Lecture 9h

COMPUTER VISION: TWO-VIEW GEOMETRY
IIT Kharagpur
Computer Science and Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur.
1 77
Two View Geometry
Epipolar Geometry: is the intrinsic projective geometry between
two views.
Fundamental Matrix: F is a 3 3 matrix of rank 2.
Internal parameters of cameras
Relative pose
Intrinsic Projective Geometry
x image of X on image 1
image of X on image 2
x
T
Fx = 0
2 77
Epipolar Geometry TwoView Geometry
GEOMETRY COMPONENTS:
Baseline: is the line joining the two camera centres.
Image planes of the two cameras P P
.
Pencil of planes having baseline as the axis.
The 3D point X which gets projected as x and x
on the two
cameras
Plane passing through x, x
and the 3D point X.

3 77
4 77
5 77
Rays back projected from x and x
are coplanar lie on ) and intersect

at X
6 77
x x
are the corresponding points.

Plane : can be specied by the baseline and the ray
back-projected from x.
The line of intersection of with the second image is l
is the epipolar line corresponding to the point x.

The corresponding point x
lies on this epipolar line l
.
7 77
8 77
9 77
Epipole: is the point of intersection of the line joining the camera
centres the baseline) with the image plane.
Epipole: is the image of the camera centre of the other view.
Epipolar plane: is the plane containing the baseline. There is a
one-parameter family a pencil) of epipolar planes.
Epipolar line: is the line of intersection of the epipolar plane with
the image plane.
ALL EPIPOLAR LINES INTERSECT AT THE EPIPOLE.
10 77
11 77
12 77
Motion parallel to the image plane
13 77
Fundamental Matrix Epipolar Geometry
FUNDAMENTAL MATRIX: F is the algebraic representation of the
epipolar geometry.
Point to line mapping: A point x has a corresponding epipolar line
l
in the second image.

x l
This mapping is the fundamental matrix F. It is a projective

mapping from points to lines.
The corresponding point x
which matches to x must lie on l
.
14 77
GEOMETRIC DERIVATION:
Consider a plane not passing through either of the two camera
centres.
The ray back-projected from point x intersects plane at point X.
The point X gets projected to point x
in the second image.

The projected point x
lies on the epipolar line l
.
15 77
The set of all points x
i
in the rst image and the corresponding
points x
i
in the second image are projectively equivalent, since
they are each projectively equivalent to the planar point set X.
There is a 2-D homography H
mapping each x
i
to x
i
H
is the transfer mapping from image 1 to image 2 via plane .

16 77
Given the point x
the epipolar line l
passes through x
and
epipole e
= [e
x = Fx
Fundamental matrix F = [e
17 77
Cross product matrix: e = e
1
e
2
e
3
)
[e]
_
0 e
3
e
2
e
3
0 e
1
e
2
e
1
0
_
_
Any skew symmetric 3 3 matrix may be written in the form [e]
for a suitable vector e.

Matrix [e]
is singular, and e is its null vector right or left).

The cross product of two 3-vectors a b
a b = [a]
b = a
T
[b]
18 77
[e
has rank 2, H
has rank 3, F is a matrix of rank 2.

F is a mapping from IP
2
onto a IP
1
.
F is a point map. It maps x l
.
The pencil of epipolar lines through e
forms IP
1
.
19 77
ALGEBRAIC DERIVATION:
The ray back-projected from x by P is obtained by solving PX = x.
The ray is parametrized by the scalar .
X) = P
x + C
P
is the pseudo inverse of P, i.e. PP
= I , C is the camera
centre given by PC = 0
Two points on the ray are P
x at = 0) and camera centre C at

