masses, flame resistant fabric is becoming globally apt clothing and for many other usability. Also, with the pleasant intrusion of the big brands in the flame resistant fabric, has made it the latest trend amidst masses especially younger generation.
Woven Fabrics
Woven fabrics are made by using two or more sets of yarn interlaced at right angles to each other. Much variety is produced by weaving. Woven fabrics are generally more durable. They can be easily cut into different shapes and are excellent for producing styles in garments. However the raw edges ravel or fray easily and need to be protected. Fabrics having more fabric count (number of wrap and weft yearns present) keep the shape well. Low count fabrics are less durable and may snag or stretch. Woven fabrics are manufactured in different widths depending on the end use. The fabrics used for apparels usually contain 90 cms width. The Sheeting materials are generally made having a width of 160 cm/140cms and 150cms/180 cms.
Woven Fabric Types

Buckram
It is a stiff coated fabric made from a light weight loosely woven fabric, impregnated with adhesives and fillers. This fabric is used as interfacing so as to provide support and shape rentention to necklines, collars, belts, cuffs, waist bands, button closures etc in garments. They are also used as reinforcements for hand bags and other articles.
Cambric
Cambric a light weight fabric woven in plain weave and produced with a stiff finish. It is suitable for women's dresses and children's dresses that require crispness.
Casement
Casement is a medium weight cotton fabric made of closesly packed thick warp yarns. Generally it is used for curtains, tablelinen, upholstery and rarely used for dresses.
Cheese Cloth
It is popular light weight sheer fabric having open weave. It has a low count fabric consisting of carded yarns. Originally it was used for wrapping cheese or meat and hence the name. It is neither strong nor durable. It is finished in a variety of Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
ways that attract the consumer. It is used not only for women's and children's dresses but also for drapery fabrics. Due to its open structure, it does not require much ironing.
Chiffon
Chiffon fabrics are sheer, light weight fabrics made of hard twisted yarns. Originally these are made in silk fabrics but today they are made from rayon or polyester. They are used for sarees and women's evening wear. The fabrics encounter with the problem of shrinkage.
Chintz
Chintz is a medium weight, plain woven cotton yarn. It is often given a glazed finish which may be temporary or semi permanent glazed chintz are available in solid colour as well as printed with floral prints. These are often made from blends of cotton and polyester or rayon. They are used for skits, dresses, blouses, pyjamas, aprons and draperies.
Corduroy
It is a cut pile fabric available in solid colours. The cut pile fibres are seen in the form of ribs on the surface. It is mainly used for pants, jeans and shirts.
Crepe
A silk fabric is originally characterised by a crinkle, puckered surface formed by highly twisted yarns in the warp or weft or both. By using ordinary yarns similar crepe effects can also be produced. Synthetic fabrics also impart crepe effect finish. It is used for sarees, shirts, women and children's dresses.
Denim
It was traditionally a yarn dyed, warp faced cotton twill fabric. Warp is usually coloured (mostly blue, maroon, green and brown) and weft is white. This fabric is made of two weights for sports wear and overalls. It's use as jeans has made it very popular and so the nature of denim is also changed to suit the trend. It is often napped, printed and made with stretch yarn.
Drill
It is a warp faced twill woven fabric. It has a stiff finish. Originally it was produced in white and now it is available in solid colours. It is mairly used for pants, knickers and uniforms.
Flannel
Flannel is a woollen fabric woven in plain or twill weave having characteristic soft handle. It looks like a bulky fabric due to the milling that is usually done to this fabric. Flannel fabric is used for suits and pants and infacnt's clothing. This fabric is popular as cleaning fabric due to its extreme softness. This is also used to protect children from cold atmosphere.
Gabardine
Gabardine is a closely woven, clear finished warp faced twill fabric. It contains more number of warp yarns than weft yearns and also more durable. It is usually woven in 2/1 or 2/2 twill and has a raised diagonal twill effect on the right side. It largely used for rain coats, suitings and sports wear.
Georgette
Georgette is a sheer light weight fabric, woven in plain weave. It has a characteristic rough texture produced by hard twisted ply, yarns both in warp and weft. Originally it was made in silk, but today it is produced in rayon and polyester too. It's mainly suitable for women's evening wear.
Kashmir Silk
Kashmir silk is a silk fabric produced in plain weave and is either embroidered or printed. The motifs used are characteristic of Kashmir. It is used for shirts, women's wear and sarees. Kashmir shawls are woven in twill weave and is usually embroidered with traditional Kashmiri embroidery.
Khadi
Khadi is a term used to a wide variety of fabics that are hand spun and hand woven. They are produced in mainly one cotton fibre, blends of two or more fibres. They are known for durability, and simplicity. The fabrics can be suitings dhoties overalls and household textiles.
Lawn
Lawn is a fine sheet, light weight, crisp fabric either made in cotton or linen. Various finishes are given to this fabric, in which the fabric is called by the name of the finish. It is mainly used as lining in dress.
Mulmul
It is an Indian term generally applied to fine cotton fabric slightly heavier, than muslin. These are often printed fabrics. They find use as sarees.
Muslin
Muslin is a light weight open cloth of plain weave. It may be used as grey or bleached and dyed. It is used as household textiles and dress materials. Organdy Originally it is a lawn fabric which is given a stiff finish. Acid is used for this finish to make the fabric transparent and stiff. It is mainly used for women's wear.
Poplin
Poplin is a medium weight, cotton fabric hving a fine weft rib. it is generally used for shirting, dresses and upholstery. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Sheeting
These are primarily used for bed coverings. They are medium weight, closely woven fabrics woven eigther in plain or twin weave. Sheeting fabrics are made in different widths. High quality cotton sheetings are made in plain weve with a width of 64" x 58" and in twill weave with a width of 60"x72".
Taffeta
Taffeta is a smooth, crisp, transparent fabric having a fine rib. Originally it is made with silk fibres but now it is also made in rayon. It has a characteristic finish which produces crispness. It is used as women's evening wear.
Tissue
It is a fine fabric either made in silk or man made fibre. They are characteristically interwoven with gold or silver threads. It is produced in rich colours and they are used as women's dress material, sarees etc.
Velvet
It is a warp cut pile fabric, originally made from silk. It is also produced in Rayon. The dense cut pile makes it very soft and lustrous. It is used as dress materials for women and children. It is also produced with special high twisted yarns which are single or ply yarns. Based on the yarns used and twist given, they are named as semi violes (single yarns1x1) full voiles. (ply yarns 2x2) or half voile (double in warp and single in weft 2x1).
Knitted Fabrics
Knitting is the construction of an elastic, porous fabric, created by interlocking yarns by means of needles. Knitted fabrics can be made much more quickly and easily than woven fabrics at comparatively less cost. Knitted fabrics are generally light in weight, comfortable in wear even during travel, but yet require little care to keep their neat appearance. The tendency of knits to resist wrinkling is another factor to boost up their popularity. Knitted fabrics are used for designing active clothing such as sports clothing. Their elastic nature permits for abundant physical activity. Knitted fabrics are produced by two general methods. Warp knitting and weft knitting. They are made as flat or tubular fabrics depending on the end use. Tubular fabrics may not have any seams at the sides where as flat fabrics are treted just like woven fabrics.
Knitted Fabric Types

