Amateur Radio Notes from M0BXR

Index

Electromagnetic Waves
An electromagnetic wave has three components. 1. Magnetic field. 2. Electric field 3. A direction of travel. The magnetic and electric components are at 90 degrees to each other and both are at 90 degrees to direction of travel.

Radio
A mode of communication between two or more points using electromagnetic waves developed in a transmitter, radiated through the atmosphere from one aerial to another and processed into an intelligable form by a receiver. That is to say that alternating RF currents produced by the transmitter flow in the aerial to produce both an electric and magnetic field. This might seem quite complex at first, but it is just like everyday activities like cooking or poker, once you know the basics the rest comes naturally.

Velocity of Radio Waves in free Space

All electromagnetic waves which include radio, X rays, infra red waves, visible light and ultra violet rays travel at a velocity of 300,000,000 metres per sec. in free space. (3 X 108).

Wavelength
The electromagnetic wave is an alternating quantity. The wavelength is the distance between two points of similar magnitude and sign in the direction of propagation.

It follows that velocity = frequency x wavelength .^. (metres) = 300 frequency(MHz)

Units of frequency
The unit of frequency is the Hertz (Hz) In radio we are concerned with electrical changes which vary in a repetitive pattern with time starting from zero going to a peak, falling back to zero then to a negative peak and finally reaching zero again.

We call this one cycle if it occurs in one second we say 1 Hertz. Radio waves are very high in frequency and the following terms are used Hz Hertz - The basic unit of frequency kHz one thousand hertz Hertz x 103 MHz one million hertz Hertz x 106

Propagation of radio waves

Propagation is defined as the travel of waves through or along a medium. In practice this medium is the earth's atmosphere which is divided up into layers those of main importance being the Troposphere and the ionosphere.

Troposphere
Layer of the earth's atmosphere nearest the ground - often responsible for ducting of VHF signals during periods of settled weather conditions.

Ionosphere
An upper atmospheric layer which contains belts or layers of ionised particles which cause refraction of radio waves mainly at high frequencies.
Frequencies between 3 and 30 MHz are generally considered high (H.F.). Above 30 MHz and extending to 300 Mhz is Very High Frequency (V.H.F)

Ionisation

A condition of certain layers in the atmosphere due to the effects of X Ray and UV radiation which causes gases to split into ions and free electrons.

Refraction
When an electromagnetic wave goes through a material which is not of constant density bending occurs and the wave may be subsequently reflected back down to earth.

Maximum Usable Frequency

This is the maximum frequency which is reflected at a glancing angle to the ionosphere. MUF varies with the time of day and sunspot cycle and is best on HF when the outer F1 and F2 layers have been ionised by sunspot activity. Often optimum conditions are shortlived because the inner layers soon become ionised as well. A high level of ionisation in the D layer results in absorption of radio waves before they reach the reflective F layers and results in a Dellinger Fade Out. This is also known as a Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance SID. This may be followed after about two days by a further fade out due to slower moving particles released at the same time which concentrate in the D Layer. This is known as an ionospheric storm.

Critical Frequency
The critical frequency is the highest frequency to be refracted when radiation is is vertical to a particular reflective layer. The critical frequency gives an indication that refraction is occurring and that as a result the wave is "reflected back from the layer" It should be noted however that the maximum usable frequency can be much higher than the critical frequency. This is because an antenna is usually arranged to give a low angle of radiation and refraction occurs much more easily when the angle of incidence to the layer is glancing. Students requiring a more in depth explanation of refraction will find it in A level physics

books which deal with the refraction of light in lenses and prisms. For the purposes of the RAE students need only know that the process which bends or reflects the path of the waves is known as refraction and remember the terms Critical Frequency and MUF.

Polarisation
Ths refers to the angle of the electronic component of the radiation in relation to the earth. Vertical antenna elements radiate vertically polarised signals and horizontal element radiate horizontally polarized signals. By switching rapidly between the two at a controlled frequency circular polarisation can be produced Slant polarisation has also been used from time to time. Usually where long distance propagation of HF is involved the polarisation is lost and becomes mixed. In these circumstances horizontal or vertical aerials can be used for reception. At VHF / UHF however the polarisation is much more important and a loss of 6dB occurs if the antenna is cross polarised.

Skip Distance
Distance over the earths surface from the end of the ground wave to the receiver which will allow a single skip or reflection from the layers above.

Types of Propagation
1. Ground Wave The radiated wave follows the surface of the earth and is the major mode of propagation up to 2 Mhz. At very low frequencies reliable ground wave communication over long distances is possible. At high frequencies it may extend only a few kilometres. 2. Ionospheric Propagation ( Occurs HF 3 - 30Mhz)

Occurs when radio waves are refracted and subsequently reflected from the upper layers (E, F1 and F2.) of the atmosphere which contain ionised gases are received back on earth possibly many miles from the transmitter. Many reflections may occur and this is known as multiple skip.

Skip Zone or Dead Zone

An area which exists between the area served by ground wave propagation and that served by sky wave propagation where little or no signal can be received.

Fading of signals
This is particularly associated with ionospheric propagation - as the degree of ionisation and its height above the earths surface is continually changing. The result is continually changing signal levels. Another type of fading is when two signal paths interfere e.g. single skip and multiple skip. Due the phase difference between the two signal distortion often results which is especially noticeable on music. This type of distortion is often frequency selective and the distortion effect can be minimized by using a narrow bandwidth signal such as ssb rather than am.

