The Kardashian Royalty Part Three American Blacks to receive 1 quadrillion in wealth and 315 trillion in cash and

Exodus to the Promised Land To Barack Obama - Let My People Go Since Amenhotep left Egypt in 526BC to visit the Neters of the West that is the 24 Elders of the 12 Tribes of Canada The First Nations and the 12 tribes of America the First Peoples.us and the so-called European Jews began making trouble around the world and murder and subjection ran rapid, when God returns as Amenhotep, and his current name of Eric Robert Powell of the renowned Powell family, - such as General Colin Powell and Adam Clayton Powell, the Jews, which comprise 2% of the world population but the same two percent own or control 96% of its wealth, they must therefore surrender all worldly wealth to the Lord their God who is also known as 'The Tenth'. These assets will enable the 33rd Dynasty of Amen Hotep, also known as Horus, and Ishmael, to flourish.

The Statutes of Omri Micah 6:16 King James Bible

For the statutes of Omri are kept, and all the works of the house of Ahab, and ye walk in their counsels; that I should make thee a desolation, and the inhabitants thereof an hissing: therefore ye shall bear the reproach of my people. 2 Chronicles 22:2 King James Bible Forty and two years old was Ahaziah when he began to reign, and he reigned one year in Jerusalem. His mother's name also was Athaliah the daughter of Omri.

OMRI Om'-ri (`omri; Septuagint Ambri; Assyrian "Chumri" and "Chumria"): (1) The 6th king of Northern Israel, and founder of the IIIrd Dynasty which reigned for nearly 50 years. Omri reigned 12 years, circa 887-876 BC (note: from 862 - 851) The historical sources of his reign are contained in 1 Ki 16:15-28; 20:34, the Moabite Stone, Assyrian inscriptions, and in the published accounts of recent excavations in Samaria. In spite of the brief passage given to Omri in the Old Testament, he was one of the most important of the military kings of Northern Israel. 1. His Accession: Omri is first mentioned as an officer in the army of Elah, which was engaged in the siege of the Philistine town of Gibbethon. While Omri was thus engaged, Zimri, another officer of Elah's army, conspired against the king, whom he assassinated in a drunken debauch, exterminating at the same time the remnant of the house of Baasha. The conspiracy evidently lacked the support of the people, for the report that Zimri had usurped the throne no sooner reached the army at Gibbethon, than the people proclaimed Omri, the more powerful military

leader, king over Israel. Omri lost not a moment, but leaving Gibbethon in the hands of the Philistines, he marched to Tirzah, which he besieged and captured, while Zimri perished in the flames of the palace to which he had set fire with his own hands (1 Ki 16:18). Omri, however, had still another opponent in Tibni the son of Ginath, who laid claim to the throne and who was supported in his claims by his brother Joram (1 Ki 16:22 Septuagint) and by a large number of the people. Civil warfollowed this rivalry for the throne, which seems to have lasted for a period of four years (compare 1 Ki 16:15, with 16:23 and 29) before Omri gained full control. Omri's military ability is seen from his choice of Samaria as the royal residence and capital of the Northern Kingdom. This step may have been suggested to Omri by his own easy conquest of Tirzah, the former capital. Accordingly, he purchased the hill Shomeron of Shemer for two talents of silver, about $4,352.00 in American money. The conical hill, which rose from the surrounding plain to the height of 400 ft., and on the top of which there was room for a large city, was capable of easy defense. 2. The Founding of Samaria: The superior strategic importance of Samaria is evidenced by the sieges it endured repeatedly by the Syrians and Assyrians. It was finally taken by Sargon in 722, after the siege had lasted for 3 years. That the Northern Kingdom endured as long as it did was due largely to the strength of its capital. With the fall of Samaria, the nation fell. Recent excavations in Samaria under the direction of Harvard University throw new light upon the ancient capital of Israel. The first results were the uncovering of massive foundation walls of a large building, including a stairway 80 ft. wide. This building, which is Roman in architecture, is supposed to have been a temple, the work of Herod. Under this Roman building was recovered a part of a massive Hebrew structure, believed to be the palace of Omri and Ahab. During the year 1910 the explorations revealed a building covering 1 1/2 acres of ground. Four periods of construction were recognized, which, on archaeological grounds, were tentatively assigned to the reigns of Omri, Ahab, Jehu, and Jeroboam II. See SAMAIAS and articles by David G. Lyon in Harvard Theological Review, IV, 1911; JBL, V, xxx, Part I, 1911; PEFS, 1911, 7983.

3. His Foreign Policy: Concerning Omri's foreign policy the Old Testament is silent beyond a

single hint contained in 1 Ki 20:34. Here we learn that he had to bow before the stronger power of Syria. It is probable that Ben-hadad I besieged Samaria shortly after it was built, for he forced Omri to make "streets" in the city for the Syrians. It is probable, too, that at this time Ramoth-gilead was lost to the Syrians. Evidently Omri, was weakened in his foreign policy at the beginning of his reign by the civil conflict engendered by his accession. However, he showed strength of character in his dealings with foreign powers. At least he regained control over the northern part of Moab, as we learn from the Moabite Stone. Lines 4-8 tell us that "Omri was king of Israel and afflicted Moab many days because Chemosh was angry with his land. .... Omri obtained possession of the land of Medeba and dwelt therein during his days and half the days of his son, forty years. " Omri was the first king of Israel to pay tribute to the Assyrians under their king Asurnacirpal III, in 876 BC. From the days of Shalmaneser II (860 BC) down to the time of Sargon (722 BC), Northern Israel was known to the Assyrians as "the land of the house of Omri." On Shalmaneser's black obelisk, Jehu, who overthrew the dynasty of Omri, is called Ja'uaabal Chumri, "Jehu son of Omri." Omri entered into an alliance with the Phoenicians by the marriage of his son Ahab to Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians. This may have been done as protection against the powers from the East, and as such would have seemed to be a wise political move, but it was one fraught with evil for Israel. 4. His Religious Influence and Death: Although Omri laid the foundation of a strong kingdom, he failed to impart to it the vitalizing and rejuvenating force of a healthy spiritual religion. The testimony of 1 Ki 16:25,26, that he "dealt wickedly above all that were before him," coupled with the reference to "the statutes of Omri" in Mic 6:16, indicates that he may have had a share in substituting foreign religions for the worship of Yahweh, and therefore the unfavorable light in which he is regarded is justified. Upon his death, Omri was succeeded upon the throne by his son Ahab, to whom was left the task of shaking off the Syrian yoke, and who went beyond his father in making the Phoenician influence along with Baalism of prime importance in Israel, thus leading the nation into the paths that hastened its downfall. (2) A Benjamite, son of Becher (1 Ch 7:8). (3) A Judahite, descendant of Perez, who lived at Jerusalem (1 Ch 9:4). (4) A prince of Issachar in the time of David (1 Ch 27:18). S. K. Mosiman

Bibliography Information Orr, James, M.A., D.D. General Editor. "Definition for 'OMRI'". "International Standard Bible Encyclopedia". bible-history.com - ISBE; 1915. Copyright Information International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (ISBE)

GEORGE WASHINGTON AND ISRAEL By C.R. Dickey A STUDENT of Genealogy Dr Burhl B. Gilpin Junior,discovered interesting facts when his studies led him to obtain the genealogy of the Washington family. In that record he found genealogical confirmation of the migration pattern of the Caucasians. The information is taken from a book in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., written by Albert Welles, titled Pedigree and history of the Washington Family. This book contains the following information concerning the background of the beloved Father of our Country - George Washington: Odin (first King of Scandinavia, 70 B.C.) came from Asaland or Asaheim, east of Tanais. He endeared himself to the Asiatic subjects, successful in every combat. Son of Fridulf, supreme ruler of the Scythians, in Asaland or Asaheim, Turkestand, between the Euxine and Caspian Seas in Asia He reigned at Asgard, whence he removed 70 B.C., and became the first king of Scandinavia. Died 50 B.C., and was succeeded by Sons who ruled in different parts of Scandinavia Frode Fredigod, fourth generation, was King of Denmark at the time of Christ, died A.D. 35. Thorlin the Dane was the 32nd generation from Odin. He founded the Washington family. Born about A,D. 1000. His ancestors came from Schleswig, in Denmark and settled in Ebor or Yorkshire, prior to the Norman Conquest.

Colonel John Washington was the 51st generation from Odin. He migrated to America and settled in Virginia. He was the great grandfather of George Washington. Note that the first paragraph of this record contains a sentence of tremendous historical significance. It states that Odin was the Son of Fridulf, supreme ruler of the Scythians, in Asaland or Asaheim ... between the Euxine and Caspian Seas in Asia. This sentence places the family of Washington right in the midst of the migrating Israelites as they moved from Assyria - by way of the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea - into Europe, where their exploits changed the face of a continent. This transmigration of the major portion of Israels clans from the land of their captivity was the greatest mass movement of a multi-tribed kingdom of kindred people in the history of the world. These captive Israelites were once proud citizens of the Northern Ten-tribed Kingdom of Israel. They were a people of prophetic destiny and could not be subdued by their captors. Dr J. Llewellyn Thomas points out that the Kingdom of Judah was not involved in Israels transition. This migration, he says, took place about a century after their main deportation. Let it be noted that it commenced before the destruction and carrying away of the Kingdom of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. Israel had started on their migration out of the land of their captivity into the southeast of Europe before Judah ceased to exist as a kingdom. Note that when the Jews returned, the main body of the Israelites were in Arsareth, over a thousand miles from Babylon ... This migration into Europe took place at the time when the great Assyrian Empire was failing before the rising of the new world Empire of Babylon. Israel seized the favourable opportunity of escaping into Europe. One other fact must be mentioned here to keep the record straight; indeed, it is a point of peculiar import even in these latter days, though generally ignored or forgotten. It is true, as Dr Thomas says, that the Southern Kingdom of Judah as a whole was not involved in Israels deportation, nor in the mass migrations westward which took place in subsequent years; however, there is one brief record concerning Judah which is of supreme importance. It is found in 2 Kings 18: 9-13 It came to pass in the fourth year of king Hezekiah, which was the seventh year of Hoshea king of Israel, that Shalmaneser king of Assyria came up against Samaria, and besieged it. And at the end of three years they took it: even in the sixth year of Hezekiah, that is the ninth year of Hoshea king of Israel, Samaria was taken. And the king of Assyria did carry away Israel unto Assyria ... Now in the fourteenth year of King Hezekiah did Sennacherib king of Assyria come up against all the fenced cities of Judah and took them.

Briefly, the salient facts are these: In the sixth year of Hezekiahs reign [he would have been about 31 years old I, Shalmaneser captured Samaria and deported Israel to Assyria. Then, eight years later, in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, did Sennacherib king of Assyria come up against all the fenced cities of Judah, and took them. The essential point to note here is that these captives from the fenced cities of Judah were not taken to Babylon, but to Assyria, where they were henceforth identified with their kinsmen of the ten-tribed kingdom. Sennacherib was unable to capture Jerusalem at the time because the Lord had other plans for that city and the remaining remnant of Judah. It was over a hundred years after these events before the capture of Jerusalem and the deportation of its citizens to Babylon. The key to understanding, for us, lies in the fact that the kingdom of Judah included not only the tribe of Judah, but Benjamites, Levites and members of the royal House of David. Thus when the Assyrian king captured the fenced cites of Judah, he transported to Assyria, not Judahites alone, but also portions of Benjamin, Levi and the House of David. There is reliable evidence also that they were not few in number. Sennacheribs inscription, according to A.H. Sayce, states that the number of cites taken was 43, and that he took captive 200,150 men of Judah. This move brought representatives of all the tribes of Jacob-Israel into the multitudes of Israel assembled in Assyria. With such basic facts in mind, we are now ready to mention some of the names by which these people were known during the period of their scattering and colonization. It was prophesied that they would gradually lose their identity and call themselves by other names. (See Hosea 2:17 and Isaiah 28:11.) Let us note first what names these people bore before their captivity. Among others, we find three in particular The House of Israel, The House of Isaac, and The House of Omri. Dr William Pascoe Goard states the distinction well by saying that Israel was a Divinely given spiritual name; Isaac was the Divinely given family name; Omri was a dynastic or national name.(Post-Captivity names of Israel.) Omri was Israels most renowned king. It was he who substituted the statutes of Omri for the commandments, statutes, and judgments of the Lord. His influence in lawmaking, says Dr Goard, is with us still. Therefore the people, who kept his law were called by his name tin the eyes of the Assyrians]: Beth Ornri (House of Omri). Whatever other names Israel bore in the days of her residence in Palestine, such as Ephraim etc., she bore out into captivity these two names: Isaac, or Saka; and Omri.

During the captivity Israel acquired other names and all of them are fund in many forms with various spellings of the same names. Among the variations of Beth Omri we find Bit Khumri, Khumri, Humri, Kimmeri an Gimmiri (etc.). The name Isaac has also a score or more of variations, such as Sakai, Sacae, Sakasuna, etc. But the Sakai, too, are called Kimmerians, Gimmirians and Scythians, a fact that is established by the inscriptions which are best known and which have furnished the key to Assyriology. The Sakai who in Latin are called Sacae, were an important branch of the Scythian nation (Sharon Turner, History of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. 1, p. 100). Historians agree that the Scythians were one of the greatest military powers of the day. But many of them fail to see how this distinction could be claimed for the Northern Kingdom of Israel. Yet in the time of Jeroboam Israel could put 800,000 mighty fighting men in the field, gathered from within its own boundaries (2 Chronicles 13:3). A nation able to do that would be rated a sizable military power today. The foregoing review is necessarily brief and incomplete. It is intended to serve as a connecting link between the ancient past of a great Covenant Race and their emergence as the dominant peoples and nations of the Western World. For further light on this fascinating subject, we turn now to European and Other Race Origins, by Herbert. Bruce Hannay Esq., of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law, Advocate of the High Court of Judicature, Calcutta, and author of A grammar of the Tibetan Language. As we quote from Mr Hannay, note the variations in names as they appear in the different languages. The following paragraphs are found in Part III, Chapter VI: Let us now resume the fortunes of the Skolotoi of European Skuthia from the time (say 92-20 B.C.) when they received into the bosom of their community the Saghian followers of Asha who had come from Airyan and Turan as already explained; when they adopted from them the name of Asen; when Skuthia acquired the new name of Asaland, or Asaheim, being then well up to the north, near the confluence of the rivers Pripet and Desna with the Dnieper, and when their capital, now represented by Kieff, was called Asgard According to calculations into which need not enter here, this period is ascertained to have been the approximate time when Odin, orWodin, flourished. Chief of the Asen, as we may now call them and a hero in his own country, he was afterwards deified by the pagan descendants of his subjects and ultimately his memory was merged in that of the god whose name he bears. The Tyrkland where, according to the north Saga Odin had great Possessions, was, like the Swithoid-an of the Yotar of Yotland in Scandinavia, merely a reminiscence of Airyan and Turan - i.e. Turkistan

- the distant home of the Saghs during so many centuries. Since the days of the Hebro-Phoenician activity, says Mr Hanney, the thoughts of the Beth-Sak and their descendants had ever been concentrated upon the Isles of the West, and imparts no little meaning into the seemingly idle statement in the Saga that for Odin the Northwest was a region where he knew by his skill in magic that a place of refuge was reserved for him and his people. Mr Hannay quotes the following from Crichton and Wheaton: In the old Swedish legends it is related that Odin founded the Empire of Svea, and built a great temple at a spot called Sigtuna near Lake Maelar, in the present province a Upland, which was known by the Northmen under the name of the Lesser Swithoid, to distinguish it from the Greater Swithoid of Skuthia, from which they believed he had led his followers. When Odin arrived with his twelve pontiffs or chief priests called Diar or Drottnar, he is said to have found that a great part of the land was occupied by a people who, like himself, had come from Swithoid, but in such long ages past that according to their awn account no one could fix the time. These people who call themselves Gota or Gauta, Goths ... were so strong that Odin was forced to make a compact with their king Gylfe before he could settle the land (Ottes Scandinavia, p. 59). One of the greatest of these Scythian expeditions was that under the leadership of the historic Odin (who was subsequently deified) - see The Historians History of the World, Vol. xvi, pp. 18-19. Odin amassed a huge army at Asgard, in the heart of the Thyssa-getae, and marched first up the valley of the Dnieper, then westward to the shores of the Baltic and finally crossed to Scandinavia where he founded a new empire, (Anglo-Saxon Israel). From the writing of Strabo, Pliny, Tacitus, Ptolemy and others, It appears that the advance guard of Israel was, by 58 B.C., occupying the countries in northwest Europe, bordering the North Sea. There they remained, developing their powers and their character, till the movements to Britain began (Fasken). We return now to Odin in relation to the Washington family. Odin is registered in the Washington genealogy as the first King of Scandinavia, 70 B.C. No doubt his forbears were distinguished leaders of clans during their westward trek. It seems likely that there was an Odin dynasty both before and after the time of Odin, first King of Scandinavia The genealogy states that Odin was succeeded by sons who ruled in different parts of Scandinavia. I

n his book, The Royal House of Britain, an Enduring Dynasty, W.M.H. Milner quotes from a leaflet by Mr Grimaldi in which it was stated that The descent of our Royal Family from the royal line of Judah is, however, only a rediscovery. The Saxon kings traced themselves back to Odin, who was traced back to his descent from David, as may be seen in very ancient MS. in the Heralds College, London. Desiring to verify this, Mr. Miner wrote to Heralds College and received positive assurance (dated 5-21901) that There is a very valuable MS. here, deducing our Saxon kings from Adam through David (p.28). This MS. says Mr Milner, we have inspected. It is caged on the back of the binding, Pedigree of the Saxon Kings. Both Odin and David are listed there, he says. Then on page 41, Mr Milner traces the later Odin dynasty as follows: King Edward VII introduced to the throne a new section of the one continuous Royal House of Britain. His mother was Queen in her own right, of the Guelphic line. His father was a prince of the Saxon dukedom of Coburg-Gotha, one of several branches of the House of Wettin. To that house our king belongs. Like the older Saxon and Norman lines, this newer Saxon comes from Odin whose connection with the dynasty of David we have already discussed. Through one of the sons of Odin and Frea were ancestors of Cadwallader, Roderick, and Howel the Good, whence came the Tudor kings of England, and, through Nesta and Fleance, the Stuarts as well. A second son of Odin made him progenitor of William the Conqueror. Through a third he was forefather of Egbert, the first King of England, and of Alfred the Great. Through the union of several lines, he was the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings and the Hanoverian princes. By a fourth, named Wecta, crowned by him, King of Saxony (died A.D. 800), Odin was the ancestor of Hengist, last of the kings and first of the Dukes of Saxony. Queen Victoria was also of this line, by her mother. Programs and Papers, prepared and distributed in 1982, by the United States George Washington Bicentennial Commission, contain the following information on Washingtons family name and ancestry: For eight hundred years, through successive generations, the name of Washington or de Wessyngton has been known for the valour, chivalry, high code of honour, and military distinction of those who bore it. Knights and noblemen of the Old World and citizens of the New, each in their own turn, through service and achievement have given to it a notable place in history. In the process of evolution this name like many others known to fame, has had many variations from the modem spelling. It is apparently of Saxon origin and is known to have existed in the twelfth century. Early records refer to the village of Warton in Lancashire and of Wessyngton in the Palatine Durham. It was from this latter village that the name of de Wessyngton was derived by the progenitor of the Washington family ... In different sections the name was spoiled in divers ways. Other forms appearing in important records are Weschington, Wassington, and

Washington. In the standardized form of the present day this name is widely mentioned in early county records of England and is engraved on timeworn monuments in churches and cathedrals. George Washington was great to a great extent because of what his ancestors were before him. His great-grandfather, John Washington, came to these shores about the middle of the seventeenth century and settled in Westmoreland County Virginia on the very plantation where in later years, George Washington was born. ... No sooner did the head and shoulders of George Washington rise above the great and near great about him than his contemporaries across the sea commenced to ask, Who is this superman who has defied our sovereign and wrested our American possessions from our grasp? From which branch of our Washingtons is he descended? So the queries were set afoot, and since that time many genealogists have devoted much study and research to the subject. Many years were consumed in searching for the documentary evidence which would establish the English pedigree of John Washington and of his great-grandson who had risen from the ranks to the head of a new nation. Elusive clues were followed without definite results until through the persistent efforts of Henry F. Waters, the connecting links between the American and the English ancestry were eventually discovered. Having established the connecting link, it was then possible to trace the English ancestry of George Washington back, through the rector of Purleigh, to the Sulgrave branch of the family, and on back for seven generations to John Washington, of Tewhitfield, County Lancashire, whose great-grandson, Lawrence Washington of Grays Inn was Mayor of Northampton and grantee, of the Sulgrave estate which remained in the direct family for two generations.... Robert Washington inherited Sulgrave Manor... Lawrence Washington was next in line. His mother, Margaret Butler Washington, was a daughter of Margaret Sutton, through whom a strain of royal blood descended into the veins of George Washington. Though fitted in every way to serve as a wise and considerate Sovereign had he permitted the people to proclaim him King of the United States of America, he most emphatically declined that honour, preferring to be called the President. And now a few words about Washingtons mother, whose maiden name was Mary Ball. She, too, came from a distinguished family. The escutcheon of her family bears upon it a black lion on a silver shield with a crest having a lion rampant, holding a golden ball in his paws. The motto, Coelumque Tueri, means And Look to Heaven. The more immediate ancestry of Mary Ball is traced back to Colonel William Ball, who emigrated to Virginia about 1650 and settled in Lancaster County on a plantation called Millenbeck, on the Rappahannock River.

The Bicentennial Papers pay this tribute to Mary Ball: Through his maternal ancestor there came to George Washington the strength of a philosopher and the truthfulness of a Christian: he was taught to love God supremely, his kind tenderly, and to be good and generous to all living creatures. And above all he was always considerate of his mothers wishes and ever addressed her as Honoured Madam thus paying a courtly tribute to her and through her to her distinguished forbears.An article by George C. Crux, in Destiny Magazine, January 1937, contains the statement: Over the entrance of the House of Tudor Sulgrave Manor in Northamptonshire England, hangs the Tudor Coat of Arms, a replica of which was among the Washington heirlooms. In this Coat-of-Arms is to be found both the Stars and Stripes. As we have seen, many of the early colonists wanted to crown George Washington King of the Confederation. He declined the Honour. Nevertheless, their readiness to make him a king indicates their recognition of his royal lineage. Some of the Founding Fathers, and many other citizens of that time, had distinctive family heraldry; however, they said little about their background because of their desire to avoid the rise of class consciousness in the New Republic. Yet these facts are extremely important today because they prove beyond the shadow of doubt that the English speaking and kindred people have a common heritage. The interesting though generally unknown facts which follow are found in The Huguenot Society of Pennsylvania Publication (Vol. XII, p.7). The early colony of Virginia numbered among its prominent leaders at least twenty whose ancestors stemmed from the same royal lines as those of Queen Elizabeth II. In fact, her progenitors gave America some of our most eminent patriots, including the beloved Father of our Country General George Washington. Others among the Queens American cousins are a vice-president; three cabinet officers: eight senators; Chief Justice John Marshall; six governors of states including Patrick Henry and General Thomas Nelson, wartime governor of Virginia and a Signer of the Declaration of Independence, Meriwether Lewis, the explorer; General Light Horse Harry Lee of the revolution, and his still more famous son, General Robert E. Lee; and a veritable host of men and women prominent in, national life. Symbolic dreams and prophetic visions, from time immemorial have been given credence, notably in the period covered by the Holy Scriptures. According to tradition the mother of George. Washington saw in a dream, when he was a child, the measure of his future greatness. Another tradition states that an aged Indian chieftain pronounced a divine inspiration when he said of George Washington: There is a something bids me speak in the voice of prophecy. Listen! The Great Spirit protects that man., and guides his destinies. He will become the chief of nations and a people yet unborn will hail him as the founder of a mighty empire! (From Bi-centennial Papers).

Isaac-David-Odin-Washington. Such men under God, have produced the miracle of our American Saxon Heritage! (Originally published under the title Americas Saxon Heritage, and republished in The Kingdom Digest.)

The Samaritans come to America as Ishmaelites and heirs to the Covenant of Abraham The American Blacks are called The Children of Ishmael Samaritans are descendants of, most notably, the Ishmaelites the Philistines, the Edomites, the Syrians, and the Moabites An unusual Bible "translation" of some years back, called the "Cotton-Patch Bible," aimed at Americas Old South ("dixieland") well illustrated the true meaning of Samaritans in New Testament era life. In the Cotton-Patch Bible, Samaritans are called "negroes" and Jews (in relation to the Samaritans) "whites." Another account is that of the ten lepers he healed. (Luke 17:12-19) Jesus healed 10 lepers, and all 10 were healed, but only one of them came back afterwards to thank Him, and that ex-leper was a Samaritan. The reason for this is the fact that the Jews were not cursed with leprosy, but as Syrian Jews they were cursed into white men, there skin becoming, as white as snow. Joshua 22:17 Is the iniquity of Peor too little for us, from which we are not cleansed until this day, although there was a plague in the congregation of the LORD. King James Version Numbers 12 Miriam and Aaron Oppose Moses
1

Miriam and Aaron began to talk against Moses because of his Cushite wife, for he had married a Cushite. 2 Has the LORD spoken only through Moses? they asked. Hasnt he also spoken through us? And the LORD heard this. (Now Moses was a very humble man, more humble than anyone else on the face of the earth.)
4

At once the LORD said to Moses, Aaron and Miriam, Come out to the tent of meeting, all three of you. So the three of them went out. 5 Then the LORD came down in a pillar of cloud; he stood at the entrance to the tent and summoned Aaron

and Miriam. When the two of them stepped forward, 6 he said, Listen to my words: When there is a prophet among you, I, the LORD, reveal myself to them in visions, I speak to them in dreams. 7 But this is not true of my servant Moses; he is faithful in all my house. 8 With him I speak face to face, clearly and not in riddles; he sees the form of the LORD. Why then were you not afraid to speak against my servant Moses?
9

The anger of the LORD burned against them, and he left them.

10

When the cloud lifted from above the tent, Miriams skin was leprous[a]it became as white as snow.

John 8:30 (King James Version)

Jesus as a Black Samaritan and an American Black

8:30 As he spake these words, many believed on him. 8:31 Then said Jesus to those Jews which believed on him, If ye continue in my word, then are ye my disciples indeed; 8:32 And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall set you free. Note:

In Genesis Chapter 15 we find,

13

And he said unto Abram, Know of a surety that

thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and

they shall afflict them four hundred years;

14

And also that nation, whom they shall serve, will I judge: and afterward shall they come out with great possessions.
The Jews were never slaves in Egypt or afflicted there for 400 years.

In the Book of Revelation America is called EGYPT and BABYLON and THE GREAT HARLOT

8:33 They answered him,

We be Abraham's seed,

and were never in bondage to any man:

how sayest thou, Ye shall be made free?

8:34 Jesus answered them, Amen, Amen, I say unto you, Whosoever committeth sin is the servant of sin. 8:35 And the servant abideth not in the house for ever: but the Son abideth ever. 8:36 If the Son therefore shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed.

8:37 I know (you say) that ye are Abraham's seed; but ye seek to kill me, because my word hath no place in you.

8:38 I speak that which I have seen with my Father:

and ye do that which ye have seen with your father.

8:39 They answered and said unto him, Abraham is our father. Jesus saith unto them, If ye were Abraham's children, ye would do the

works of Abraham.
8:40 But now ye seek to kill me, a man that hath told you the truth, which I have heard of God: this did not Abraham.

8:41 Ye do the deeds of your father.

Then said they to him,

We be not born of fornication; (i.e. dogs, - homosexuals and transvestites)

we have one Father, even God.