= ).
These two points are imaged by the second camera P
at
P
x P
x
C P
C
20 77
ALGEBRAIC DERIVATION:
The epipolar line joins these two projected points:
l
= P
C) P
x)
The epipole e
= P
C, we have l
= e
)x = Fx
F = [e
Comparing this with the previously derived formula F = [e
we
have H
= P
.
21 77
IN TERMS OF CAMERA MATRICES:
P = K[ I 0] P
= K
[R t]
P
K
1
0
C =
0
1
F = [P
C]
= [K
t]
RK
1
= K
[t]
RK
1
= K
K
1
= K
RK
KR
Using result:
[t]
M = M
M
1
t
= M
M
1
t
up to scale
t is any vector
M non-singular matrix
M
= detM)M
22 77
IN TERMS OF CAMERA MATRICES:
Epipoles are given by images of the camera centres:
e = P
t
1
= KR
T
t e
= P
0
1
= K
t
F = [P
C]
= [K
t]
RK
1
= K
[t]
RK
1
= K
K
1
= K
RK
KR
F = [P
C]
= [e
RK
1
= K
[t]
RK
1
= K
K
1
= K
RK
[e]
23 77
CORRESPONDENCE CONDITION:
The epipolar line l
= Fx. Since point x
lies on this line, we have

x
= 0. This gives x
Fx = 0.
The fundamental matrix satises the condition that for any
pair of corresponding points x x
in the two images
Fx = 0
F can be characterized without reference to camera matrix, only in
terms of x x
) point correspondences.
F can be computed from image correspondences.
At least 7 point correspondences are required to compute F.
24 77
PROPERTIES:
F is unique for two views.
F is 3 3 homogeneous matrix with rank 2.
If F is the fundamental matrix of the pair of cameras P P
), then
F
is the fundamental matrix of the pair in opposite order P
P).
Epipolar line l
= Fx contains the epipole e
.
e
Fx) = e
F)x = 0 for all x e
F = 0
Epipolar line l = F
contains the epipole e.

e
) = e
)x
= 0 for all x
Fe = 0
25 77
PROPERTIES:
F has 7 degrees of freedom. A 3 3 homogeneous matrix has 8
independent ratios. F also satises the constraint detF = 0 which
removes one degree of freedom.
F is a correlation: a projective map taking point to a line. l
= Fx.
Any point x on l is mapped to the same epipolar line l
. This
means there is no inverse mapping, and F is not of full rank.
F is not invertible. Hence F is not a proper correlation.
26 77
EPIPOLAR LINE HOMOGRAPHY:
The set of epipolar lines in each of the images forms a pencil of
lines passing through the epipoles.
Such pencil of lines may be considered as a 1-D projective space.
27 77
The set of epipolar lines in each of the images forms a pencil of
lines passing through the epipoles.
Such pencil of lines may be considered as a 1-D projective space.
The corresponding epipolar lines are perspectively related.
There is a homography between the pencil of lines centered at e in
the 1
st
view and the pencil of lines centered at e
in the 2
nd
view.
A homography between two such 1-D projective spaces has 3
degrees of freedom.
Degrees of freedom
for F
_
_
2 for e
2 for e
3 for epipolar line homography
= 7
28 77
Suppose l and l
are corresponding epipolar lines.

Suppose k is any line passing through epipole e.
The point of intersection of two lines l and k is x = [k]
l = k l.
This point lies on the epipolar line l.
The epipolar line corresponding to x is l
= Fx = F[k]
l
Likewise we have l = F
= F
[k
29 77
Next
What is F for special special motions between two

