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AMT 503 Metal casting and joining technologies M.Sc in Advanced Manufacturing Technology Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering.
#470-P Peenya Industrial Area, 4th Phase, Peenya, Bengaluru-560 058 Tel; 080 4906 5555, website: www.msrsas.org
ASSIGNMENT
Declaration Sheet Student Name Reg. No Course Batch Module Code Module Title Module Date Module Leader Papineni.Satheesh BVB0911002 AMT FT-11 AMT-503 Metal casting and joining technologies to 19-03-2012 17-04-2012 Mr. K.N. Ganapathi Batch Full-Time 2011.
Extension requests:
Extensions can only be granted by the Head of the Department in consultation with the module leader. Extensions granted by any other person will not be accepted and hence the assignment will incur a penalty. Extensions MUST be requested by using the Extension Request Form, which is available with the ARO. A copy of the extension approval must be attached to the assignment submitted.
Declaration
The assignment submitted herewith is a result of my own investigations and that I have conformed to the guidelines against plagiarism as laid out in the PEMP Student Handbook. All sections of the text and results, which have been obtained from other sources, are fully referenced. I understand that cheating and plagiarism constitute a breach of University regulations and will be dealt with accordingly.
P.Satheesh
Date
17-04-2012
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Abstract
____________________________________________________________________________ In this Metal casting and joining technologies assignment we have three different sets of parts. In the Part-A, it is discussed about a debate topic on cast components designed for functionality, regardless of manufacturability is the main reason for high rejections in foundry. To support this debate an industrial case study is taken and explained about what actually the cast product design engineers will do while designing the cast components, and what design engineer should perform while designing the cast component and the main reason for these defects is due to the lack of communication between the product designers and casting experts. To overcome these how to apply the Design for Manufacturability in the cast design is explained. In the Part-B, it will be seen about the simulation of casting model using pro cast software and using this software critical analysis of the fluid velocity, temperature during filling, solidification time, pressure of liquid metal while filling the mould cavity and fraction of solid in the gate junction and center of the castings. In the same casting the defects are identified and explained the reason for the defect and calculated the riser dimensions for the given model. In the Part-C, welding process is selected for high alloy steel materials to manufacture the pressure vessels. The selected welding process is capable of good corrosion resistance and weld will be able to with stand the pressure given by the pressure vessel and weld should be of no porosity. By considering all the above factors Sub merged Arc Welding process is selected and explained about the complete process with process parameters of selected welding process. For checking the quality of weld a non-destructive testing method is also explained which is suitable for this application.
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Contents
____________________________________________________________________________
Contents
Declaration Sheet ......................................................................................................................... ii Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... iii Contents ........................................................................................................................................iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ vii Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................ viii PART-A.........................................................................................................................................1 1.1 Casting: ....................................................................................................................................1 1.2 Analysis of the case and build of opinion: ..............................................................................1 1.3 Examples: ................................................................................................................................ 1 1.4 Conclusion: ..............................................................................................................................3 PART-B .........................................................................................................................................4 2.1 Pro CAST: ...............................................................................................................................4 2.2 Given model: ...........................................................................................................................4 2.3 Simulation process: .................................................................................................................5 2.4 Defects identified: .................................................................................................................14 2.5 Riser calculation for given model: ........................................................................................16 2.6 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................16 PART-C .......................................................................................................................................17 3.1 Welding: ................................................................................................................................ 17 3.2 Suitable welding process for fabrication of pressure vessel from high alloy steel for LPG storage: ........................................................................................................................................17 3.2.1 Process features: .............................................................................................................17 3.2.2 Advantages of SAW: ......................................................................................................18 3.3 SAW Process and process parameters: .................................................................................19 3.3.1 Power source: .................................................................................................................19 3.3.2 SAW head: .....................................................................................................................20 3.3.2.1 Manual welding: ......................................................................................................20 3.3.2.2 Mechanized welding: .............................................................................................. 20 3.3.2.3 Wire stick out or electrode extension: .....................................................................20 3.3.2.4 Gun angle: ...............................................................................................................21
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3.3.3 Flux handling:.................................................................................................................21 3.3.4 Electrode wires: ..............................................................................................................23 3.3.5 Protective equipment: .....................................................................................................23 3.4 NDT techniques for pressure vessels: ...................................................................................24 Comments on learning outcomes ................................................................................................ 25 4.1 Comments on learning outcomes: .........................................................................................25 References ...................................................................................................................................26 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 27
List of Tables
____________________________________________________________________________ Table No. Title of the table Pg. No.
Table 3. 1 Maximum stick out lengths and wire diameters [12] .................................................21