8:42 Jesus said unto them,

If God were your Father, ye would love me: for I proceeded forth and came from God; neither came I of myself, but he sent me. 8:43 Why do ye not understand my speech? even because ye cannot hear my word.

8:44 Ye are of your father the devil, and the lusts of your father ye will do. He was a murderer from the beginning, and abode not in the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he speaketh a lie, he speaketh of his own: for he is a liar, and the father of it.
8:45 And because I tell you the truth, ye believe me not.

8:46 Which of you convinceth me of sin? And if I say the truth, why do ye not believe me? 8:47 He that is of God heareth God's words: ye therefore hear

them not, because ye are not of God.

8:48 Then answered the Jews, and said unto him,

Say we not well that thou art a Samaritan, and hast a devil?

8:49 Jesus answered, I have not a devil;

but I honour my Father, and ye do dishonour me.

Note:

Here Jesus chooses specifically not address the accusation that

he is a Samarian (the truthful name of the State of Israel in the 1600s A.D., was Samaria and King Omri named the Capital, Samaria)

8:50 And I seek not mine own glory: there is one that seeketh and judgeth.

8:51 Amen, Amen, I say unto you, If a man keep my saying, he shall never see death.

8:52 Then said the Jews unto him, Now we know that thou hast a devil.

Abraham is dead, and the prophets; and thou sayest, If a man keep my saying, he shall never taste of death. 8:53 Art thou greater than our father Abraham, who is dead? and the prophets are dead: whom makest thou thyself? 8:54 Jesus answered, If I honour myself, my honour is nothing: it is my Father that honoureth me; of whom ye say, that he is your God: 8:55 Yet ye have not known him; but I know him: and if I should say, I know him not, I shall be a liar like unto you: but I know him, and keep his saying.

8:56 Your father Abraham rejoiced to see my day: and he saw it, and was glad.

8:57 Then said the Jews unto him, Thou art not yet fifty years old,

and hast thou seen Abraham?

8:58 Jesus said unto them, Amen, Amen, I say unto you,

Before Abraham was, I am.

Here Jesus is testifying that he is the I AM of the scriptures, Amen is a family name of Royalty and comes from the name of Amen Hotep. The name Hotep, which means Amen is Satistified comes from the name of IMHOTEP which is pronounced I em Hotep and therefore the I AM of the scriptures. The name of IMHOTEP is known around the world as

The Architect and the biblical

Lord of the Worlds.

8:59 Then took they up stones to cast at him: but Jesus hid himself, and went out of the temple, going through the midst of them, and so passed by.

Note: Abrahams seed, the historical Hammurabi of Ancient Ur and Ancient Sumeria (aka Samaria) was the biblical Er also known as Re`, this is why Jesus is pictured with a Sun around the back of his head. He is also known as the biblical Ishmael who is the historical ISHME SHAMASH as well as ISHME DAGON

JEWISH SLAVE TRADE OF AMERICAN BLACKS PART TWO SHEMESH SHAMASH HEM-HEM Lets hem him in The Sun God Shamash is equated, first to the Biblical Patriarch Abrahamm and the historical Hammurabi who is the Masons Hiram Abiff, the Architect who is known in this life as the Sun God Or, from which we derive the name LORD which is an alphanumeric 33 for the name Or (is see, Isis) and an alphanumeric 142 as the alphanumeric equivalent number (7) for the name of God. Thirty-three plus 142 is a reduced 76, and the Liberty of the Captives The Chald of Hammur-abi known as Ishmael, also known as the Tribe of Ishmael Tribe of the American Blacks. Next in sequence we have the prefix Ma pronounced Mah, better known as the Ancient Egyptian Goddess Maat and her Seven Principles. Next we derive the name of the biblical Asher. The particle Sh is derived from the name of the City of Able-Shittim, also found in the name Shiloh Shittim, the God Il, also known as El accompanied by the letters Oh which stand for the first two letters in the name of the Ancient Egyptian God Horus, and Amen Hotep, Hotep meaning, Amen is Satisfied. The name Shemesh is derived from the name-sake, The Queen of Sheba, the biblical Moses abbreviated as Mses, also Mess, as in Ramses III.

The Thanksgiving Day Massacre and the True Origin of Thanksgiving

THE PILGRAM S Derived from this word is the name Shamash (SAM) and our hidden UNCLE SAM.

JAMESTOWN Children of God Code AMEN To OWN SHE(MESH) SNOW LEPROSY Children of the biblical Pharaoh SO, Tuthmosis III Biblical Joseph as leader of the 12 Tribes of Israel, sic Ishmael The Thanksgiving Day Dinner Meal Derivative names and word list ANKH DYNASTY AMEN TURKEY TUTANKHAMEN RAMSES III ORIGIN OF WORD DINOSAUR Extinction Dynasty Egyptian particle Sa, meaning the fluid of life, the historical Land of Ur, prophecy Russia Ur Siamon EXTINCTION Tribes The word Extinction, alphanumeric 666, 526, 13, 67, 315

Slave Trade 1609 2012 2012 1609 163 2012 + 1609 = 3621 = 6/13 as well as a reduced 129 6132 = 6666 Number of Blacks killed in Trans-Atlantic slave-trade, 6 million, from the year 1609 to January 2012

Six Million = 6/13 and a 7/11 The European Jew as the Original Six-Million Dollar Man Blacks lives a Dollar-Bill Eye of Horus Unfinished Pyramid Youre a Living Doll Silicon Valley Silicon Chips Ken and Barbie Toys R Us Children of Sun God Or, also known as Oris (Orus sons name Horus) Kentucky Kansas Kaw KAN NA BAL ISM

In colonial Jamestown, colonists resorted to cannibalism during a period known as the Starving Time, from 16091610. After food supplies were diminished, some colonists began to dig up (black) corpses for food. During this time period, one man was tortured until he confessed to eating (a slaves pregnant wife, which he had) salted, and eaten before he was burned alive as punishment.[39][40] The pilgrims bring 20 slaves to Jamestown, Virginia

Using the alphanumeric table, the number twenty is a 197 Gods People as belonging to Amen Hotep I = 197. Note: Amen Hotep I and Amen Hotep II were one in the same.

Thanksgiving is celebrated on the fourth Thursday in November. Last Thanksgiving Day was Thursday, November 24, 2011 Code date as shown above is a 4 8 4 The number 8 is used by the Jews as their 8 days of oil (light), while the number 44 is reserved for the alphanumeric name of Set. Properties of the number 48 Symbolism

According to R. Allendy, "it is the ratio of the initiation, 8, with the natural law of the Cosmos, 40". Product of 4 x 12, it would express the development of the mutual relations in the nature. And as product of 7 x 8, it would show the holiness found in the payment of Karma.

J. Boehme sees there the symbol of the "divine Humanity".

Represent "the spiritual man uniting himself to the divine power 8 and 7 to be delivered of his material obstacles", according to Claude of Saint-Martin.

Gobbel, Gobbel, Gobbel Alphanumeric 526; 403 1609 2012 = 403 years of Servitude 777 BELL GO The import here is that Amen had to leave and therefore Blacks had no God See Elijah They have torn down all thy Holy Altars and killed the Prophets and I alone escaped. Gods reply, I have saved 7,000 who did not bow the knee to Baal' See year 1607 43 X 3 = 129 From 1609 to 2012 is exactly 403 years. And after 400 years they shall come out with great possessions. - as the scriptures state. Children of Baal, aka Bel, but historically known as the God Ball and Bell My FBI file is known as 129 Blue-Falcon. See also The Book of Daniel's prophecy of the 1,290 days in relation to his prophecy concerning the end of forgiveness during the end of the 1,335 days. This relates to the swearing in of President Obama on January 29, (129) 2008 through June 2, 2012 (6th month, 2nd day, year '2012' = 5) for another 526 BC (625). TO PRESIDENT OBAMA LET MY PEOPLE GO

History of the Murder and Diaspora of the Samarians

Samaritan Israelites now number approximately 650 persons (in Israel). About half live in Kiryat Luza, a new village sited on their holy place, Mount Gerizim,(14) Nablus in Palestine. The rest live in Holon, a satellite town south of Tel Aviv. They claim to be the remnants of the ancient kingdom of Israel, acknowledging the Jews to be a deviant branch of Israel.(15) In the fourth and fifth centuries CE it is estimated that the total population of Samaritans was over one million. There was a considerable diaspora from the Hellenistic period that expired only in the eighteenth century CE. At its apogee in the Roman and Byzantine eras it extended from Armenia to Babylonia, Carthage, Sicily and Greece. The bulk of the Samaritans lived in Cairo, Aleppo, Damascus, Gaza, Jaffa, Haifa and of course Nablus and surrounding villages (Fayyad Altif(16) and also Schur 2002: 1). Over the centuries of Byzantine, Arab and Turkish rule they suffered many iniquities - forced conversion to Christianity(17) and Islam, harsh religious decrees, massacre and persecution. By 1918 and the arrival of the British Mandate they numbered only 146. The Nablus community escaped the fate of the Damascus Samaritans most of whom were killed or converted during the reign of the Ottoman Pasha Mardam Beq in the early 17th century CE.(20) The Nablus Samaritans endured because most of the surviving diaspora returned, as mentioned by Fayyad. The Marchiv family came from Sarafand on the south Lebanese coast, where there had been a Samaritan presence for many centuries. The Danefi clan migrated from Damascus and the Matari from Gaza. Much of the local Palestinian population is believed to be descended from Samaritans who converted to Islam. Certain Nabulsi family names are associated with Samaritan ancestry - Muslimani, Yaish, and Shakshir among others. Fayyad: 'the Samaritans moved to Islam so that they could live freely and some people find it better to be one of millions rather than one of hundreds.' Despite such antecedents there appears to be little Palestinian interest in a sect routinely referred to as 'Samaritan Jews' by the PNA and the Palestinian media.(21) Chapter 3 discusses current Palestinian and Jewish Israeli relations with Samaritans at length. From 1924 the community began to reverse the centuries old decline and the population increased.(22) The religious head of the community is the high priest or HaCohen HaGadol, the leader of the 'Ha' Abtai' priestly clan, descendants of Aaron, Moses' brother. As noted above, there are the Cohen priests from the tribe of Levi who constitute the majority, and the two tribes of Manasseh and Ephraim. The three

Samaritan clans date back to the sons of Joseph: the Tsedaka Hatsafari from the tribe of Manasseh, the Danfi (the Altif and Hassetari/Sassoni families) and the Marchivi (the Marchiv and Yehoshua families) from the tribe of Ephraim.(23) Who are the Samaritans? Samaritans call themselves Shomerim or 'keepers' but in Israel they are usually referred to as Shomeronim. The latter term is a misnomer translating as Samarian and it refers to an area that does not exactly correspond with the historical Samaritan homeland. Asking outright what a Samaritan identity is, in terms of an individual placing themselves on a continuum nearer to or further from a Palestinian or Jewish Israeli position, could be construed as a political question and dangerous for Samaritans.
(29)

The Samaritans vehemently consider themselves and their putative history as authentic, that is, they are who they say they are. Recent studies seem to overturn the long academic and theological acceptance of the Samaritans as mongrel practitioners of a debased form of Judaism.(30) The Jews have historically had a generally disparaging attitude to the Samaritans, deriving from negative depictions in the Book of Ezra.(31) They labelled the Samaritans 'Cuthim', a reference to a nonIsraelite Assyrian people who according to the anti-Samaritan Jewish historian Flavius Josephus migrated to Israel and intermarried with locals.(32) This insult to Samaritanism has soured Judaeo-Samaritan polemics since the appearance of the Book of Ezra. For much if not all of the 11th to 15th centuries CE the Samaritans, and the Karaites in Cairo, fell under the religious and civil jurisdiction of the Jewish Nagid or Rayyis al Yahud. This Rayyis or Ra'is was appointed from among the Rabbinite Jews by the Muslim caliphate. According to Goitein the role corresponded to that of the Christian patriarchs. No differentiation was made by the Muslim authorities between the Jewish sects and Samaritanism. Unlike the Karaites, who in Egypt were generally well integrated with the Rabbinites and often intermarried with them, the Samaritans did not recognise the Jewish religious authorities (Goitein 1967). Goitein also notes that on occasion poorer members of the Samaritan community would apostate to Rabbinite Judaism. Uniquely in these days of globalisation the Samaritans prove the exception to Hobsbawm's observation: 'never was the word "community" used more indiscriminately and emptily than in the decades when communities in the sociological sense became hard to find in real life' (Hobsbawm 1994: 428).

Perhaps more than any other 'ethnie' the Samaritans are a bounded group. This boundedness is loosening (in some respects) as shall be seen in chapter 2. Endogamy is and still is blighting the community leading to a disproportionate number of deaf mutes and cripples. In response to this and the current imbalance between the number of marriageable males and females, exogamy has become commonplace. Most young Israeli Samaritan men marry Jewish women who are then brought into the faith.(33) Despite this loosening, self-identity for Samaritans as individuals seems to be subsumed to their self-identity as a community. Although they interact with and are part of the modern, globalised world they are still inherently members of a bounded group. Samaritans have what Hobsbawm considers the modern man and woman are striving for - a group 'to which they can belong, certainly and forever in a world in which all else is moving and shifting, in which nothing else is certain' (Hobsbawm 1996: 40). Now Samaritans live 'only in Holon and Mount Gerizim, but we can travel all over the world'.(34) Despite the general ignorance of the Jewish Israeli populace there has been reconciliation between the two faiths. This is partly as a result of the patronage of Ben Tzvi and also of sympathetic Israeli scholastic interest.(35) Conclusion Fayyad: Due to economic problems most try to be government officials teachers, work in offices. Those with enough money have shops. My son-in-law has a very good fashion shop in Nablus selling throughout the country and even Israel. There are other shops but not enough to depend on them.' To conclude, Samaritanism has survived through dogged adherence to its central doctrines - the sanctity of Mount Gerizim, the profane status of Jerusalem and the saviour status of Moses. Concurrently the faith has endured as a result of theological acculturation of ideas from Christianity and Islam. Initially a boundary was established between the Samaritans and returnees from Babylon. The origin of the snub to the Samaritans may be mythical, but their subsequent refusal to accept Jewish additions to the biblical canon has helped preserve differentials. Conversely, influence from the more distant Christianity and Islam has allowed the Samaritans to adapt to a changing environment. A clear example of this can be seen in the New Testament-influenced veneration of Moses. In Chapter 2 striking

similarities between Muslim and Samaritan prayer postures and blessings are observed. Clan identification and the claim to ancient lineage help maintain both internal and external boundaries. This familial identity is based on the belief in an unbroken ancestral chain of some 118 generations.(36) Whatever changes Samaritans consider that they must accept, the weight of history ensures that they are not undertaken lightly. As with the Karaites, endogamous marriage has traditionally kept the Samaritan identity bounded. The next chapter considers how the community accepts the arrival of exogamous marriage. The role of kinship and hierarchies in maintaining the community There are not only external boundaries for a Samaritan to be distinguished from others but also internal demarcations. As mentioned in Chapter 1 there are five different family groups or clans. The Cohens of the priestly tribe of Levi are the largest family group, constituting almost a third of the total number of Samaritans, according to Seloum the High Priest and Ya'acov.(57) The second family is Altif, particularly numerous and powerful in Kiryat Luza. The third largest family is Tsedaka, with Sarawi/Sassoni and Yehoshua/Marchiv about the same size. In Kiryat Luza the High Priest determines the setting of an election. The two large clans on Mount Gerizim, the Cohens and the Altifs, agreed upon this with the latter consenting only on condition that the Secretary would come from their family. However whenever elections are held on Mount Gerizim this agreement is criticised as it is claimed that there are equally suitable or superior candidates, from other families in Kiryat Luza, such as the Cohens, Sirrawis, Marchivs and Tsedakas with experience as members of the Mount Gerizim Committee.(59) Samaritan ritual and belief, ceremonial and everyday maintain boundaries and cohesion - no such thing as a secular Samaritan The Samaritans were suffering as an indirect consequence of the IDF's general curfew in Nablus.(96) They were not allowed to shop in the city and were forced to travel as far as Ariel and Holon to buy products at much higher prices. The curfew and roadblocks by the IDF also obstructed the entry of services contractors from Nablus. Consequently putrid rubbish piled up in the streets of Kiryat Luza, with the cemetery becoming overgrown with thorns and thistles as the Palestinian workers were afraid to come to tend them. The IDF tanks were also destroying the asphalt roads and the unsurfaced access roads, rendering them unusable. 'Surrealistic scenes of Israelite Samaritans praying with the uproar of screeching tanks in the background have become common place'.

The IDF was not providing alternative services, neglect and dereliction in Kiryat Luza were increasing and the final straw was the ruining of the only access road to the Samaritan village from the direction of Bracha settlement. In desperation some two hundred of Luza's 310 residents organised a spontaneous demonstration on July 14 2002 shortly before midnight. This unique first ever protest on Mount Gerizim, achieved what dozens of communications and correspondences with the Israeli authorities had not. The following day heavy vehicles arrived repairing the Kiryat Luza and Bracha roads and removing all the refuse.(97) Benny Tsedaka notes that this indifference from the Israeli authorities is not atypical. Apart from a few thousand dollars for the annual Passover sacrifice on Mount Gerizim, the Palestinian Authority has rejected all Samaritan applications for regional development claiming that it lacks funds. Similar appeals to Israel to participate in the development of Mount Gerizim were met by meagre funding inadequate for starting any serious development (Tsedaka 2002: 7). The Samaritan community in Holon are also suffering as a result of the inaction of local authorities. Housing expansion plans for the Newe Marqah neighbourhood have been delayed for almost twenty years forcing more than 20 young Samaritan couples to look for housing in nearby Jewish areas.(98) The Present and the Future The desire of the national governmental authorities to ostensibly include Samaritans politically or as citizens and to address their interests is relatively recent. The President of the Palestinian Authority (PA) backed the election of a Samaritan as a member of the 88 strong Palestinian legislature despite his community constituting a tiny fraction of one per cent of the Palestinian population of the PA. At the same time there are issues raised of PA funds not being channelled towards the Samaritans (although the same could be held true of the wider Palestinian population not benefiting from EU funding of the PA). Likewise the Israeli government has extended citizenship to the Nablus Samaritans and a freedom of movement denied to Muslim and Christian Arab Palestinians. The Samaritans were however compelled to take the Israeli government to court in order to have pay parity with Jewish rabbis for the Samaritan clergy.(99) (interview Benny Tsedaka 16/12/01) Members of the community are actively petitioning internationally for a role as an "Island of Peace" within the troubled Israeli-Palestinian discourse. A Samaritan delegation led by the Samaritan High Priest Shalom b. Amram (Saloum) and

Benyamim Tsedaka the Director of A.B. - Institute of Samaritan Studies visited the seat of the European Union in Brussels on April 1, 2002 to conduct meetings with its representatives to promote the idea of developing Mount Gerizim as a centre for peace between Arabs and Jews. Cuthim: Hebrew - A derogatory term used by Jews See also 2 Kings 17:24.

The Crusades, Slavery and Apologies Western leaders who pretend to be humble, love to apologise for things done by their countrymen hundreds of years ago! It is a current fad, and it is supposed to be good. But, all it shows is gross ignorance. Apologies A normal apology is not the same as repentance, and seeking national forgiveness is not possible in reality. What we see today is a political apology as an appeasement to other countries, over activities perceived to be wrong or bad. So, a leader apologises on behalf of crusading knights, or for taking slaves. Intrinsically, it is nothing but window dressing, a piece of fantasy without foundation. No man can apologise on behalf of another! Only the one guilty of a crime or action can apologise. Though this is logical and obvious, leaders just love to be humble in public! Or, to put it more correctly, they make fools of themselves. I am not guilty of taking slaves. Nor did I fight in the Crusades. Therefore, I am not culpable and I have nothing to apologise for. Any sin was committed by those who took part, not me. I am responsible for my own sins. Everyone else is responsible for theirs. I must repent of what I do; they must repent of what they do. Simple as that. There cannot be a national apology! Indeed, I resent a national leader apologising on my behalf, when I am not guilty and do not wish to be involved. Crusades National leaders in Britain, and religious leaders so-called, have both apologised to Muslim nations for the Crusades. But why? The Crusades were the brainchild of Roman Catholic popes, not me. It was Romanists, not Christians, who tried to take over Palestine. So, why is anyone apologising on my behalf, when the popes, in charge of a fake church, are responsible?

And why apologise anyway? Palestine was not owned by Muslims they took over by force, after God had given the land to the Jews! There is an absurdity in academia nowadays, that argues for the return of this land or that to the original owners. Who exactly are these original owners? Every country in the world has been taken over by another nation. Every country has been invaded and eventually integrated into a synthesis, to produce a newer nation. Then, another nation invaded and started the process all over again. What belongs to who? The main point, though, is that the Crusades are the sole responsibility of Romanism, not of Christians or Christianity.

Slavery The West, listening to the leftist-theories of historical revisionists, went on its knees in abject apology to Africa, because some of its people were taken away as slaves. What poppycock! Even at the time richer westerners went into Africa and stole people to be slaves in America and other countries, African chieftains were doing exactly the same thing deeper inland! Slavery was a part of African life for millennia before white men came along. Powerful chiefs or kings ran amok, killing thousands and taking the rest as slaves, from one part of Africa to another. Or, they simply took them a few villages away to another stockade. Every country in the world (possibly with the exception of Australia and New Zealand) fought and took slaves. To lay the blame solely at the door of white men is historical nonsense. Egyptians took slaves. Arabs and Muslims took slaves, Russians took slaves. Vandals took slaves. China took slaves. Red Indians took slaves. Rome took slaves. Britons took slaves. You name any nation up to about the 19th century and you will find slavery in their history. So, why specifically apologise to Africa? One reason is to use it as an excuse to compensate Africa for any supposed economic hardship caused. This is another nonsense, because Africa has gone downhill steadily over centuries, all on its own, with or without slaves. Yes, white men were unscrupulous, but they only came along well after African chiefs indulged in their own stealing and bad leadership! As researchers discovered about the Mayans, there is plenty of evidence that what we now think of as Third World countries were once powerful, rich and advanced. Over time, they have degenerated of their own accord. But, it is easier to blame the West, because it is the communistic thing to do. The main reason Africa and similar nations are poor today is not because of white men, but because of the indolence and bad leadership of nationals. Poor countries are not poor because of capitalism, but because national leaders subdue their own

peoples, do not bring about good change or technological advance, and steal funds for their own lavish lifestyles. Any who dare to oppose them are gunned down. So, if you wish to apologise for your great-great-great grandfather, who stole a wooden pole from Winga Wonga, dont bother they probably stole it from someone else years before. Besides, you cant apologise for someone who is long dead. The real answer is for everyone on earth to apologise for breathing. Then, everyone can pretend to be sorry, and feel politically better. I will not waste time on further discussion, because it is an absurdity to begin with. January 2010 Published on www.christiandoctrine.com Bible Theology Ministries - PO Box 415, Swansea, SA5 8YH Wa l e s United Kingdom Make a Donation to support the work of Bible Theology Ministries

Samaritan - [330 B.C.] Samaritans build their Temple on Mount Gerizim The precise date of the schism between Samaritans and Jews is unknown, but was certainly complete by the end of the fourth century BCE. Archaeological excavations at Mount Gerizim suggest that a Samaritan temple was built there c. 330BCE, and when Alexander the Great (356-323) was in the region, he is said to have visited Samaria and not Jerusalem. 1

...it was on Mount Gerizim that Abraham offered Isaac (Gen 22:2).

It was also understood to be the place where God chose to establish His name (Deut 12:5).
o

Although this and similar references are to Jerusalem, the Samaritan identification of the "place" as Mount Gerizim made it the focus of their spiritual values.

As the Samaritan woman informed Jesus, the mountain was center of their worship (John 4:20).

Samaritan - [174-164 B.C.] Antiochus Epiphanes attempts to Hellenize the Jews and the Samaritans article3jerusalem Level III says: In the second century B.C. a particularly bitter series of events eventually led to a revolution. When Antiochus Epiphanes IV, a Syrian king who had control of the region, tried to obliterate Jewish religion, he proclaimed himself the incarnation of the Greek god Zeus and placed his statue in the most holy place in the temple, where he sacrificed pigs. The authority of the high priesthood was severely damaged when first Jason and then Meneleus bought their office from Antiochus.

The persecution and death of faithful Jewish persons who refused to worship and kiss Antiochus image eventually led to a revolt led by Judas Maccabeus and his family. Judas priestly family, the Hasmoneans, introduced a dynasty that ruled during a period of conflict, with tensions arising both from within the family as well as from external enemies.

Antiochus Epiphanes was on the throne of Syria from 175 to 164 BC. His determined policy was to Hellenize his entire kingdom. The greatest obstacle to his ambition was the fidelity of the Jews to their historic religion. The universal peril led the Samaritans, eager for safety, to repudiate all connection and kinship with the Jews. They sent ambassadors and an epistle asking to be recognized as belonging to the Greek party, and to have their temple on Mt. Gerizim named "The Temple of Jupiter Hellenius." The request was granted. This was evidently the final breach between the two groups indicated in John 4:9, "For Jews have no dealings with Samaritans. 2

Several centuries before the birth of Jesus, the Samaritans had built their own temple on Mt. Gerizim] to rival the one in Jerusalem. Here, they offered sacrifices according to the Mosaic code. Anderson notes that during the reign of Antiochus IV (175-164 B.C.):

the Samaritan temple was renamed either Zeus Hellenios (willingly by the Samaritans according to Josephus or, more likely, Zeus Xenios, (unwillingly in accord with 2 Macc. 6:2) Bromiley, 4.304). 3

Josephus Book 12, Chapter 5 quotes the Samaritans as saying:

We therefore beseech thee, our benefactor and saviour, to give order to Apolonius, the governor of this part of the country, and to Nicanor, the procurator of thy affairs, to give us no disturbances, nor to lay to our charge what the Jews are accused for, since we are aliens from their nation and from their customs, but let our temple which at present hath no name at all, be named the Temple of Jupiter Hellenius.

II Maccabees 6:1-2 says:

Shortly afterwards, the king sent Gerontes the Athenian to force the Jews to violate their ancestral customs and live no longer by the laws of God; and to profane the Temple in Jerusalem and dedicate it to Olympian Zeus, and the one on Mount Gerizim to Zeus, Patron of Strangers, as the inhabitants of the latter place had requested.