views.
30 77
SPECIAL MOTIONS BETWEEN VIEWS:
Pure translation between the two views.
Pure planar motion between the two views: the translation t is
orthogonal to the direction of rotation axis a
We assume there is no change in the internal parameters of the
camera viewing the scene.
31 77
Pure translation
The camera undergoes a translation t.
Equivalently, the camera is assumed stationary and the world
points undergo translation t.
Points in 3-space move on straight lines parallel to t.
On the image plane these parallel lines appear to intersect at the
vanishing point v in the direction of t.
Both the views have a common epipole v.
The imaged parallel lines are the epipolar lines.
32 77
33 77
Pure translation
Camera translating along principal axis
34 77
Camera translating along principal axis
35 77
Pure translation
The two cameras can be chosen as:
P = K[ I 0] P
= K[ I t]
Given that the camera coordinate system is aligned with the world
coordinate system and the camera is looking at the Z axis.
36 77
Projection on the 1
st
camera Pure Translation
The inhomogeneous space point X gets projected to the
inhomogeneous) image point x.
X =
_
X
Y
Z
1
_
_
x =
_
x
y
1
_
_
Zx = PX = K[ I 0] X
ZK
1
x =
_
X
Y
Z
_
_
37 77
Projection on the 2
nd
camera Pure Translation
X =
_
X
Y
Z
1
_
_
x
_
x
y
1
_
_
Zx
= P
X = K[ I t] X
Zx
= [K Kt] X Zx
= K
_
X
Y
Z
_
_
+ Kt
Zx
= KZK
1
x) + Kt Zx
= ZKK
1
x) + Kt
x
= x + Kt/Z
The epipoles e e
are the same in both the views and they are the
vanishing points of the imaged parallel lines in the direction t.
38 77
Pure translation Fundamental Matrix
The situation when
the object translates
by t is the same as
camera translating
by t
The epipoles e e
are
the same in both the
views and they are
the vanishing points
of the imaged
parallel lines in the
direction t.
39 77
SOME OBSERVATIONS:
x
= x + Kt/Z
The extent of motion depends on the magnitude of translation t
and the inverse depth Z.
In the case of pure translation:
P = K[ I 0] P
= K[ I t]
F = [P
C]
= [e
RK
1
= [e
KK
1
= [e
F = [e
40 77
SOME OBSERVATIONS: x
= x + Kt/Z F = [e
For camera translating parallel to x axis:

e
_
1
0
0
_
_
F =
_
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
x
Fx = 0 and thus y = y
The fundamental matrix has 2 dofs which correspond to the

position of the epipole.
l
= Fx = [e
x and x
[e
x = 0. Hence x lies on line [e
x = l
.
Implying that x x
e = e
are collinear.
This collinearity property is termed as autoepipolar and does not
hold for general motion.
why x
[e
x = 0 ? Verify: x
_
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
x
41 77
General Motion
We are given two arbitrary views:
Correction 1: Rotate the camera used for the rst image so that it
is aligned with the second camera. This rotation may be simulated
by applying a projective transformation to the rst image.
Correction 2: Apply further correction can be applied to the rst
image to account for any difference in the calibration matrices
K K
of the two cameras.

The result of the two corrections is a projective transformation of
the rst image.
Now the two cameras are related by a pure translation.
42 77
General Motion Fundamental Matrix
43 77
General Motion Fundamental Matrix
After applying the two corrections we have

F as the fundamental
matrix between the corrected rst image x and the second image,
i.e. x x
F = [e
x = x x
Fx = 0
x
[e
x = 0
Hence the fundamental matrix corresponding to the initial point
correspondences x x
is
F = [e
44 77
Retrieving the camera matrices Fundamental matrix
The fundamental matrix F can be used to determine the camera
matrices of the two views.
The relations l
= Fx and x
Fx = 0 are projective relationships.

They make use of the projective coordinates in the image.
Euclidean measurements such as angles are not used.
If the images undergo a projective transformation,
x = x x
= H
there is a corresponding map
=

Fx

F = H
FH
1
x
Fx = H
Fx) = x
Fx = x
Fx
H
F = F hence

F = H
FH
1
45 77
The fundamental matrix F only depends on the projective
properties of the cameras P P
.
F does not depend on the choice of the world coordinate frame.
Rotation of world coordinates changes P P
and not F.
If the 3-space undergoes a projective transformation using a
4 4 H
1
)
X
= H
1
X
then the fundamental matrices corresponding to the pairs of
cameras P P
) and P P
) are the same.