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List of Figures
____________________________________________________________________________ Figure No. Title of the figure Pg. No.
Figure 1. 1 Part designing features which affects quality [1] ........................................................2 Figure 2. 1 Gravity casting process, given casting model with complete mold and casting assembly ........................................................................................................................................5 Figure 2. 2Actual given casting model with gating system ..........................................................5 Figure 2. 3 Material assigning tool bar..........................................................................................6 Figure 2. 4 Interfacing tool bar ......................................................................................................7 Figure 2. 5 Boundary conditions assigning tool bar ......................................................................8 Figure 2. 6 Flow rate and filling time calculator ...........................................................................8 Figure 2. 7 Initial gravity condition assigning tool .......................................................................8 Figure 2. 8 Initial conditions tool bar ............................................................................................9 Figure 2. 9 Run parameters tool bar ..............................................................................................9 Figure 2. 10 Simulation status window .......................................................................................10 Figure 2. 11 Fluid velocity in the gating junction ......................................................................10 Figure 2. 12 Critical fluid velocity of casting .............................................................................11 Figure 2. 13 Molten metal filling temperature during filling ......................................................11 Figure 2. 14 Solidification temperature .......................................................................................12 Figure 2. 15 Solidification time of casting ..................................................................................13 Figure 2. 16 Fraction of solid in the casting ................................................................................13 Figure 2. 17 Molten metal pressure while filling the casting ......................................................14 Figure 2. 18 Shrinkage porosity defect in the casting .................................................................14 Figure 2. 19 Shrinkage porosity in the casting ............................................................................15 Figure 2. 20 Casting volume and surface area ............................................................................15 Figure 3. 1 Schematic diagram of submerged arc welding process [11] ....................................18
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Nomenclature
____________________________________________________________________________
Acronyms
AC DC DFM DECN LPG OEM SAW
Description
Alternate Current Direct Current Design for Manufacturability Direct Current Electrode Negative Liquid Petroleum Gas Original Equipment Manufacturer Submerged Arc Welding
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PART-A
1.1 Casting: Metal casting is one of the direct methods of manufacturing the desired geometry of component. The method is also called as near net shape process. It is one of the primary processes for several years and one of important process even today in the 21st century. The principle of manufacturing a casting involves creating a cavity inside a mould and then pouring the molten metal directly into the mould. Casting is a very versatile process and capable of being used in mass production. The size of components is varied from very large to small, with intricate designs. Out of the several steps involved in the casting process, moulding and melting processes are the most important stages. Improper control at these stages results in defective castings, which reduces the productivity of a foundry industry. 1.2 Analysis of the case and build of opinion: I agree with given stance, cast components designed for functionality regardless of manufacturability is the reason for high rejections in foundry. Casting rejections as high as 8-15% in jobbing foundries cannot be attributed to poor methoding and process variability alone. Most castings are designed for manufacture, not for manufacturability. Many defects like shrinkage porosity, hot tear, and cold shut originate from poorly designed part features like isolated junction, constrained internal feature, and long thin section, respectively. Foundry engineers partially tackle the problem by tweaking the part design for example; increasing a fillet radius or padding a thin wall, but incur additional and avoidable costs of machining and productivity loss [1]. To overcome these, design for manufacturability (DFM) should be carried out early by product design engineers, instead of late DFM. In practice, casting product designers need to communicate with casting experts in order to ensure that the casting being designed is manufacturable and the most appropriate casting process is chosen. Lack of communication between these parties or lack of expertise support can lead to erroneous design and extensive design lead times. The problems originated in such scenarios are considerably magnified when the design engineer is as yet inexperienced [2]. 1.3 Examples: (1) According to technical paper for 59th Indian foundry congress, a series of industrial studies and discussions with major original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) revealed that most parts are designed for manufacture, not for manufacturability [1]. The origin of major casting defects like shrinkage porosity, crack, and cold shut discovered at the manufacturing stage can be
traced back to part design. This is because product designers usually limit their focus to achieving the desired functionality through a suitable combination of part material, geometric features and manufacturing tolerances. They may not be aware of the extent to which part features affect quality and cost issues later. In the figure 1.1, we can see some of the part design features which cause the defect in casting.
Figure 1. 1 Part designing features which affects quality [1] Foundry engineers try to achieve the desired quality through appropriate design of tooling and process parameters. Minor changes to part design is needed in most cases: draft for faces along draw direction, plugging drilled holes, increasing fillet radius, padding thin walls, and other changes. These increase the weight of as-cast parts by 10-15% compared to the original design. Machining the additional volume leads to an unnecessary increase in cost. Still, a large number of castings are rejected, recycled or repaired, implying further avoidable costs. The above mentioned wastage of resources could be avoided by early evaluation of part design in terms of product quality and cost, and modifying the design to achieve the desired manufacturability without compromising the required functionality. [1] (2) Case study on Brock Metal Company limited, Zinc die casting defects. The need for high quality decorative finishes will invariably mean that the finishing criteria will become more critical and this will affect the cost and the prospect of higher reject rates must be taken into
account. It therefore follows that the elimination of surface defects is a key requirement when manufacturing parts which require high quality surface finishes [3]. In the zinc die casting, casting design is a major controlling factor in the instigation of casting defects. Section thickness changes, lack of fillet radii, surface textures and profiles may all promote surface defect problems if the casting design does not follow recognized design guidelines. Here the some of the cast design guidelines for achieving better surface finish in the casting, lack of these knowledge only most of the casting defects occurring in the zinc die casting [3]. Failure to use adequate fillet radii and soft external edges. Failure to control section changes, and adopt the accepted guidance. Failure to adopt curved surfaces and other design aids which disguise plating and polishing blemishes. Deep blind pockets or holes. Gate scars and part line defects. Vertical part line changes.