Jersey Knit
These fabrics are weft knitted and are characterised by distinct but flat vertical lines on the face and dominant horizontal ribs on the reverse side. Fancy varieties are also produced. They are used in making hoisery sweaters, sports wear etc.
Rib knits
These fabrics are made by using rib stitch with two sets of needles. These fabrics are used where stretch is desired as they show excellent degree of elasticity. Rib knits are warm to wear. They are used as apparels such as shirts, blouses, body stockings etc. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Double knit
Double knits are produced by the interlock stitch. The fabrics is riblike in appearance on both the sides. Decorative fabrics are also produced by jacquard attachment. These fabrics show good dimensional stability and are easy to cut and sew. They do not require any seam finishes as the fabric does not ravel. They are firm, heavier, less stretchable and more resilient. Double knits are commonly made from polyester, cetate or wool fibres. They find use as every durable apparels.
Knitted fur fabrics

A wide range of knitted fur fabrics are available in the market. The fabrics are produced by pile knitting. The extra set of soft filament yarns used form the pile on the surface of the fabric. The pile is cut and the fabric are finished similar to the original fur. These fabrics are mainly used for coats and trimmings for other dresses.
Blended Fabrics
The variety of natural and man made fabrics available today, offers a wide selection of fibres for use. But all fabrics are not perfect in one way or other. They all have some good, fair and poor charcteristics. Man's desire, to produce perfect fabrics resulted in the production of blended fabrics. An intimate mixture of two or more fibres spun together is a blend. The individual yarns contain two or more different fibres. Blending of cellulosic fibres with man made fibres to produce fabrics with improved characteristics has long been accepted throughout the world. The use of blended fabrics have been tremendously increased even in India. The price structure and multi fibre policy of government have increased the use of cellulosic blended fabrics. The properties of the fibres blended are combined and made into a modified state in blended fabric. If blending is done carefully the good qualities of the fibres are emphasized minimising the poor qualities. Blending requires knowledge of both fibre sciene and art. It enables the technician to produce a perfect fabric for perfect use.
Reasons why fabrics are blended