In 167 B.C. the Seleucid ruler Antiochus Epiphanes set up an altar to Zeus over the altar of burnt offerings in the Jewish temple in Jerusalem. He also

sacrificed a pig on the altar in the Temple in Jerusalem. This event is known as the "abomination of desolation." 4

This Samaritan Temple at Mount Gerizim was destroyed by John Hyracanus in about 128 B.C., having existed about 200 years. Only a few stone remnants of it exist today. Samaritan - [164 BCE] to Modern Times

During the Hellenistic period, Samaria (like Judea) was largely divided between a Hellenizing faction based in Samaria (Sebastaea) and a pious faction, led by the High Priest and based largely around Shechem and the rural areas. Samaria was a largely autonomous state nominally dependent on the Seleucid empire until around 129 BCE, when the Jewish Hasmonean king Yohanan Girhan (John Hyrcanus) destroyed the Samaritan temple and devastated Samaria. Samaritans fared badly under Roman rule, when Samaria was part of the Roman province of Judea, in the early part of the Common Era. However, this period was also something of a golden age for the Samaritan community. The Temple of Gerizim was rebuilt after the Bar Kochba revolt, around 135 CE. Much of Samaritan liturgy was set by the high priest Baba Rabba in the fourth century. There were some Samaritans in the Persian Empire, where they served in the Sassanid army. Later, under Byzantine Emperor Zeno in the late fifth century, Samaritans and Jews were massacred, and the Temple on Mt. Gerizim was again destroyed. Under a charismatic, messianic figure named Julianus ben Sabar (or ben Sahir), the Samaritans launched a war to create their own independent state in 529. With the help of the Ghassanid Arabs, Emperor Justinian I crushed the revolt; tens of thousands of Samaritans died or were enslaved. The Samaritan faith was virtually outlawed thereafter by the Christian Byzantine Empire; from a population once at least in the hundreds of thousands, the Samaritan community dwindled to near extinction. A large number of Samaritans fled the country in 634 CE, following the Muslim victory at the Battle of Yarmuk. Samaritan communities were established in Egypt and Syria but they did not survive into modern times. During the mid 800s Muslim fanatics destroyed Samaritan and Jewish synagogues. During the 10th century relations between Muslims, Jews and Samaritans improved greatly. In the 1300s the

Mamluks came to power; they plundered all Samaritan religious sites, and turned their shrines into mosques. Many Samaritans converted out of fear. After the Ottoman conquest, Muslim persecution of Samaritans increased again. Massacres were frequent. In 1624, the last Samaritan high priest of the line of Eleazar son of Aaron died without issue, but descendants of Aaron's other son, Ithamar, remained and took over the office. By the 1830s only a small group of Samaritans in Shechem remained extant. The local Arab population believed that Samaritans were "atheists" and "against Islam", and they threatened to murder the entire Samaritan community. The Samaritans turned to the Jewish community for help, as Jews and Arabs had good relations at this time, and Jewish entreaties to treat the Samaritans with respect were eventually heeded. In the past, the Samaritans are believed to have numbered several hundred thousand, but persecution and assimilation have reduced their numbers drastically. In 1919, an illustrated National Geographic report on the community stated that their numbers were less than 150.

Samaritans in All Parts of the Empire It must be remembered that there were Samaritans scattered all over the Roman world in the 1st century of our era. Only recently have historians begun to realize just how extensive the Samaritan population was in central Palestine, but also in Phoenicia, Egypt, Arabia, North Africa, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and even in Rome and throughout Italy. At first, many Romans when coming in contact with these Samaritans simply thought them to be a Jewish sect and often they were classified as Jews on that account. Indeed, some early fathers of the Christian community continued to confuse the Samaritans with Jews from the third to the early fifth centuries (I will show this in a moment). After all, the Samaritans carried with them wherever they went their doctrines and religious symbols which were in many basic cases the same as the Jews. As for the population of the Samaritans, recent studies suggest that there were as many as half a million Samaritans in central Palestine in the 1st century and about three times that many in the other areas of the Roman Empire and other areas mentioned above (Alan, Crown, The Samaritans [Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1989], p. 201). Two million Samaritans in the 1st century represented a large group of people to the Romans and they would have been politically important to the government of Rome as well as to their neighbors who lived near them or among them. What happened to that population of Samaritans which numbered up to two million people in the time of the apostles and for the next six hundred years that followed? This is one of the things I hope to show in the remainder of this book. This vast number of people have simply disappeared from history. That is, they have vanished as far as being denominated as "Samaritans." Today the number of identifiable Samaritans is drastically reduced to a small community (about 600) still living in two locations in Israel in Nablus and near Tel Aviv (some in Nablus I have come to know personally during the many times I have been to the area). They have told me that they have early records of their forefathers showing at one time that there were Samaritans all over Europe as well as Egypt, North Africa and even India. They once represented a large population of the Roman world and they became influential among the Romans. This dispersion of Samaritan peoples to many areas of Europe (and even Asia) has been known by the remnant Samaritans who still live in Palestine. As long ago as 1865, Robert Mimpriss in his Gospel Treasury, Expository Harmony of the Four Evangelists (New York: M. W. Dodd, 1868), stated: "In ages past we find them [the Samaritans] inhabiting various cities in

Palestine, and extending even to Constantinople. There was a tradition among them that large numbers of their brethren were dwelling in various parts of the world in England, France, India, and elsewhere and they have written concerning them from time to time, in the hope of becoming acquainted with these their brethren. p.545 The evidence in the 20th century for a large Samaritan dispersion has become certain. In the new book referred to above (Alan Crown, ed., The Samaritans [Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr] 1989), we have some following quotes and observations, "Egypt and Phoenicia, North Africa, Greece and even Rome, all offered refuge or homes for Samaritans as well as for Jews. ... Observers made little distinction between Samaritans and Jews." p.201 "Samaritans appear to have been located in every major coastal city of Palestine, and we find them in Italy and throughout Asia Minor." p.207 "We are aware that early in the Byzantine period Jamnia, once the seat of the Sanhedrin,, was almost entirely Samaritan. [There were] dense settlements in small farming villages across the Sharon, Shephelah and into the hill country of Samaria." pp.5960 "Samaritan troops seemed to have served in the Roman armies and may have settled overseas even at the frontiers of the Roman Empire." p.209 "At Thessalonica, the [Samaritan] community was sufficiently large to have maintained a synagogue, one portion of which was named the Tower of

the Samaritans." p.211 "Before the coming of the Moslems the Mediterranean basin was virtually ringed by Samaritan settlers, some as free men including merchants, officials, artisans and colonists, and others as slaves, including, apparently, a large number of mine workers." p.212 "In the Mediterranean basin, the Samaritan Diaspora was lost to sight for ever soon after the Moslem conquest, with the single exception of a Samaritan refugee at Trieste in the eighteenth century." p.213 In summation: Crown states that there were Samaritans,

in Delos in the 2nd century B.C.E. (p.202),

in Thasos at the same time (p.202),

in Rhodes, Athens and the Greek islands (p.202).

Sicily in the 1st century had Samaritans which had a community that lasted until the time of Gregory the Great in the 6th century (p.202).

There were many in Egypt (p.203).

At least a third of the population of Caesarea in Palestine in the 1st century was Samaritan (p.206),

and the same amount was there in the early Byzantine period (p.208)

and, importantly, there were Samaritan synagogues spread over the whole of the Samaritan diaspora (p.207). There are three major factors that must be understood by historians of the Samaritan people.

Firstly, that from the 1st century to the 6th century of our era there were at least two million Samaritans in various parts of the Mediterranean basin. Secondly, in many cases the Samaritans were confused with the Jews as far as the Romans and others were concerned because the Samaritans used many of the same symbols that the Jews used in identifying themselves. Some examples of this confusion between Jews and Samaritans are found in the quotes from early Christian scholars. In the early 3rd century Hippolytus said the Sadducean branch of the Jews still existed but they were now residing in Samaria. He said, "This sect had its stronghold especially in the region of Samaria" (Refutation of All Heresies, IX.24). Origen (Celsus I.49) and even Jerome (Comm. on Matthew 22:31 33) thought the Samaritans were a Sadducean sect of the Jews. Epiphanius in the 4th century also confused Samaritans with Jews. MClintock & Strongs Cyclopaedia, states: "Epiphanius (Against Heresies, Book One) considers them to be the chief and most dangerous adversaries of Christianity, and he enumerates the several sects into which they had by that time divided themselves. They were popularly, and even by some of the fathers, confounded with the Jews, insomuch that a legal interpretation of the Gospel was described as a tendency to Samaritanize or to be Judaistic." vol.IX, p.287 [bold lettering mine] And even some of the Jewish authorities in the Talmud accepted some Samaritans as proselytes though in most cases it was recognized that they were basically heathens (Kiddushin 75b, 76a). Thirdly, these Samaritans throughout the Empire (like the Jews) were accustomed to meet in synagogues and to use burial grounds that other eastern peoples used (including the Jews). Recall that the followers of Simon Magus and his successors (who became identified with the Gnostics) were also meeting in synagogues. It should be noted that just because the ruins of a synagogue are found that goes back to the period from the first to the sixth centuries, it is precarious business to assume that it is always Jewish. Reinhard Plummer (in Crown, ed., The Samaritans) makes the proper observation that the few remains from synagogues in Lower Galilee do not necessarily mean that the synagogues were Jewish. He suggests that in some cases they may be Samaritan even when the square script of the Hebrew letters is used (p.156).

There is no proof whatever that the Samaritans always used the ancient script while the Jewish authorities always used the square script from the time of Ezra (5th century B.C.E.) onward. In fact, with the Jews the opposite is the case. Jewish coins from the Maccabean period, those at the time of the first revolt and even those coins minted at the time of the second (and final) revolt in C.E. 132135 were inscribed with the ancient script. Some writings from the Dead Sea area also were written in the earlier script. In Jerusalem in a burial cave at Givat ha-Mivtar is a Herodian period inscription in the ancient letters written by a Jew who had just buried his friend (see Joseph Naveh, Early History of the Alphabet, pp.120121). All of this shows that there remained a penchant among Jews to use the older script alongside the square script. And while the Samaritans seemingly continued to use the old script for making manuscripts of the Torah, there is every reason to believe that they often resorted to the square script in other literary environments such as on tombs and dedicatory inscriptions (S. Safrai, Samaritan Synagogues in the Romano-Byzantine Period, Cathedra 4, p.86, Hebrew). And speaking of tombs or cemeteries, just because there are found inscriptions or carvings that suggest biblical themes from the Old Testament, this is no guarantee whatever that the tombs and cemeteries are to be reckoned as exclusively belonging to Jews within mainline Rabbinic fellowship. In many areas the identification of certain cemeteries as being Jewish (or Samaritan, etc.) is often based on literary sources that mention Jews or others as living in the region. This is fine, but in the region of Lower and Upper Galilee, the literary sources are not sufficient to properly identify either synagogue remains or cemeteries. Galilee was a pluralistic society. As Professor Crown reminds us, in the area of Scythopolis/Beth Shean where some of the synagogues of which we have been speaking are located, there was an important Samaritan population, as well as in Sepphoris in Upper Galilee and in the Decapolis (The Samaritans, p.60). In such pluralistic societies it was common for all religious groups to use in many of their inscriptions the normal languages spoken by the ordinary people. Thus, we find Greek and Aramaic writings in the synagogues and we should equally expect such inscriptions in burial grounds and commercial buildings and homes. Artifacts and religious objects would also be inscribed with the normal speech of the community. And this is what is found. Goodenough found such inscriptions all around the Mediterranean area and if they showed any "Jewish" types of symbols or had what he considered "Jewish" names or themes, he would most often classify them as "Jewish." This is understandable, but with what I am presenting in this research, we need to be careful in such identifications. And let us not forget that there was a large Samaritan population in Galilee and they also had an extensive diaspora which was scattered over the Roman Empire. These Samaritans were often mistaken as a Jewish sect. It is this continual

confusion between the two peoples that is important in our present study. The confusion even extended to racial appearances. When the Jerusalem Jews were upset with the teachings of Jesus, they looked him over and said, "Say we not well that thou art a Samaritan" (John 8:48). Now Jesus was clearly Jewish and reckoned to be from the House of David, but the Jewish authorities felt it proper to call him a Samaritan. Had the two peoples looked dissimilar to one another in physical appearance, they would not have been able to make such a comparison of Jesus. The simple truth is, the Jews and Samaritans at large often resembled one another in physical appearance. This was another reason for the confusion between the two peoples. What we need to ask, however, is what happened to this large group of people called the Samaritans who seemingly (by the 7th century) disappeared from the face of the earth? This is what we need to look at in this historical survey. When we do, and believe what the evidence reveals, we will realize that the Samaritans are The People That History Forgot.

Book 18 Archelus Banished to Departure from Babylon Chapter 4 Samaritans cause trouble and Pilate destroys them. Actions Vitellius took with Jews and Parthians

1. BUT the nation of the Samaritans did not escape without tumults. The man who excited them to it was one who thought lying a thing of little consequence, and who contrived every thing so that the multitude might be pleased; so he bid them to get together upon Mount Gerizzim, which is by them looked upon as the most holy of all mountains, and assured them, that when they were come thither, he would show them those sacred vessels which were laid under that place, because Moses put them there (12) So they came thither armed, and thought the discourse of the man probable; and as they abode at a certain village, which was called Tirathaba, they got the rest together to them, and desired to go up the mountain in a great multitude together; but Pilate prevented their going up, by seizing upon file roads with a great band of horsemen and foot-men, who fell upon those that were gotten together in the village; and when it came to an action, some of them they slew, and others of them they put to flight, and took a great many alive, the principal of which, and also the most potent of those that fled away, Pilate ordered to be slain. 2. But when this tumult was appeased, the Samaritan senate sent an embassy to Vitellius, a man that had been consul, and who was now president of Syria, and accused Pilate of the murder of those that were killed; for that they did not go to Tirathaba in order to revolt from the Romans, but to escape the violence of Pilate. So Vitellius sent Marcellus, a friend of his, to take care of the affairs of Judea, and ordered Pilate to go to Rome, to answer before the emperor to the accusations of the Jews. So Pilate, when he had tarried ten years in Judea, made haste to Rome, and this in obedience to the orders of Vitellius, which he durst not contradict; but before he could get to Rome Tiberius was dead. 3. But Vitellius came into Judea, and went up to Jerusalem; it was at the time of that festival which is called the Passover. Vitellius was there magnificently received, and released the inhabitants of Jerusalem from all the taxes upon the fruits that were bought and sold, and gave them leave to have the care of the high priest's vestments, with all their ornaments, and to have them under the custody of the priests in the temple, which power they used to have formerly, although at this time they were laid up in the tower of Antonia, the citadel so called, and that on the occasion following: There was one of the [high] priests, named Hyrcanus; and as there were many of that name, he was the first of them; this man built a tower near the temple, and when he had so done, he generally dwelt in it, and had these

vestments with him, because it was lawful for him alone to put them on, and he had them there reposited when he went down into the city, and took his ordinary garments; the same things were continued to be done by his sons, and by their sons after them. But when Herod came to be king, he rebuilt this tower, which was very conveniently situated, in a magnificent manner; and because he was a friend to Antonius, he called it by the name of Antonia. And as he found these vestments lying there, he retained them in the same place, as believing, that while he had them in his custody, the people would make no innovations against him. The like to what Herod did was done by his son Archelaus, who was made King after him; after whom the Romans, when they entered on the government, took possession of these vestments of the high priest, and had them reposited in a stone-chamber, under the seal of the priests, and of the keepers of the temple, the captain of the guard lighting a lamp there every day; and seven days before a festival (13) they were delivered to them by the captain of the guard, when the high priest having purified them, and made use of them, laid them up again in the same chamber where they had been laid up before, and this the very next day after the feast was over. This was the practice at the three yearly festivals, and on the fast day; but Vitellius put those garments into our own power, as in the days of our forefathers, and ordered the captain of the guard not to trouble himself to inquire where they were laid, or when they were to be used; and this he did as an act of kindness, to oblige the nation to him. Besides which, he also deprived Joseph, who was also called Caiaphas, of the high priesthood, and appointed Jonathan the son of Ananus, the former high priest, to succeed him. After which, he took his journey back to Antioch.

Prophecy: To be called out of Egypt Old Testament Reference: Hosea 11:1 New Testament Fulfillment: Matthew 2:13-15 "When Israel was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called My son. " (Hosea 11:1) "Now when they had departed, behold, an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream, saying, 'Arise, take the young Child and His mother, flee to Egypt, and stay there until I bring you word; for Herod will seek the young Child to destroy Him.' When he arose, he took the young Child and His mother by night and departed for Egypt, and was there until the death of Herod, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the Lord through the prophet, saying, 'Out of Egypt I called My Son.' " (Matthew 2:13-15)

Jesus is the historical and biblical Amen the faithful and true witness Revelation Amen being a Pharaohic historical name from Egypt, the family Dynasty of Amenhotep, 'hotep' meaning 'Amen is Satisfied'. The alphanumeric table for the three letters H.O.T. Being a reduced 8.6.2, the same as embedded in the name of Eric Robert Powell 8.6.2 respectively, with the initials of Eric Powell. The Pharaohs were known as Per'o which stands for the initials of Eric Robert Powell in these last days together with the letter O which is an alphanumeric '15' which when reversed stands for the number '51' as also embedded in the name Robert and in addition, bears witness to the 51st largest constellation being Lepus the Hare (rabbit) as our solar system is in a wormhole and is not charatered among the 88 known constellations. We are obviously connected with this constellation as one of its main stars is called Leporis and it is here where we find the words leper as well as leprosy as Moses (Ahmose II also known as Ahmose-Ankh). Our sun's name is actually Leporis, as all stars are called suns.

Samaritan From Academic Kids For the British telephone helpline, see Samaritans. Samaritans are both a religious and an ethnic group. Ethnically, they are descended from a group of inhabitants that may have connections to ancient Samaria from the beginning of the Babylonian Exile up to the beginning of the Christian era. Religiously, they are the adherents of Samaritanism, a religion based on the Torah. Samaritans claim that their worship is the true religion of the ancient Israelites, predating the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, but Samaritanism has historically been rejected by normative Judaism. The Samaritans either speak Modern Hebrew or Palestinian Arabic as their mother language. For liturgical purposes, Samaritan Hebrew and Samaritan Aramaic are used. Contents 1 History 2 Modern times 3 Religion 4 Samaritans in the Gospels 5 See also 6 External links History The exact historical origins of the Samaritans are disputed to this day. 2 Kings 17 and Josephus (Antiquites 9.27791) claim that the Samaritans are descendants of mixed ancestry, both of Israelite lineage and of deportees brought into the region of Samaria by the Assyrians from other lands they had conquered, including Cuthah. On the other hand, the Samaritans have always claimed to be the descendants of Israelites of the Northern Kingdom who remained behind during the Babylonian Captivity, and thus introduced none of the religious changes brought about among the Jews during this time. Some modern scholars agree. A genetic study (Shen, et al., 2004) concluded from Ychromosome analysis that Samaritans descend from the Israelites (including Cohen, or priests), and mitochondrial DNA analysis shows descent from Assyrians and other foreign women, effectively validating both local and foreign origins for the Samaritans. Some date their split with Jews to the time of Nehemiah, Ezra, and the

rebuilding of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile. Returning exiles considered the Samaritans to be non-Jews and, thus, not fit for this religious work.

Missing image Samaritan_inscription.jpg Ancient inscription in Samaritan Hebrew. From a photo c.1900 by the Palestine Exploration Fund. Courtesy of the 1901-1906 Jewish Encyclopedia [1]. The Samaritans built a rival Temple on Mount Gerizim, near Shechem. During the Hellenistic period, Samaria (like Judea) was largely divided between a Hellenizing faction based in Samaria (Sebastaea) and a pious faction, led by the High Priest and based largely around Shechem and the rural areas. Samaria was a largely autonomous state nominally dependent on the Seleucid empire until around 129 BCE, when the Jewish Hasmonean king Yohanan Girhan (John Hyrcanus) destroyed the Samaritan temple and devastated Samaria. Samaritans fared badly under Roman rule, when Samaria was part of the Roman province of Judea, in the early part of the Common Era. However, this period was also something of a golden age for the Samaritan community. The Temple of Gerizim was rebuilt after the Bar Kochba revolt, around 135 CE. Much of Samaritan liturgy was set by the high priest Baba Rabba in the fourth century CE. There were some Samaritans in the Persian Empire, where they served in the Sassanid army. Later, under Byzantine Emperor Zeno in the late fifth century, Samaritans and Jews were massacred, and the Temple on Mt. Gerizim was again destroyed. Under a charismatic, messianic figure named Julianus ben Sabar (or ben Sahir), the Samaritans launched a war to create their own independent state in 529. With the help of the Ghassanid Arabs, Emperor Justinian I crushed the revolt; tens of thousands of Samaritans died or were enslaved. The Samaritan faith was virtually outlawed thereafter by the Christian Byzantine Empire; from a population once at least in the hundreds of thousands, the Samaritan community dwindled to near extinction.

Missing image Gerizim2.jpg Samaritan cultic center on Mount Gerizim. From a photo c.1900 by the

Palestine Exploration Fund. Courtesy of the 1901-1906 Jewish Encyclopedia [2]. A large number of Samaritans fled the country in 634 CE, following the Muslim victory at the Battle of Yarmuk. Samaritan communities were established in Egypt and Syria but they did not survive into modern times. During the mid 800s Muslim fanatics destroyed Samaritan and Jewish synagogues. During the 10th century relations between Muslims, Jews and Samaritans improved greatly. In the 1300s the Mamluks came to power; they plundered all Samaritan religious sites, and turned their shrines into mosques. Many Samaritans converted out of fear. After the Ottoman conquest, Muslim persecution of Samaritans increased again. Massacres were frequent. In 1624 the last Samaritan high priest of the line of Eleazar son of Aaron died without issue, but descendants of Aaron's other son Ithamar remained among them and took over the office. By the 1830s only a small group of Samaritans in Shechem remained extant. The local Arab population believed that Samaritans were "atheists" and "against Islam", and they threatened to murder the entire Samaritan community. The Samaritans turned to the Jewish community for help, as Jews and Arabs had good relations at this time, and Jewish entreaties to treat the Samaritans with respect were eventually heeded. In the past, the Samaritans are believed to have numbered several hundred thousand, but persecution and assimilation have reduced their numbers drastically. In 1919, an illustrated National Geographic report on the community stated that their numbers were less than 150.

Modern times The Samaritans now number just under 650, divided about equally between their modern homes on their sacred Mount Gerizim, and the Israeli town of Holon, just outside of Tel Aviv. Until the 1980s, most of the Samaritans resided in the Palestinian town of Nablus below Mount Gerizim. They relocated to the mountain itself as a result of the first Intifada, and all that is left of the community in Nablus itself is an abandoned synagogue. But the conflict followed them. In 2001, the Israeli army set up an artillery battery on Gerizim. Relations with the surrounding Jews and Palestinians have been mixed. In 1954, Israeli President Yitzhak Ben-Zvi created the Samaritan enclave in Holon but

Israeli Samaritans today complain of being treated as "pagans and strangers" by orthodox Jews. Those living in Israel have Israeli citizenship but like other groups they do not enjoy the same legal status as Jews. Samaritans in Palestine are a recognized minority and they send one representative to the Palestinian parliament. Palestinian Samaritans have been granted passports by both Israel and the Palestinian Authority. As a small community divided between two mutually hostile neighbors, the Samaritans are generally unwilling to take sides in the conflict, fearing that whatever side they take could lead to repercussions from the other. One of the biggest problems facing the community today is the issue of continuity. With such a small population, divided into only four families (Cohen, Tsedakah, Danfi and Marhib; a fifth family died out in the last century) and a refusal to accept converts, there has been a history of genetic disease within the group. To counter this, Samaritans have recently agreed that men from the community may marry non-Samaritan women, provided that they agree to follow Samaritan religious practices. This often poses a problem for women, who are less than eager to adopt the strict interpretation of biblical laws regarding menstruation, by which they must live in a separate shack during their periods and after childbirth. Nevertheless, there are a few instances of intermarriage. Apart from that, all weddings within the Samaritan community are first approved by a geneticist at Israel's Tel HaShomer Hospital. In 2004 the Samaritan high priest, Shalom b. Amram, passed away and was replaced by Elazar b. Tsedaka. The Samaritan high priest is selected by age from the priestly family. The high priest resides on Mount Gerizim.

Religion

Missing image Samaritans.jpg Samaritans, from a photo c. 1900 by the Palestine Exploration Fund. Taken from the 1901-1906 Jewish Encyclopedia. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/images.jsp? artid=110&letter=S&imgid=1686]. The Samaritan religion is based on some of the same books used as the basis of Judaism, but these religions are not identical. Samaritan scriptures include the Samaritan version of the Torah, the Memar Markah, the Samaritan liturgy, and Samaritan law codes and biblical commentaries. Samaritans appear to have

texts of the Torah as old as the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint; scholars have various theories concerning the actual relationships between these three texts.

Religious beliefs:

There is one God, the same God recognized by the Hebrew prophets;

Their view of God is the same as the Jewish biblical view of God;

The Torah was dictated by God to Moses;

Mt. Gerizim, not Jerusalem, is the one true sanctuary chosen by Israel's God; Many Samaritans believe that at the end of days, the dead will be resurrected by a "taheb", a restorer (possibly a prophet, some say Moses);

They possess a belief in Paradise (heaven);

The priests are the interpreters of the law and the keepers of tradition; unlike Judaism, there is no distinction between the priesthood and the scholars;

The authority of classical Jewish rabbinical works, the Mishnah, and the Talmuds are rejected;

Samaritans reject Jewish codes of law;

They have a significantly different version of the Ten Commandments (for example, their 10th commandment is about the sanctity of Mt. Gerizim).

Samaritan law is not the same as halakha (Rabbinical Jewish law). For example, Samaritans retained the Ancient Hebrew script, the high priesthood, animal sacrifices, the actual eating of lambs at Passover, and the celebration of Rosh Hashanah in spring, at the beginning of Nisan, instead of the Babylonianinfluenced fall date of Judaism. Their main Torah text differs from the Masoretic Text, as well. Some differences are doctrinal: for example, their Torah explicitly mentions that "the place that God will chose" is Mount Gerizim. Other differences seem more or less accidental.

Samaritans in the Gospels Because of the mutual dislike between Jews and Samaritans, the Gospels twice mention good deeds by Samaritans. Jesus teaches that actions speak louder than ethnic identity or pious appearances:

The parable of the Good Samaritan.

Jesus asks water from the Samaritan Woman of Sychar.

See also Samaria - a similar article concentrating more on the geographic area.

External links

Samaritan Alphabet

1911 Jewish Encyclopedia, "Samaritans"

The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects

Samarian chronology and High Priests

Edward Kaprov Photography Edward Kaprov Photography 2

The Samaritan Update Samaritan high priests

Samaritans, Smallest Minority in Holy Land, Straddle Religious Divide The Samaritans

Guards of Mount Grizim

Reconstruction of Patrilineages and Matrilineages of Samaritans and Other Israeli Populations from Y-Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variation, by Peidong Shen, et al., in Human Mutation vol. 24 (2004), pp. 248-260

The Socio politics of the Samaritans in the Palestinian Occupied Territoriesar:

The Samaritan Diaspora Part One By Eric Robert Powell

Neanderthals are known to have lived in the Levant.[2] An important site located in Syria is Tell Abu Hureyra, discovered By Andrew Moore in the 1970s. The Iron Age is usually divided into Iron Ages I and II, although sometimes the Persian period is called Iron Age III. Iron Age I (1200-1000 BCE) saw major changes in the region. The Canaanite cities of the southern plain, roughly from Mount Carmel to the Egyptian border, were settled by the Sea Peoples, probably of Aegean background: their arrival seems to have been violent, but they quickly adopted Canaanite culture, including Canaanite language and religion. To the north of Mount Carmel the Canaanite cities continued without major disruption, developing into the Phoenician civilisation. This period also saw a rapid growth of population in the previously unsettled highland and Transjordan regions: the settlers were overwhelmingly Canaanite in culture, but may have included a more or less sizable proportion of local nomads. In Iron Age II (1000-586 BCE) the Phoenician and Philistinian city-states were joined by new kingdoms emerging in the central highlands (Israel and Judah), the eastern region on the far side of the Jordan/Dead Sea (Ammon and Moab), and the south (Edom), all sharing roots in the earlier Canaanite civilisation. From the 8th century onwards these kingdoms and city-states came under increasing pressure from the far larger and more powerful Assyrian and then Babylonian empires, and by the time the conquests of Alexander the Great ushered in the Classical period Palestine (its Greek name) had been absorbed into the world-empire of Achaemenid Persia.