1.4 Conclusion:
Casting design and manufacture is, however, a complex problem and involves the interactions of many interdependent casting process variables. Designing cast components and determining the correct casting process requires extensive knowledge of various casting processes and their practical capabilities and limitations. Quite an extensive experience curve is necessary in order for one person alone to be able to acquire all the knowledge and experience needed. It is, therefore, highly unlikely that a casting product designer will have all the knowledge needed to solve a whole range of casting design problems. Product designers usually design the cast components for functionality; regardless of manufacturability is the reason for high rejections in foundry. To overcome these Design for Manufacturability should be carried out early by product design engineers, instead of late DFM.
PART-B ________________________________________________________________________________ 2.1 Pro CAST: The Pro CAST is leading Finite Element solution for casting process simulation software. Throughout the manufacturing industry, casting process simulation is now widely accepted as an important tool in product design and process development to improve yield and casting quality. Based on powerful Finite Element solvers and advanced specific options developed with leading research institutes and industries, Pro CAST provides an efficient and accurate solution to meet the casting industry needs. Compared to a traditional trial-and-error approach, Pro CAST is the key solution to reduce manufacturing costs, shorten lead times for mold developments and improve the casting process quality. [4] Pro CAST provides a complete software solution allowing for predictive evaluations of the entire casting process including mold filling, solidification, and microstructure and thermomechanical simulations. It enables to rapidly visualize the effects of mold design and allows for correct decision making at an early stage of the manufacturing process [4]. Pro CAST covers a wide range of casting processes and alloy systems including: High and low pressures die casting. Sand casting, gravity die casting and tilt pouring. Investment casting, shell casting. Lost foam and centrifugal casting.
2.2 Given model: Gravity casting process in a sand mold: Filling time 9sec. Material to fill the casting AlSi7Mg03-A356. Percentage of filling should be 95%. Given model shown in the figure number 2.1. Given actual casting and gating system shown in the figure number 2.2.
Figure 2. 1 Gravity casting process, given casting model with complete mold and casting assembly
Figure 2. 2Actual given casting model with gating system 2.3 Simulation process: Here the given file to simulate the model is complete assembly of casting and mold in the meshed file. These meshed file to assign the material properties, boundary conditions opened in the precast tool in the pro cast software. In the precast tool by the use of material assigning tool applied given materials to the given model and here in the assigning of material to the casting that casting area should be kept empty and mold area should be filled. Material assigning tool with assigned materials shown is in the figure number 2.3
Figure 2. 3 Material assigning tool bar After assigning the material give interface between mold, internal cores and casting. In the interface tool the model will be pre grouped before in the mesh cast only. Here we have to define the interfacing type like if it is equal material in the casting and gating should give EQUIV connection and it is not equal the material like mold and casting should give COINC connectivity and in the COINC interface should assign temperature variation heat coefficient. In the given model (1) Mold (2) Casting (3) Gating system (4) Internal cores (5) Internal cores. Here the interfacing between 2 & 3 that is casing and gating system is given EQUIV connection because of its same material in the interface of both. Interface between 1 & 5 and 1 & 4 given EQUIV connection because mold and internal core material are same. Interface between 2 & 1, 2 &4, 2 &5, 3 & 1 given COINC connection because of casting, mold, cores having different materials and here given the temperature variation heat coefficient given as h=500. The interfacing of given model assigned tool shown in the figure number 2.4
Figure 2. 4 Interfacing tool bar After interfacing we should specify the boundary conditions and this is done with boundary conditions menu. In the boundary condition menu with use of surface boundary tool can be applied mold cooling type and inlet conditions. By using add option in the side menu, add the heat and select the entire model and add the cooling medium like air cooling or water cooling and assign the properties. Next should add the inlet conditions, here by add option, add the inlet and select the inlet portion in the given model and store it and next should give inlet parameters. Inlet parameter can be applied by add option in the down menu; add the inlet give the inlet parameters like material flow rate and temperature at which material should flow and here only we can able to calculate the fill time and according to that we can able to assign the proper flow rate to the metal. After giving the all inlet conditions should assign to the inlet conditions to the model. In the figure number 2.5 & 2.6 shows the boundary condition tools and flow rate calculator.