Tropospheric Propagation.
major mode of propagation at VHF (above 50 MHz). for long ditances. Is due to refraction caused by changes in dielectric constant of the atmosphere which results from changes intemperature and humidity.

Effect of Seasons on Propagation

Best long distance high frequency (High MUF) occurs when the upper F1 and F2 layers are well ionised and often combined into a single layer whilst at the same time the D layer at 80 kilometres i less ionized. - high ionization of the D layers results in absorbtion rather than reflection of

radio waves. These conditions occur during the winter daytime when sunspot activity is high. Sunspot activity follows a pattern and is much higher about every eleven years with periods of low activity intervening.

Best long distance VHF

~ occurs when waves are refracted through the troposphere due to variation in dielectric constant. This varies with temperature and humidity. Generally warm humid air has a high dielectric constant. On a hot day when atmospheric pressure is high and falling a layer of air of high dielectric may be trapped between layers of lower dielectric especially as the earth cools towards sunset. This is known as tropospheric ducting. VHF communication can be several hundred miles.

Scatter and Moonbounce

Some operators take particular interest in bouncing signals off other materials above the earth's surface. These include meteor scatter, moonbounce, auroral propagation and troposcatter - clouds or areas of dust etc.

Generation of radio waves

Radio waves are generated using active electronic devices such as semiconductors or valves. Semiconductors may be single transistors or diodes or an integrated circuit which is fabricated onto a single wafer of silicon. These devices are built into a circuit in association with various passive devices. In order to understand this it is necessary to learn about the properties of the components used.

Conductors

Materials are said to be conductors if a flow of electricity - that is a movement of electrons can occur through them easily. e.g. most metals.

Insulators
Some materials on the other hand are not able to allow free movement of electrons and charges exist on the surface which remain stationary. This is static electricity. Insulators include glass, porcelain, dry wood and plastics.

Resistors
A component made from materials which are neither good insulators or good conductors. They are use to help control the flow of electricity in a circuit. Resistors vary in there ability to impede electric flow and the property of resistance is measured in ohms ( ). Even conductors have some measurable resistance but this is very small typically an ohm or two for several metres of copper wire. Insulators on the other hand have a resistance of many millions of ohms between two points quite close together on the surface.

Voltage
In order to cause flow of electricity in a conductor an electrical pressure has to be produced by a battery or generator. This pressure or potential is measured in volts and is often referred to as EMF -electromotive force. V volt - basic unit of potential Kv kilovolt - 1 thousand volts 1 x 103 volts

mV millivolt - one thousanth of a volt 1 X 10-3 volts V microvolt - one millionth of a volt 1 x 10-6 volts

Quantity of Electricity
The electron itself is too small an amount of electricity to be a useful unit so the coulomb is used to measure electricity. one coulomb = 6 x 1018 (six million million million) electrons

Rate of Flow
The rate of flow of electricity is measured in amperes. An ampere is defined as one coulomb of electricity flowing in one second. Total quantity in coulombs Q = It where Q = quantity I = current t = time In radio we find that the amp is a fairly large unit for measurement hence it may be subdivided into smaller units. ampere basic unit of current mA ~ milliampere ~ one thousandth of an amp ~ 1 x 10-3 amp A ~ microamp ~ one millionth of an amp ~ 1 x 10-6 amp

Ohm's Law

Ohm's Law states that the current I flowing through a material of resistance R is proportional to the voltage V applied and inversely proportional to resistance R

Power
Power is the work done when an electric current flows, this is often given out as heat. The power dissipated in a resistance is given by power (watts) = voltage (volts) x current (amps) W=VxI By substituting back in Ohm's law we have.

Alternating Current
Alternating Currents exist in many areas of electronics. Our mains supply consists of a low frequency AC at 50 Hz. High frequencies of alternating current many kHz or MHz when connected to an aerial produce a field or electromagnetic wave which can be propagated as radio. In order to produce a current a voltage or electromotive force (EMF) is required to make the current flow. A.C. is no exception but here the E.M.F. is generated in such a way that it first causes a current to flow in one direction and then in another. ~ we have a varying voltage with time.

The time occupied by one complete cycle is the period T and the number of cycles in unit time is the frequency

Some Terms Associated with AC

1 Peak Value ~ the maximum +ve. value of voltage or current reached each cycle.

2. Peak to peak value. The difference between the most +ve. voltage or current value reached each cycle and the most negative. 3. RMS value. This is the value of AC voltage or current which is equivalent in heating effect to a DC voltage or current of the same value. R.M.S. is 0.707 times the peak value. 4. Instantaneous Value. Voltage or current at a defined instant of time in the cycle.

Phase difference between two waveforms

If two AC's are derived from different sources ie. two generators it is likely that even if they are running at the same speed/frequency they will not have started at the same instant in time. hence there is a time or phase difference in there waveforms.
Generator A

Generator B

In the case of a simple alternator we would have one cycle of AC in each revolution of the alternator. If one alternator has a red spot painted on the flywheel we will find that every time this red spot is uppermost the voltage is the same say zero volts and rising. Another alternator has a red spot in the same position relative to voltage but is running out of phase with the first. When A is on top B is at quarter two.

B lags A by 90 Degrees

Now also draw B lags A by 180 degrees

B leads A by 90 degrees.