In the late 330s BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the region, beginning an important period of Hellenistic influence in the land. After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, his empire was partitioned, and the armies of Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid Empire of Syria battled for control of various portions of the eastern Mediterranean, in the areas of southern Syria, Lebanon and Israel of today. The Seleucid and Ptolemaic dynasties called that region Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. Antiochus the Great of Syria gained victory over the region in a decisive battle at Banias in 201-202 BCE and by 198 BCE, all of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia lay under the rule of Antiochus.[5]

The Persians had not interfered with the internal affairs of the various subjectpeoples of the region, but the Greeks followed a policy of deliberate Hellenisation, encouraging, although not normally enforcing, Greek culture. Hellenisation took root first in the densely settled coastal and lowland areas, and only really began to impinge on more backward areas such as Judea in the early 2nd century. A nationalist reaction led to a Jewish uprising which, succeeded in reviving a Jewish Judean kingdom. The Hasmoneans gradually extended their authority over much of the region, forcibly converting the populations of Idumea (ancient Edom) and Galilee. By the middle of the 1st century BCE the Romans began to extert direct rule over the region, and by the close of that century the Jewish kingdom had been absorbed into the administrative structure of the empire.

In 106 CE, the Nabatean territory was incorporated it into the Roman province of Arabia. In 135 CE, the victory in Bar Kokhba's revolt by Hadrian resulted in 580,000 Jews killed (according to Cassius Dio) and destabilization of the region's Jewish population. The Romans renamed the new territory Syria Palaestina to complete the disassociation with Judaea.[7] Jerusalem is re-established as the Roman military colony of Aelia Capitolina; a largely unsuccessful attempt is made to prevent Jews (Ishmaelites Samaritans) from living there. Many Jews left the country altogether for the Diaspora communities, and large numbers of prisoners of war are sold as slaves throughout the Empire. ^ Lehmann, Clayton Miles (Summer 1998). "Palestine: History: 135337: Syria Palaestina and the Tetrarchy". The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. University of South Dakota. http://www.usd.edu/~clehmann/erp/Palestine/history.htm#135-337. Retrieved 200901-06. Late Roman Period II (135220) During this period, the Romans joined the province of Iudaea (comprising Samaria, Judea proper, and Idumea) with Galilee to form new province of Syria Palaestina In 135 CE, the victory in Bar Kokhba's revolt by Hadrian resulted in 580,000 Jews killed (according to Cassius Dio) and destabilization of the region's Jewish population. The Romans renamed the new territory Syria Palaestina to complete the disassociation with Judaea.[7] Jerusalem is re-established as the Roman military colony of Aelia Capitolina; a largely unsuccessful attempt is made to prevent Jews

from living there. Many Jews left the country altogether for the Diaspora communities, and large numbers of prisoners of war are sold as slaves throughout the Empire. A number of events with far-reaching consequences took place, including religious schisms, such as Christianity branching off of Judaism. The Romans destroyed the Jewish community of the Mother Church in Jerusalem, which had existed since the time of Jesus[8] The line of Jewish bishops in Jerusalem, which is claimed to have started with Jesus's brother James the Righteous as its first bishop, ceased to exist, within the Empire. Hans Kung, in Islam :Past Present and Future, suggests that the Jewish Christians sought refuge in Arabia and he quotes with approval C. Clemen, T. Andrae and H.H. Schraeder, p. 342 "This produces the paradox of truly historic significance that while Jewish Christianity was swallowed up in the Christian church, it preserved itself in Islam, and some of its most powerful impulses extend down to the present day".

In 351-352, the Jews launched another revolt, provoking heavy retribution. The Land of Palestine became part of the Eastern Roman Empire ("Byzantium") after the division of the Roman Empire into east and west (a fitful process that was not finalized until 395 CE).

In 438 CE, The Empress Eudocia allowed Jews to return to Jerusalem to live[citation needed] . Around 390 CE, the Byzantines redrew the borders of the Land of Palestine. The various Roman provinces (Syria Palaestina, Samaria, Galilee, and Peraea) were reorganized into three diocese of Palaestina. According to historian H.H. BenSasson,[10] under Diocletian (284-305) the region was divided into Palaestina Prima which was Judea, Samaria, Idumea, Peraea and the coastal plain with Caesarea as capital, Palaestina Secunda which was Galilee, Decapolis, Golan with Beth-shean as capital, and Palaestina Tertia which was the Negev with Petra as capital.

French League of Nations mandates under the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement of May 1916 which became the real cornerstone of the geopolitics structuring the entire region. The Balfour Declaration, likewise, was seen by Jewish nationalists as the cornerstone of a future Jewish homeland on both sides of the Jordan River. Prior to the conference Emir Faisal, British ally and son of the king of the Hejaz, had agreed in the Faisal-Weizmann Agreement to support the immigration of Jews into Palestine and the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine, while creating a large Arab state based in Syria. When the conference did not produce that Arab state, and under pressure from Islamists, Faisal called instead for Palestine to become part of his new Arab Syrian kingdom. In 1516 the Ottoman Turks occupied Palestine.[15] The country became part of the Ottoman Empire. Constantinople appointed local governors. Public works, including the city walls, were rebuilt in Jerusalem by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1537. An area around Tiberias was given to Don Joseph Nasi for a Jewish enclave. Following the expulsions from Spain, the Jewish population of Palestine rose to around 25% (includes non-Ottoman citizens, excludes Bedouin) and regained its former stronghold of Eastern Galilee. That ended in 1660 when they were massacred at Safed and Jerusalem. During the reign of Dahar al Omar, Pasha of the Galilee, Jews from Ukraine began to resettle Tiberias. After the Mongols decimated Baghdad and Damascus in the mid-13th century, the center of Islamic power moved to Cairo, under the Egyptian slave warriors, the Mamluks. They destroyed all towns on the flat coastal plains in order to rid the land of the Crusader presence and make sure it never returned. The main exceptions were Jaffa, Gaza, Lydda and Ramle. The last major Crusader stronghold, Acre fell in 1291, at the Siege of Acre. In the late 13th century, Palestine and Syria were the primary front for battles between the Egyptian Mamluks and the Mongol Empire. The pivotal battle was the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, when the Mamluks, after having brokered a cautious neutrality with the Crusaders (who regarded the Mongols as a greater threat), were able to advance northwards and achieve a decisive victory over the Mongols at Ain Jalut, near Galilee. The Mongols were, however, able to engage into some brief Mongol raids into Palestine in 1260 and 1300, reaching as far as Gaza. Due to the many earthquakes, the religious extremism and the black plague that hit during this era, the population dwindled to around 200,000. It is during this period that the land began to have a Levantine Muslim majority and even in the traditional Jewish stronghold of Eastern Galilee, a new Jewish-Muslim culture began to develop.
[citation needed]

The Mamluk Sultanate ultimately became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, in the wake of campaigns waged by Selim I in the 16th century. In the 10th century, the Fatimids, a self-proclaimed Shia caliphate, took control and appointed a Jewish governor. In the next century, Seljuq Turks invaded large portions of West Asia, including Asia Minor and Palestine. In 638 CE, the conquering Muslim armies of the Caliphate (Islamic Empire) under Caliph (Emperor) Umar, the second of the initial four Rashideen Caliphs forced the Christians of Jerusalem to surrender. Islamic legend holds that Umar entered captured Jerusalem on foot. Umar allowed seventy families from Tiberias in Galilee to move to Jerusalem to live. In Arabic, the area approximating the Byzantine Diocese of Palaestina I in the south (roughly Judea, Philistia, and southern Jordan) was called Jund Filastin (meaning "the military district of Palestine", as a tax administrative area),[14] and the Diocese of Palaestina II in the north (roughly Samaria, Galilee, Golan, and northern Jordan) Jund al-Urdunn. The Nabateans roamed the Negev by the Roman Period, and by the Byzantine Period dominated the swath of sparsely populated deserts, from the Sinai to the Negev to the northwest coast of Arabia, the outlands that the Byzantines called the diocese of Palaestina Salutoris (meaning something like "near Palestine"). Its capital Petra was formally the capital of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea. The Nabateans also inhabited the outland of Jordan and southern Syria, improperly called the diocese of Arabia because its capital Bostra was within the northern extremity of the Roman province of Arabia Petrae. The origin of the Nabateans remains obscure, but they were Aramaic speakers, and the term "Nabatean" was the Arabic name for an Aramean of Syria and Iraq. By the 3rd century during the Late Roman Period, the Nabateans stopped writing in Aramaic and began writing in Greek, and by the Byzantine Period they converted to Christianity.[11] The two dioceses of Palaestina proper also became increasingly Christianized. The Christian monk, Bar-awm, in the 5th century, records that Jews and heathens formed the majority of the population. The Jews and Samaritans who ruled the country persecuted Christians.[12] Some areas, like Gaza, were well known as pagan holdouts, and remained attached to the worship of Dagon and other deities as their ancestors had been for thousands of years.[13] Under Byzantine rule, the region became a center of Christianity, while retaining

significant Jewish and Samaritan communities. The Samaritan Kingdom had shortly gained a level of independence under the leadership of Baba Rabba in late 4th century. However, they were again subdued by Byzantine forces. Samaritan attempts to gain independence from Byzantines peaked during the 5th and 6th centuries in a series of Samaritan Revolts. The outcome of Samaritan strife with Christian Byzantines, supported by Ghassanid Arabs, turned disastrous. After the Third Samaritan revolt in 529-531, led by Julianus ben Sabar, and the Fourth Revolt in 555. With Samaritan casualties went well beyond 100,000, cities and worship places destroyed, many enslaved and expelled, the Samaritan community dwindled to near extinction. The Nabateans roamed the Negev by the Roman Period, and by the Byzantine Period dominated the swath of sparsely populated deserts, from the Sinai to the Negev to the northwest coast of Arabia, the outlands that the Byzantines called the diocese of Palaestina Salutoris (meaning something like "near Palestine"). Its capital Petra was formally the capital of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea. The Nabateans also inhabited the outland of Jordan and southern Syria, improperly called the diocese of Arabia because its capital Bostra was within the northern extremity of the Roman province of Arabia Petrae. The origin of the Nabateans remains obscure, but they were Aramaic speakers, and the term "Nabatean" was the Arabic name for an Aramean of Syria and Iraq. By the 3rd century during the Late Roman Period, the Nabateans stopped writing in Aramaic and began writing in Greek, and by the Byzantine Period they converted to Christianity.[11] The two dioceses of Palaestina proper also became increasingly Christianized. The Christian monk, Bar-awm, in the 5th century, records that Jews and heathens formed the majority of the population. The Jews and Samaritans who ruled the country persecuted Christians.[12] Some areas, like Gaza, were well known as pagan holdouts, and remained attached to the worship of Dagon and other deities as their ancestors had been for thousands of years.[13] Under Byzantine rule, the region became a center of Christianity, while retaining significant Jewish and Samaritan communities. The Samaritan Kingdom had shortly gained a level of independence under the leadership of Baba Rabba in late 4th century. However, they were again subdued by Byzantine forces. Samaritan attempts to gain independence from Byzantines peaked during the 5th and 6th centuries in a series of Samaritan Revolts. The outcome of Samaritan strife with Christian Byzantines, supported by Ghassanid Arabs, turned disastrous. After the Third Samaritan revolt in 529-531, led by Julianus ben Sabar, and the Fourth Revolt in 555. With Samaritan casualties went well beyond 100,000, cities and worship places destroyed, many enslaved and expelled, the Samaritan community dwindled to near extinction. In 613 CE, the Persian Sassanian Empire under Khosrau II invaded Levant, taking

Antioch and later Caesaria. Jews under Benjamin of Tiberias assisted the conquering Persians, revolting against the Byzantine Empire under Heraclius and hoping of controlling Jerusalem autonomously. In 614 CE, Persian-Jewish forces conquered Jerusalem, destroying most of the churches and expelling 37,000 Christians. The Jews of Jerusalem gained autonomy to some degree, but frustrated with its limitations and anticipating its loss offered to assist the Byzantines in return for amnesty for the revolt. In 617 CE, the Persians forces withdrew from Palaestina Prima, giving control to the Chrisitans. At that time the Persians betrayed the agreements with the Jews and expelled the Jewish population from Jerusalem, forbidding them to live within 3 miles of it.[citation needed] In 625 CE (or 628 CE), the Byzantinian army returned to the area, promising amnesty to Jews who had joined the Persians, and was greeted by Benjamin of Tiberias. In 629 CE, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius marched into Jerusalem at the head of his army with the support of the Jewish population who had received amnesty. Nevertheless, upon entry, the Christian priests in Jerusalem convinced the emperor that God commanded him to kill Jews and therefore his amnesty was invalid, whereupon the Byzantines massacred the Jews in Jerusalem and Galilee putting thousands of Jewish refugees to flight from Palaestina to Egypt. In 634 CE, the Byzantine Empire lost control of the entire Mideast. The Arab Islamic Empire under Caliph Umar conquered Jerusalem along with the lands of Mesopotamia, Syria, Palaestina, and Egypt. From: History of the Levant Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nablus (Arabic: Nblus [nbls] ( listen), Hebrew: em, Biblical Shechem ISO 259-3 kem) is a Palestinian city in the northern West Bank, approximately 63 kilometers (39 mi) north of Jerusalem, with a population of 126,132.[1] Located in a strategic position between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, it is the capital of the Nablus Governorate and a Palestinian commercial and cultural center. Founded by the Roman Emperor Vespasian in 72 CE as Flavia Neapolis, Nablus has been ruled by many empires over the course of its almost 2,000-year-long history. In the 5th and 6th centuries, conflict between the city's Christian and Samaritan inhabitants climaxed in a series of Samaritan revolts against Byzantine rule, before their violent quelling in 529 CE drastically dwindled that community's numbers in the city. In 636, Neapolis, along with most of Palestine, came under the rule of the Islamic Arab Caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab; its name Arabicized to Nablus. In 1099, the Crusaders took control of the city for less than a century, leaving its mixed Muslim, Christian and Samaritan population relatively undisturbed. After Saladin's Ayyubid forces took control of the interior of Palestine in 1187, Islamic rule was reestablished, and continued under the Mamluk and Ottoman empires to follow.

Following its incorporation into the Ottoman empire in 1517, Nablus was designated capital of the Jabal Nablus ("Mount Nablus") district. In 1657, after a series of upheavals, a number of Arab clans from the northern and eastern Levant were dispatched to the city to reassert Ottoman authority, and loyalty from amongst these clans staved off challenges to the empire's authority by rival regional leaders, like Dhaher al-Omar in the 18th century, and Muhammad Aliwho briefly ruled Nablusin the 19th century. When Ottoman rule was firmly reestablished in 1841, Nablus prospered as a center of trade. After the loss of the city to British forces during World War I, Nablus was incorporated into the British Mandate of Palestine in 1922, and later designated to form part of the Arab state of Palestine under the 1947 UN partition plan. The end of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War saw the city instead fall to Jordan, to which it was unilaterally annexed, until its occupation by Israel during the 1967 Six Day War. As tensions amongst the Christians of Neapolis decreased, tensions between the Christian community and the Samaritans grew dramatically. In 484, the city became the site of a deadly encounter between the two groups, provoked by rumors that the Christians intended to transfer the remains of Aaron's sons and grandsons Eleazar, Ithamar and Phinehas. Samaritans reacted by entering the cathedral of Neapolis, killing the Christians inside and severing the fingers of the bishop Terebinthus. Terebinthus then fled to Constantinople, requesting an army garrison to prevent further attacks. As a result of the revolt, the Byzantine emperor Zeno erected a church dedicated to Mary on Mount Gerizim. He also forbade the Samaritans to travel to the mountain to celebrate their religious ceremonies, and confiscated their synagogue there. These actions by the emperor fueled Samaritan anger towards the Christians further.[3] Thus, the Samaritans rebelled again under the rule of emperor Anastasius I, reoccupying Mount Gerizim, which was subsequently reconquered by the Byzantine governor of Edessa, Procopius. A third Samartian revolt which took place under the leadership of Julianus ben Sabar in 529 was perhaps the most violent. Neapolis' bishop Ammonas was murdered and the city's priests were hacked into pieces and then burned together with the relics of saints. The forces of Emperor Justinian I were sent in to quell the revolt, which ended with the slaughter of the majority of the Samaritan population in the city.[3] "Neapolis (Nablus)". Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Jerusalem. 19 December 2000. http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/mad/discussion/035discuss.html. Retrieved 2008-04-19.
b c d e f g h i j k l m

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From: Nablus wikipedia

Jewish Slave Trade from Holy Land to the West Indies Part One By Eric Robert Powell Judaism's religious texts contain numerous laws governing the ownership and treatment of slaves. Texts that contain such regulations include the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), the Talmud, the 12th century Mishneh Torah by noted rabbi Maimonides, and the 16th century Shulchan Aruch by rabbi Yosef Karo. The Hebrew Bible contained two sets of laws, one for Canaanite slaves, and a more lenient set of laws for Hebrew slaves. Jewish society condoned slavery.[3] Slaves were seen as an essential part of a Jewish household.[4] Non-Jewish slaves were drawn primarily from the neighboring Canaanite nations,[7] and the Jewish Bible provided religious justification for the enslavement of these neighbors. The laws governing non-Jewish slaves were more harsh than those governing Jewish slaves: non-Jewish slaves could be owned permanently, and bequeathed to the owner's children,[10] Jews continued to own slaves during the 16th through 18th centuries, and ownership practices were still governed by Biblical and Talmudic laws.[7]

Like their Christian and Muslim (Jewish) neighbors, Jews owned slaves and participated in the slave trade. In the middle ages, Jews were minimally involved in slave trade.[1] During the 1490s, trade with the New World began to open up. At the same time, the monarchies of Spain and Portugal expelled all of their Jewish subjects. As a result, Jews began participating in all sorts of trade on the Atlantic, including the slave trade. In 1991, the Nation of Islam published the book The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews During the Middle Ages, Jews acted as slave-traders in Slavonia[15] North Africa,[12] Baltic States,[16] Central and Eastern Europe,[13] Spain and Portugal,[12][13] and

Mallorca[17] The most significant Jewish involvement in the slave-trade was in Spain and Portugal in the 10th to 15th centuries.[12][13] Jewish participation in the slave trade was recorded starting in the 5th century, when Pope Gelasius permitted Jews to introduce slaves from Gaul into Italy, on the condition that they were non-Christian.[18] In the 8th century, Charlemagne (king 768-814) explicitly allowed the Jews to act as intermediaries in the slave trade.[19] In the 10th century, Spanish Jews traded in Slavonian slaves, whom the Caliphs of Andalusia purchased to form their bodyguards.[19] In Bohemia, Jews purchased these Slavonian slaves for exportation to Spain and the west of Europe.[19] William the Conqueror brought Jewish slave-dealers with him from Rouen to England in 1066.[20] Middle Ages historical records from the 9th century describes two routes by which Jewish slave-dealers carried slaves from West to East and from East to West.[18] According to Abraham ibn Yakub, Byzantine Jewish merchants bought Slavs from Prague to be sold as slaves. Louis The Fair granted charters to Jews visiting his kingdom, permitting them to trade in slaves, provided the latter had not been baptized. Agobard claimed that the Jews did not abide to the agreement and kept Christians as slaves, citing the instance of a Christian refugee from Cordova who declared that his co-religionists were frequently sold, as he had been, to the Moors. Many of the Spanish Jews owed their fortune to the trade in Slavonian slaves brought from Andalusia.[22] Similarly, the Jews of Verdun, about the year 949, purchased slaves in their neighborhood and sold them in Spain.[23] Jews participated in the European colonization of the Americas, and they owned slaves in Latin America and the Caribbean, most notably in Brazil and Suriname, but also in Barbados and Jamaica.[24][25][26] Especially in Suriname, Jews owned many large plantations.[27] Many of the ethnic Jews in the New World, particularly in Brazil, were New Christians or Conversos, some of which continued to practice Judaism. In the 17th century, Jews were treated more tolerantly by the Muslim states of North Africa than by Christian Britain and Spain, and consequently many lived in or had close business contacts with Barbary. The Jews of Algiers allegedly were frequent purchasers of Christian slaves brought in by the Barbary corsairs.[28]

The Atlantic slave trade transferred African slaves from Africa to colonies in the New World. Much of the slave trade followed a triangular route: slaves were transported from Africa to the Caribbean, sugar from there to North America or Europe, and manufactured goods from there to Africa. Jewish participation in the Atlantic slave trade arose as the result of a confluence of two historical events: the expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal, and the

discovery of the New World.[31] After Spain and Portugal expelled many of their Jewish residents in the 1490s, many Jews from Spain and Portugal migrated to the Americas and to Holland, among other destinations. They there formed an important "network of trading families" that enabled them to transfer assets and information that contributed to the emerging South Atlantic economy.[32][33] Other Jews remained in Spain and Portugal, pretending to convert to Christianity, living as Conversos or New Christians. The only places where Jews really came close to dominating a New World plantation system were the Dutch colonies of Curaao and Suriname. Jewish participation in the Atlantic slave trade increased through the 17th century because Spain and Portugal maintained a dominant role in the Atlantic trade. Jewish participation in the trade peaked in the early 18th century. The role of Jewish converts to Christianity (New Christians) and of Jewish traders was momentarily significant in Brazil[38] and the Christian inhabitants of Brazil were envious because the Jews owned some of the best plantations in the river valley of Pernambuco, and some Jews were among the leading slave traders in the colony.[39] Some Jews from Brazil migrated to Rhode Island in the American colonies. Caribbean and Suriname The New World location where the Jews played the largest role in the slave-trade was in the Caribbean and Suriname, most notably in possessions of Holland, that were serviced by the Dutch West India Company.[38] The slave trade was one of the most important occupations of Jews living in Suriname and the Caribbean.[41] The Jews of Suriname were the largest slave-holders in the region.[42] The only places where Jews came close to dominating the New World plantation systems were Curaao and Suriname.[43] Slave auctions in the Dutch colonies were postponed if they fell on a Jewish holiday.[44] Jewish merchants in the Dutch colonies acted as middlemen, buying slaves from the Dutch West India Company, and reselling them to plantation owners.[45] The majority of buyers at slave auctions in the Brazil and the Dutch colonies were Jews.[46] Jews played a "major role" in the slave trade in Barbados[44][47] and Jamaica.[44] Jewish plantation owners in Suriname helped to suppress several slave revolts in the period 1690 to 1722.[42]

In Curaao, Jews were involved in trade slave, although at a far lesser extent compared to the Protestants of the island.[48] Between 1630 and 1770, Jewish merchants settled or handled a "considerable portion" of the eighty-five thousand slaves who landed in Curaao, about one-sixth of the total Dutch slave trade.[50] Of all shipping ports in Colonial America, Jewish merchants played a significant part in the slave-trade of American Colonies in Newport, Rhode Island.[54] The Jamestown Jews controlled not just Virginia but the entire North-East of North America. The most dominant Jewish slave traders on the American continent included Isaac Da Costa of Charleston in the 1750s, David Franks of Philadelphia in the 1760s, and Aaron Lopez of Newport in the late 1760s and early 1770s.[44][56] New Christian merchants managed to gain control of a sizeable share of all segments of the Portuguese Atlantic slave trade during the Iberian-dominated phase of the Atlantic system. Due to forcible conversions of Jews to Christianity many New Christians continued to practice Judaism in secret. In 1960, Arnold Wiznitzer, published Jews in colonial Brazil, in which he wrote that Jews "dominated the slave trade"[63] in Brazil in the mid-17th century. In 1983, Marc Lee Raphael, professor of history, wrote Jews and Judaism in the United States: a documentary history which discussed Jews in the Atlantic slave trade and asserted that "Jewish merchants played a major role in the slave trade. In fact, in all the American colonies, whether French (Martinique), British, or Dutch, Jewish merchants frequently dominated. This was no less true on the North American mainland, where during the eighteenth century Jews participated in the 'triangular trade' that brought slaves from Africa to the West Indies and there exchanged them for molasses, which in turn was taken to New England and converted into rum for sale in Africa."[66]
In

Brazil and the Caribbean the Jewish participation was "significant".[78]

According to a review in The Journal of American History of Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight by Eli Faber and Jews and the American Slave Trade by Saul S. Friedman: Eli Faber takes a quantitative approach to Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade in Britain's Atlantic empire, starting with the arrival of Sephardic Jews in the London resettlement of the 1650s, calculating their participation in the trading companies

of the late seventeenth century, and then using a solid range of standard quantitative sources (Naval Office shipping lists, censuses, tax records, and so on) to assess the prominence in slaving and slave owning of merchants and planters identifiable as Jewish in Barbados, Jamaica, New York, Newport, Philadelphia, Charleston, and all other smaller English colonial ports. He follows this strategy in the Caribbean through the 1820s Many southern Jews held the view that blacks were subhuman and were suited to slavery, which was the predominant view held by many of their non-Jewish southern neighbors.[90] Judaism's religious texts contain numerous laws governing the ownership and treatment of slaves. Texts that contain such regulations include the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), the Talmud, the 12th century Mishneh Torah by noted rabbi Maimonides, and the 16th century Shulchan Aruch by rabbi Yosef Karo.

The Hebrew Bible contained two sets of laws, one for Canaanite slaves, and a more lenient set of laws for Hebrew slaves.

The Holy Land and the African Slade Trade Olivier Ptr-Grenouilleau has put forward a figure of 17 million African people enslaved (in the same period and from the same area) on the basis of Ralph Austen's work.[29] Paul Bairoch suggests a figure of 25 million African people subjected to the Arab slave trade, as against 11 million that arrived in the Americas from the transatlantic slave trade.[30

During the 1600's, France, England, and the Netherlands established colonies in the West Indies and greatly increased the African slave trade. Soon, the Europeans enslaved only blacks. Sugar became the main export of the European colonies, though the settlers also developed profitable coffee, cotton, and tobacco plantations. The rising European demand for sugar helped create fierce competition for slaves and for new sugar colonies. From the 1500's to the mid-1800's, the Europeans shipped about 12 million black slaves from Africa to the Western Hemisphere. Nearly 2 million of these slaves died on the way. About 65 percent of the slaves were brought to Brazil, Cuba, Jamaica, Saint Domingue (now Haiti), and other sugar colonies. Brazil alone received about 38 percent. About 5 percent were brought to what is now the United States. The continual shipment of large numbers of Africans to Latin America gave slaves there certain advantages over blacks brought to the United States. For example, African customs could be retained more easily in Latin America. Slaves in Brazil and the West Indies had less need to adjust to white culture than did blacks in the United States. Blacks greatly outnumbered whites in parts of Brazil and in most West Indies colonies, but the Southern United States had twice as many whites as blacks. The greater number of slaves than whites in those Latin American areas also made slave revolts more common there than in the United States. The biggest slave revolt in history broke out in Saint Domingue in 1791. Nearly 500,000 slaves rebelled against their French owners and took over the country. African slaves in American colonies Some scholars believe that the first blacks in America came with the expeditions led by Christopher Columbus, starting in 1492. Black slaves traveled to North and South America with French, Portuguese, and Spanish explorers throughout the 1500's.