Figure 2. 6 Flow rate and filling time calculator After assigning of boundary conditions should apply the material filling process. In the process menu by selecting the gravity option add the initial gravity to the model according to the axis of filling. The gravity tool shown in the figure number 2.7.
After applying the gravity conditions next should apply the initial conditions to the model. In the initial conditions menu by selecting constant option should give initial temperatures to the assigned material. Hear in the given model I assigned initial temperatures as mold and cores 30 deg C and casting metal 780 deg C. The figure number 2.8 shows the initial condition tool bar.
Figure 2. 8 Initial conditions tool bar After assigning the initial conditions we should run the given conditions in the run parameters. In the run parameters menu we should select the gravity filling option in the preference of filling the material and should give final temperature to stop and should give time step in general tool bar. Figure number 2.9 shows the run parameters tool bar.
Figure 2. 9 Run parameters tool bar By assigning all the above options pre casting will be finished then it should be saved. After saving the precast should run the data cast for error checking in the assigned properties. If there are no flaws in the assigned parameters we should run the pro cast for actual simulation of the casting.
Next in the status window we can able to see the percentage of filled material, percentage of solid fraction and time step. In the figure number 2.10 shows the status of given model filling details.
Figure 2. 10 Simulation status window After the completion of percentage of filling and solid fraction we can able to simulate the model in the visual cast tool. In the visual cast tool we can able to simulate the model in different conditions like thermal flow, fluid velocity, solidification time, temperature during solidification and temperature during filling. In the simulation itself we can able to find out the shrinkage porosity and other defects. Fluid velocity of the given model in the gating junction shown in the figure number 2.11.
Figure 2. 11 Fluid velocity in the gating junction In the figure number 2.11 shows the fluid velocity of the gating junction, here we have to select a node point on the gating junction, at that node point we can able to see the critical fluid velocity with respect to Z-direction of 0.531 m/sec.
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In the figure number 2.12 shows the fluid velocity of the casting, here we have to select one node point to show the fluid velocity of the casting, that node point shows the critical fluid velocity of the casting with respect to the Y-direction of 0.349 m/sec. Here in the both places compare to fluid velocity in the casting and fluid velocity in the gating junction, inlet entry in the gating junction fluid velocity is high. By this we can able to tell that gating system can able to control the inlet fluid velocity to avoid turbulent flow of liquid metal.
Figure 2. 12 Critical fluid velocity of casting In the figure number 2.13 shows that temperature during filling.
In the figure number 2.13 we can able to observe that molten metal filling temperature and here we have selected one node point to show the temperature
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where it is decreased below the melting point while filling. The node temperature shows 740.6 deg C this temperature is below the melting temperature. In the figure number 2.14 shows the solidification temperature.
Figure 2. 14 Solidification temperature In the figure 2.14 we are able to observe that solidification temperature. Here in the model casting area is reached the temperature up to 558 deg C and raiser temperature reached up to 422 deg C. From these temperatures the casting starts solidification. In the figure 2.15 we can able to see the total solidification time of the casting and gating system. In the solidification time of casting, we are able to observe where exactly maximum time as taken to solidify the casting. In the figure 2.15 we have selected the node point where exactly the casting solidification time taken more, as much as 1593.5 sec. Because at this node area of casting where its having more material and in-gates are coming contact with this point and this point is last to fill area compare to other areas in casting because of these reasons this area will solidify last.
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Figure 2. 15 Solidification time of casting Figure 2.16 shows the fraction of solid in the casting. Here in the selected node point we can able to see the where exactly fraction of starts.
Figure 2. 16 Fraction of solid in the casting In the figure 2.17 we can see the fluid pressure differences in filling the casting. Here in the bottom portion of the casting we can observe that its having more pressure compare to the top portion.
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Figure 2. 17 Molten metal pressure while filling the casting 2.4 Defects identified: In the figure 2.18 we can able to see the shrinkage porosity in the casting area. In the figure 2.18 we can observe that shrinkage occurs where the area of solidification has taken more time and in the same area we can see the shrinkage porosity. Here proper riser is not available to compensate this shrinkage, because of this shrinkage porosity came in the casting area. Here in the figure 2.18 & 2.19 selected node areas we can see the shrinkage porosity percentage as maximum as 81.94 to 85.31%
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2.6 Conclusion:
For the given casting model major defect occur in the casting because of no riser in the casting to avoid the shrinkage porosity and for the given model we should use 120 mm diameter. By observing the simulation details where the defect has occurred, at the same area solidification time has taken more and this is the place of last to fill area and thick ness of the casting here is high compare to other. In the entire casting area first solidification is started on the gating system and gradually it moved to the casting. Here the most of the incoming velocity of the molten metal is reduced in the gating system to avoid turbulent flow in the casting.