1. The important reason for blending fibres is to produce better performance. By blending we can improve the characteristics that are poor in one fibre, by blending it with another type of fabrics that excel in those characteristics For example polyester when blended with cotton, the resultant fabric has moderate absorbancy which is almost nil in polyester. 2. To improve the texture, hand or feel and appearace of fabrics blending of wool fibres with polyester produces the desired texture for suiting materials. Viscose when blended with cotton improves it's lusture and softness and there by enhances it's appearance. 3. To reduce the cost This is sometimes one of the important reasons for blending of fibres. The cost of a very expensive fabric can often be reduced by blending with another cheap fibre. For example expensive wool is blended with cheaper polyester to reduce the cost. 4. To produce cross dyed efffects Fibres with unlike dye affinity are combined and dyed together so that it produce interesting cross dyes effects as one fibres take up the colour and the other retains its original colour. 5. To improve the spinning, weaving and finishing efficiency for example the spinning efficiency of polyester is improved by blending with cotton to produce spun yarns. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Blending may be done before or during spinning. It can be done at the opening and blending stage. though it facilitates perfect blending it poses problems and so it is not in much use. Even at the sliver stage over drawing or roving or spinning frames blending can be done. Blending over drawing frame is most commonly used today. slivers of different fibres are combined over drawing frame depending on blend ratio. They are drawn to get a single silver which is later processed into yarn.
Types of Blended Fabrics

Among the various tyes of blends available today, the most popular fabrics are terry cotton, terry wool, polyester viscose. Polyester cotton viscose blends are most common. Various effects and combinations of properties are produced from these blends depending on the fibres used and the percentage of these fibres used in each blend.
Terry Cotton
Fabrics of various blend ratios are available in the market today. A blend of 65% polyster and 35% cotton is common. The other blend ratios are 67/33, 70/30, 50/50, 45/55, 52/48, 80/20 polyester and cotton respectively are also available. A blend of 65/35 polyester and cotton produces satisfactorily a fabric for daily wear. 59/50 blend produces more softer and more absorbent fabric. Polyester when blended with cotton contributes more strength wrinkle resistance and shape; retention, cotton produces comfort as it provides absorbency and heat conduction. The polyeste r cotton blend is most suited for not only India but also for other tropical countries.
Terry-wool Suiting Fabrics

The excellend shape retention of polyster is the foremost contribution to worsted fabrics which show poor shape retention. Polyester provides excellent wrinkle resistance and crease retention that contributes to shape retention whether wet or dry. Depending on the blend ration polyester increases the strength of wool fabrics. Wool provides warmth resiliency, drapability and absorbency depending on the blend ratio. Blends of polyester and wool are available in ranges from 65% polyster and 35% wool to 60/50, 55/45, 5/50 respectively. A blend of 65/35 will be suitable to produce a light weight, all season suiting. for medium worsteds 60/40 blend is suitable. When more warmth is required 50/50 blends should be opted.
Polyster Viscose Rayon

The blend of polyester with viscose contributes durability, resiliency and shape retention. The wet strength of the resultant fabric is also improved, viscose provides absorbency, soft texture and variety of colour. Blend of polyester and viscose generally ranges from 65% of polyester and 35% viscose to 55/45, 45/55, 48/52 respectively. Among these blend levels 48/52 and 65/35 are commonly used for school uniforms and suiting materials.
Denim Fabrics
Denim is a strong, durable fabric constructed in a twill weave with indigo and white yarns. The blue/indigo yarns are the lengthwise or warp threads (parallel to the selvage). The white yarns run across the fabric width (the weft threads). Denim is traditionally woven with 100%-cotton yarn;however, today its blended with polyester,to control shrinkage and wrinkles, and Lycra to add stretch.Today, denim has many faces. It can be printed, striped, brushed, napped and stonewashed, and the indigo
Denim Fabric Construction