Generation of AC at Radio (high) frequency

There is no suitable mechanical means of generating RF - the most commonly used means is by use of active electronic devices ie semiconductors (transistors) or vacuum tube devices (valves). Semiconductors will be described in more detail later but the basic format of an RF oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback. Tuned circuits of filters may be used to enhance oscillation at a particular frequency.

The block diagram shows a simple oscillator. When switched on random electrical noise at the input is amplified at the output in the form of a voltage moving in one direction ie. rising or falling. If this voltage is rising a rising voltage is fed back into the input causing the output to rise still further. Eventually as a result of this positive feedback the output has risen to a positive level which is so high it cannot continue to rise at the same rate - the filter rejects the DC component of the change in voltage so that when no further change occurs the voltage at the input tends to fall even though it could be maintained at the output. As soon as this happens the output voltage also falls rapidly the change again being fed to the input until a maximum negative voltage is reached when again the process is reversed. This gives rise to the familiar sinusoidal waveform at a frequency which is determined mainly by the filter.

The AC circuit - Inductance and capacitance

In a DC circuit we have seen that the flow of current is governed by the resistance of a circuit and the pressure or voltage applied to it . At AC two other quantities effect or oppose the flow of a current in a circuit ~ these are inductance and capacitance.

Inductance

When a steady current flows through a coil there is a steady magnetic field due to that current. A current change tends to alter the strength of the field which in turn induces in the coil a voltage or back EMF tending to appose the change being made. This property is known as the self inductance or inductance of the coil. One HENRY is the amount of inductance which has an EMF of 1 volt produced when the current flow changes at a rate of 1 amp per second. In radio smaller values of inductance are often required. H Henry ~ basic unit of inductance mH millihenry ~ one thousandth of a Henry 10-3 Henry H microhenry ~ one millionth of a Henry 10-6 Henry The inductance of a coil depends upon the square of the number of turns, the cross-sectional area, a constant called permeability and its length. L = AT2 l where L = inductance = permeability A = crossectional area T = no. of turns l = length

Relative Permeability
The density of a magnetic field is greater in some materials than in others. A vacuum is taken as a standard and is said to have a permeability of 1 hence relative permeability is the ratio of magnetic flux density in a material to that produced in a vacuum from the same magnetising force.

see also RAE Manual "Inductors used in Radio Equipment"

Inductive Reactance
As a result of the back EMF produced when current changes in a coil - this tends to oppose the AC in the next half cycle, this opposition is known as reactance. Inductive Reactance is given by

XL = 2L
where

XL = inductive reactance in = frequency L = inductance in Henry

Capacitance
A capacitor consists of two conductive plates of material separated by an insulator. When a current flows into a capacitor a charge or electrostatic field is built up between the two plates. This charge remains stored and must be overcome before the capacitor can be charged in the reverse direction by an alternating current. Capacitance is measured in Farads F Farad - basic unit of capacitance F microfarad ~ one millionth of a Farad ~ 10-6 Farad nF nanofarad ~ one thousandth millionth Farad ~ 10-9 Farad pF picofarad ~ one million millionth of a Farad ~ 10-12 Farad

The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the area of the plates and inversely proportional to the distance between them - it is also dependant on the material between the two plates , this is said to have a property known as permittivity (the dielectric constant). As with permeability this is expressed as the ratio compared with a vacuum

Capacitive Reactance
This is the property of slowing down an AC current due to this stored charge. XC =
1

2C where XC = capacitive reactance in = frequency C = capacitance in Farads

The total reactance of a circuit is the difference between capacitance and inductive reactance. Hence

X = XL - XC or X = XC - XL Resistors Inductors and Capacitors in Series and in Parallel

Practical Demonstration using resistors. Circuit Diagram Make up the simple circuit using the resistors shown

1. Measure voltages at points 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. If not otherwise stated it is conventional to measure voltages with respect to the chassis ground or battery negative terminal. 2. Measure the voltage drop accross all resistors. 3. Measure resistance of all resistors without any disconnection other than the battery.

From the above it can be seen that

RT

R1 + R2

R3

In Parallel we have

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 -----------n RT R1 R2 Rn

For two resistors this is simplified as

1 = RT
From this we get

RT

1 + R1 R1 x R2 R1 + R2
+

1 R2

Total Inductance in series and parallel can be calculated in the same manner as resistance. Hence in series we have

LT

L1 + L2

L3

and for parallel we have

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + -----------n LT L1 L2 Ln

Capacitors do not add together in series and parallel circuits in the same way as inductors.

Series and parallel circuits are calculated in the exact opposite way. Try writing down the formulae you would need to calculate series and parallel capacitors.

Impedance
If a circuit has resistance as well as capacitance or inductance the total opposition to current flow is known as impedance. Resistance, reactance and impedance are all measured in ohms however the impedance is obtained from the square root of the sum of the squares of the reactance and resistance. ie. Z = (R2 + X2)

Time Constant of an RC Circuit

The charge Q (in coulombs) in a capacitor is the product of the voltage accross the capacitor and the capacitance ie Q = C x V

If a Capacitance of C Farads is connected to a DC source of V volts via R ohms at switch on the current is given by I = V R The capacitor charges exponentially and the resistor / capacitor network has a time constant which is defined as the time taken for the capacitor to charge to 63% of the supply voltage. Time Constant in Seconds = Resistance in ohms Farads. T = RC X Capacitance in