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PART-C ________________________________________________________________________________ 3.1 Welding: The process of joining together two pieces of metal`s so that bonding accompanied by appreciable interatomic penetration takes place at their original boundary surfaces. The boundaries more or less disappear at the weld, and integrating crystals develop across them. Welding is carried out by the use of heat or pressure or both and with or without added metal. The integrity of a welded component, which has metallurgical continuity across the joint, is also characterized by properties such as pressure tightness or heat and corrosion resistance. These properties have contributed to the rapid development, both technical and economic, in all fields including nuclear power, chemical engineering, bridge building, offshore engineering, shipbuilding and the manufacture of cars, railway locomotives and rolling stock, aero engines, domestic appliances, and military hardware from small arms to main battle tanks. There are many types of welding including Metal Arc, Atomic Hydrogen, Submerged Arc, Resistance Butt, Flash, Spot, Stitch, Stud and Projection.
3.2 Suitable welding process for fabrication of pressure vessel from high alloy steel for LPG storage: Here I suggest a suitable welding process for fabrication of pressure vessel from high alloy steel for LPG storage as Submerged Arc Welding process with reference to the below case studies, Process features and advantages of Submerged Arc Welding process (SAW). PPS group of companies, one of the leading manufacturers of LPG cylinders. In the LPG cylinder manufacturing process they first take high alloy steel sheet and deep draw on the hydraulic press by two half cylinder bodies. Then both the top and bottom halves are joined by the backing strip and are welded together by submerged arc welding process by using 3.15mm MSCC wire [5]. In the Case study of Raya Technical services, they prefer submerged arc welding process for fabrication of petro chemical pipelines and gas cylinders because of its various advantages [6]. In the Case study of BOC India limited leading manufacturers of pressure vessels, they use submerged arc welding process for LPG cylinder welding [7].
3.2.1 Process features: Similar to MIG welding, SAW involves formation of an arc between a continuously-fed bare wire electrode and the work piece. The process uses a flux to generate protective gases and
slag, and to add alloying elements to the weld pool. A shielding gas is not required. Prior to welding, a thin layer of flux powder is placed on the work piece surface. The arc moves along the joint line and as it does so, excess flux is recycled via a hopper. Remaining fused slag layers can be easily removed after welding. As the arc is completely covered by the flux layer, the molten weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric contamination by being submerged under the blanket of granular fusible flux, heat loss is extremely low. Distortion is much less and welds produced are sound, uniform, ductile, and corrosion resistant and have good impact value. Single pass welds can be made in thick plates with normal equipment. The arc is always covered under a blanket of flux, thus there is no chance of spatter of weld. This produces a thermal efficiency as high as 60% (compared with 25% for manual metal arc). There is no visible arc light, welding is spatter-free and there is no need for fume extraction [8,9]. The Schematic representation of submerged arc welding process is shown in the figure 3.1.
Figure 3. 1 Schematic diagram of submerged arc welding process [11] 3.2.2 Advantages of SAW:
High deposition rates (over 100 lb/h (45 kg/h) have been reported). High operating factors in mechanized applications. Deep weld penetration. Sound welds are readily made (with good process design and control). High speed welding of thin sheet steels up to 5 m/min is possible. Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted [10, 8]. Practically no edge preparation is necessary.
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The process is suitable for both indoor and outdoor works. Distortion is much less. Welds produced are sound, uniform, ductile, and corrosion resistant and have good impact value [10, 8].
Single pass welds can be made in thick plates with normal equipment. The arc is always covered under a blanket of flux, thus there is no chance of spatter of weld. 50% to 90% of the flux is recoverable.
3.3 SAW Process and process parameters: Essential equipment components for SAW are: Power source SAW head Flux handling Electrode wires Protective equipment 3.3.1 Power source: SAW can be operated using either a DC or an AC power source. DC is supplied by a transformer-rectifier and AC is supplied by a transformer. Current for a single wire ranges from as low as 200Amp, (1.6mm diameter wire) to as high as 1000Amp (6.0mm diameter wire). In practice, most welding is carried out on thick plate where a single wire (4.0mm diameter) is normally used over a more limited range of 600 to 900A, with a twin wire system operating between 800 and 1200A [12]. In DC operation, the electrode is normally connected to the positive terminal. Electrode negative (DCEN) polarity can be used to increase deposition rate but depth of penetration is reduced by between 20 and 25%. For this reason, DCEN is used for surfacing applications where parent metal dilution is important. The DC power source has a 'constant voltage' output characteristic which produces a self-regulating arc. For a given diameter of wire, welding current is controlled by wire feed speed and arc length is determined by voltage setting [12]. AC power sources usually have a constant-current output characteristic and are therefore not selfregulating. The arc with this type of power source is controlled by sensing the arc voltage and using the signal to control wire feed speed. In practice, for a given welding current level, arc length is determined by wire burn off rate, i.e. the balance between the welding current setting and wire feed speed which is under feedback control [12].