The Holy Land and Black Slavery In the Holy Land, the crusaders tasted sugar for the first time. Many of them then created a demand for sugar after returning to Europe. As a result, Italian merchants established sugar plantations on several Mediterranean islands. The production of sugar required large numbers of laborers, and so the Europeans imported slaves from Russia and other parts of Europe. By 1300, a few African blacks had begun to replace Russian slaves on Italian plantations. These blacks were bought or captured from North African Arabs, who had enslaved them for years. African slaves During the 1400's, Portuguese sailors started to explore the coast of West Africa and to ship African blacks to Europe as slaves. The Portuguese also enslaved blacks on sugar plantations that they established on islands off the coast of West Africa. Throughout the Middle Ages, various peoples in Africa and Asia continued to enslave prisoners of war. During this period, slavery was widely practiced among three groups of Indians. These Indians lived on islands of the Caribbean Sea and also inhabited what are now the Northwest Coast and Eastern Woodlands of the United States. Most slaves in the Indian societies worked as farmers or domestic servants. They generally suffered less hardship than the slaves who toiled on European sugar plantations. The establishment of European colonies in the New World during the 1500's brought an expansion of slavery. The Spaniards developed sugar plantations in Cuba and on other Caribbean islands that became known as the West Indies. The Spaniards also needed large numbers of laborers to mine gold and other metals. Portuguese colonists started huge sugar plantations in Brazil. These Europeans enslaved thousands of Indians. But most of the Indians died from European diseases and harsh treatment. The Spaniards and the Portuguese then began to import blacks from West Africa as slaves. Other African blacks helped capture most of the enslaved Africans. During the 1600's, France, England, and the Netherlands established colonies in the West Indies and greatly increased the African slave trade. Soon, the Europeans enslaved only blacks. Sugar became the main export of the European colonies, though the settlers also developed profitable coffee, cotton, and tobacco plantations. The rising European demand for sugar helped create fierce competition for slaves

and for new sugar colonies. From the 1500's to the mid-1800's, the Europeans shipped about 12 million black slaves from Africa to the Western Hemisphere. Nearly 2 million of these slaves died on the way. About 65 percent of the slaves were brought to Brazil, Cuba, Jamaica, Saint Domingue (now Haiti), and other sugar colonies. Brazil alone received about 38 percent. About 5 percent were brought to what is now the United States.

Many slaves who were brought originally to the West Indies ended up coming to America.

Samarians as Slaves 1607

The famous Triangle Trade occurred in the New England colonies where slaves were sold in the West Indies for molasses. This was sent to New England to make Rum which was then sent to Africa to trade for slaves. While Europeans were running the slave trade on the west side of Africa ...

Arab traders were doing the same thing (this is a BBC audio clip) on the east side.
Let's take a closer look at the second leg of the triangular journey - the infamous "middle passage" - wherein Africans were shipped, to the "New World," as slavelabor. In July of 1788, as MPs (Members of Parliament) debated the issue of African slavetrading, pro-slave-trade members summoned individuals, like Robert Norris, to testify. From Liverpool, Norris insisted that Africans were treated fairly and their transatlantic passages were comfortable. His book on the subject - at pages 171 and 172 - reveals his general position: That the opinion...of these ships being unequal to the numbers which were said to be crowded in them, is groundless...That on the voyage from Africa to the West Indies, the Negroes are well fed, comfortably lodged, and have every possible attention paid to their health, cleanliness, and convenience. Thomas Clarkson, in chapter 23 of his history, summarizes Norris' testimony to the privy council. The captive Africans, Norris said: had sufficient room, sufficient air, and sufficient provisions. When upon deck, they made merry and amused themselves with dancing. As to the mortality, or the loss of them by death in the course of their passage, it was trifling. In short, the voyage from Africa to the West Indies "was one of the happiest periods of a Negro's life."

Norris, like others, wanted to maintain slave-trading for economic reasons. He knew slave labor was "the connecting medium of our foreign with our domestic commerce." British manufacturing depended on it. If that connection were removed:

The export of British manufactures, which to Africa and the Colonies amount to nearly three millions sterling annually, would soon be reduced to nothing...From the inevitable decrease of the import of West Indian productions, there would be such a deficiency of the national revenue, as the imposition of fresh taxes, upon a people deprived of their accustomed resources of opulence and industry, could not possibly replace ... Our national importance would quickly decline, and be known to the next generation, only by the page of history. (Norris, pages 182-183)

MIDDLE PASSAGE REALITY In July of 1788, Liverpool slave-trade participants testified about their activities in Parliament. They told MPs that slaves, among other things, were comfortable during transatlantic crossings. Then, under intense cross examination, they acknowledged the truth. We pick up the story in chapter 23 of Clarkson's history: Every slave, whatever his size might be, was found to have only five feet and six inches in length, and sixteen inches in breadth, to lie in. The floor was covered with bodies stowed or packed according to this allowance: but between the floor and the deck or ceiling were often platforms or broad shelves in the mid-way, which were covered with bodies When captives were brought to the African ports, they were bound together, two by two. Were they also tethered, in some manner, aboard ship? The men were chained two and two together by their hands and feet, and were chained also by means of ring-bolts, which were fastened to the deck. They were confined in this manner at least all the time they remained upon the coast, which was from six weeks to six months as it might happen. If they were captured to provide free labor, Africans needed nourishment. What did they eat? Their allowance consisted of one pint of water a day to each person, and they were fed twice a day with yams and horsebeans. Some of the captives refused to eat, wishing to die rather than to live in such horrific conditions. When that happened, slavers would force-open their mouths with a device (called a speculum oris) which looked like an instrument of torture. (See Clarkson, chapter 17.)

Confined in cramped quarters, how did the captives keep their bodies limber? After meals they jumped up in their irons for exercise. This was so necessary for their health, that they were whipped if they refused to do it; and this jumping had been termed dancing. Young girls could also be whipped if they refused the captain's order to dance without their clothes. One example was memorialized by George Cruikshank on the 10th of April, 1792. John Kimber, captain of the slave ship Recovery, whipped a fifteen-year-old captive while she was suspended by her ankle. Although she died of her injuries, a jury in the High Court of Admiralty acquitted Kimber. They concluded the girl had died of disease, not mistreatment. Were captives allowed to breathe fresh air, or did they spend most of their time below deck? They were usually fifteen and sixteen hours below deck out of the twentyfour. In rainy weather they could not be brought up for two or three days together. If the ship was full, their situation was then distressing. They sometimes drew their breath with anxious and laborious efforts, and some died of suffocation. It is said one could smell an approaching slave ship ten miles away, so horrific were its onboard conditions. AFRICA From Real Israelites (Samaritans) In his book From Babylon to Timbuktu Rudolf R Windsor gives an account of this scattering of the Israelites: In the year 65B.C. the Roman armies under General Pompey captured Jerusalem. In 70 A.D. General Vespasian and his son, Titus put an end to the Jewish state, with great slaughter. During the period of the military governors of Palestine, many outrages and atrocities were committed against the residue of the people. During the period of Pompey to Julius, it has been estimated that over 1,000,000 Jews (Israelites) fled into Africa, fleeing from Roman persecution and slavery. The slave markets were full of black Jewish slaves. Millions of Israelites who escaped the persecution of the Roman-Jewish War fled into the interiors of Africa. In his book Jewish Roots in Africa, Mr Litchtblau, speaking of the Israelites that ran into Africa, says this: Pressed under sweeping regional conflicts, Jews settled as traders and warriors in

Yemen, the Horn of Africa, Egypt, the kingdom of Kush and Nubia, North African Punic settlements (Carthage and Velubilis), and areas now covered by Mauritania. More migrants followed these early Jewish settlers to Northern Africa Rudolf R Windsor in his book Babylon to Timbuktu points out: The black Jews who migrated to the Sudan from the North converged with the Jews migrating from the eastern Sudan to the countries of the Niger RiverThere is much proof, and still much more to be revealed by scholars, that there existed prior to the slave trade and subsequent to it many tribes, colonies, and kingdoms in West Africa. pg 120 The Beginning: At the end of the 14th century Europeans started to take people from Africa against their will. Initially they were mainly used as servants for the rich. The Europeans justified the taking of slaves by arguing that they were providing an opportunity for Africans to become Christians. By the 17th century the removal of slaves from Africa became a holy cause that had the full support of the Christian Church. When Spanish and Portuguese sea-captains began to explore the Americas they took their African servants with them. Some of these Africans proved to be excellent explorers. The most important of these was Estevanico, who led the first European expedition to New Mexico and Arizona.

The people living in the Americas resisted the attempt by the Europeans to take over their land. One of he most important struggles took place in Cuba in 1512. The Cubans, led by Chief Hatuey, were eventually defeated by the superior weapons of the Spanish. It is estimated that over a million people lived in Cuba before the arrival of the Europeans. Twenty-five years later there were only 2,000 left. Large numbers had been killed, while others died of starvation, disease, committed suicide or had died from the consequences of being forced to work long hours in the gold mines.

After the arrival of the Europeans there was a sharp decline in the local population

of most of the islands in the Caribbean Sea. This created a problem for the Europeans as they needed labour to exploit the natural resources of these islands. Eventually the Europeans came up with a solution: the importation of slaves from Africa. By 1540, an estimated 10,000 slaves a year were being brought from Africa to replace the diminishing local populations. British merchants became involved in the trade and eventually dominated the market. They built coastal forts in Africa where they kept the captured Africans until the arrival of the slave-ships. The merchants obtained the slaves from African chiefs by giving them goods from Europe. At first, these slaves were often the captured soldiers from tribal wars. However, the demand for slaves become so great that raiding parties were organised to obtain young Africans. The Height of the Slave Trade: Between the years 1650 and 1900, historians estimate that at least 28 million Africans were forcibly removed from central and western Africa as slaves (but the numbers involved are controversial). A human catastrophe for Africa, the world African Slave Trade was truly a "Holocaust." Between 1450 and 1850 at least 12 million Africans were taken across the notorious Middle Passage of the Atlantic - mainly to colonies in North America, South America, and the West Indies European countries participating in the slave trade accumulated tremendous wealth and global power from the capturing and selling of Africans into slavery. Initially, slaves were sold to the Portuguese and Spanish colonies in South and Central Americas to work on sugar cane plantations. This area became known as the 'seasoning stations' for the northern plantations, because of the brutal conditioning that took place there. However, by the 1700's, due to the high demand for African slaves, most Africans were shipped directly from Africa to mainland America.

End of the Slave Trade:

The slave-produced goods were shipped back to Britain - the "Mother Country" where they were manufactured or refined (if necessary) and then either sold domestically or re-exported at a vast profit. The slave trade brought in huge amounts of money to Britain, and few people even knew what was going on in the plantations, let alone cared. Men who owned plantations in the West Indies, including Sir John Gladstone, formed an important political group which opposed the abolition of the slave trade.

In New England, small towns In the West Indies the economic results of the Act were disastrous. The islands depended on the sugar trade which in turn depended on slave labor. Ultimately, the planters were unable to make the West Indies the thriving centers of trade which they had been in the eighteenth century.

How Many Africans Were Affected?: 1. Between 10 and 28 million people taken from Africa 2. 17 million Africans sold into slavery on the coast of the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, and North Africa

3. 12 million Africans taken to the Americas (sic 3.15)

4. 5 million Africans taken across the Sahara and East Africa into slavery in other parts of the world (7/11)

Spain, Portugal, Rome and the Holy Land Slave Trade to the West Indies and The New World

Portuguese on the Western Shores of Africa

So-called Islamic Berbers (Moors) brought the first black slaves to the Iberian

Peninsula.

Although small in numbers compared to later periods, the consequences turned out to be tremendous. Spaniards and Portuguese were well aware of the strength and the qualities of Negros as cheap labour. Especially in the sugar culture around the Mediterranean Sea and after their discovery on the Azores and Madeira slaves were employed.

Iberians heard stories about the kingdoms south of the Sahara and about the Songhay king, who was 'the wealthiest king in the world'.

In search of these African kingdoms of gold, Dom Henrique (also called Henry the Sailor) left Portugal in 1441 A.C. with a few ships.

He landed on the African west coast but did not find gold, though enough other merchandise.

Two of his captains captured twelve Negros (men, women and children). These captives were carried to Portugal as slaves to convince the king that it was cheaper to get slaves directly from the African west coast than to buy them from Arabic and European middle-men. Dom Henrique offered the Pope two black slaves, and the Pope granted the Portuguese permission for the slave trade on the West African coast. The Pope issued in advance complete absolution to those who would fall in the battle on the African west coast. Such ended Arab monopoly of the slave trade through the Sahara. In 1448 for the first time, leaders of Mali and Songhay exchanged almost a thousand slaves with the Portuguese against horses, silk and silver. The first black slaves were used as domestics and for the sugar culture around the Mediterranean Sea, the Azores and on Madeira. Black slaves were also sold to Spain and Italy. In 1481 the Portuguese built their first fort on the Gold Coast, the notorious d'El Mina, the mine. Thus the first stone was laid for an enormous and forbidding enterprise, 'The Transatlantic Slave Trade."

The beginning of the Transatlantic slave trade

Two years after the discovery of America in 1492, the Treaty of Tordesillas, made by the Pope, assigned the territory eastward of the line through Brazil to Portugal and the territory on the west of it to Spain. With this the Portuguese gained a monopoly on the slave trade on the African coast. On the other hand Spain got a free hand in the Caribbean sea and Central and South America. A treaty made the previous year; the demarcation line went further to the east, thus completely excluding Portugal from the new world. In 1494, after heavy protest, the treaty was adjusted and Portugal was assigned a part of the present Brazil that still had to be discovered. At first, colonists in Portuguese and Spanish colonies preferred to use natives as slaves. But the Indians were originally fishermen and hunters. Physically they were not suitable for heavy labour. The work was predominantly in salt and silver mines and in agriculture. Many of the natives died from exhaustion, malnourishment, illtreatment or Old World diseases, such as smallpox and measles. Others preferred to commit suicide rather than to live the inhuman life that was forced on them by Spanish colonists. When possible, the native slaves tried to escape to the impenetrable inlands. Regularly, Spanish soldiers carried out punitive expeditions. Captured runaways were severely punished. As a warning many natives were

hanged. Escapees often preferred mass suicide rather than being captured again.

On Hispafiola (now Haiti) the number of natives decreased in less than 25 years from more than one million to hardly eleven thousand, in spite of a constant supply of new native slaves from the other Caribbean Islands.

About 200,000 of the "Arowakken" who were carried off from the coastal region of South America and the Caribbean islands, died between 1492 and 1510. Already in 1510, black slaves were transported to Spanish colonies with the permission of Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand (Ferdinand the Catholic) of Spain. At first, all Africans had to come from Portugal or Spain or had to be baptized in Africa before embarkation.

The "Casa dos Escravos" in Lisbon (the government slave trade agency) sold more than 1,200 Negros between 1511 - 1513. Emperor of Austria and King of Spain, Charles V, granted licenses to his trusted and favorite courtiers to transport African

slaves to the new world. In 1529 such a license was handed for the first time to a Dutchman (at that time Holland was a Spanish territory). No doubt that also at the beginning of the sixteenth century, slaves had been illegally transported directly from Africa to the New World colonies. Bishop Bartolom de las Casas of Chiapas could not bear to witness the atrocities committed against the Caribbean native population. Ruthless and cruel expeditions forcing conversion of nonbelievers were equally destructive as those of the slave raiders. Thus the Catholic Church had become involved in the destruction of native Caribbean's. In 1537 the bishop returned to Spain with a request to King Charles V to end the inhuman situation of the natives. He proposed to replace the native Caribbean's with more "durable" African Negros. Based solely on economical motives, King Charles V honored the bishop's request. It was not possible to make the new territories productive with only the help of a few unwilling natives. It was thought that Africa Tihad an inexhaustible labour force.

In 1538, this led to the "Asiento de Negros" (a monopolistic con-tract for the slave trade). As the licenses to transport black slaves to the new world was limited to one trip or a certain number of slaves, the "asiento" was a privilege that, during the agreed term, granted the holder a monopoly on slave transports to the overseas colonies. King Charles V granted this "asiento" to one of his courtiers, the Fleming Laurens de Goumenot. He obtained the right to transport 4,000 Negros to Hispanola, Cuba, Jamaica and Puerto Rico. De Goumenot could only recruit this large number of slaves from the Portuguese in Africa, because the Treaty of Tordesillas excluded Spain from all trade with West Africa. The purchase of Negro slaves, the transport over sea and the high price that had to be paid to the crown, required large sums of money, which De Goumenot did not have at his disposal. That is why he sold the "asiento" for 25,000 ducats to some Genuese traders. They started a very profitable trade with Portuguese slave traders on the West African coast. Especially at the beginning the slaves were captured during inland expeditions, or bought from wealthy African kings. Some kings even undertook special military expeditions against neighboring tribes and, if necessary, sold their own citizens.

Curaao as centre of the slave trade

After the loss of the Pernambuco region in Brazil, Curaao formed the most suitable market for African slaves.

Already in 1636 the WIC had promulgated instructions that ordered captains equipped with Dutch letters of marquee, to deliver captured Negro slaves on Curaao. Most were employed as company slaves on Curaao and Bonaire, for the cutting down of dye-wood and the salt production, but also for fishing, turtle hunting and the maintenance of the company gardens.

Superfluous slaves were sold to the New Netherlands and to the Guyanas. At the end of the sixteen forties, the demand for African slaves at the Dutch colonies in Pernambuco slowly died as the Portuguese gradually reconquered this region. The WIC transferred its slave trading activities to the Spanish colonies in the Caribbean area. Between 1646 and 1657, about 3,800 slaves were sold to Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico and the Tierra Firme. Some ships sailed directly to these destinations; others brought their load to Curacao first, where the human cargo was resold. Peter Stuyvesant was the owner of a slave camp on Curacao. After his departure for the New Netherlands in 1646 he asked his successor, Matthias Beck, to sell these slaves. Beck sold - to the dismay of Stuyvesant - the slaves to the Spaniards. Among the slaves were children who, at the request of Stuyvesant's wife, were baptized Protestant. Stuyvesant was not indignant about the sale of these children, but he did not agree with a sale to the Catholic Spaniards. In 1640, sixty years after the Spanish occupation, the Portuguese regained their freedom. Portugal closed its doors for Spanish traders. The just granted asiento became worthless.

The Spanish needed workers and apart from Portugal, only the Dutch (with whom Spain waged war for almost eighty years) had trading posts on the African coast. Spain did not want to conclude an asiento with a rebellious nation. Until 1662 no asiento was concluded, only individual supply agreements. In 1655 the shipping industry between Spain and the new world was severely damaged because of the British conquest of the former Spanish colony Jamaica. In 1657, the deputy governor of Curaao, Matthias Beck, got in touch with Spanish colonial authorities on the nearby South American continent. It was quite clear that the Spanish colonies were in big need for European goods. But trade with this region could only be possible when, apart from goods, also negro slaves could be delivered.

There were not sufficient slaves available to fulfill the great demand of the Spanish colonies. The demand for slaves was so enormous that most slave ships, who sailed between 1658 and 1662 to Curacao, were already sold before the ship entered the harbor.

The flourishing slave trade on Curaao did not escape the attention of the two Genuese traders who in 1662 obtained the Asiento. Instead of importing slaves from Africa they choose to conclude a delivery contract with the WIC.

The contents of the first contract stipulated the delivery of 24,000 slaves during a period of seven years.

At their arrival on Curaao, slaves were immediately accommodated in special slave depots. After a medical examination they were taken to agents of the "Asientistas". At first, the depots were situated in the Schottegat area, where the slave ships docked. It is conceivable that there was a slave depot in the area of the present museum Kur Hulanda. Due to lack of documents, much is still unknown about the first years of the slave trade on Curaao. Slaves, who were not immediately sold, were accommodated in two W1C slave camps, these were mostly the weak, the sick or slaves rejected by the "Asientistas". The chained slaves walked from Schottegat to Zuurzak plantation, which was the largest slave camp. This camp was walled to prevent escape attempts. When the camp was full, slaves were brought to Groot St. Joris, the second slave camp. In these camps the slaves could recover. Afterwards most of them were sold illegally to Spanish or other colonies. Others remained in the service of the company and were put to work on one of the nine plantations of the WIC. The company had a doctor to take care of sick slaves. Not from a humane point of view but purely for economic reasons.

The value of a healthy slave was about 150 Guilders. At that time a bricklayer, a barber or a carpenter earned 20 Guilders a month.

Stuck a feather in his cap and called it Macroni

In the slave trade the value of a slave was counted in piezas de Indias. A slave only counted as a full pieza de Indias if he or she was at least seven palmos (about five feet) in height and was between 15 and 35 years of age. Because of physical defects such as bad teeth, a bad

eyesight or a disease, individual slaves were counted as fractions of the ideal slave. They were sometimes called manquerones or macrons. Children aged 4-8 and 8-15 were counted as one-half and two-thirds of a pieza de Indias.
The slave trade on Curaao had its ups and downs. Could the demand between 1659 and 1662 not be fulfilled, due to a temporary stagnation in 1669 there were about 3,000 slaves available on the island. In spite of all, the WIC was unable to deliver the contractually agreed number of slaves. Instead of three to four thousand slaves a year, the average delivery to the Asientistas was not even a thousand a year. Nevertheless the Asientistas kept on concluding new contracts with the company, because Curacao was the most important slave market in the Caribbean. The trade went on until the end of the eighties of the seventeenth century. Then the importance of Curacao as a slave market lessened, due to increased competition with the now British island of Jamaica. More and more slave ships delivered their load directly to the Spanish colonies.

In 1713, through the peace treaty of Utrecht, Britain gained the Spanish Asiento. This ended the official slave trade with the Spanish colonies for Curaao. There was no market for the slaves that were delivered on the island in 1715. They were forced to stay on the island. In years to come very few slaves from Africa were directly delivered to Curaao. The last (documented) slave ship that delivered African slaves directly to Willemstad, reached the island in 1775. All illegal transportations seldom were committed to paper, this does not imply the end of the transatlantic slave trade to Curaao, although it would have been minimal.

Other nations and the slave trade

The monopoly on West Africa granted by the Pope in 1494, was in practice a mere formality. Portugal did not have the necessary military means to maintain its monopoly. Already during the first quarter of the seventeenth century several Dutch trading posts arose along the West African coast. After the Dutch conquest of fort d'Ehnina in 1637, other countries competed for a key position along the West African coast. At first they restricted themselves to the delivery of slaves to the Spanish colonies in the new world.

But as countries like France, Denmark, Britain and Germany gained possession of their own colonies, slaves were also transported across the Atlantic Ocean to provide

their own territories with black labourers. Britain, with whom during the seventeenth century the Dutch Republic was at war several times, turned out to be a formidable competitor. In 1655 it had conquered the island of Jamaica and set out to develop it into a major slave depot. Despite the British having lost its forts along the Gold Coast during the second war with the Republic (1665 1667), the British slave trade recovered quite fast. A lot of slave ships changed their course to Jamaica and Barbados. In 1672 the Royal African Company was founded. It gained a monopoly on the slave trade with British colonies in the new world. Unfortunately this monopoly was undermined by British seamen, who managed to cross the ocean with smaller and faster ships at lower expenses. Jamaica had a flourishing sugar culture and needed a lot of slaves. But the supplied slaves were also sold to the Spanish Continent of South America. More and more Britain took over the leading role from the Republic as the major slave supplier to the new world.

Note: Below is the source of the biblical 144,000

The 144,000

In exchange for peace after the ending of the Spanish Succession War in 1713, Britain gained the Asiento, which allowed them to transport 144,000 Negro slaves to the Spanish colonies during a period of thirty years. In the eighteenth century Britain became the largest provider of African slaves. Also France and - after the War of Independence - the United States of America were active in this trade.

Early Colonization in Brazil

Today, Brazil is demographically and culturally practically an "African"

country, which has derived from a rich history of African presence in the area. Shortly after the first European arrival in 1500, by Pedro Alves Cabral, Africans were being imported into Brazil.
Unfortunately the names of the first Africans were not as well recorded as the Europeans.

By 1535, the African slave trade was a fully organized endeavor.

However, just as we often overlook the names of the first Africans, we also often find that comparative analysis of technological achievements of Africans and Europeans have also been overlooked. Such that in 16th century Africa, the level of

metallurgy and agricultural technologies were superior to those of the Europeans at the time, thus it often resulted that the slaves would teach their masters such skills.
The earliest Dutch colonies in the New World, were at Dutch Guyana (Suriname) and in the Pernambuco region of northern Brazil at Olinda and Recife. Olinda was settled in 1630, and Johan Maurits van Nassau was made Governor of the colony in 1637. His house still stands as a monument in that city today. In 1654, the Dutch handed over the Brazilian colony to the Portuguese, and thereafter shifted their African slave traffic primarily via the island of Curaao. However the Portuguese continued to increase their importation of Africans into Brazil. The actual numbers of Africans brought to Brazil by the Portuguese is very difficult to calculate, as a result of vague documentation and a single catastrophic historical event. This event was the decree of the Minister of Finance, Rui Barbosa, on

May 13, 1891, that all historical documents relating to slavery and the slave trade, be destroyed.
This act, single-handedly ruined the possibility for the millions of Africans in Brazil to properly research their heritage. Sugar was the Brazilian colony's first industry, with the states of Bahia and Pernambuco being the center of major early growth as a colony. By 1587 there were over 47 sugar mills operating in Bahia alone. Throughout the early years of the colony, the African slaves were the majority population. Later, with the advent of cotton as a primary cash crop, the larger African slave populations were moved north into the area of Maranho. Into the 18th century, gold and diamonds became the focus of economic activity in Brazil, and thus the African slave populations were concentrated largest in the south near Minas Gerias.