Resonance

Resonance is a phenomenon that occurs with sound, mechanics and electronics. It is best understood by considering various physical objects. Every object has its own natural frequency of vibrations depending on its size and mass. eg. when a certain note is struck on an instrument a nearby vase may vibrate. This means that the natural frequency of oscillation of the vase has been excited by a note of that frequency. and energy is absorbed by the vase to sustain vibration. Similarly soldiers marching across a bridge in step could cause it to vibrate at its natural frequency. If the constant small impulses from the marching soldiers take place at the same frequency as the natural frequency of oscillation of the bridge resonance occurs and the bridge vibrates. This effect is cumulative and the vibrations could become so large as to destroy the bridge. Most musical instruments depend on resonance effects to create sounds. Although mechanical resonace is used in radio electromagnetic resonance which occurs at radio frequencies in LC tuned circuits is more common and forms the basis of tuning in many receivers. In many ways it is similar in behaviour to mechanical resonance. We have already met the two formula

XL = 2L

where Xl = inductive reactance in

= frequency
L = inductance in Henry

XC = 1 2C

where XC = capacitive reactance in

= frequency
C = capacitance in Farads

It can be seen that as frequency rises XL increases whereas XC falls. At a certain frequency XL becomes equal to XC Since

X = XL - XC or X = XC - XL

at this point the reactance will become zero hence the only impedance will be the circuit resistance. If XL = XC .^. L = .^.
2

it follows that

2L =

2C
1

(2)2C L=
2

(2)2C
.^. = 1

(2)2LC
.^. = 1

(2) LC
The above relates to a series tuned circuit known as an acceptor circuit .

Parallel tuned circuits on the other hand are known as rejector circuits and have maximum impedance at resonance. for which the above formula still holds good.

Piezo Electric Effect and Resonance

A small quartz crystal will resonate mechanically at R.F. and quartz has the ability to produce a voltage when pressure is applied to it or conversely will change in shape with voltage. Hence if an AC of a particular frequency is applied to it or if it is used as a filter in an oscillator it will resonate.

Semiconductors
Most substances are either conductors or insulators. Generally conductors have a surplus of free electrons which move about in a piece of material and electricity is said to flow. Insulators - there electrons are closely bound in the atomic structure and are unable to move hence electricity cannot flow. Resistors lie somewhere between these two in that they allow limited current flow . Semiconductors are materials which sometimes can allow flow - become conductors but under some conditions are very good insulators. In there pure state they have some conducting property known as intrinsic conduction.

Holes

It is generally accepted that conduction is due to the movement of electrons. If however we look at the structure of semiconductors such as silicon and germanium we find a regular crystalline structure with few free electrons Where an electron has become detached from the structure due to energy within the crystal (perhaps due to light or heat) we say that a hole remains. If the hole is filled by movement of a nearby electron we say that the hole has moved. Movement of holes results in current flow.

Doping
The number of holes or electrons available for conduction can be increased by adding small amounts of impurities to the silicon or germanium. Phosphorous or arsenic impurities have excess electrons and are said to produce n type material . Gallium and Boron on the other hand are deficient in electrons (only three in the outer shell ) therefore holes are produced- P type material. These impurities increase the conductivity of the material many times and are said to be responsible for extrinsic conductivity.

The simplest semiconductor device is the PN junction diode

In semiconductor material when a charge is applied the electrons which are said to be -ve charged flow towards the positive side - some current is said to flow. A diode consists of a small piece of P type material fused to a small piece of N type material. Because the N type and P type material have different characteristics as described holes diffuse towards the N type - deficient in holes. and electrons towards the P type - deficient in electrons. As a result of this diffusion the n type builds up an excess positive charge and is depleted of its free electrons. The P type builds up an excess negative charge and is depleted of holes. As a result a depletion zone is said to exist and no current can flow The potential difference across the junction opposes further diffusion and is referred to as the barrier potential When the + ve. pole of a battery is connected to the P type side of the diode electrons are attracted out of the material and holes exist once more at the junction These electrons flow through the battery into the n type material where they make good the depletion and current flows.

The voltage of the battery must be sufficient to overcome the barrier potential of the junction which is about 0.6 volts for silicon and varies with the temperature. Reversing the battery causes holes to flow towards the n type material where they again neutralise the electrons which are flowing towards the P type material and the depletion zone is now reformed - no current flows through the reverse biased diode.

Specialist Diodes Varactor or varicap Diode

We have seen that a diode consistes of two conducting areas of P and N type materials respectively. and that unless the diode is forward biassed there is an insulating layer between - the depletion Zone It can be seen that the structure is similar to that of a capacitor which has two metal plates separated by an insulator. A diode does in fact have the property of capacitance. The thickness of the delpletion zone varies with the potential applied to it becoming very wide under high reverse voltge conditions and very narrow around zero volts up to 0.6 volts (for silicon) when it breaks down completely. Consequently as C the capacitance is inversely proportional to the spacing d it is therefore possible to vary the capacitance by varying the voltage applied. Resonant circuits in receivers are often tuned this way.

Zener Diode
in normal diodes large voltages may be applied to reverse bias the diode junction and very little current flows. If certain impurities are added to the semiconductor material it is possible

to consruct a diode in which this smal current will flow only up to a certain voltage but if this amount of reverse bias is exceeded a large current will flow. These diodes are called Zener or avalanche diodes and are used as a voltage reference in power supplies which are designed to give a constant voltage whatever current is drawn.

Transistors
A device where a current flows between two electrodes which can be controlled by a third is a transistor. The depletion zone is broken down by forward biasing the base emitter junction and current then flows between collector and emitter.