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Square wave AC square wave power sources have a constant voltage output current characteristic. Advantages are easier arc ignition and constant wire feed speed control. 3.3.2 SAW head: SAW can be carried out using both manual and mechanized techniques. Mechanized welding, which can exploit the potential for extremely high deposition rates, accounts for the majority of applications [12]. 3.3.2.1 Manual welding: For manual welding, the welding gun is similar to a MIG gun, with the flux which is fed concentrically around the electrode, replacing the shielding gas. Flux is fed by air pressure through the handle of the gun or from a small hopper mounted on the gun [12]. The equipment is relatively portable and, as the operator guides the gun along the joint, little manipulative skill is required. However, because the operator has limited control over the welding operation (apart from adjusting travel speed to maintain the bead profile) it is best used for short runs and simple filling operations. 3.3.2.2 Mechanized welding: Single wire: - As SAW is often used for welding large components, the gun, wire feeder and flux delivery feed can be mounted on a rail, tractor or boom manipulator. Single wire welding is mostly practiced using DCEP even though AC will produce a higher deposition rate for the same welding current. AC is used to overcome problems with arc blow, caused by residual magnetism in the work piece, jigging or welding machine [12]. Twin wire: - SAW can be operated with more than one wire. Although up to five wires are used for high deposition rates, the most common multi-wire systems have two wires in a tandem arrangement. The leading wire is run on DCEP to produce deep penetration. The trailing wire is operated on AC which spreads the weld pool, which is ideal for filling the joint. AC also minimizes interaction between the arcs, and the risk of lack of fusion defects and porosity through the deflection of the arcs (arc blow). The wires are normally spaced 20mm apart so that the second wire feeds into the rear of the weld pool [12]. 3.3.2.3 Wire stick out or electrode extension: The distance the wire protrudes from the end of the contact tip is an important control parameter in SAW. As the current flowing between the contact tip and the arc will preheat the wire, wire burn off rate will increase with increase in wire stick out. For example, the deposition rate for a 4mm diameter wire at a welding current of 700A can be increased from approximately 9 kg/hr at the normal 32mm stick out, to 14 kg/hr at a stick out length of 178mm. In practice, because of the
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reduction in penetration and greater risk of arc wander, a long stick out is normally only used in cladding and surfacing applications where there is greater emphasis on deposition rate and control of penetration, rather than accurate positioning of the wire [12]. Recommended and maximum stick out lengths shown in the table no 3.1 Table 3. 1 Maximum stick out lengths and wire diameters [12]
3.3.2.4 Gun angle: In manual welding, the gun is operated with a trailing angle, i.e. with the gun at an angle of 45 degrees (backwards) from the vertical. In single wire mechanized welding operations, the gun is perpendicular to the work piece. However, in twin wire operations the leading gun is normal to the work piece, with the trailing gun angled slightly forwards between an angle of 60 and 80 degrees. This reduces disturbance of the weld pool and produces a smooth weld bead profile [12]. 3.3.3 Flux handling: Flux should be stored in unopened packages under dry conditions. Open packages should be stored in a humidity-controlled store. While flux from a newly-opened package is ready for immediate use, flux which has been opened and held in a store should first be dried according to manufacturer's instructions. In small welding systems, flux is usually held in a small hopper above the welding gun. It is fed automatically (by gravity or mechanized feed) ahead of the arc. In larger installations the flux is stored in large hoppers and is fed with compressed air. Unused flux is collected using a vacuum hose and returned to the hopper [12]. Care must be taken in recycling unused flux, particularly regarding the removal of slag and metal dust particles. The presence of slag will change the composition of the flux which, together with the wire, determines the composition of the weld metal. The presence of fine particles can cause blockages in the feeding
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system. The flux has to be designed and selected to incorporate Thermodynamics, Kinetics & Transport phenomenon. It must [6]: Melt just below the temperature of the steel being welded via Material balance & phase diagrams to achieve the ideal eutectic point (Thermodynamics). Mix with the parent material in the molten zone & refine the weld metal, adding elements such as Mn, Si, Cr, etc & removing rust & nonmetallic oxide inclusions from the heat affected weld zone, by enveloping the oxides in a Silicate-aluminate matrix (Kinetics). Float up (Transport the oxides) to the surface before the steel solidifies & to peel off automatically (self-lifting slag). Two main types of fluxes are available: fused and agglomerated. Fused fluxes are manufactured by fusing together a mixture of finely ground minerals, followed by solidifying, crushing and sieving the particles to the required grain size. Fused fluxes do not deteriorate during transportation and storage and do not absorb moisture. Agglomerated fluxes are manufactured by mixing finely ground raw materials with bonding agents such as sodium or potassium silicates followed by baking to remove moisture. This type of flux is sensitive to moisture absorption and may require drying before use. Agglomerated fluxes are more prone to mechanical damage which can cause segregation of some of the constituents [13]. Fluxes are classified as acid, neutral, or basic, the last being subdivided into semi-basic or highly basic. The main characteristics of the fluxes are as follows [13]: Acid fluxes: High content of oxides such as silica or alumina. Suitable for high welding currents and fast travel speeds. Resistant to porosity when welding rusty plate, Low notch toughness, and not suitable for multi pass welding of thick material`s. Neural fluxes: High content of calcium silicate or alumina-rutile. Suitable for fairly high welding currents and travel speeds and also for multi pass welding. Basic fluxes: High content of chemically basic compounds such as calcium oxide, magnesium oxide and calcium fluoride. Highest weld metal quality in respect of radiographic soundness and impact strength. Lower welding currents and travel speeds are suitable for multi pass welding of thick sections.