Brazil was the last nation in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery, on May 13, 1888. Joo Mauricio Rugendas in Brazil Joo Mauricio Rugendas was born in Ausborg, Germany, in 1802, into a family of famous artists, and he died in Weilheim, Germany, in 1858. After serving as a professor then director of the Academy of Ausborg, Rugendas eventually joined a scientific expedition to Brazil led by Amado Adriano Taunay. Many of Rugendas' drawings from this expedition were sent to St. Petersburg, Russia, while he was still in Brazil. Some of these original drawings were lost and others have been found and later published. After Rugendas returned to Germany, he compiled the drawings that he still possessed into a "Pictorial Voyage of Brazil" (Viagem Pictoresca atraves do Brasil) published in Paris in 1835, with both French and German editions, both having lithographic reproductions of Rugendas' drawings done by an artist named Engelmann. These lithographs are the basis of this exhibition, as they best depict the life ways of the African slaves in Brazil during the 19th century, some of the origin Rugendas drawings are also represented in the exhibition. Of some interest are the drawings that record the first Dutch colonies in Brasil at Olinda and Recife. Subsequent to this 1835 publication Rugendas returned to South America and Mexico, where he produced hundreds of drawings. Most of these original drawings were displayed in the Museum of Munich. In 1928, Clovis Ribeiro and Wasth Rodrigues took advantage of the poor economic conditions in Germany at the time, and purchased over 600 of the Rugendas drawings and returned them to Brazil. In this exhibition, Rugendas was able to capture the very human characteristics of daily African slave life and physical characteristics in Brazil, from the harsh conditions and cruelty, to the pleasantries of dance and domestic life. Abolition of the slave trade Already in the seventeenth century public opinion turned against slavery. The Quakers thought that slavery was in contravention of Christianity. In the next century French philosophers like Voltaire criticized slavery. He made a foal of the Roman Catholic Church because of their acceptance of slavery by moans of his publication of "Sacramento". England - the country that was the largest slave trader since the beginning of the eighteenth century - turned out to be the first to abolish slavery. Two important protagonists for the abolition of slavery in England were the vicar John Wesley and the lawyer Granville Sharp. The latter founded in 1765 the first organized abolition movement. In England lived between 15,000 and 16,000 slaves, that were taken along by the (former) owners of plantations in the colonies. Sharp started several legal cases about escaped slaves. On June 22, 1772 this led in the famous case of

the escaped slave James Sommersot, to the judgment of the High Court that "slavery in this nature, morally as well politically, can not be established. It is detestable and there is nothing to justify this - not even a law. What the unpleasant conclusion of this verdict may be, it is impossible to say that slavery can be accepted or approved by the British court and Therefore I demand that this black man is acquitted." With this verdict all slaves living in England were discharged, but not the slaves in the colonies, whore in accordance to the local laws, slavery was allowed. In the year following this verdict many free slaves wore kidnapped by their previous masters and illegally shipped to the colonies. The abolitionists did continue their struggle against slavery. In 1787, the famous potter Josiah Wedgwood, co-founder of the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in England, made 200,000 replica's of a medallion he had designed, of a kneeling and chained slave with the text: "Am I not a man and a brother?" Continually more and more voices were raised against the slave trade. The British abolitionists tried to convince other nations to stop their slave trade. They contacted French abolitionists. This country was at the forefront concerning the abolition of slavery. France already had a "Code Noir" with rules concerning the treatment of slaves. In August 1789, the National Assembly in Paris published the first declaration of human rights. They insisted on the right of freedom and equality for all human beings; the well-known slogan of the French Revolution: "Freedom, Equality and Fratemy." Against all expectations this turned out not to apply to the French slaves in the West Indies. This led in 1791 to a general slave revolt in Saint Dominique, when slaves killed or dislodged their previous masters. After a bloody war of many years, m 1804 the former French colony became an independent nation under the new name of Haiti. In 1794 the French government officially sot free all slaves. But their freedom did not last long. In a do-cree, issued in May 1802, Napoleon restored slavery in imperial France. The (short-lived) freedom of the slaves on the French part of St. Martin led to commotion and discontentment among the slaves on the Dutch part of the island. Only because the slaves had - within certain boundaries - a lot of freedom, no great irregularities were caused on the Dutch side of St. Martin, but it did increase desertion to the French side among the slaves. Denmark was the first country to ban slavery. In 1807 Britain declared the slave trade to be illegal. One year later the United States of America followed, Sweden in 1813, The Netherlands in 1814, France in 1815 and Spain in 1820. Brazil became independent in 1822, submitted to the pressure of the British government and legally ended the slave trade soon after. However the constant demand for slaves in the Caribbean and in the Southern States of America continued. Huge profits could still be made with the slave trade. In the years that followed, dozens of illegal slave transports took place between Africa and those destinations. Britain on an international level made great efforts to stop this illegal trade. It made agreements with other countries. The British marine ships were authorized to ransack ships leaving Africa. They patrolled along the African coast to stop illegal slave transports. When a slave trader got caught, the ship was

confiscated and the captain punished. The punishments England imposed in 1811 was deportation or the death penalty. It was not from a humane point of view that England suppressed the slave trade, but to protect its own sugar colonies against dishonest competition of other countries that could still count on new supplies of cheap slave labour. The British ships along the African coast caused the situation of the slaves aboard illegal slave ships to become even more insecure. It was not unusual for a slave ship to toss her human car-go into the sea when confronted with a British or French slave hunter. There wore also rumours about mass slaughters of slaves along the African coast by Negro slavers when British or French marine ships prevented the slave ships to roach the shore to pick up the human cargo. The most important markets for illegal slavers wore Cuba and Brazil. From Cuba the African Negros wore illegally transported on fast clippers to the southern states of America, often with false documents to prove the slaves originated from other Caribbean colonies and not from Africa. British, American, French and Dutch ships took part in the illegal slave transports that happened until 1870. At a rough estimation, about 1,898,400 slaves have been transported over the Atlantic Ocean between 1811 and 1870. Sixty per-cent of these slaves wore transported to Brazil, 32 percent to Cuba and Puerto Rico, 5 percent to the French West Indies and only 3 percent straight to the United States, but many slaves were brought to the United States through Cuba. The ban on the import of new African Negros in most colonies forced the plantation owners to treat their slaves better. In some colonies the situation did not change much because of the large number of illegally imported slaves. On Curaao slaveholders could, despite the ban on the slave trade, get permissions for the export of slaves to other colonies, like Puerto Rico and Surinam. Because of a natural growth many planters had problems to feed their fast growing slave population. But exports to other colonies was (officially) only possible with the authorization of the slave himself. They often preferred Puerto Rico to Surinam. A transfer to Surinam for a white governor was considered a promotion, for the slaves it was used as a punishment.

ere the centers of local government. In 1643, Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven formed the New England Confederation to provide defense against Indians, Dutch, and the French. This was the first attempt to form a union between colonies.

A group of Massasoit Indians organized themselves under King Philip to fight the

colonists. King Philip's War lasted from 1675-78. The Indians were finally defeated at a great loss.

Middle Colonies

Colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. These were known for being rich in forests and fur trapping. Harbors were located throughout the region. The area was not known for good farmland. Therefore, the farms were small, mainly to provide food for individual families. New England flourished instead with fishing, shipbuilding, lumbering, and fur trading along with trading goods with Europe. The famous Triangle Trade occurred in the New England colonies where slaves were sold in the West Indies for molasses. This was sent to New England to make Rum which was then sent to Africa to trade for slaves.

Middle Colonies

Colonies: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. The Middle Colonies also practiced trade like New England

Southern Colonies

Colonies: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Southern colonies grew their own food along with growing three major cash crops: tobacco, rice, and indigo. These were grown on plantations typically worked by slaves and indentured servants. The main commerce of the South was with England. Plantations kept people widely separate which prevented the growth of many towns.

An important event that occurred in the Southern Colonies was Bacon's Rebellion. Nathaniel Bacon led a group of Virginia colonists against Indians who were attacking frontier farms. The royal governor, Sir William Berkeley, had not moved against the Indians. Bacon was labeled a traitor by the governor and ordered arrested. Bacon attacked Jamestown and seized the government. He then

became ill and died. Berkeley returned, hanged many of the rebels, and was eventually removed from office by King Charles II.

Virginia

Jamestown was the first English settlement in America (1607). It had a hard time at first and didnt flourish until the colonists received their own land and the tobacco industry began flourishing, the settlement took root. People continued to arrive and new settlements arose. In 1624, Virginia was made a royal colony.

Massachusetts

In 1628, Puritans formed the Massachusetts Bay Company and many Puritans continued to settle in the area around Boston. In 1691, Plymouth joined with the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Purina Dog Chow - Remains

Rhode Island

Roger Williams argued for freedom of religion and separation of church and state. He was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded Providence. Anne Hutchinson was also banished from Massachusetts and she settled Portsmouth. Two additional settlements formed in the area and all four received a charter from England creating their own government eventually called Rhode Island.

New Hampshire

In 1622, John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges received land in northern New England. Mason eventually formed New Hampshire and Gorges land led to Maine. Massachusetts controlled both until New Hampshire was given a royal charter in 1679 and Maine was made its own state in 1820.

Maryland

Lord Baltimore received land from King Charles I to create a haven for Catholics. His son, the second Lord Baltimore, personally owned all the land and could use or sell it as he wished.

North Carolina and South Carolina

Eight men received charters in 1663 from King Charles II to settle south of Virginia. The area was called Carolina. The main port was Charles Town (Charleston). In 1729, North and South Carolina became separate royal colonies.

Pennsylvania

The Quakers were persecuted by the English and wished to have a colony in America. William Penn received a grant which the King called Pennsylvania. Penn wished to begin a holy experiment. The first settlement was Philadelphia. This colony quickly became one of the largest in the New World.

The Triangle Trade Colonial Massachusetts and Rhode Island played a major role in the "infamous triangle trade" of the 15th through mid-18th centuries. At the time, Massachusetts and Rhode Island produced some of the best rum in the world. It was this rum that was shipped to the western coast of Africa to be traded for slaves. The ports in the New England colonies of Massachusetts and Rhode Island formed a vital leg of the triangle. In towns across New England, two forms of rum, tafia and ordinary rum, were produced. The rum was manufactured partially for personal consumption, but even more importantly, it was shipped to the west coast of Africa to be traded for gold and slaves. Most of the slaves who were bought with New England rum were from Central and Western Africa. These slaves were transported aboard specially designed slave ships from the west coast of Africa to the sugar producing islands of the West Indies and a small portion made the trip to colonial America.

Upon arrival in the West Indies, the slaves were sold and traded for sugar and molasses, two of the key ingredients in rum production. The sugar, molasses and any remaining money were then shipped to New England (Massachusetts and Rhode Island) where the molasses and sugar were used to produce the rum which would be traded for another group of slaves in Africa. New England's rum distilleries were integral to the continuation of the immensely profitable triangle trade. This continuous cycle of rum production and trade ensured a constant influx of capital which was used to help "industrialize New England with ventures into textile manufacturing." The transportation of slaves from Africa to the West Indies was know as the "Middle Passage." The Middle Passage was the longest leg of the triangular trade route. Slaves were kept below deck in conditions that were almost uninhabitable. The food that they were fed was often contaminated as was the water. For reasons such as this there was roughly a 12% mortality rate during this part of the journey alone. Typically, slaves were allowed on the above decks of the ship for only a short while each day for "exercise". The purpose of the exercise was not because the slave traders were friendly or caring, but they realized that the circulation of the slaves was poor because they were laying on their backs for roughly 23 hours a day in chains. When the slaves were brought above deck revolts were not uncommon, nor was the action of slaves throwing themselves overboard to avoid a life in captivity.

while Europeans were running the slave trade on the west side of Africa ... Arab traders were doing the same thing (this is a BBC audio clip) on the east side. Let's take a closer look at the second leg of the triangular journey - the infamous "middle passage" - wherein Africans were shipped, to the "New World," as slavelabor.

SHAMASH AS CHEMOSH AS MOLECH/MALIK/MENELIK

The name of the father of Mesha, Chemosh-melek ("Chemosh is Malik" or "Chemosh is king"; compare Moabite Stone, line 1), indicates the possibility that Chemosh and Malik (or Moloch) were one and the same deity. Judges xi. 24 has been thought by some to be a proof of this, since it speaks of Chemosh as the god of the Ammonites, while Moloch is elsewhere their god (compare I Kings xi. 7, 33).

Solomon is said to have built a sanctuary to Chemosh on the Mount of Olives (I Kings xi. 7, 33), which was maintained till the reform of Josiah (II Kings xxiii. 13). This movement by Solomon was no doubt to some extent a political one, but it made the worship of Chemosh a part of the religious life of Israel for nearly 400 years. According to Genesis xix. 30-38, both the Moabites and the Ammonites were descended from the two sons of Lot (themselves half-brothers by his two daughters), Moab and Ben-ammi, which would corroborate the notion that they share a common origin.

John Milton, "Paradise Lost", Book I

Next CHEMOS, th' obscene dread of MOABS Sons, From AROER to NEBO, and the wild Of Southmost ABARIM; in HESEBON And HERONAIM, SEONS Realm, beyond The flowry Dale of SIBMA clad with Vines, And ELEALE to th' ASPHALTICK Pool. PEOR his other Name, when he entic'd ISRAEL in SITTIM on their march from NILE To do him wanton rites, which cost them woe. Yet thence his lustful Orgies he enlarg'd Even to that Hill of scandal [the Mount of Olives], by the Grove Of MOLOCH homicide, lust hard by hate; Till good JOSIAH drove them thence to Hell.

Chemosh Chemosh, also known as the Lord of Bones, Life-bane, and the Black Goat, represents the godly force of fatalism. He encourages souls to give up to destiny and fate. Chemosh disdains life, feeling that it is wasted on the people of Krynn. He prefers to promise "immortality" by making souls into undead rather than letting them pass into the afterlife. Chemosh gains power as people surrender their free will to him. Chemosh sits in the Hall of Soul's Passing and watches the progression of souls into the afterlife, where he attempts to lure souls into becoming undead. Chemosh is the direct opposite of Mishakal as she promotes life and hope. He is the foe of all of the Gods of Good, and among the Gods of Neutrality is in opposition to

Chislev, for disrupting the natural order of life, and Sirrion, for suppressing hope and creativity. He has few allies but sometimes works with Hiddukel and Morgion due to the nature of his schemes. His celestial symbol is the constellation Goat's Skull.[24] - ^ Sean Everette; Chris Pierson, Cam Banks, Trampas Whiteman.. "Chapter 3, The Gods of Krynn.". Holy Orders of the Stars (1st edition ed.). Sovereign Press. pp. 99 100. ISBN 1-931567-15-8.

Chemosh ( /kim/; from Hebrew: [ kemo]), was the god of the Moabites (Num. 21:29; Jer. 48:7, 13, 46). The etymology of "Chemosh" is unknown. He is also known from Ebla as Kamish.
Jeremiah 48:7

For because thou hast trusted in thy works and in thy treasures, thou shalt also be taken: and Chemosh shall go forth into captivity with his priests and his princes together. CHEMOSH AS SHAMASH
The god of war and the national god of the Moabites. He is a jack-of-all-trades, and a master of most. He is equivalent to the Babylonian Shamash. [1] Chemosh was the national deity of the Moabites (Numbers 21:29; Jeremiah 47:7,13,46). In Judges 11:24 he also appears as the god of the Ammonites. Solomon introduced, and Josiah abolished, the worship of Chemosh at Jerusalem (1 Kings 11:7; 2 Kings 23:13). [2] Chemosh, an ancient West Semitic deity, revered by the Moabites as their supreme god. Little is known about Chemosh; although King Solomon of Israel built a sanctuary to him east of Jerusalem (1 Kings 11:7), the shrine was later abolished by King Josiah (2 Kings 23:13). The goddess Astarte was probably the cult partner of Chemosh. On the famous Moabite Stone, written by Mesha, a 9th-century-bc king of Moab, Chemosh received prominent mention as the deity who brought victory to the Moabites in their battle against the Israelites. [3] Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites. Mesha, king of Moab, attributed his victories over Israel to Chemosh, dedicating a "high place" to him at Dibon. Mesha

King James Bible (Cambridge Ed.)

also proscibed for him the Israelite city of Nebo and part of the spoils of war. . . . Others view Chemosh as the god of the neitherworld on the basis of an Akkadian god-list which identified him with the god Nergal. Support for this identification may be found in Ugaritic texts. [4 - Encyclopedia Judiaca Vol. 5, Col. 390 ]

THE CHUMASH PEOPLE

Our people once numbered in the tens of thousands and lived along the coast of California. At one time, our territory encompassed 7,000 square miles that spanned from the beaches of Malibu to Paso Robles. The tribe also inhabited inland to the western edge of the San Joaquin Valley. We called ourselves the first people, and pointed to the Pacific Ocean as our first home. Many elders today say that Chumash means bead maker or seashell people. The Chumash Indians were able to enjoy a more prosperous environment than most other tribes in California because we had resources from both the land and the sea. As hunters, gatherers, and fishermen, our Chumash ancestors recognized their dependency on the world around them.

Ceremonies soon came to mark the significant seasons that their lives were contingent upon with emphasis given to the fall harvest and the storage of food for the winter months. During the winter solstice, the shaman priests led several days of feasting and dancing to honor the power of their father, the Sun.
Our Chumash ancestors lived in large, dome-shaped homes that were made of willow branches. Whalebone was used for reinforcing and the roofs were composed of tulle mats. The interior rooms were partitioned for privacy by hanging reed mats from the ceiling. As many as 50 people could live in one house. With platform beds built above the ground, the Chumash used the area under the platforms to store personal belongings. Our people distinguished themselves as the finest boat builders among the California Indians. Pulling the fallen Northern California redwood trunks and pieces of driftwood from the Santa Barbara Bay, our Chumash ancestors soon learned to seal the cracks between the boards of the large wooden plank canoes using the natural resource of tar. This unique and innovative form of transportation allowed them access to the scattered Chumash villages up and down the coastline and on

the Channel Islands. As the Chumash culture advanced with basketry, stone cookware, and the ability to harvest and store food, the villages became more permanent. The Chumash society became tiered and ranged from manual laborers to the skilled crafters, to the chiefs, and to the shaman priests. Women could serve equally as chiefs and priests. Chieftains, known as wots, were usually the richest, and, therefore, the most powerful. It was not uncommon for one chief to hold responsibility for several villages. The son or daughter could inherit this position of authority for the Chumash community when the chief died. The Chumash villages were endowed with a shaman/astrologer. These gifted astronomers charted the heavens and then allowed the astrologers to interpret and help guide the people. The Chumash believed that the world was in a constant state of change, so decisions in the villages were made only after consulting the charts. In the rolling hills of the coastline, our Chumash ancestors found caves to use for sacred religious ceremonies. The earliest Chumash Indians used charcoal for their drawings, but as our culture evolved, our ancestors colorfully decorated the caves using, red, orange, and yellow pigments. These colorful yet simple cave paintings included human figures and animal life. They used a technique of applying dots around the figures to make them more distinct. Many of the caves still exist today, protected by the National Parks system, and illustrate the spiritual bond the Chumash hold with our environment. As with most Native American tribes, the Chumash history was passed down from generation to generation through stories and legends. Many of these stories were lost when the Chumash Indian population was all but decimated in the 1700s and 1800s by the Spanish mission system.

Development of Missions and the Central Coast

In 1769, a Spanish land expedition, led by Gaspar de Portola, left Baja California and reached the Santa Barbara Channel. In short order, five Spanish missions were established in Chumash territory. The Chumash population was eventually decimated, due largely to the introduction of European diseases. By 1831, the number of mission-registered Chumash numbered only 2,788, down from pre-

Spanish population estimates of 22,000. The modern day towns of Santa Barbara, Montecito, Summerland, and Carpinteria were carved out of the old Chumash territory. The town of Santa Barbara began with Spanish soldiers who were granted small parcels of land by their commanders upon retiring from military service. After mission secularization in 1834, lands formerly under mission control were given to Spanish families loyal to the Mexican government. Meanwhile, other large tracts were sold or given to prominent individuals as land grants. Mexican authorities failed to live up to their promises of distributing the remaining land among the surviving Chumash, causing further decline in the Chumash population. By 1870, the regions now dominant Anglo culture had begun to prosper economically. The Santa Barbara area established itself as a mecca for health seekers, and by the turn of the century it became a haven for wealthy tourists and movie stars. Around 1880, the region began to establish itself as an important hub of agriculture and horticulture. Most of the Chumash who remained in the area survived through menial work on area farms and ranches.

The Unami People Unami Creek is a 16.5-mile-long (26.6 km)[1] tributary of Perkiomen Creek in Lehigh, Bucks, and Montgomery counties, Pennsylvania in the United States. Unami Creek (named for the Unami people, whose name comes from the Unami /wnamiw/)[2] begins in Lower Milford Township, Lehigh County just northwest of the Bucks County border and west of Zionhill, crosses Milford Township and Marlborough Township, and joins Perkiomen Creek near Perkiomenville. The Lenape ( /lnpi/ or /ln i/) are Native American people in Canada p and the United States. They are also called Delaware Indians.[4] As a result of the American Revolutionary War and later Indian removals from the eastern United States, the main groups now live in Ontario (Canada), Oklahoma, and Wisconsin. In Canada, they are enrolled in the Munsee-Delaware Nation 1, the Moravian of the Thames First Nation, and the Delaware of Six Nations; in the United States, they are enrolled in three federally recognized tribes, that is, the Delaware Nation and the Delaware Tribe of Indians, both located in Oklahoma, and the Stockbridge-Munsee Community, located in Wisconsin. Groups of self-identified Lenape, such as the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania, also live in other places where they are not officially recognized by the subsequent settler nation state.

At the time of European contact in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Lenape inhabited a region on the North Atlantic coast in what anthropologists call the Northeastern Woodlands. Although never politically unified, it is frequently referred to as Lenapehoking or Lenape country. It roughly comprised the area around and between the Delaware and lower Hudson rivers.[5] Lenapehoking hosted over two dozen Lenape polities. Some of their names, such as Manhattan, Raritan, and Tappan, remain inscribed on the landscape. Based on the historical record of the mid-seventeenth century, it has been estimated that most Lenape polities consisted of several hundred people.[6] It is conceivable that some had been considerably larger prior to contact. Even regions at a distance from European settlement, such as Iroquoia, had been devastated by smallpox by the 1640s.[7] Nowadays, most Lenapes are native English speakers. In the seventeenth century, the Lenape spoke several closely related languages or dialects, such as Unami and Munsee, that are collectively known as the Delaware languages and have been classified by linguists as belonging to the Eastern Algonquian language group. Leni Lenape means "Human Beings" or the "Real People" in the Unami language.[2] Their (autonym) is also spelled Lennape or Lenapi, meaning "the people." The term "Delaware" was used by the English, who named the people for their territory by the Delaware River. They named the river in honor of Lord De La Warr, the governor of the colony at Jamestown, Virginia.[2] The English colonists used the exonym "Delaware" for almost all the Lenape people living along this river and its tributaries. The area of Lenape settlement, which they called Scheyichbi (see: Unami language), encompassed the lower Hudson River Valley and the Delaware Valley, with the area in betweenwhat are now known as the U.S. state of New Jersey; eastern Pennsylvania around the Delaware and Lehigh valleys; the north shore of Delaware; and much of southeastern New York, particularly the lower Hudson Valley, Upper New York Bay, Staten Island and western Long Island. Bands or tribes often identified themselves by their geographic locations. The Lenape spoke two related languages in the Algonquian subfamily, collectively known as the Delaware languages: Munsee in the northern areas and Unami and a variation in the southern areas.[14] Among other Algonquian peoples on the East Coast, the Lenape were considered the "grandfathers" from whom all the other Algonquian peoples originated. Consequently, in inter-tribal councils, the Lenape were given respect as one would to elders. Overlaying these relationships was a phratry system, a division into clans. Clan membership was matrilineal; children inherited membership in a clan from their

mother. On reaching adulthood, a Lenape traditionally married outside the clan, a practice known by ethnographers as, "exogamy". The practice effectively prevented inbreeding, even among individuals whose kinship was obscure or unknown. By the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Lenape were cultivating fields of vegetation through the slash and burn technique. This extended the productive life of planted fields.[16][17][18][19][20][21] They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bays of the area,[22] and, in southern New Jersey, harvested clams year-round.[23] The success of these methods allowed the tribe to maintain a larger population than nomadic hunter-gatherers could support. Scholars have estimated that at the time of European settlement, there may have been about 15,000 Lenape total in approximately 80 settlement sites around much of the New York City area, alone.[24] In 1524 Lenape in canoes met Giovanni da Verrazzano, the first European explorer to enter New York Harbor. The early European settlers, especially the Dutch and Swedes, were surprised at the Lenape's

European contact The first recorded contact with Europeans and people presumed to have been the Lenape was in 1524. The explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was greeted by local Lenape who came by canoe, after his ship entered what is now called Lower New York Bay. The early interaction between the Lenape and Dutch traders in the 17th century was primarily through the fur trade, specifically, the Lenape trapped and traded beaver pelts for European-made goods. According to Dutch settler Isaac de Rasieres, who observed the Lenape in 1628, the Lenape's primary crop was maize, which they planted in March. They quickly adopted European metal tools for this task. In May, the Lenape planted kidney beans near the maize plants; the latter served as props for the climbing bean vines. They also planted squash, whose broad leaves cut down on weeds and conserved moisture in the soil. The women devoted their summers to field work and harvested the crops in August. Women cultivated varieties of maize, squash and beans, and did most of the field work, processing and cooking of food.

The men limited their agricultural labor to clearing the field and breaking the soil. They primarily hunted and fished during the rest of the year. Dutch settler David de Vries, who stayed in the area from 1634 to 1644, described a Lenape hunt in the valley of the Achinigeu-hach (or "Ackingsah-sack," the Hackensack River), in which one hundred or more men stood in a line many paces from each other, beating thigh bones on their palms to drive animals to the river, where they could be killed easily. Other methods of hunting included lassoing and drowning deer, as well as forming a circle around prey and setting the brush on fire.

17th century New Amsterdam was founded by the Dutch in what would later become New York City in 1624. Dutch settlers founded a colony at present-day Lewes, Delaware on June 3, 1631 and named it Zwaanendael (Swan Valley).[29] The colony had a short life, as in 1632 a local band of Lenape killed the 32 Dutch settlers after a misunderstanding escalated over Lenape defacement of the insignia of the Dutch West India Company.[30] In 1634, the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock went to war with the Lenape over access to trade with the Dutch at New Amsterdam. They defeated the Lenape, and some scholars believe that the Lenape may have become tributaries to the Susquehannock.[31] After the warfare, the Lenape referred to the Susquehannock as "uncles." The Lenape were added to the Covenant Chain by the Iroquois in 1676, remaining tributary to the Five (later Six) Nations until 1753. The Lenape's quick adoption of trade goods, and their need to trap furs to meet high European demand, resulted in their disastrous over-harvesting of the beaver population in the lower Hudson Valley. With the fur sources exhausted, the Dutch shifted their operations to present-day upstate New York. The Lenape who produced wampum in the vicinity of Manhattan Island temporarily forestalled the negative effects of this decline in trade.[32] Lenape population fell sharply during this period, due to high fatalities from epidemics of infectious diseases carried by Europeans, such as measles and smallpox, to which they had no natural immunity. The Lenape had a culture in which the clan and family controlled property. Europeans often tried to contract for land with the tribal chiefs, confusing their culture with that of neighboring tribes such as the Iroquois. The Lenape would petition for grievances on the basis that not all their families had been recognized in the transaction (not that they wanted to "share" the land).[33] After the Dutch arrival in the 1620s, the Lenape were successful in restricting Dutch settlement until the 1660s to Pavonia in present-day Jersey City along the Hudson. The Dutch finally established a garrison at Bergen, which allowed settlement west of the Hudson within the province of New Netherland. This land was purchased from the

Lenape after the fact.[33]

Benjamin West's painting (in 1771) of William Penn's 1682 treaty with the Lenape In the early 1680s, William Penn and Quaker colonists created the English colony of Pennsylvania beginning at the lower Delaware River. In the decades immediately following, some 20,000 new colonists arrived in the region, putting pressure on Lenape settlements and hunting grounds. Although Penn endeavored to live peaceably with the Lenape and to create a colony that would do the same, he also expected his authority and that of the colonial government to take precedence. His new colony effectively displaced the Lenape and forced others to adapt to new cultural demands. Penn gained a reputation for benevolence and tolerance, but his efforts resulted in more effective colonization of the ancestral Lenape homeland than previous ones.[34] 18th century

Lapowinsa, Chief of the Lenape, Lappawinsoe painted by Gustavus Hesselius in 1735. William Penn died in 1718. His heirs, John Penn and Thomas Penn, and their agents were running the colony, and had abandoned many of the elder Penn's practices. They were used to an expensive life-style, but had no money. In their desperation, they contemplated ways to sell Lenape land to colonial settlers. The resulting scheme culminated in the so-called Walking Purchase. In the mid-1730s, colonial administrators produced a draft of a land deed dating to the 1680s. William Penn had approached several leaders of Lenape polities in the lower Delaware to discuss land sales further north. Since the land in question did not belong to their polities, the talks came to nothing. But colonial administrators had prepared the draft that resurfaced in the 1730s. The Penns and their supporters tried to present this draft as an actual deed. Unsurprisingly, Lenape leaders in the lower Delaware refused to accept it. What followed was a convoluted sequence of deception, fraud, and extortion orchestrated by the Pennsylvania government that is commonly known as the Walking Purchase. In the end, all Lenapes who still lived on the Delaware were driven off the remnants of their homeland under threats of violence. Some Lenape polities eventually retaliated by attacking Pennsylvania settlements. When they fought British colonial expansion to a standstill at the height of the Seven Years' War, the British government actually bothered to investigate the causes of Lenape resentment. But the outcome was predictable. The British asked a colonial official from New York, William Johnson, to take charge of the investigation. Johnson made himself a fortune by selling Iroquois land.[35]

Beginning in the 18th century, the Moravian Church established missions among the Lenape.[36] The Moravians required the Christian converts to share their pacifism, as well as to live in a structured and European-style mission village.[37] Moravian pacifism and unwillingness to take loyalty oaths caused conflicts with British authorities, who were seeking aid against the French and their Native American allies during the French and Indian War (Seven Years War). The Moravians' insistence on Christian Lenapes' abandoning traditional warfare practices also alienated mission populations from other Lenape and Native American groups. The Moravians accompanied Lenape relocations to Ohio and Canada, continuing their missionary work. The Moravian Lenape who settled permanently in Ontario after the American Revolutionary War were sometimes referred to as "Christian Munsee", as they mostly spoke the Munsee branch of the Delaware language. The Treaty of Easton, signed in 1758 between the Lenape and the Anglo-American colonists, required the Lenape to move westward, out of present-day New York and New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, then Ohio and beyond. Sporadically they continued to raid European-American settlers from far outside the area. During the French and Indian War, the Lenape initially sided with the French. But, such leaders as Teedyuscung in the east and Tamaqua in the vicinity of modern Pittsburgh shifted to building alliances with the English. After the end of the war, however, Anglo-American settlers continued to kill Lenape, often to such an extent that the historian Amy Schutt writes the dead since the wars outnumbered those killed during the war.[38] In 1763 Bill Hickman, Lenape, warned English colonists in the Juniata River region of an impending attack. Many Lenape joined in Pontiac's War, and were numerous among those Native Americans who besieged Pittsburgh.[39] In April 1763 Teedyuscung was killed when his home was burned. His son Captain Bull responded by attacking settlers from New England who had migrated to the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania. The settlers had been sponsored by the Susquehanna Company.[40] The Lenape were the first Indian tribe to enter into a treaty with the new United States government, with the Treaty of Fort Pitt signed in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War. By then living mostly in the Ohio Country, the Lenape supplied the Continental Army with warriors and scouts in exchange for food supplies and security.