Two pieces of N type material are separated by thin layer of P type material. - two diode junctions exist with a common P type electrode. If a voltage is applied between collector and emitter no current will flow because the central junction area of the device will be depleted. If the base is forward biased the depletion zone will break down and current will flow not only from base to emitter but also from collector to emitter Because the collector voltage is normally larger than the base voltage a heavier current will flow through the collector than through the base furthermore a small change in base current will rapidly cause an effect on the amount of depletion which will cause a large effect on collector current hence we have current amplification. - this is the main use of the

transistor.

The two resistors R1 and R2 set the base bias potential at around 0.7 volts. The base electrode is thus forward biased in respect to the emitter and a current flows through R3. Changing R1 and R2 slightly would cause a large change in current through R3. If an AC signal is applied to C1 this also is amplified and appears at C2. If further amplification is required C2 can go to the base of TR2.

Biasing of Transistors - Class A

A silicon transistor requires a forward bias of about 0.7 volt between base and emitter. Below is the relationship between IC
the collector current an VB the base voltage

The line AB is not perfectly straight ie the collector current is not perfectly proportional to the base current. As a result some distortion is poduced. Distortion of this type can largely be removed by negative feedback but we do not need to detail this here.

Cut off and bottoming.

If too large a signal is applied between the base and emitter of the small signal amplifier then the output will be very distorted. On the negative half cycle the base current will cease to flow because the base emitter voltage will fall below 0.5 volt.

On the +ve. half cycle input the collector current may increase to such a level that a very large drop in voltage occurs across R3 this drop in voltage is limited eventually by the voltage of the supply and bottoming occurs

The two may occur together to produce a square wave which is rich in harmonics.

Class B Bias
If the fixed DC bias at the input of the transistor is such that the signal excursions are either side of the turn on point, ie. 0.5volts, conduction will only occur on positive hard cycles and the output is grossly distorted.

A single transistor in Class B is rarely used as the the output is distorted however we can combine two transistors together in Class B push pull.

This circuit uses less current than Class A and is widely used in the audio output stage of portable transceivers.

Class C
No forward bias is used in a class C circuit therefore the transistor only conducts when the signal is above .5 volts on +ve half cycles. The main use of Class C in radio is for RF amplification and frequency multiplication in transmitters.

The circuit produces gross distortion but this is removed in RF circuits by a tuned circuit. The circuits we have discussed so far have in the main been common emitter circuits . In this context the word common means used for both input and output. Common base and common collector circuits are also used.

In common emitter above left in input and output impedance is usually between 1 and 10 Kohms. In common base above right there is low input inpedance and high output impedance. Common base is often seen used at the input of a receiver where the 50 ohms or thereabouts input impedance gives best signal match with the antenna. Input and output inpedances for various circuits are shown below as it is this characteristic which governs the use of the various circuits.

Common collector often looks like common emitter note however that the collector is grounded to signal via capacitor CG - check for this if in doubt.

Transmitters Oscillators
The basis of all transmitters is an oscillator at RF.

Variable Frequency Oscillator V. F. O.

An oscillator the frequency which can be varied between predetermined limits. If manually controlled this can facilitate netting to a calibrated receiver so as to transmit on an exact frequency. A factor of prime importance in Amateur radio is frequency stabilty.

This is effected by. 1.) The careful choice of components to minimise the effect of temperature changes. 2.) Sturdy construction to prevent the effects of pressure or vibration. 25 3.) Stable voltage supply. If the output of a transmitter is high in frequency or if the transmitter is required for several harmonically related bands doubler or tripler stages are used for instance an 8 MHz VFO or crystal is much easier to construct than one at 144 MHz. However if a doubler and two triplers are used this frequency is attained.

The doubling or tripling is acheived by running the stage in a non linea state usually Class C bias. In the output circuit is a tuned circuit resonant at the desired harmonic, the fundamentals and other harmonics are very much reduced by this and subsequent tuned circuits. These stages are known as multipliers.

Power amplifiers
This is the final tuned stage of the transmitter coupled to the aerial and often working at high power.

Mixer
We have already mentioned that if a stage is non linea an output may be obtained which is a multiple of the input frequency. If however we have two input frequencies there are then several

possibilities in terms of output frequency. It is usuall to use a tuned circuit to select the desired frquency providing that the output frequencies are not too close. The main outputs from f1 + f2 are

f1

+ f2

f1

f2 and f2 f
+

and

f1
2( 1

Multiples such as 2( 1

f2 )

f2 )

Balanced Mixer
If F1 is very close to F 2 ,within a few % say, it may be difficult to remove the unwanted F1 from the desired F1 + F2 . by means of a tuned circuit. A balanced mixer is therefore used.

In the above diagram F1 is applied to the base of the two transistors via preset VR1. The signal appearing at the collectors is set to be exactly equal and no current from F1 flows through T1. F2 is fed in at Tr1 emitter and is not balanced at the collector - as a result F1 + F2 is obtained at T2 but F1 cancels and is not available.

Modulation
The following types are in common use and should be learnt. 1) A1A - Telegraphy (morse) by on - off keying without the use of a modulating audio frequency.

2) A2A - Telegraphy using an amplitude modulating audio frequency. 3) A3E - Telephony double sideband. ie. amplitude modulation 4) J3E - Telephony - single sideband supressed carrier 5) F2A - Telegraphy - On/Off keying using a frequency modulated audio tone. 6) F3E - Telephony using frequency modulated carrier.