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3.3.4 Electrode wires: The electrode for submerged-arc welding is a bare wire in coil form usually copper coated. They two types are available solid wire and tubular wire. The solid wire is widely used for general fabrication of mild and low-alloy steels, stainless steels and non-ferrous metals. The tubular wire (made by forming narrow strip into a tube) carries alloy powders which permit the economical production of a wider range of weld compositions than is possible by using the solid wire type. Tubular wires are widely used for hard-facing [13]. With coated manual electrodes, wire and coating is one unit so that such electrodes can be classified according to the type of coating and its effect on weld mechanical properties. In submerged-arc welding, any wire may be used with a number of different fluxes with substantially different results in respect of weld quality and mechanical properties. Consequently, BS 4165 grades wire flux combinations according to the tensile and impact strengths obtained in the weld metal. A number of tubular wires are available, particularly for surfacing and hard-facing. These contain alloy powders which produce weld metals consisting of low-alloy steels, martensitic and austenitic stainless steels, chromium and tungsten carbides, and various cobalt- and nickel-based heat- and corrosion-resistant alloys. Some corrosionresistant alloys, including stainless steel, are available in the form of coiled strips from 100 mm to 150 mm wide, 0.5 mm thick for high deposition rate surfacing by a submerged-arc welding process known as strip cladding [13]. ASTM A240 Type 316 or 316L, electrode wire is best suitable for joining the more common austenitic stainless steel grades referred to as "18-8" steels for very good corrosion resistance in acid environments [14]. 3.3.5 Protective equipment: Unlike other arc welding processes, SAW is a clean process which produces minimum fume and spatter when welding steels. Normal protective equipment is required for ancillary operations such as slag removal by chipping or grinding. Special precautions should be taken when handling flux - a dust respirator and gloves are needed when loading the storage hoppers [12, 15].
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3.4 NDT techniques for pressure vessels: The following welds shall be tested by NDT process: All butt welds in the pressure structure shall be subjected to X-ray radiographic inspection over their entire length. In addition, at least 10 % of the weld length shall be tested for surface cracks. Fillet welds at the joint between the central longitudinal bulkhead and the tank casing of twin tanks or similar structures shall be subjected to ultrasonic or, where this is not possible, X-ray radiographic inspection over their entire length. In addition, at least 10% of the weld length shall be tested for surface cracks. 10 % of the butt-welded joints of supporting rings in tanks shall be subjected to Xray radiographic inspection. In the case of fillet welds between the web and the tank wall and between the web and the girder plate, at least 10 % of the weld length shall be tested for surface cracks. All butt and fillet welds of nozzles weldments, e.g. sockets, domes, sumps, rings, and of reinforcing plates around cutouts shall be tested for surface cracks over their whole length. Fillet welds of fitments welded to the tank which may induce stresses in the tank wall, e.g. lifting lugs, feet, brackets, shall be tested for surface cracks over their whole length. Full root penetration nozzle connections in the pressure structure shall undergo ultrasonic or radiographic inspection if the attachment wall thickness at the pressure structure is > 15 mm and the inside diameter of the nozzle is 120 mm. If pressure vessels are to be mechanically de stressed, all points with geometryrelated stress concentrations, such as the seams of socket weldments or fitments, shall afterwards be tested for cracks by the magnetic particle or dye penetrant method [16].