Denim is made from rugged tightly woven twill in which the weft passes under two or more warp threads. Lengthwise, yard is dyed with indigo or blue dye; horizontal yarns remain white. The yarns have a very strong twist to make them more durable, but this also affects the denim's color. The yarns are twisted so tightly that indigo dye usually colors only the surface, leaving the yarns center white. The blue strands become the threads that shown on the outside of your denim and the white are the ones that make the inside of your denim look white. This produces the familiar diagonal ribbing identifiable on the reverse of the fabric. Through wear, the indigo yarn surface gives way, exposing the white yarn underneath which causes denim to fade. Jeans are basic 5 pocket pants, or trousers made from denim. Denim is an indigo-dyed cotton twill fabric in which the weft passes under two or more warp fibers. The term derives from 'Serge De Nimes', the French city where it was produced; but denim and Serge De Nimes are in fact different fabrics. Two words come from the name of a sturdy fabric called serge, originally made in Nimes, France. Originally called serge de Nimes (fabric of Nimes), the name was soon shortened to denim (de Nimes). Denim was traditionally colored blue with natural indigo dye to make blue Jeans, though "Jean" then denoted a different, lighter cotton textile, the contemporary use of jean comes from the French word for Genoa, Italy, where the first denim trousers where made. Jeans transcend age, economic and style barriers. But jeans themselves have reached iconic status. Jeans based on cuts and washes: Low-rise, ultra-low-rise, Boot-cut, Flare leg, Stone-washed, Dark, distressed jeans. Jeans based on body types: Slim body, Curvy body, Athletic body, Full-figured body types.
Washing Techniques
These garment washing techniques were originally developed for denim garments, but are now being used for a wide variety of different garment types.The mills and commission houses involved in garment processing continually search for ways to achieve unique new looks.Most of these garment processors have their own individual techniques, the details of which are not divulged.This technical bulletin describes the basic wash, stonewash, stonewash with chlorine, ice wash, and cellulase wash techniques used for cotton garments.Any of these procedures can be modified to fit a particular situation, depending upon garment type (i.e., heavyweight denim versus lightweight chambray), available equipment, and process flow.Also, some of these procedures yield garments suitable for overdyeing, which may create a whole new look
Garment Wash
Indigo jeans were once the only item processed by the garment wash method, but this is no longer the case.A wide variety of different types of woven and knit fabrics dyed by different systems are now used in apparel that is garment washed before retail distribution.Emphasis is on comfort and softness.Also, some fashion trends favor the broken-in look and worn/faded seams that can only be achieved through garment processing. 1. Garments can be inverted to minimize unwanted abrasion streaks (especially useful when preset creases are present). 2. Load machine with garments. 3. Desize with alpha amylase enzyme and detergent. 4. Drain. 5. Rinse. 6. Fill machine with water and heat to 60r;C.The liquor ratio can range from 10:1 to 20:1.A number of synthetic detergents can be used.Also, alkaline products such as soda ash or caustic soda can be added in amounts ranging Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
from 0.5 to 2.0 grams/liter.Some chemical suppliers offer special products that accelerate the washdown process, dependent upon the particular dyestuff used. 7. Wash/tumble action for 20-60 minutes, depending upon desired effect. 8. Drain and rinse. 9. Apply softener. 10. Tumble dry. 11. Invert garments, if previously turned. 12. Press, if required.
Stone-Wash
In order to accelerate the garment wash effect and to give garments an even more unique appearance and softer hand, abrasive stones were introduced to the wash bath.A variety of natural and synthetic stones are available for stonewashing with perhaps the most widely used being pumice or volcanic rock.As the stones are used, they slowly disintegrate, reducing the severity of the stonewash effect over a period of time.The stones not only abrade the fabric but also gradually abrade the inside of the rotary drum.A machine used for stonewashing should not be used to dye delicate articles or when abrasion would be detrimental to the fabric. Load stones into machine. Load garments into machine (ratio usually 0.5 - 3.0 part weight stones:1 part weight garments). Desize with alpha amylase enzyme and detergent.Liquor ratio approximately 5-8:1. Rinse. Refill and tumble with stones 30 to 90 minutes, depending upon desired effect.Liquor ratio 5-8:1 at 5070C.Scouring additives can also be used. 6. Drain.Separate garments from stones (garments can be transferred to another machine). 7. Rinse. 8. Apply softener (garments can be transferred to another machine for softening). 9. Extract and unload. 10. De-stone and tumble dry. 11. Press, if required. Softeners and/or lubricants can be added during steps three and five to reduce creasing potential. Steps 8, 9, and 10 may vary depending upon individual mill arrangement. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Stone-Wash with Chlorine