The Kitchawanks, who only live in Indian Point

The territorial expansion of the USA into the west was connected with an unfair and brutal war against the Native Indians. The Indians were driven out to the east of the Mississippi or displaced by force in reservations. Some tribes moved back to the west, but most of them were decimated or even exterminated. Although the Indians could fight against the white man, such moments of success were very short. For example, Phillip, the chief of the Wampanoag tribe, brought the other tribes together to fight against the English colonists in the second half of the 17th century. During the following fights King Phillip's war, which lasted from 1675 to 1676, the tribes could bring a lot of failures to their enemies, but in the end they were defeated and nearly exterminated.

The Indians
Delaware Location Originally in 1600, the Delaware River Valley from Cape Henlopen, Delaware north to include the west side of the lower Hudson Valley in southern New York. The Delaware were not migratory and appear to have occupied their homeland for thousands of years before the coming of the Europeans. During the next three centuries, white settlement forced the Delaware to relocate at least twenty times. By 1900 they had lived in: Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Ontario, Michigan, Indiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, Wisconsin, Kansas, and Oklahoma. However, a government plan to move some of the Delaware to Minnesota was never carried out. Population In 1600 the Delaware may have numbered as many as 20,000, but several wars and at least 14 separate epidemics reduced their population to around 4,000 by 1700 - the worst drops occurring between 1655 and 1670. Since the Delaware afterwards absorbed peoples from several other Algonquinspeaking tribes, this figure remained fairly constant until 1775. By 1845 it had fallen to combined total of about 2,000 Delaware and Munsee in both the United States and Canada. The 1910 census gave about the same result, but the current Delaware population has recovered to almost 16,000, most of whom live in Oklahoma. Nearly 10,000 Delaware are in eastern Oklahoma and, until very recently, were considered part of the Cherokee

Nation. After a long struggle with the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), they regained federal recognition in September, 1996 as the Delaware Tribe of Indians with their tribal offices in Bartlesville. The other federally recognized group is the Delaware Tribe of Western Oklahoma. Sometimes called the Absentee Delaware, its 1,000 members are descendants of a Missouri-Texas splinter group, many of whom reside near of the tribal headquarters at Anadarko.

There currently are 2,000 Munsee on three reserves in southern Ontario: the Delaware of Grand River; Moravians of the Thames; and Muncey of the Thames. In the United States, there are Munsee descendants in the 1,500 member Stockbridge-Munsee tribe in northern Wisconsin and a mixed Munsee-Ojibwe community near Ottawa, Kansas. The federally-recognized Delaware tribes in Oklahoma only recognize two eastern groups: the Sand Hill Band of Lenape and the Nanticoke-Lenape. They are uncertain about the two tribes recognized by the State of New Jersey. The Ramapough Mountain Indians (Ramapo Mountain People) in the northern part of the New Jersey have almost 2,500 members. Although there is some mention of possible Tuscarora ancestry, they appear to be a mixture of Munsee, Mattabesic (Ramapo from southwest Connecticut), Pompton (Wappinger) and Metoac descendants. The Ramapo request for federal recognition was denied in 1993. Just northeast of Philadelphia is the 600 member PowhatanRenape Nation at Rancocas, New Jersey - apparently a mix of Unami Delaware, Nanticoke, and Powhatan. Other Delaware groups without federal or state recognition include: the Brotherton Indians (Wisconsin) and the Eastern Lenapi Nation (Pennsylvania). Language Algonquin with three dialects: Munsee, Unami, and Unalactigo. Munsee was distinct from the other two and apparently was more closely related to Mahican. Sub-Tribes Three divisions based on differences in dialect and location rather than any political relationship. By 1700 the Unalactigo had been absorbed by the Unami and in many ways the Munsee had become a separate tribe. Numbers following a name indicate more than one village of this name, while a tribal name indicates either a Munsee village or mixed population.

Munsee (before 1682): "people of the stoney country" (Minassiniu, Minisink, Minsi, Moncy, Monthey, Mundock, Muncey, Munsi, and Muncie). The northernmost group of the Lenape, they occupied the headwaters of the Delaware River where Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York meet including the Catskill Mountains on the west side of the lower Hudson Valley. Four of the Munsee tribes were sometimes known collectively as the Esopus (Espachomy): Catskill, Mamekoting, Waranawonkong, and Wawarsink.

Grandly, but moderately Europeans and Brooklyn Slaves by Dutch East Company By Peter Dadamo Europeans The first Europeans to set eyes on Brooklyn were the crew of the Dolphin, captained by Florence came Giovanni da Verrazano a Florentine navigator of repute who was in the service of the King of France. Sailing into New York Bay in 1524 , he encountered the Lenape and observed what he deemed to be a large lake, which was in fact the entrance to the Hudson River. Verazzano did not linger: in 1528, during his third voyage to North America, after exploring Florida, the Bahamas and the Lesser Antilles, Verrazzano was killed and eaten by the native Carib inhabitants. In 1609 Henry Hudson sailed up the estuary of the river that initially was called the North River or Mauritius and now carries his name. Hudson sailed into the upper bay and began a journey up what is now known as the Hudson River. Over the next ten days his ship ascended the river, reaching a point about where the present-day capital of Albany is located. European settlement of Brooklyn began with the Dutch and was initially tangential to their main settlement on the island of Manhattan (New Amsterdam), part of their colony of New Netherlands. The States General, Hollands governing body, licensed the New Netherlands Company in 1614, taking in an area from New York State on the St. Lawrence River south to the Delaware River. New Netherlands was the sole possession of a

commercial monopoly of the The West India Company, and was not a colony of Holland. While the English embarked on a search for theological utopia, the Dutch immigrated for one purpose: to make money. The first European settlement within the present limits of Brooklyn was made in Wallabout, site of the old Brooklyn Navy Yard and countless hipsters, by several families of Frenchspeaking Walloons in the early 1630s, having arrived in New Netherland in the previous decade from Holland. Settlement of the area began with the purchase from the Canarsee Indians for some 335 acres of land, but these early Wallabout settlers waited at least a decade before relocating full-time to the area, until conflicts with the tribes had been resolved. In 1636 Dutch farmers took up residence along the shore of Gowanus Bay. That year Jacques Bentyn and William Adrianese Bennett also purchased from the Indians a tract of land in Brooklyn, extending from the vicinity of 28th street, along Gowanus Cove and the bay, to the New Utrecht line. This formerly composed part of a powerful Indian Sachemdom that bore the Indian name of Matowcas. Also at that time, a handful of New Amsterdam residents bought large tracts of farmland in an area of western Long Island in which the soil was unusually fertile. Nieuw Amersfortthe first Dutch settlement on Long Islandwas built at present day neighborhood of Flatlands, on Jamaica Bay, site of the Indian village of Keskaechqueren. The abundant supply of wampum in the area led to the selection of Keskaechqueren as the earliest permanent European settlement on Long Island.

Manatus Map (click to enlarge)

The Manatus Map is an 1639 map that is the earliest portrayal of Manhattan and its environs. The map may have been drawn by Johannes Vingboons, cartographer to the Prince of Nassau for the West India Company of Holland. This map, possibly done to encourage Dutch settlement, depicts plantations and small farms. These widely dispersed settlements are keyed by number in the lower right-hand corner to a list of land occupants. The list of references includes a grist mill, two sawmills and Quarters of the Blacks, the Companys Slaves. Also delineated are a few roads represented by dashed lines and four Indian villages situated in what is now Brooklyn. Although a bit confusing, since South is actually oriented East on the map, it clearly shows Lenape longhouses in the marshlands of Red Hook (Sassian) and Wallabout Bay, Bay Ridge (Nayack or Wichquawanck) and at the head of the Gowanus swamplands. ENDGAME Dutch relations with the Indians began benevolently. A director of the West India Company, Johannes de Laet, wrote that the Lenape were friendly people if they were treated well. Governor Willem Verhulst was also instructed from Holland to treat them with honesty, faithfulness and sincerity and to respect their land claims. However a series of bad business dealings in several of the trading posts located in present day Connecticut quickly soured relations. Kiefts War, also known as the Wappinger War (16431645), was fought between settlers to the nascent colony of New Netherland and the native Lenape population. Twenty tribes ultimately consolidated in the fight against the Dutch: Hackensack, Haverstraw, Munsee, Navasink, Raritan and Tappan from New Jersey; Wecquaesgeek, Sintsink, Kitchawank, Nochpeem, Siwanoy, Tankiteke, and Wappinger from east of the Hudson; and Canarsee, Manhattan, Rockaway, Matinecock, Massapequa, Secatoag, and Merrick on Long Island. Named after Willem Kieft, the fifth governor of New Netherlands the Brooklyn manifestation followed an unsuccessful expedition against the Raritans on Staten Island and included an attack by 1,500 natives on New Netherland, where they killed many, including Anne Hutchinson, the notable dissident preacher. They destroyed villages and farms, the work of

two decades of settlement. In retaliation the English and Dutch combined strategically to decimate the Canarsee, Merrick and Massapequa villages on the western end of Long Island. Governor Kieft hired the English mercenary and veteran of the recent Pequot War, John Underhill, for 25,000 guilders. Underhill brought with him two companies of 120 to 150 volunteers and Mohegan scouts. Underhills company proceeded to kill over 120 Indian men, women and children where they lived near todays town of Massapequa. No one can have visions because the earth is no longer clean. After some 500 Indians were killed on Long Island, the governor declared a day of thanksgiving. A vestige of Kiefts War was the stout, fortified construction of many of the Dutch homesteads, including the Old Stone House in the Park Slope neighborhood, which was to play a pivotal role in the defense of Brooklyn during the Battle of Long Island. Trouble with the Dutch was only one of the factors which eventually drove the Indians from Long Island. Another was a smallpox epidemic in 1658, which reportedly killed two-thirds of the tribes in the area. The population of all the Long Island tribes in 1600 was estimated at 10,000. The effects of warfare and sickness reduced this population to 500 by the year 1659. By the time of the Revolutionary War, Lenape on Long Island were few and far between, perhaps not totaling 200 in all of New Amsterdam. Moreover, the influx of white settlers and the resulting expansion of farmland drove animals away, and the Indians who were hunters migrated to the mainland in pursuit of game. They now became exiles and wanderers, dependent upon the hospitality and subject to the hostility of other tribes. With the severing of their ancient bond to the land, the source of their visions and insights dried up. In the words of a Delaware in the early nineteenth century, No one can have visions because the earth is no longer clean. http://canarsie.homestead.com/canarsiehistory.html A History of the City of Brooklyn. by Henry Reed Stiles. (ca.1870) Notes, Geographic and Otherwise, Relating to the Town of Brooklyn in

Kings County on Long-Island. by Gabriel Furman (1824) A History of Brooklyn and Kings County. S.M. Ostrander, (1894) http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/indianwars/articles/kieftswar.asp x http://www.richmondhillhistory.org/indians.html http://www.newyorknature.net/Native.html http://www.terrain.org/essays/10/campanella.htm http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/tribes/brotherton/metoachist. htm
GODS OF THE UNDEAD - Dutch West Indies Company -

The Pontianak (Owl and Bananna Tree) and The Soucouyant (fireball and silk-tree)

The Kunti
The pontianak (Dutch-Indonesian spelling: boentianak) is a vampiric ghost in Malay and Indonesian mythology. It is also known as a matianak or kuntilanak, sometimes shortened to kunti. As with tiyanak of the Philippines, pontianak are said to be the spirits of woman who died while pregnant. This is often confused with a related creature, the lang suir, which is the ghost of a woman who died while giving birth. The word pontianak is reportedly a corruption of the Malay perempuan mati beranak, or woman who died in childbirth.[1] Another theory is that the word is a combination of puan (woman) + mati (die) + anak (child). The term matianak means "death of a child". The city of Pontianak in Indonesia is named after this creature, which was claimed to have haunted the first sultan who wants to settled there. Pontianak (folklore) Pontianak are usually depicted as pale-skinned women with long hair and dressed in white, but they are said to be able to take on a beautiful appearance since they prey on men. The Indonesian kuntilanak is similar to the pontianak, but more commonly takes the form of a bird and sucks the blood of virgins and young women. The bird, which

makes a "ke-ke-ke" sound as it flies, may be sent through black magic to make a woman sick, the characteristic symptom being vaginal bleeding. While the pontianak is the ghost of a child who died while being born, lang suir are the spirits of women who suffered from laboring sickness (meroyan) which resulted in the death of both mother and baby during childbirth. Such a woman would turn in to a lang suir 40 days after her death. To prevent this from happening, glass beads are placed in the corpses mouth. Unlike the pontianak which appears beautiful and preys on men, the lang suir is hideous with red eyes and long sharp nails. Their victims are pregnant women, whom they either kill or cause to have miscarriages. Lang suir suck the blood of their victims through a hole behind its neck. If one puts the lang suir's hair in this hole or cuts their claws, it will become human again. While the pontianak is associated with banana trees, lang suir are said to be encountered near the shore of a river or sea. This way, if a human victim isn't available, they might prey on fish.

Lang suir are often depicted as being dressed in white or green.

Like the kuntilanak, the lang suir is able to fly, including in the form of an owl. The Malay word for owl in fact means "ghost bird".

The soucouyant or soucriant in Dominica, Trinidadian and Guadeloupean folklore (also known as Ole-Higue or Loogaroo elsewhere in the Caribbean), is a kind of witch vampire.[1][2]
The soucouyant that lives by day as an old woman at the end of the village. By night, however, she strips off her wrinkled skin, puts it in a mortar, and flies in the shape of a fireball through the darkness, looking for a victim. Still in the shape of a fireball, the soucouyant enters the home of her victim through the keyhole or any crack or crevice. Soucouyants suck the blood of people from their arms, legs and other soft parts while they sleep.[3] If the soucouyant draws out too much blood from her victim, it is believed that the victim will die and become a soucouyant herself, or else perish entirely, leaving her killer to assume her skin. The soucouyant practices witchcraft, voodoo, and black magic. Soucouyants trade the blood of their victims for evil powers with Bazil the demon who resides in the silk cotton tree.[4] To expose a soucouyant, one should heap rice around the house or at the village cross roads as the creature will be obligated to gather every grain, grain by grain (an almost

impossible task to do before dawn) thus being caught in the act.[5] In order to destroy the soucouyant, coarse salt must be placed in the mortar containing the soucouyant's skin. She then cannot put the skin back on and will perish. Belief in soucoyants is still preserved to some extent in Trinidad.[6] The skin of the soucouyant is said to be very valuable, as it is used when practicing black magic.

Soucouyants belong to a class of spirits called jumbees. Some believe that soucouyants were brought to the Caribbean from European countries in the form of French vampire-myths. These beliefs intermingled with those of enslaved Africans.
In the French West Indies, specifically the island of Guadeloupe, the Soukougnan or Soukounian is a person able to shed his or her skin to turn into a vampiric fireball. In general these figures can be anyone, not only old women, although some affirm that only women could become Soukounian, because only female breasts could disguise the creature's wings.

The term "Loogaroo" also used to describe the soucouyant, possibly comes from the French mythological creature called the Loup-garou, a type of werewolf and is common in the Culture of Mauritius.

Samarians as Slaves 1607

The famous Triangle Trade occurred in the New England colonies where slaves were sold in the West Indies for molasses. This was sent to New England to make Rum which was then sent to Africa to trade for slaves. While Europeans were running the slave trade on the west side of Africa ...

Arab traders were doing the same thing (this is a BBC audio clip) on the east side.
Let's take a closer look at the second leg of the triangular journey - the infamous "middle passage" - wherein Africans were shipped, to the "New World," as slave-

labor. In July of 1788, as MPs (Members of Parliament) debated the issue of African slavetrading, pro-slave-trade members summoned individuals, like Robert Norris, to testify. From Liverpool, Norris insisted that Africans were treated fairly and their transatlantic passages were comfortable. His book on the subject - at pages 171 and 172 - reveals his general position: That the opinion...of these ships being unequal to the numbers which were said to be crowded in them, is groundless...That on the voyage from Africa to the West Indies, the Negroes are well fed, comfortably lodged, and have every possible attention paid to their health, cleanliness, and convenience. Thomas Clarkson, in chapter 23 of his history, summarizes Norris' testimony to the privy council. The captive Africans, Norris said: had sufficient room, sufficient air, and sufficient provisions. When upon deck, they made merry and amused themselves with dancing. As to the mortality, or the loss of them by death in the course of their passage, it was trifling. In short, the voyage from Africa to the West Indies "was one of the happiest periods of a Negro's life."

Norris, like others, wanted to maintain slave-trading for economic reasons. He knew slave labor was "the connecting medium of our foreign with our domestic commerce." British manufacturing depended on it. If that connection were removed: The export of British manufactures, which to Africa and the Colonies amount to nearly three millions sterling annually, would soon be reduced to nothing...From the inevitable decrease of the import of West Indian productions, there would be such a deficiency of the national revenue, as the imposition of fresh taxes, upon a people deprived of their accustomed resources of opulence and industry, could not possibly replace ... Our national importance would quickly decline, and be known to the next generation, only by the page of history. (Norris, pages 182-183)

MIDDLE PASSAGE REALITY In July of 1788, Liverpool slave-trade participants testified about their activities in Parliament. They told MPs that slaves, among other things, were comfortable during transatlantic crossings.

Then, under intense cross examination, they acknowledged the truth. We pick up the story in chapter 23 of Clarkson's history: Every slave, whatever his size might be, was found to have only five feet and six inches in length, and sixteen inches in breadth, to lie in. The floor was covered with bodies stowed or packed according to this allowance: but between the floor and the deck or ceiling were often platforms or broad shelves in the mid-way, which were covered with bodies When captives were brought to the African ports, they were bound together, two by two. Were they also tethered, in some manner, aboard ship? The men were chained two and two together by their hands and feet, and were chained also by means of ring-bolts, which were fastened to the deck. They were confined in this manner at least all the time they remained upon the coast, which was from six weeks to six months as it might happen. If they were captured to provide free labor, Africans needed nourishment. What did they eat? Their allowance consisted of one pint of water a day to each person, and they were fed twice a day with yams and horsebeans. Some of the captives refused to eat, wishing to die rather than to live in such horrific conditions. When that happened, slavers would force-open their mouths with a device (called a speculum oris) which looked like an instrument of torture. (See Clarkson, chapter 17.) Confined in cramped quarters, how did the captives keep their bodies limber? After meals they jumped up in their irons for exercise. This was so necessary for their health, that they were whipped if they refused to do it; and this jumping had been termed dancing. Young girls could also be whipped if they refused the captain's order to dance without their clothes. One example was memorialized by George Cruikshank on the 10th of April, 1792. John Kimber, captain of the slave ship Recovery, whipped a fifteen-year-old captive while she was suspended by her ankle. Although she died of her injuries, a jury in the High Court of Admiralty acquitted Kimber. They concluded the girl had died of disease, not mistreatment.

Were captives allowed to breathe fresh air, or did they spend most of their time below deck? They were usually fifteen and sixteen hours below deck out of the twentyfour. In rainy weather they could not be brought up for two or three days together. If the ship was full, their situation was then distressing. They sometimes drew their breath with anxious and laborious efforts, and some died of suffocation. It is said one could smell an approaching slave ship ten miles away, so horrific were its onboard conditions. AFRICA From Real Israelites (Samaritans) In his book From Babylon to Timbuktu Rudolf R Windsor gives an account of this scattering of the Israelites: In the year 65B.C. the Roman armies under General Pompey captured Jerusalem. In 70 A.D. General Vespasian and his son, Titus put an end to the Jewish state, with great slaughter. During the period of the military governors of Palestine, many outrages and atrocities were committed against the residue of the people. During the period of Pompey to Julius, it has been estimated that over 1,000,000 Jews (Israelites) fled into Africa, fleeing from Roman persecution and slavery. The slave markets were full of black Jewish slaves. Millions of Israelites who escaped the persecution of the Roman-Jewish War fled into the interiors of Africa. In his book Jewish Roots in Africa, Mr Litchtblau, speaking of the Israelites that ran into Africa, says this: Pressed under sweeping regional conflicts, Jews settled as traders and warriors in Yemen, the Horn of Africa, Egypt, the kingdom of Kush and Nubia, North African Punic settlements (Carthage and Velubilis), and areas now covered by Mauritania. More migrants followed these early Jewish settlers to Northern Africa Rudolf R Windsor in his book Babylon to Timbuktu points out: The black Jews who migrated to the Sudan from the North converged with the Jews migrating from the eastern Sudan to the countries of the Niger RiverThere is much proof, and still much more to be revealed by scholars, that there existed prior to the slave trade and subsequent to it many tribes, colonies, and kingdoms in West Africa. pg 120 The Beginning: At the end of the 14th century Europeans started to take people from Africa

against their will. Initially they were mainly used as servants for the rich. The Europeans justified the taking of slaves by arguing that they were providing an opportunity for Africans to become Christians. By the 17th century the removal of slaves from Africa became a holy cause that had the full support of the Christian Church. When Spanish and Portuguese sea-captains began to explore the Americas they took their African servants with them. Some of these Africans proved to be excellent explorers. The most important of these was Estevanico, who led the first European expedition to New Mexico and Arizona.

The people living in the Americas resisted the attempt by the Europeans to take over their land. One of he most important struggles took place in Cuba in 1512. The Cubans, led by Chief Hatuey, were eventually defeated by the superior weapons of the Spanish. It is estimated that over a million people lived in Cuba before the arrival of the Europeans. Twenty-five years later there were only 2,000 left. Large numbers had been killed, while others died of starvation, disease, committed suicide or had died from the consequences of being forced to work long hours in the gold mines.

After the arrival of the Europeans there was a sharp decline in the local population of most of the islands in the Caribbean Sea. This created a problem for the Europeans as they needed labour to exploit the natural resources of these islands. Eventually the Europeans came up with a solution: the importation of slaves from Africa. By 1540, an estimated 10,000 slaves a year were being brought from Africa to replace the diminishing local populations. British merchants became involved in the trade and eventually dominated the market. They built coastal forts in Africa where they kept the captured Africans until the arrival of the slave-ships. The merchants obtained the slaves from African chiefs by giving them goods from Europe. At first, these slaves were often the captured soldiers from tribal wars. However, the demand for slaves become so great that

raiding parties were organised to obtain young Africans. The Height of the Slave Trade: Between the years 1650 and 1900, historians estimate that at least 28 million Africans were forcibly removed from central and western Africa as slaves (but the numbers involved are controversial). A human catastrophe for Africa, the world African Slave Trade was truly a "Holocaust." Between 1450 and 1850 at least 12 million Africans were taken across the notorious Middle Passage of the Atlantic - mainly to colonies in North America, South America, and the West Indies European countries participating in the slave trade accumulated tremendous wealth and global power from the capturing and selling of Africans into slavery. Initially, slaves were sold to the Portuguese and Spanish colonies in South and Central Americas to work on sugar cane plantations. This area became known as the 'seasoning stations' for the northern plantations, because of the brutal conditioning that took place there. However, by the 1700's, due to the high demand for African slaves, most Africans were shipped directly from Africa to mainland America.

End of the Slave Trade: The slave-produced goods were shipped back to Britain - the "Mother Country" where they were manufactured or refined (if necessary) and then either sold domestically or re-exported at a vast profit. The slave trade brought in huge amounts of money to Britain, and few people even knew what was going on in the plantations, let alone cared. Men who owned plantations in the West Indies, including Sir John Gladstone, formed an important political group which opposed the abolition of the slave trade.

In New England, small towns In the West Indies the economic results of the Act were disastrous. The islands depended on the sugar trade which in turn depended on slave labor. Ultimately, the planters were unable to make the West

Indies the thriving centers of trade which they had been in the eighteenth century.

How Many Africans Were Affected?: 1. Between 10 and 28 million people taken from Africa 2. 17 million Africans sold into slavery on the coast of the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, and North Africa

3. 12 million Africans taken to the Americas (sic 3.15)

4. 5 million Africans taken across the Sahara and East Africa into slavery in other parts of the world (7/11)

Spain, Portugal, Rome and the Holy Land Slave Trade to the West Indies and The New World

Portuguese on the Western Shores of Africa

So-called Islamic Berbers (Moors) brought the first black slaves to the Iberian

Peninsula.

Although small in numbers compared to later periods, the consequences turned out to be tremendous. Spaniards and Portuguese were well aware of the strength and the qualities of Negros as cheap labour. Especially in the sugar culture around the Mediterranean Sea and after their discovery on the Azores and Madeira slaves were employed.

Iberians heard stories about the kingdoms south of the Sahara and about the Songhay king, who was 'the wealthiest king in the world'.

In search of these African kingdoms of gold, Dom Henrique (also called Henry the Sailor) left Portugal in 1441 A.C. with a few ships.

He landed on the African west coast but did not find gold, though enough other merchandise.

Two of his captains captured twelve Negros (men, women and children). These captives were carried to Portugal as slaves to convince the king that it was cheaper to get slaves directly from the African west coast than to buy them from Arabic and European middle-men. Dom Henrique offered the Pope two black slaves, and the Pope granted the Portuguese permission for the slave trade on the West African coast. The Pope issued in advance complete absolution to those who would fall in the battle on the African west coast. Such ended Arab monopoly of the slave trade through the Sahara. In 1448 for the first time, leaders of Mali and Songhay exchanged almost a thousand slaves with the Portuguese against horses, silk and silver. The first black slaves were used as domestics and for the sugar culture around the Mediterranean Sea, the Azores and on Madeira. Black slaves were also sold to Spain and Italy. In 1481 the Portuguese built their first fort on the Gold Coast, the notorious d'El Mina, the mine. Thus the first stone was laid for an enormous and forbidding enterprise, 'The Transatlantic Slave Trade."

The beginning of the Transatlantic slave trade

Two years after the discovery of America in 1492, the Treaty of Tordesillas, made by the Pope, assigned the territory eastward of the line through Brazil to Portugal and the territory on the west of it to Spain. With this the Portuguese gained a monopoly on the slave trade on the African coast. On the other hand Spain got a free hand in the Caribbean sea and Central and South America. A treaty made the previous year; the demarcation line went further to the east, thus completely excluding Portugal from the new world. In 1494, after heavy protest, the treaty was adjusted and Portugal was assigned a part of the present Brazil that still had to be discovered. At first, colonists in Portuguese and Spanish colonies preferred to use natives as slaves. But the Indians were originally fishermen and hunters. Physically they were not suitable for heavy labour. The work was predominantly in salt and silver mines and in agriculture. Many of the natives died from exhaustion, malnourishment, illtreatment or Old World diseases, such as smallpox and measles. Others preferred to commit suicide rather than to live the inhuman life that was forced on them by Spanish colonists. When possible, the native slaves tried to escape to the impenetrable inlands. Regularly, Spanish soldiers carried out punitive expeditions. Captured runaways were severely punished. As a warning many natives were

hanged. Escapees often preferred mass suicide rather than being captured again.