Telephony and Keying - See also Rae Manual. In order to minimise interference without upsetting frequency stability the signal is modulated at the lowest power level possible but not the oscillator. eg a low current buffer or multiplier stage after the oscillator.

A M modulation and bandwidth

In all modulation processes frequencies above and below the carrier wave are produced called side frequencies. The bands of side frequencies are called sidebands. With A.M. modulation the highest side frequency is the sum of the carrier frequency fc and the highest modulating frequency fm. ie on top band 160 meters

fc = 1.950 kHz and fm = 5 kHz the highest and lowest frequencies are 1.955 and 1.945
if respectively.
The bandwidth is then 10 kHz In some amatuer transmissions a filter may be used to cut off audio information above 3kHz. The bandwidth will then be some 6kHz which allows more stations on the congested bands.

Modulation depth

With AM modulation an envelope of RF is shaped by the audio speech pattern. Here we show how RF and audio combine.

The amplitude of the RF varies with the audio speech signal imposed on it.

Setting Up amplitude Modulation

A similar pattern to that observed above is observed in the oscilloscope or modulation monitor. If the modulation is increased to an excessive level flattening of the trace occurs at X ie the RF goes to zero each cycle - over modulation is said to occur. This is very bad as it results in distortion and

serious interference to ajacent receivers. It is therefore good practice to aim for a modulation level of about 80-90 % of the maximum on speech peaks. More may be obtained with telegraphy as the audio tone does not vary and overmodulatioon is less likely to occur. A.M. is usually obtained by applying A.F. to the supply of the P.A. and sometimes in addition to its driver.

Amplitude Modulation In transmitters ~ A3E

A.M. is usually obtained by applying A.F. to the supply of the P.A. and sometimes in addition its driver.

Single Sideband Operation ~ J3E

Above is an A.M. carrier with its bands of side frequencies. The information is carried in the side frequencies which are a mirror image below and above the carrier. The carrier wave itself does not contain any information so we could suppress this and would then be transmitting double sideband. To demodulate the signal the carrier is reinserted in the receiver. The signal can then be demodulated with a detector diode in a similar manner to A.M. To save on power and bandwidth still further one set of sidebands can be filtered away to give an S.S.B suppressed carrier transmission J3E. S.S.B. is usually more conveniently generated by a balanced mixer which suppresses the carrier in conjunction with a crystal filter which removes the unwanted sideband. It is conventional on the amateur bands to use

lower sideband on 7.O MHz and below with upper side band used on the higher frequencies.

Modulation Level of SSB

In order to ensure that the modulation level on sideband is not excessive a two tone test should be performed. Two audio tones are fed into the mike input and the modulation is viewed on a monitor. If the modulation is excessive or if the bias is incorrect a distorted waveform will be seen. Things to note regarding this test are. 1. Two tones are essential one tone produces a constant level of signal at ssb so modulation cannot be checked that way. 2. In all modulation checks the oscilloscope speed is set slightly faster than the audio modulation frequency not at radio frequency. The following shows the effect on modulation of excessive drive or incorrect bias.

Frequency modulation F3E

Frequency modulation differs from A.M. and S.S.B. in that the power radiated from the transmitter on F.M. is constant. There is however a change in frequency which can be quite small say 3kHz or quite large say 80kHz. On the amateur bands narrow band F.M. is used the deviation being about 3kHz. on most bands. The louder the speech peaks the more the carrier is deviated.

Method of obtaining F.M.

1) By varying the frequency of the voltage controlled oscillator by applying a modulating (audio signal) to the voltage control point of the oscillator. This would normally be a varicap diode.

2.) A varicap diode can similarly be applied directly to a crystal oscillator at a low level of deviation. Here the crystal and circuit parameters must be chosen carefully to ensure freedom from distortion. 3.) A valve or transistor may be used to alter the reactance of a tuned circuit ~ not common in modern equipment. 4.) Phase modulation may be used with a filtered A.F. response. ~ See also phase modulation.

Sidebands and bandwidth

With F.M. it can be proved mathematically that an infinite number of side frequencies exist i.e.. the bandwidth is infinite. In practice the bandwidth depends on both the level of deviation and the modulating frequency. 2 - 3 KHz of deviation requires 10 - 12 kHz of bandwidth for normal speech a on amateur N.B.F.M 12.5 kHz spacing. This is can be compared with quality Band II stereo broadcast where a station will occupy a bandwidth of up to 200 kHz with a deviation of 75 kHz.

Due to the low level of deviation with N.B.F.M the level of recovered audio is low. As a result there is a tendency for people to over deviate the signal to make it sound louder. The result of this will be interference to adjacent frequencies or distortion due to the signal being too wide to pass through the filters in the receiver. An important point to note with FM is that if frequency multiplier stages are used the deviation is also multiplied hence in order to get 4 kHz deviation on 145 Mhz with X 18 multiplication from an FM crystal at 8 MHz it is necessary to apply sufficient audio signal to deviate the frequency by 4000 = 222 Hz ~ quite small 18 see later notes on deviation measurement.

Phase Modulation
If the phase of the current in a circuit is changed there is an instantaneous frequency change during the time the phase is being shifted. The amount of frequency change or deviation depends on how rapidly the phase shift is accomplished. It is also dependant on the total amount of the phase shift. The rapidity of the phase shift is proportional to the frequency of the modulating signal. Hence the deviation with phase modulation is proportional to both the amplitude and the frequency of the modulating signal.