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References ________________________________________________________________________________ 1. Author unknown, http://www.foundryinfo-india.org/images/pdf/TS-2C-II.pdf, retrieved on 25th March 2012 2. Author unknown, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950705100000757, retrieved on 25th March 2012 3. Author unknown, http://www.brockmetal.com/downloads/documents/EB4IB5ELA9_Web_Tech_Resource__ _Zinc_die_casting_defects_cause_and_elimi.pdfl, retrieved on 25th March 2012 4. Author unknown, http://www.esi.com.au/Software/ProCAST.html, retrieved on 26th March 2012 5. Author unknown, http://www.pps-india.com/lpg.htm, retrieved on 27th March 2012 6. Author unknown, http://rayatechnicalservices.com/case_studies, retrieved on 28th Mar 12 7. Author unknown, http://www.boc-india.com/business_area/case_study.php, retrieved on 28th March 2012 8. Author unknown, http://www.wolfrobotics.com/products/images/SAWbro.pdf, retrieved on 29nd March 2012 9. Author unknown, March 2012 10. Author unknown, http://cmapspublic2.ihmc.us/rid=1151380771906_867522767_14912/Submerged%20Arc% 20Welding.doc, retrieved on 30th March 2012 11. Author unknown, http://www4.hcmut.edu.vn/~dantn/TWI/jk5.html, retrieved on 30th March 2012 12. Author unknown, http://www4.hcmut.edu.vn/~dantn/TWI/jk16.html, retrieved on 30th March 2012. 13. Edward H. Smith, Mechanical engineers Reference book, Twelfth edition. 14. Author unknown, http://www.lincolnelectric.com/en-us/consumables/submergedhttp://www4.hcmut.edu.vn/~dantn/TWI/jk5.html, retrieved on 29th
arc/Pages/submerged-arc.aspx, retrieved on 4th Apr 2012. 15. Author unknown, http://www4.hcmut.edu.vn/~dantn/TWI/jk20.html, retrieved on 4th Apr 2012. 16. Author unknown, http://www.gl-group.com/infoServices/rules/pdfs/english/werkstof/teil3/kap-3/englisch/abschn03.pdf, retrieved on 5th Apr 2012.
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Bibliography ________________________________________________________________________________ 1. Edward H. Smith, Mechanical engineers Reference book, Twelfth edition. 2. Author unknown, http://www.twi.co.uk/services/technical-information/job-knowledge/job-knowledge-87submerged-arc-welding-consumables-part-1/. 3. Dr.N.S.Mahesh, Weld metallurgy Weld design, AMT 503, MS Ramaiah School of Advance Studies. 4. Mr.K.N. Ganapathi, Casting process, AMT 503, MS Ramaiah School of Advance Studies. 5. Author unknown, http://www4.hcmut.edu.vn/~dantn/news/Jk-view.
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molten metal will be poured in to the mould. After solidification of metal the casting will be removed and the broken mould will be collected in to the vibrator or reclamation impeller. In the vibrator or impeller this material will be further broken into fine particles and refined. Here the refined sand will be reused for mould making again for reduction of cost. This process is called as the reclamation of the sand. The poured material properties will be checked using a spectro meter. The use of electrical supply produces a high spark in the sample material and by reading of this spark light the spectro meter will be able to display the different composition of the metals in the material according to this display the material ingot properties will be changed in the shop floor by the engineer to achieve the better material properties in the casting. For the achieving of better surface finishes in the casting they will pre check the sand properties like moisture content, sand strength and grain size controlling in the frequent manner. These are the observations made by me during the visit to the Bangalore metallurgical Pvt Ltd.Hoskote. By visiting of this foundry I got the clear knowledge about the how the foundry functions and where actually the chaplets, chills will be used how it will helpful in achieving directional solidification process.
BVB0911002 BVB0911003
Contents
Maximum velocity requirement The `no fall' requirement Surface tension controlled Filling
less than the critical velocity the surface is safe. Above the
critical velocity there is the danger of entrainment damage.
If the melt is travelling at a high speed, but is constrained between narrowly enclosing walls, it does not have the room to fold-over. Thus no damage is suffered by the liquid despite its high speed, and despite the high risk involved. This is one of the basic reasons underlying the design of extremely narrow channels for filling systems (Gating system).
Narrow filling system geometries are valuable in their action to conserve the liquid as a coherent mass, and so acting to push the air out of the system ahead of the liquid. A good filling action, pushing the air ahead of the liquid front as a piston in a cylinder, is a critically valuable action. Such systems deserve a special name such as perhaps `one pass filling (OPF) designs'
This is to be expected if the pressure is too low to force melt into a narrow
section. It is an effect due to surface tension. If the liquid surface is forced to take up a sharp curvature to enter a nonwetted mould then it will be subject to a repulsive force that will resist the entry of the metal.
Even if the metal enters, it will still be subject to the continuing resistance
of surface tension, which will tend to reverse the flow of metal, causing it to empty out of the mould if there is any reduction in the filling pressure.
metal can be poured directly. The skill of the foundry man plays vital role in the gravity
pouring system
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downward velocity to a stop. The offset also avoids the direct inline type of
basin, such as the conical basin, where the incoming liquid goes straight down the sprue, its velocity unchecked, and taking with it unwanted
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An oversize sprue that has suffered severe erosion damage because of air
entrainment during the pour. A correctly sized sprue shows a bright surface free from damage. Greater the sprue diameter greater the turbulence.
M. S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies
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Runner
The runner is that part of the filling system that acts to distribute the melt horizontally around the mould, reaching distant parts of the mould cavity
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under the action of gravity, but without surface turbulence. The problem of horizontal transfer is that it is slow, sometimes resulting in
the freezing of the `ski jump' at the entrance to the runner, or even the nonfilling of the mould. This can usually be solved by increasing the rate of tilt after the runner is primed.
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References
1. John Campbell, Castings Practice, The 10 Rules of Castings, published 2004.
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