On Hispafiola (now Haiti) the number of natives decreased in less than 25 years from more than one million to hardly eleven thousand, in spite of a constant supply of new native slaves from the other Caribbean Islands.

About 200,000 of the "Arowakken" who were carried off from the coastal region of South America and the Caribbean islands, died between 1492 and 1510. Already in 1510, black slaves were transported to Spanish colonies with the permission of Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand (Ferdinand the Catholic) of Spain. At first, all Africans had to come from Portugal or Spain or had to be baptized in Africa before embarkation.

The "Casa dos Escravos" in Lisbon (the government slave trade agency) sold more than 1,200 Negros between 1511 - 1513. Emperor of Austria and King of Spain, Charles V, granted licenses to his trusted and favorite courtiers to transport African

slaves to the new world. In 1529 such a license was handed for the first time to a Dutchman (at that time Holland was a Spanish territory). No doubt that also at the beginning of the sixteenth century, slaves had been illegally transported directly from Africa to the New World colonies. Bishop Bartolom de las Casas of Chiapas could not bear to witness the atrocities committed against the Caribbean native population. Ruthless and cruel expeditions forcing conversion of nonbelievers were equally destructive as those of the slave raiders. Thus the Catholic Church had become involved in the destruction of native Caribbean's. In 1537 the bishop returned to Spain with a request to King Charles V to end the inhuman situation of the natives. He proposed to replace the native Caribbean's with more "durable" African Negros. Based solely on economical motives, King Charles V honored the bishop's request. It was not possible to make the new territories productive with only the help of a few unwilling natives. It was thought that Africa Tihad an inexhaustible labour force.

In 1538, this led to the "Asiento de Negros" (a monopolistic con-tract for the slave trade). As the licenses to transport black slaves to the new world was limited to one trip or a certain number of slaves, the "asiento" was a privilege that, during the agreed term, granted the holder a monopoly on slave transports to the overseas colonies. King Charles V granted this "asiento" to one of his courtiers, the Fleming Laurens de Goumenot. He obtained the right to transport 4,000 Negros to Hispanola, Cuba, Jamaica and Puerto Rico. De Goumenot could only recruit this large number of slaves from the Portuguese in Africa, because the Treaty of Tordesillas excluded Spain from all trade with West Africa. The purchase of Negro slaves, the transport over sea and the high price that had to be paid to the crown, required large sums of money, which De Goumenot did not have at his disposal. That is why he sold the "asiento" for 25,000 ducats to some Genuese traders. They started a very profitable trade with Portuguese slave traders on the West African coast. Especially at the beginning the slaves were captured during inland expeditions, or bought from wealthy African kings. Some kings even undertook special military expeditions against neighboring tribes and, if necessary, sold their own citizens.

Curaao as centre of the slave trade

After the loss of the Pernambuco region in Brazil, Curaao formed the most suitable market for African slaves.

Already in 1636 the WIC had promulgated instructions that ordered captains equipped with Dutch letters of marquee, to deliver captured Negro slaves on Curaao. Most were employed as company slaves on Curaao and Bonaire, for the cutting down of dye-wood and the salt production, but also for fishing, turtle hunting and the maintenance of the company gardens.

Superfluous slaves were sold to the New Netherlands and to the Guyanas. At the end of the sixteen forties, the demand for African slaves at the Dutch colonies in Pernambuco slowly died as the Portuguese gradually reconquered this region. The WIC transferred its slave trading activities to the Spanish colonies in the Caribbean area. Between 1646 and 1657, about 3,800 slaves were sold to Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico and the Tierra Firme. Some ships sailed directly to these destinations; others brought their load to Curacao first, where the human cargo was resold. Peter Stuyvesant was the owner of a slave camp on Curacao. After his departure for the New Netherlands in 1646 he asked his successor, Matthias Beck, to sell these slaves. Beck sold - to the dismay of Stuyvesant - the slaves to the Spaniards. Among the slaves were children who, at the request of Stuyvesant's wife, were baptized Protestant. Stuyvesant was not indignant about the sale of these children, but he did not agree with a sale to the Catholic Spaniards. In 1640, sixty years after the Spanish occupation, the Portuguese regained their freedom. Portugal closed its doors for Spanish traders. The just granted asiento became worthless.

The Spanish needed workers and apart from Portugal, only the Dutch (with whom Spain waged war for almost eighty years) had trading posts on the African coast. Spain did not want to conclude an asiento with a rebellious nation. Until 1662 no asiento was concluded, only individual supply agreements. In 1655 the shipping industry between Spain and the new world was severely damaged because of the British conquest of the former Spanish colony Jamaica. In 1657, the deputy governor of Curaao, Matthias Beck, got in touch with Spanish colonial authorities on the nearby South American continent. It was quite clear that the Spanish colonies were in big need for European goods. But trade with this region could only be possible when, apart from goods, also negro slaves could be delivered.

There were not sufficient slaves available to fulfill the great demand of the Spanish colonies. The demand for slaves was so enormous that most slave ships, who sailed between 1658 and 1662 to Curacao, were already sold before the ship entered the harbor.

The flourishing slave trade on Curaao did not escape the attention of the two Genuese traders who in 1662 obtained the Asiento. Instead of importing slaves from Africa they choose to conclude a delivery contract with the WIC.

The contents of the first contract stipulated the delivery of 24,000 slaves during a period of seven years.

At their arrival on Curaao, slaves were immediately accommodated in special slave depots. After a medical examination they were taken to agents of the "Asientistas". At first, the depots were situated in the Schottegat area, where the slave ships docked. It is conceivable that there was a slave depot in the area of the present museum Kur Hulanda. Due to lack of documents, much is still unknown about the first years of the slave trade on Curaao. Slaves, who were not immediately sold, were accommodated in two W1C slave camps, these were mostly the weak, the sick or slaves rejected by the "Asientistas". The chained slaves walked from Schottegat to Zuurzak plantation, which was the largest slave camp. This camp was walled to prevent escape attempts. When the camp was full, slaves were brought to Groot St. Joris, the second slave camp. In these camps the slaves could recover. Afterwards most of them were sold illegally to Spanish or other colonies. Others remained in the service of the company and were put to work on one of the nine plantations of the WIC. The company had a doctor to take care of sick slaves. Not from a humane point of view but purely for economic reasons.

The value of a healthy slave was about 150 Guilders. At that time a bricklayer, a barber or a carpenter earned 20 Guilders a month.

Stuck a feather in his cap and called it Macroni

In the slave trade the value of a slave was counted in piezas de Indias. A slave only counted as a full pieza de Indias if he or she was at least seven palmos (about five feet) in height and was between 15 and 35 years of age. Because of physical defects such as bad teeth, a bad

eyesight or a disease, individual slaves were counted as fractions of the ideal slave. They were sometimes called manquerones or macrons. Children aged 4-8 and 8-15 were counted as one-half and two-thirds of a pieza de Indias.
The slave trade on Curaao had its ups and downs. Could the demand between 1659 and 1662 not be fulfilled, due to a temporary stagnation in 1669 there were about 3,000 slaves available on the island. In spite of all, the WIC was unable to deliver the contractually agreed number of slaves. Instead of three to four thousand slaves a year, the average delivery to the Asientistas was not even a thousand a year. Nevertheless the Asientistas kept on concluding new contracts with the company, because Curacao was the most important slave market in the Caribbean. The trade went on until the end of the eighties of the seventeenth century. Then the importance of Curacao as a slave market lessened, due to increased competition with the now British island of Jamaica. More and more slave ships delivered their load directly to the Spanish colonies.

In 1713, through the peace treaty of Utrecht, Britain gained the Spanish Asiento. This ended the official slave trade with the Spanish colonies for Curaao. There was no market for the slaves that were delivered on the island in 1715. They were forced to stay on the island. In years to come very few slaves from Africa were directly delivered to Curaao. The last (documented) slave ship that delivered African slaves directly to Willemstad, reached the island in 1775. All illegal transportations seldom were committed to paper, this does not imply the end of the transatlantic slave trade to Curaao, although it would have been minimal.

Other nations and the slave trade

The monopoly on West Africa granted by the Pope in 1494, was in practice a mere formality. Portugal did not have the necessary military means to maintain its monopoly. Already during the first quarter of the seventeenth century several Dutch trading posts arose along the West African coast. After the Dutch conquest of fort d'Ehnina in 1637, other countries competed for a key position along the West African coast. At first they restricted themselves to the delivery of slaves to the Spanish colonies in the new world.

But as countries like France, Denmark, Britain and Germany gained possession of their own colonies, slaves were also transported across the Atlantic Ocean to provide

their own territories with black labourers. Britain, with whom during the seventeenth century the Dutch Republic was at war several times, turned out to be a formidable competitor. In 1655 it had conquered the island of Jamaica and set out to develop it into a major slave depot. Despite the British having lost its forts along the Gold Coast during the second war with the Republic (1665 1667), the British slave trade recovered quite fast. A lot of slave ships changed their course to Jamaica and Barbados. In 1672 the Royal African Company was founded. It gained a monopoly on the slave trade with British colonies in the new world. Unfortunately this monopoly was undermined by British seamen, who managed to cross the ocean with smaller and faster ships at lower expenses. Jamaica had a flourishing sugar culture and needed a lot of slaves. But the supplied slaves were also sold to the Spanish Continent of South America. More and more Britain took over the leading role from the Republic as the major slave supplier to the new world.

The 144,000

In exchange for peace after the ending of the Spanish Succession War in 1713, Britain gained the Asiento, which allowed them to transport 144,000 Negro slaves to the Spanish colonies during a period of thirty years. In the eighteenth century Britain became the largest provider of African slaves. Also France and - after the War of Independence - the United States of America were active in this trade.

Early Colonization in Brazil

Today, Brazil is demographically and culturally practically an "African"

country, which has derived from a rich history of African presence in the area. Shortly after the first European arrival in 1500, by Pedro Alves Cabral, Africans were being imported into Brazil.
Unfortunately the names of the first Africans were not as well recorded as the Europeans.

By 1535, the African slave trade was a fully organized endeavor.

However, just as we often overlook the names of the first Africans, we also often find that comparative analysis of technological achievements of Africans and Europeans have also been overlooked. Such that in 16th century Africa, the level of

metallurgy and agricultural technologies were superior to those of the Europeans at the time, thus it often resulted that the slaves would teach their masters such skills.
The earliest Dutch colonies in the New World, were at Dutch Guyana (Suriname) and in the Pernambuco region of northern Brazil at Olinda and Recife. Olinda was settled in 1630, and Johan Maurits van Nassau was made Governor of the colony in 1637. His house still stands as a monument in that city today. In 1654, the Dutch handed over the Brazilian colony to the Portuguese, and thereafter shifted their African slave traffic primarily via the island of Curaao. However the Portuguese continued to increase their importation of Africans into Brazil. The actual numbers of Africans brought to Brazil by the Portuguese is very difficult to calculate, as a result of vague documentation and a single catastrophic historical event. This event was the decree of the Minister of Finance, Rui Barbosa, on

May 13, 1891, that all historical documents relating to slavery and the slave trade, be destroyed.
This act, single-handedly ruined the possibility for the millions of Africans in Brazil to properly research their heritage. Sugar was the Brazilian colony's first industry, with the states of Bahia and Pernambuco being the center of major early growth as a colony. By 1587 there were over 47 sugar mills operating in Bahia alone. Throughout the early years of the colony, the African slaves were the majority population. Later, with the advent of cotton as a primary cash crop, the larger African slave populations were moved north into the area of Maranho. Into the 18th century, gold and diamonds became the focus of economic activity in Brazil, and thus the African slave populations were concentrated largest in the south near Minas Gerias.

Brazil was the last nation in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery, on May 13, 1888. Joo Mauricio Rugendas in Brazil Joo Mauricio Rugendas was born in Ausborg, Germany, in 1802, into a family of famous artists, and he died in Weilheim, Germany, in 1858. After serving as a professor then director of the Academy of Ausborg, Rugendas eventually joined a scientific expedition to Brazil led by Amado Adriano Taunay. Many of Rugendas' drawings from this expedition were sent to St. Petersburg, Russia, while he was still in Brazil. Some of these original drawings were lost and others have been found and later published. After Rugendas returned to Germany, he compiled the drawings that he still possessed into a "Pictorial Voyage of Brazil" (Viagem Pictoresca atraves do Brasil) published in Paris in 1835, with both French and German editions, both having lithographic reproductions of Rugendas' drawings done by an artist named Engelmann. These lithographs are the basis of this exhibition, as they best depict the life ways of the African slaves in Brazil during the 19th century, some of the origin Rugendas drawings are also represented in the exhibition. Of some interest are the drawings that record the first Dutch colonies in Brasil at Olinda and Recife. Subsequent to this 1835 publication Rugendas returned to South America and Mexico, where he produced hundreds of drawings. Most of these original drawings were displayed in the Museum of Munich. In 1928, Clovis Ribeiro and Wasth Rodrigues took advantage of the poor economic conditions in Germany at the time, and purchased over 600 of the Rugendas drawings and returned them to Brazil. In this exhibition, Rugendas was able to capture the very human characteristics of daily African slave life and physical characteristics in Brazil, from the harsh conditions and cruelty, to the pleasantries of dance and domestic life. Abolition of the slave trade Already in the seventeenth century public opinion turned against slavery. The Quakers thought that slavery was in contravention of Christianity. In the next century French philosophers like Voltaire criticized slavery. He made a foal of the Roman Catholic Church because of their acceptance of slavery by moans of his publication of "Sacramento". England - the country that was the largest slave trader since the beginning of the eighteenth century - turned out to be the first to abolish slavery. Two important protagonists for the abolition of slavery in England were the vicar John Wesley and the lawyer Granville Sharp. The latter founded in 1765 the first organized abolition movement. In England lived between 15,000 and 16,000 slaves, that were taken along by the (former) owners of plantations in the colonies. Sharp started several legal cases about escaped slaves. On June 22, 1772 this led in the famous case of

the escaped slave James Sommersot, to the judgment of the High Court that "slavery in this nature, morally as well politically, can not be established. It is detestable and there is nothing to justify this - not even a law. What the unpleasant conclusion of this verdict may be, it is impossible to say that slavery can be accepted or approved by the British court and Therefore I demand that this black man is acquitted." With this verdict all slaves living in England were discharged, but not the slaves in the colonies, whore in accordance to the local laws, slavery was allowed. In the year following this verdict many free slaves wore kidnapped by their previous masters and illegally shipped to the colonies. The abolitionists did continue their struggle against slavery. In 1787, the famous potter Josiah Wedgwood, co-founder of the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in England, made 200,000 replica's of a medallion he had designed, of a kneeling and chained slave with the text: "Am I not a man and a brother?" Continually more and more voices were raised against the slave trade. The British abolitionists tried to convince other nations to stop their slave trade. They contacted French abolitionists. This country was at the forefront concerning the abolition of slavery. France already had a "Code Noir" with rules concerning the treatment of slaves.

In August 1789, the National Assembly in Paris published the first declaration of human rights. They insisted on the right of freedom and equality for all human beings; the well-known slogan of the French Revolution: "Freedom, Equality and Fratemy." Against all expectations this turned out not to apply to the French slaves in the West Indies. This led in 1791 to a general slave revolt in Saint Dominique, when slaves killed or dislodged their previous masters. After a bloody war of many years, m 1804 the former French colony became an independent nation under the new name of Haiti. In 1794 the French government officially set free all slaves. But their freedom did not last long.

In a do-cree, issued in May 1802, Napoleon restored slavery in imperial France.

The (short-lived) freedom of the slaves on the French part of St. Martin led to commotion and discontentment among the slaves on the Dutch part of the island. Only because the slaves had - within certain boundaries - a lot of freedom, no great irregularities were caused on the Dutch side of St. Martin, but it did increase desertion to the French side among the slaves. Denmark was the first country to ban slavery. In 1807 Britain declared the slave trade to be illegal. One year later the United States of America followed, Sweden in

1813, The Netherlands in 1814, France in 1815 and Spain in 1820. Brazil became independent in 1822, submitted to the pressure of the British government and legally ended the slave trade soon after.

However the constant demand for slaves in the Caribbean and in the Southern States of America continued. Huge profits could still be made with the slave trade. In the years that followed, dozens of illegal slave transports took place between Africa and those destinations.

Britain on an international level made great efforts to stop this illegal trade. It made agreements with other countries. The British marine ships were authorized to ransack ships leaving Africa. They patrolled along the African coast to stop illegal slave transports. When a slave trader got caught, the ship was confiscated and the captain punished. The punishments England imposed in 1811 was deportation or the death penalty.

It was not from a humane point of view that England suppressed the slave trade, but to protect its own sugar colonies against dishonest competition of other countries that could still count on new supplies of cheap slave labour. The British ships along the African coast caused the situation of the slaves aboard illegal slave ships to become even more insecure. It was not unusual for a slave ship to toss her human car-go into the sea when confronted with a British or French slave hunter. There wore also rumours about mass slaughters of slaves along the African coast by Negro slavers when British or French marine ships prevented the slave ships to roach the shore to pick up the human cargo. The most important markets for illegal slavers were Cuba and Brazil.

From Cuba the African Negros were illegally transported on fast clippers to the southern states of America, often with false documents to prove the slaves originated from other Caribbean colonies and not from Africa. British, American, French and Dutch ships took part in the illegal slave transports that happened until 1870. At a rough estimation, about 1,898,400 slaves have been transported over the Atlantic Ocean between 1811 and 1870. Sixty per-cent of these slaves wore transported to Brazil, 32 percent to Cuba and Puerto Rico, 5 percent to the French West Indies and only 3 percent straight to the United States, but many slaves were brought to the United States through Cuba.
The ban on the import of new African Negros in most colonies forced the plantation owners to treat their slaves better. In some colonies the situation did not change much because of the large number of illegally imported slaves. On Curaao,

slaveholders could, despite the ban on the slave trade, get permissions for the export of slaves to other colonies, like Puerto Rico and Surinam. Because of a natural growth many planters had problems to feed their fast growing slave population. But exports to other colonies was (officially) only possible with the authorization of the slave himself. They often preferred Puerto Rico to Surinam. A transfer to Surinam for a white governor was considered a promotion, for the slaves it was used as a punishment.

ere the centers of local government. In 1643, Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven formed the New England Confederation to provide defense against Indians, Dutch, and the French. This was the first attempt to form a union between colonies.

A group of Massasoit Indians organized themselves under King Philip to fight the colonists. King Philip's War lasted from 1675-78. The Indians were finally defeated at a great loss.

Middle Colonies

Colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. These were known for being rich in forests and fur trapping. Harbors were located throughout the region. The area was not known for good farmland. Therefore, the farms were small, mainly to provide food for individual families. New England flourished instead with fishing, shipbuilding, lumbering, and fur trading along with trading goods with Europe.

The famous Triangle Trade occurred in the New England colonies where slaves were sold in the West Indies for molasses. This was sent to New England to make Rum which was then sent to Africa to trade for slaves.

Middle Colonies

Colonies: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. The Middle Colonies also practiced trade like New England

Southern Colonies

Colonies: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

Southern colonies grew their own food along with growing three major cash crops: tobacco, rice, and indigo. These were grown on plantations typically worked by slaves and indentured servants. The main commerce of the South was with England. Plantations kept people widely separate which prevented the growth of many towns.

An important event that occurred in the Southern Colonies was Bacon's Rebellion. Nathaniel Bacon led a group of Virginia colonists against Indians who were attacking frontier farms. The royal governor, Sir William Berkeley, had not moved against the Indians. Bacon was labeled a traitor by the governor and ordered arrested. Bacon attacked Jamestown and seized the government. He then became ill and died. Berkeley returned, hanged many of the rebels, and was eventually removed from office by King Charles II.

Virginia

Jamestown was the first English settlement in America (1607). It had a hard time at first and didnt flourish until the colonists received their own land and the tobacco industry began flourishing, the settlement took root. People continued to arrive and new settlements arose. In 1624, Virginia was made a royal colony.

Massachusetts

In 1628, Puritans formed the Massachusetts Bay Company and many Puritans continued to settle in the area around Boston. In 1691, Plymouth joined with the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Purina Dog Chow Remains of Black Human Flesh and bones

Rhode Island

Roger Williams argued for freedom of religion and separation of church and state. He was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded Providence. Anne Hutchinson was also banished from Massachusetts and she settled Portsmouth. Two additional settlements formed in the area and all four received a charter from England creating their own government eventually called Rhode Island.

New Hampshire

In 1622, John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges received land in northern New England. Mason eventually formed New Hampshire and Gorges land led to Maine. Massachusetts controlled both until New Hampshire was given a royal charter in 1679 and Maine was made its own state in 1820.

Maryland

Lord Baltimore received land from King Charles I to create a haven for Catholics. His son, the second Lord Baltimore, personally owned all the land and could use or sell it as he wished.

North Carolina and South Carolina

Eight men received charters in 1663 from King Charles II to settle south of Virginia. The area was called Carolina. The main port was Charles Town (Charleston). In 1729, North and South Carolina became separate royal colonies.

Pennsylvania

The Quakers were persecuted by the English and wished to have a colony in America. William Penn received a grant which the King called Pennsylvania. Penn wished to begin a holy experiment. The first settlement was Philadelphia. This colony quickly became one of the largest in the New World.

The Triangle Trade

Colonial Massachusetts and Rhode Island played a major role in the "infamous triangle trade" of the 15th through mid-18th centuries. At the time, Massachusetts and Rhode Island produced some of the best rum in the world. It was this rum that was shipped to the western coast of Africa to be traded for slaves. The ports in the New England colonies of Massachusetts and Rhode Island formed a vital leg of the triangle. In towns across New England, two forms of rum, tafia and ordinary rum, were produced. The rum was manufactured partially for personal consumption, but even more importantly, it was shipped to the west coast of Africa to be traded for gold and slaves. Most of the slaves who were bought with New England rum were from Central and Western Africa. These slaves were transported aboard specially designed slave ships from the west coast of Africa to the sugar producing islands of the West Indies and a small portion made the trip to colonial America. Upon arrival in the West Indies, the slaves were sold and traded for sugar and molasses, two of the key ingredients in rum production. The sugar, molasses and

any remaining money were then shipped to New England (Massachusetts and Rhode Island) where the molasses and sugar were used to produce the rum which would be traded for another group of slaves in Africa. New England's rum distilleries were integral to the continuation of the immensely profitable triangle trade. This continuous cycle of rum production and trade ensured a constant influx of capital which was used to help "industrialize New England with ventures into textile manufacturing." The transportation of slaves from Africa to the West Indies was known as the "Middle Passage." The Middle Passage was the longest leg of the triangular trade route. Slaves were kept below deck in conditions that were almost uninhabitable. The food that they were fed was often contaminated as was the water. For reasons such as this there was roughly a 12% mortality rate during this part of the journey alone. Typically, slaves were allowed on the above decks of the ship for only a short while each day for "exercise". The purpose of the exercise was not because the slave traders were friendly or caring, but they realized that the circulation of the slaves was poor because they were lying on their backs for roughly 23 hours a day in chains. When the slaves were brought above deck revolts were not uncommon, nor was the action of slaves throwing themselves overboard to avoid a life in captivity.

While Europeans were running the slave trade on the west side of Africa ... Arab traders were doing the same thing (this is a BBC audio clip) on the east side.

The Hudson Bay Colony and The Dolphin The Hudson's Bay Company was one of the great merchant companies. Granted sole trading rights to a huge part what is now Canada they were coerced in the mid nineteenth century to set up a colonial administration on Vancouver Island to protect British interests at a time of growing expansionism from America to the south and possible threats from a Russian Alaska to the north.

Hudsons Bay Company territory 1670 to 1763 2001. Government of Canada with permission from Natural Resources Canada The territory that HBC had a monopoly in was very large - in theory. In reality, HBC only controlled a small area near Hudson Bay at this time. Furs were brought to them, so they saw little need to expand inland.

Henday enters the Blackfoot Camp, 1754 Franklin Arbuckle Reproduced with the permission of the Hudsons Bay Company From the HBC Corporate Collection

Henday was born in England and joined HBC in 1750. In 1754, he left York Fort to try to contact First Nations peoples far from Hudson Bay. He hope to convince them to bring their furs to the bay instead of trading them with the French. He traveled as far west as what is now Alberta and realized that the French knew how to speak and trade with the First Nations peoples better than HBC did. He also noticed that the Cree would not let other First Nations bring their furs to HBC forts at Hudson Bay. This helped change the way HBC did business: Soon after, they began to send traders into the wilderness instead of waiting for the furs to come to the forts.

Henry Hudson and the Slave Trade The Fur People

The Sudan Slave Trade as The Fur Trade Dhahfur/Dafur

The Governors of the Hudsons Bay Company 1670-1983 Printed for Hudsons Bay and Annings Limited by Dramrite Printers Limited, London, England HBCA, PAM P-696 (N15000) Printed to commemorate the visit of the Governor to Hudsons Bay House, London, 23 November 1983 Hudsons Bay Company Archives Provincial Archives of Manitoba Not to be reproduced without the permission of the Hudsons Bay Company Archives Researchers are responsible for copyright requirements

JONA SWALLOWED BY A BIG FISH - WALES -

The Hudson Colony and The Dolphin Slave Exposition

Samuel Hearne, Late Chief at Prince of Waless Fort, Hudsons Bay (Churchill) Artist unknown HBCA, PAM P-167 (N8329) Engraving, coloured, 1796 Hudsons Bay Company Archives Provincial Archives of Manitoba Not to be reproduced without the permission of the Hudsons Bay Company Archives Researchers are responsible for copyright requirements

Prince Rupert, First Governor of Hudsons Bay Company Peter Lely Reproduced with the permission of Hudsons Bay Company From the HBC Corporate Collection

The Fur Loft at a Hudsons Bay Post

The Fur Loft at a Hudsons Bay Post Beckles Willson HBCA, PAM 1987/363-F-225/2 (N81-221E) Taken from The Great Company, pub. 1900 Hudsons Bay Company Archives Provincial Archives of Manitoba Not to be reproduced without the permission of the Hudsons Bay Company Archives Researchers are responsible for copyright requirements

Fort Prince of Wales, 1734 A.H. Hider Reproduced with the permission of Hudsons Bay Company From the HBC Corporate Collection

Ceremony of the Pipe Artist: E.N. (Edward North?) HBCA, PAM P-385 (N9033) HBCs 1921 calendar illustration Hudsons Bay Company Archives Provincial Archives of Manitoba Not to be reproduced without the permission of the Hudsons Bay Company Archives Researchers are responsible for copyright requirements Pipes and tobacco smoking are used in many First Nations ceremonies.

Map of major 'fur' trade routes. 2001. Government of Canada with permission from Natural Resources Canada The route to the south was the one used first by the French, then by the

North West Company. It was not as fast or as easy as the routes that went to Hudson Bay in the north. Those routes required much less portaging.

The Battle of Seven Oaks, 1816 Charles W. Jefferys HBCA, PAM P-378 (N87-8) HBCs 1914 calendar illustration Hudsons Bay Company Archives Provincial Archives of Manitoba Not to be reproduced without the permission of the Hudsons Bay Company Archives Researchers are responsible for copyright requirements Pipes and tobacco smoking are used in many First Nations ceremonies.

... and my flesh is food indeed. Jewish reply: How can this man gives us his flesh to eat?- The Scriptures The Flesh, Salish-Thompson and Slave Tribes All three tribes bear the letters 'Esh' or 'Ish' being connected with the Goddess Qedesh.