Method of obtaining Phase Modulation

Modulation can be applied to a transmitter as phase modulation but if an audio filter is inserted before the modulating stage which corrects for the increase in frequency the net effect is the same as frequency modulation.

Synthesisers
Over the last decade there has been increasing use of frequency synthesis in rigs. These circuits which often work in conjunction with microprocessors and digital frequency displays are based on a circuit

called the phase locked loop or p.l.l..

A phase locked loop circuit uses a crystal as a reference oscillator in conjunction with a programmable divider and comparator to provide a range of stable frequencies which can be used in a transmitter or in a receiver circuit. Its advantages are cost compactness and convenience.

The use of valves in Amateur Radio

Valves are regarded by many as an obsolete device. To a great extent this is true however there are a couple of notable exceptions to this. Most high power bipolar transistors do not perform well at high frequency those that do especially at VHF and above are expensive to buy. Valves have a much better gain. At VHF it is easily possible to get 100 watts output power from a single stage valve amplifier with an input of 2 watts or less. Most transistors which are available at an affordable price tend to require 2 watts drive for an output of 10 watts at VHF with 12 volts on the collector. Better results can be obtained with 24 volts in theory but in practice few people have used this in design.

Another disadvantage of transistors is intolerance to overload. They usually fail completely if affected by transients or excessive voltages and currents which occur if the SWR is poor. Valves will overheat under such circumstances but when switched off they will often recover to work again later. Amateurs wishing to run high power on VHF or UHF will build valve based power stages. Many commercial HF rigs which are still in use today also use valve output stages although it is fair to say that there is an increasing trend nowadays to use power FET's in PA's. as these devices are becoming more reliable and less expensive. Notes on Safety Whereas valve equipment uses higher voltages and possible areas of high R.F. power are more likely to be encountered these notes suggest points of good practice which should still be followed in a non valve environment. Low voltage power supplies are often capable of delivering high currents. Although DC voltages less than 50 volts are unlikely to cause serious electric shock the high currents involved can cause metallic objects to get very hot if a short circuit occurs. Always switch off the power before using metal tools in equipment and take care not to wear rings when working on equipment where there is a risk from exposed terminals. All equipment in the radio shack should be connected to a common switch. Other members of the household should be aware of its position so that it can be turned off quickly if a problem occurs. The earthing of the mains outlets should be checked to ensure that it conforms to IEE regulations. All wiring should be properly insulated and high voltage connections must not be exposed.

Capacitors in power packs should have a suitable bleeder resistor across there terminals so that they do not become a shock hazard when the equipment is serviced. The RSGB recommends that this applies to high voltage capacitors over 0.01F. The size of the bleeder resistor should be 1/C megohms. Indicator lamps showing when mains is on should be installed and maintained on equipment. Double pole mains switches should always be used with the correct type of fuses. Switches should be off when fuses are changed. If metal cased equipment has inspection covers which can be easily opened the use of micro switches which turn off the power when opening is recommended. Test prods and lamps should be insulated. Attention to floor coverings is important. Rubber or suitable insulating materials help prevent serious shocks. Damp increases the likelihood of electric shock. It is always best to switch off before making adjusments. If live adjustments to equipment cannot be avoided always use one hand and keep the other in your pocket. Always use tools with insulated handles. Do not wear headphones when making internal adjustments to live equipment. Ensure metal cases of microphones; Morse keys; are properly connected to the chassis of equipment. Do not use meters with metal adjusting screws or control knobs with metal grub screws and shafts on high voltage equipment. Mains and other high voltages should be avoided on antennas. An Rf choke will provide a suitable DC path to earth.

RF voltages can be a hazard if a person comes in contact with a high voltages node on an antenna. Transmitting antennas should be suitable sited and all cables insulated.

RECEIVERS
There are four main types of processing required in receivers. 1. Amplification - The final sound or vision signal is always large compared with the very small voltage induced into the aerial. 2. Selection and filtering. - the receiver is designed to select a signal at a particular frequency - tuned circuits are used for this. If the bandwidth of the signal is very narrow crystal filters ae also used. 3. Demodulation - Various techniques will be described depending on the type of signal. 4. Frequency Conversion - One or more frequency conversions take place in a receiver this may simply be from RF to AF as in direct conversion or TRF receiver or to an Intermediate frequency in the case of a superhet. Two main types are used these are the T.R.F. (tuned radio frequency) and the superhet (superheterodyne) Both types consist of a number of stages of amplification at radio frequency followed by a detector which recovers the modulation and further amplification at audio frequency. In the TRF set however the RF is kept at the frequency of the transmission and all the RF amplifiers are tuned to it usually by LC resonant circuits. This method has several disadvantages. a) When the tuning is altered all the tuned circuits have to be exactly in step. This is achieved by setting up trimmers in parallel with the main tuning capacitor and padders in series with it and adjusting at different

points in the tuning range for best performance. This is time consuming as it has to be repeated several times for good results. b) The selectivity and gain of a tuned circuit varies with the frequency so that performance is not consistent on different bands. Poor selectivity especially at higher frequencies - as we increase in frequency the narrowest bandwidth that can be acheived with an LC circuit becomes wider. c) Because there are more variable tuned circuits the receiver will be bulky and more expensive.