By incorporating chlorine in the stonewash procedure, a color reduction of the indigo (or other chlorine sensitive dyestuff) is obtained.It is very important that any residual chlorine be removed before drying to prevent fiber degradation.This is accomplished by using an antichlor step with sodium bisulfite or hydrogen peroxide. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Load stones into machine. Load garments into machine (ratio usually 0.5 - 3.0 part weight stones:1 part garments). Desize with alpha amylase enzyme and detergent (liquor ratio approximately 10:1). Rinse. * Refill and add sodium or calcium hypochlorite. Heat to 55C. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
7. Tumble 15 minutes. 8. Add second portion of sodium or calcium hypochlorite. 9. Tumble 15 minutes, maintaining temperature of 55C. 10. Drain. 11. Rinse well. 12. Antichlor with sodium bisulfite or hydrogen peroxide. 13. Drain.Separate garments from stones (garments can be transferred to another machine). 14. Rinse well. 15. Apply softener. 16. Extract and unload. 17. De-stone and tumble dry. 18. Press, if required. * Amount of sodium or calcium hypochlorite required will vary depending upon desired level of bleach down and the sensitivity of the color to chlorine.Each addition can range from 0.075% to 0.225% available chlorine.pH should be kept above 9.0, preferably 10.5-11.0.This is accomplished with the addition of soda ash with each addition of hypochlorite.
Ice Wash
Either by accident or experimentation, a method was developed in which stones are used as a vehicle to deposit a chemical on garments to strip the color.This surface deposit of chemical removes the color only on the outer surface of the garment and produces a frosted appearance.Indigo and selected sulfur dyes are currently the most popular candidates for this procedure. 1. Soak stones in solutions of potassium permanganate for 1-2 hours.Concentrations ranging from 1.5% to 5% are being used commercially. (5% to 10% sodium hypochlorite can be substituted.) 2. Stones should be drained of excess liquor.This can be accomplished by placing stones in net or mesh fabric prior to soaking.Then the stones can be removed and the excess drained off.Another alternative is to place the stones in a rotary tumble machine along with "waste" fabric and tumbling for several minutes to remove the excess solution.A third alternative is to use any number of the pre-soaked stones or materials available from suppliers.These are available in many different shapes with varying levels of chemical and other additives that produce different effects.Trials should be conducted to determine the best method for achieving desired effects. 3. Place stones and garments in machine (garments should be scoured and/or desized and dry or slightly damp). 4. Tumble for 10-30 minutes or until desired effects are achieved.Results are dependent upon dyestuff, fabric, concentration of chemicals, stones, additives, and equipment. 5. In some cases, the stones can be reused for another load before resoaking, depending upon their porosity.It is advantageous to transfer the garments to another machine for washing, minimizing the number of machines used for the corrosive process of ice washing. 6. * If potassium permanganate is used, manganese dioxide will form (a brown/orange color) and must be removed by treatment with sodium bisulfite, hydroxylamine sulfate, or acidified hydrogen peroxide as the reducing agent.Fill the machine with water and add 1-5 g/l of the reducing agent.Heat to 50C and run for 20 minutes.The process is normally repeated twice to ensure complete removal of the manganese dioxide.When sodium hypochlorite is used, the residual chlorine should be removed with sodium bisulfite or hydrogen peroxide. Adding jeans to machine already charged with afterwash chemicals will increase contrast. 7. Rinse well. 8. Repeat step 6 if necessary. 9. Apply softener. 10. Tumble dry. 11. Press, if required. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
* The selection of sodium hypochlorite versus potassium permanganate depends upon the dyestuff and desired effect.Also, consideration must be given to the safety aspects of handling either chemical.
Cellulase Wash
Cellulase enzymes have gained acceptance in the garment wash industry as a means to achieve a washdown appearance without the use of stones or with reduced quantities of stones.These enzymes are different from the alpha amylase enzymes used for starch removal in that they are selective only to the cellulose and will not degrade starch.Under certain conditions, their ability to react with cellulose (cotton) will result in surface fiber removal (weight loss).This will give the garments a washed appearance and soft hand. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Load stones in machine (normally 0.5 - 2.0 part weight stones: 1 part weight garments) if applicable. Load garments. Desize with alpha amylase enzyme and detergent. Rinse. Add cellulase enzyme (amount, pH, temperature, and cycle time dependent upon type of fabric and desired effects; manufacturer's recommendations should be followed). 6. Adjust pH as recommended. 7. Tumble 30-90 minutes. 8. Drain. 9. * Rinse well (70C). 10. Drain. 11. Rinse well (70C). 12. Drain.Separate garments from stones if used (garments can be transferred to another machine). 13. Apply softener. 14. Extract and unload. 15. De-stone and tumble dry. 16. Press, if required. After step 7, a chlorine bleach may be used as described in STONEWASH WITH CHLORINE. * The increase in temperature serves to deactivate the cellulase.pH adjustment to 9.0-10.0 with soda ash can also be incorporated.Some operations use both the increases in pH and temperature.
Common Defects of Fabrics