Block Diagram of TRF Reciever In a superhet frequency conversion is used to obtain an IF frequency which is used for all signals. Once the IF has been produced it can easily be amplified many times by using circuits tuned to a single frequency. This generally avoids the use of expensive and bulky ganged tuning capacitors. The frequency conversion is acheived by mixing the the received signal wit a locally generated one. By varying the frequency of the local oscillator tuning is acheived and the IF remains constant.

Choice of Intermediate Frequency and Double Conversion

The lower the frequency of an I.F. strip using LC tuning the smaller will be the bandwidth. Hence for narrow bandwidth we use a low final I. F. In a single conversion superhet this results in image interference. This can be seen by looking at the figures below. 28MHz + 455kHz = 28.455 MHz - This would be the local oscillator frequency. 28.455 + .455 = 28.910MHz. This frequency if incoming from the antenna is also mixed with the oscillator to produce 455kHz which would interfere with the wanted frequency. Remember that this unwanted signal is called the image

frequency.

A higher IF improves the image performance because the image is further away from the wanted signal and is more easily removed by tuned circuits at the input. In some designs two I.F.'s are used. This is acheived using a second frequency conversion and combines the narrow selectivity of a low I.F. with the image rejection of a high I.F. This is known as double conversion and gives the benefit of a low I.F. for sharp tuning and a high I.F. at the first conversion to help remove the image. Single conversion using high quality crystal filters at a high I.F. is expensive but works well.

Detectors
Three main detectors are used in Amateur Radio. 1). An envelope detector for A.M. 2). A product detector for S.S.B. An envelope detector will work with S.S.B. but a product detector allows for easy insertion of the C.I.O. and gives better recovered audio. 3). For F.M. an IC discriminator circuit is often used or a ratio detector can be used. Both these circuits produce good quality recovered audio but also produce a high noise level when there is no carrier. A squelch circuit is used to overcome this. The squelch circuit can be noise driven or can take the output from the am envelope detector to switch a gate which only allows the audio through when a signal is present. This removes much of

the unwanted noise on F.M.. A squelch control varies the level at which is muted thus allowing weaker signals to be received. These are discussed in more detail below. The A.M. envelope detector is a simple circuit which takes an R.F. envelope and removes the R.F. component from it using an R.F. diode and a resistor and capacitor with a suitable time constant. R1 and C1 remove R.F. from from the circuit as C1 is relatively small in value. The lower audio frequencies from the envelope pass through the larger capacitor C2 via the volume control VR1.

A1 Telegraphy using keyed carrier - An A.M. detector may be used but no audio tone will be produced unless a beat frequency oscillator is used. This may be introduced at any stage i.e. the antenna 1st I.F. 2nd I.F. However it must be of the correct frequency. e.g. Antenna 28MHz +x I.F. 1 10.7MHz + x I.F. 2 450 KHz + x x is a small difference in frequency which becomes the resultant audio tone when the two beat together.

There is usually some facility for varying the frequency of the beat fequency oscillator till the tone is comfortable to the listener.

Single Sideband Reception

In order to recover audio from a single sideband transmission it is necessary to reinsert the the carrier which was removed at the transmitter. This is done in a similar way to that above where an oscillator is mixed into the I.F. The term carrier reinsertion oscillator is used but in actual fact there is usually only one oscillator which is used for both C.W. and s.s.b. reception. The terms "carrier insertion" oscillator and "beat frequency oscillator" are often interchanged. An ordinary signal diode as used to demodulate A.M. will resolve s.s.b once the carrier is reinserted but a more favourable performance is obtained using a product detector. Here the signals are mixed in a more linea device than a diode resulting in purer more linea audio output.

Detection of an F.M. Signal

A frequency modulated signal can be resolved by the A.M envelope detector by detuning the signal from the peak of the response to a point half way down the curve a shown in the fig.

As the frequency varies it is attenuated to a varying degree by its position in the passband. Although this works it is a rough and ready method. It has the disadvantage that if the passband is narrow distortion occurs and if it is wide poor selectivity results. - even the best compromise between the two does not give good results. This method effectively converts the F.M. signal to A.M. and uses the slope of the passband to modulate the amplitude of the carrier. It is often referred to as slope detection. Other circuits have been developed however which give better results with F.M. These are:1. Foster Seeley discriminator - used for high quality F.M. systems but has poor A.M. rejection and is rarely used in Amateur equipment. 2. Ratio detector. 3. Various I.C.'s have been developed which use a balanced mixer and descriminator. e.g. SO41P CA3089 TBA120S Ratio Detector Circuit

The signal from the input develops an R.F. voltage accross the coil L1 which is fed into the bridge consisting of L2 and C2 , L3 and C3. L2 and L3 are resonant at the centre frequency of the signal.

F.M. Deviation Measurement

Section 4 of the Amateur Licence A states that the emitted frequency of the apparatus comprised in the station is as stable and as free from unwanted emissions as the state of technical development for amateur radio apparatus reasonably permits; and b) whatever class of emission is in use, the bandwidth occupied by the emission is such that not more than 1% of the mean power of the transmission (not including the power contained in spurious emissions) falls outside the frequency band. In order to comply it is necessary along with other requirements to have a fairly accurate measurement capability for max. deviation of the carrier at speech frequencies. A peak deviation of 3 kHz. is acceptable (1.5kHz).

Commercial instruments are available but these are expensive for the individual but are often available via Amateur Radio Clubs. It is however possible to construct an FM discriminator measure its audio output on an oscilloscope and calibrate this against a standard signal.

Measurement of RF power ~ Dummy Loads and Modulation Monitors.

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