Common Defects of Fabrics during manufacturing process includes back fabric seam impression, birds eye, bowing, broken colour pattern, colour out, colour smears, crease mark, drop stitching, dye streak in printing, hole, jerk in, knots, mixed yarn, mottled, needle line, open reed, pin holes, press off etc.
Common fabric defects and its causes:

Often inspectors are given the responsibility of inspecting finished garments without adequate training in fabric defects and their causes. The ultimate solution, of course, is to provide actual examples or photographs of both major and minor defects. This section provides a list of defects and explanations and simplifies the language and the judgments used in making visual fabric evaluations. The Quality Control Manager can provide this list to inspectors as a practical tool for achieving uniform inspection decisions. Major and Minor Defects Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
The following definitions are central to fabric inspection: Major Defect - A defect that, if conspicuous on the finished product, would cause the item to be a second. (A "second" is a garment with a conspicuous defect that affects the salability or service ability of the item. Minor Defects - A defect that would not cause the product to be termed a second either because of severity or location. When inspecting piece goods prior to cutting, it is necessary to rate questionable defects as major, since the inspector will not know where the defect may occur on the item.
Defect Askewed or Bias Back Fabric Seam Impression Barre Birds Eye Burl Mark Bowing Broken Color Pattern Color Out Color Smears
Cause Condition where filling yarns are not square with wrap yarns on woven fabrics or where courses arenot square with wale lines on knits. Backing fabric is often used to cushion fabric being printed. If there is a joining seam in the backing fabric, an impression will result on printed fabric. Occurs in circular knit. Caused by mixing yarn on feed into machine. Fabric will appear to have horizontal streaks. Birds eye often caused by unintentional tucking from malfunctioning needle. Usually two small distorted stitches caused side by side.
Severity Major or Minor Major Usually Major Major or Minor depending on severity
When a slub or extra piece of yarn is woven intothe fabric, it is often removed by a Major "burling tool."This will usually leave an open place in the fabric. Usually caused by finishing. Woven filling yarns lie in an arc across fabric width. It Major or Minor is critical on stripes or patterns and not as critical on solid color fabrics. Usually caused by colored yarn out of place on frame. Major Major Major or Minor Major Usually Major Major Major
Color out is the result of color running low in reservoir on printing machine. Color Smears are the result of color being smeared during printing. Differs from crease streak in that streak will probably appear for an entire roll. Crease Mark Crease mark appears when creases are caused by fabric folds in the finishing process. Often discoloration is a problem. Occurs in tubular knits. Results from creased fabric passing through squeeze rollers Crease Streak in dyeing process.Depending on the product. Drop stitching is resulted from malfunctioning needle or jack appearing as holes or Drop Stitching missing stitches. Caused by the filling insertion mechanism on a shuttleless loom not holding the Dropped Pick filling yarn,causing the filling yarn to be woven without tension. The filling yarn appears as "kinky".There will also be areas of "end out". Caused by excessive loom tension gradually applied by some abnormal restriction. Drawbacks When the restriction is removed the excess slack is woven into the fabric. Usually the ends are broken Dye Streak in Results from a damaged doctor blade or a blade not cleaned properly. Usually a long Printing streak until the operator notices the problem. Caused by yarn breaking and loom continuing torun with missing end.MajorJerk-in End out Caused by an extra piece of filling yarn being jerked part way into the fabric by the shuttle. The defect will appear at the selvage. Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Major Major Usually Major
Defect Hole Jerk In Knots Missing Yarn Mixed Filling Mixed Yarn Mottled Needle Line Open Reed
Pin Holes
Press Off Printing Machine Stop Mark Print Out of Repair Puckered Selvage Runner Sanforize Pucker Scrimp Skewing
Cause Severity Holes on fabrics are usually caused by broken needle. Major Jerk Ins are caused by an extra piece of filling yarn being jerked part way into the Major or Minor fabric by the shuttle. The defect will appear at the selvage. Knots are caused by tying spools of yarn together. Usually Minor Occurs in circular knit. Caused by one end of yarn missing from feed and machine Major continuing to run. Caused by bobbin of lightweight yarn or different fiber blend used in filling. Will Major appear as a distinct shade change. Mixed yarn is a different fiber blend used on the warp frame, resulting in a streak in Usually Major the fabric. Mottles occurs when colors applied unevenly during printing. Major or Minor Needle Line is caused by bent needle forming distorted stitches in a vertical line. Major or Minor Open reed are the results from a bent reed wire causing warp ends to be held apart, Major exposing the filling yarn. Pin holes along selvage caused by pins holding fabric while it processes through tender frame. Major Major> if pin holes extend into body of fabric far enough to be visible in the finished product Press Off occurs when all or some of the needles on circular knitting fail to function. Major Fabric either falls off the machine or design is completely disrupted or destroyed. Dye or ink smudged along width of fabric as a result of the printing machine stopping. Caused by print rollers not being synchronized properly. This results in various colors of the design not being printed in the proper position. Usually caused by selvage being stretched in finishing or by uneven wetting out in sanforization process. Runner is a caused by broken needle. The runner will appear as a vertical line. Most machines have a stopping device to stop the machine when a needle breaks. Usually caused by defective spray heads resulting in uneven wetting out of Sanforize. Fabric will appear wavy or puckering when spread on cuttingtable. It is difficult to detect while inspecting on inspection machine with fabric under roller tension. Scrip is the result of fabric being folded or creased when passing through tender frames. Skewing refers to condition where filling yarns are not square with warp yarns on woven fabrics or where courses are not square with wale lines on knits. It happens when the fabric shrinks more perpendicular to the twill line than along the twill line. Slub refers to thick or heavy places in the yarn or flying waste yarn getting into yarn feeds during spinning process. Slub and other inconsistencies are common in fabrics produced on vintage shuttle looms. Small caused by a number of ruptured warp ends that has been repaired Soiled filling is dirty oily looking spots on the warp or filling yarns, or on packageddye yarn. Stop mark occurs when the loom is stopped, the yarn elongates under tension. When Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.
Major Major or Minor
Major or Minor
Major
Slub Smash Soiled Filling Stop Mark
Major or Minor Major Can be Major or Minor Can be major or
Defect Straying End Thin Place Water Spots Pilling
Cause the loom starts again, the slack is woven into the fabric. Straying End is caused when an end of yarn breaks and the loose end strays and is knit irregularly into another area. Thin Place is often caused by the filling yarn breaking and the loom continuing to run until the operator notices the problem. Water spots are usually caused by wet fabric being allowed to remain too long before drying, Color migrates leaving blotchy spots. Pilling refers to the forming of little matted balls on the surface of knitted fabrics. Pilling occurs when soft yarn rubs against itself, resulting in tangled fibers and produces an uneven and worn look.
Severity Minor
Major Major
Application of Fabrics
Different fabrics are used differently. They are specially made to fulfil certain purposes.
Application of Fabrics
The primary need of man in dressing has changed a lot as time passed. This is because the yarn, fabrics and finishing have completely changed with the improvement in technology. Whatever be the changes, the welfare and comfort is the two important properties for a successful dress. Today, multi functional products are more and more being projected, where contrasting performances should coexist like water resistance and air permeability along with softness. It should have thermal properties as well as vapour-humidity or light-humidity transmission quality. Different fabrics are used differently. They are specially made to fulfil certain purposes. Apparel fabric is very dressy with a comfort and durability where as industrial fabric should be strong and tough with grease resistant. Outdoor fabric should posses the quality to retain color over years while hosiery fabric is suppose to fit to the skin closely. In the same way curtain and drapery fabric has different dedicated utility than blanket or mattress fabric.
Types of Fabrics - by usage
Apparel Fabric - A woven fabric which is used in clothing and garments or for decoration and covering purposes. Use of these fabrics dates back to the 16th century when various fabrics like cotton, silk, wool etc. were used for making garments or apparels. Beachwear Fabric - Beach Wear fabric should be carefully chosen to give it a dignified yet comfortable feel. Nylon Lycra is the standard swim wear fabric that allows thebeach wear to be stretchy yest retain its shape and support. Neon prints and solids, Velvets are the other fabrics used for beach wear. Blanket Fabric - This is a heavy, loosely woven fabric, usually of wool, used in bed clothing. Nothing lasts as long as wool and reversible fabrics backed with a sherpa pile are as warm and soft as they are warm. Curtain Fabric - Light weight and loosely woven fabrics are used in making curtains because these have the ability to control the amount of light to be let in. Some fibers like Cotton, Linen and Polyester hold up better under sun and are pretty safe fabrics for sewing curtains. Drapery Fabric - Drapery fabric must suit the dcor and have the right properties for the window's treatment styling. Cotton, Linen, Acrylic Blends, Polyester Blends, Acetate, Nylon are the right choice of fabrics because of factors like strength, crease resistance, durability, wash-ability and reasonable price.
Home Furnishing Fabric - IThe textile fabrics are used to make bed spreads, blankets, quilts, curtain, table cloths etc.All home furnishing fabrics are of high quality such as Silk, 100% Cotton, Australian Merino Lambs Wool, Baby Camel Hair, Cashmere, Lama Alpaca, wool etc. Hosiery Fabric - Hoisery are tailored coverings for the feet and its usage dates back to pre-history. Wool was once a primary material but nowadays cotton is much more common. Industrial Fabric - Industrial fabric is a strong and durable woven textile and are made from high performance ,an made fibers such as fiberglass, carbon, and aramid fibers. Most of these fabrics are used in industries where high heat is present and high strength and dimensional stability are required. Interlining Fabric - This fabric is used to provide warmth to any . Lycra, Sheer and Light weight Fabrics, Wool and Mohair Blends, Blends of Cashmere, Silk, Teflon treated Fabrics etc. are mostly used for interlining purpose. Mattress Fabric - A comfortable mattress will help in a good nights sleep and so the proper fabric should be used in the making of a mattress. For ex: Mattress protectors have an advanced polypropylene fabric with a luxuriously soft texture. Thus these mattress are more comfortable to sleep in. Outdoor Fabric - Available in a vast variety, outdoor fabrics possess thermal, fire and abrasion resistant properties. Made from natural as well as man made fibres, these fabrics are further manufactured into casual and sportswear. Packing Fabric - Packing fabric are widely used to protect goods and materials while in transportation from one place to another. Generally made of stretch material, these fabrics retain their shape for long time to come. Pintuck Fabric - Pintuck fabrics are used to beautify or decorate the garments. They are mostly used for women blouses and other clothing. Quilting Fabric - Quilting is used for padding a fabric; This two layered fabric is eas and comfortable. Cotton, silk and wool blends, polyester are popular options. Rugs & Carpets - The fabric used to manufacture rugs and carpets are made of both natural as well as synthetic fibres, They can not only be easily cleaned but also easily moved. Tapestry Fabric - One of the oldest form of woven fabric, tapestry fabric is available in multi colours and multi patterns to enchant the onlooker. Tent Fabric - Tent fabric is generally made from strong and durable material to weather all conditions. Natural fabrics are blended with synthetic ones for making it stronger. Terry Fabric - Made of cotton, terry has a lot of absorbing capacity, it is extensively used to make towels, bathrobes and bath gowns. Umbrella Fabric - Beautiful and useful umbrella fabric is made of canvas, linen, dupione, as they are durable and strong. It also protects from the harmful UV rays. Upholstery Fabric -Upholstery fabric are woven into beautiful and eye caching patterns and designs. They are not only tough and durable but also do not soil or fade; easy to maintain.

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Textile Fiber

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Properties essential to make a Fiber.

Basic Textile Fiber Properties

Fiber Properties for specific requirements

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How heat affects Textile Fiber's properties

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Thermal Properties of Common Fibers

93-121 149 177 66 163 177 191 149

Density and Moisture Regain of Fibers

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Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Natural Fibres - fibres from the nature

Fibre of fruit/ nut shells (coconut fibre Coir)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Fibres

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Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Ginning Process Flowchart

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Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Kapok Fiber Usage

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Silk - the Natural Protein Fiber

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Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Composition of Cocoon Shell

Structural Features of Silk

Physical and Chemical Properties

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Manmade /Artificial fibres

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Development of synthetic fibres world production Manmade Fiber Classification

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Characteristics and usage of Manmade Fibers

Dresses, slacks and coats.

Exceptionally strong Supple Abrasion-resistant

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Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Manufacturing of Polyamide Filaments

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Gihan Rangan Jinadasa Group Sri Lanka.

Textile Yarn's Construction

Open-End or Rotor or Break Spinning

Advantages of rotor spinning:

Easy handling Less Floor space

Production of Rotor spinning