PX = P)H
1
X) P
X = P
)H
1
X)
F = [P
C]
H
1
C
)H
1
P
)
Fundamental matrix remains unchanged.
46 77
A pair of cameras can uniquely determine F.
A fundamental matrix determines the two cameras at best up to a
right multiplication by a 3D projective transformation.
Given two camera matrices P P
), it is always possible to identify a

homography such that P P
) will form a canonical camera pair.

P = [ I 0] P
= [M m]
The fundamental matrix corresponding to a pair of camera matrices
P = [ I 0] P
= [M m] is equal to F = [m]
M
Recall
F = [e
47 77
A fundamental matrix determines the two cameras at best up to a
right multiplication by a 3D projective transformation.
It will now be shown that if two pairs of camera matrices P P
)
and
P

P
) have the same fundamental matrix F, then the pairs of

camera matrices are related up to a right multiplication by a
projective transformation .
There always exists a non-singular 4 4 matrix such that
P = P and

P
= P
.
We can assume that the two pairs of cameras P P
) and
P

P
) are
provided in the canonical form.
P = [ I 0] P
= [A a]

P = [ I 0]

P
= [
A a]
48 77
P = [ I 0] P
= [A a]

P = [ I 0]

P
= [
A a]
F = [a]
A = [a]
A
We have
a
F = a
[a]
A = 0 and a
F = a
[a]
A = 0
Since F is rank 2, it has a 1-D null space. Hence a = ka
Since [a]
A = [a]
A,
[a]
A = k[a]
A [a]
A A) = 0
Here k is any constant.
49 77
[a]
A = k[a]
A [a]
A A) = 0
Now, [a]
A A) is a 3 3 matrix.
If we substitute k
A A) by a 3 3 matrix of form av
then we nd
that [a]
av
= 0
Hence k
A A) = av
where v is any 3-vector.

Thus,
A = k
1
A + av
)
50 77
Given the two substitutions: a = ka and

A = k
1
A + av
)
The camera matrices now become:
P = [ I 0]
P
= [A a]
P = [ I 0]
= [
A a]
P = [ I 0]
= [k
1
A + av
ka]
Is there any which will now give
P =

P and P
=

P
51 77
P = [ I 0]
P
= [A a]
P = [ I 0]
= [k
1
A + av
ka]
We choose =
k
1
I 0
k
1
v
P = [ I 0]
P
= [A a]
P = k
1
P
P
= [A a]
= [k
1
A + av
) ka]
= [
A a] =

P
Thus we have P =

P and P
=

P
52 77
Degrees of Freedom Fundamental matrix
Each of the two camera matrices P P
) have 11 degrees of
freedom. Total: 22 dofs.
Specifying a projective world frame requires 15 dofs.
22-15 = 7.
The fundamental matrix F has 7 degrees of freedom.
53 77
Computing camera matrices Fundamental matrix
F can determine the camera pair up to a projective transformation
of 3-space.
If any matrix, say M is skew symmetric, we have x
Mx = 0
Consider the composite matrix P
FP
we have X
FPX = 0 since x
Fx = 0
A non-zero matrix F is the fundamental matrix corresponding to a
pair of camera matrices P and P
if and only if P
FP is skew
symmetric.
54 77
Consider F to be the given Fundamental matrix.
Consider a pair of 3 4 matrices
P = [ I 0] P
= [SF e
] such that e
F = 0
Assume that P P
have rank 3.
We need to verify if P P
are indeed the camera matrices

corresponding to F. Following conditions need to be checked:
We need to verify that P
FP is skew symmetric.
We need to choose a skew symmetric matrix S such that P
has
rank 3.
55 77
Check P
FP is skew symmetric
[SF e
F [ I 0] =
F 0
e
F 0
F 0
0
This is indeed skew symmetric if S is skew symmetric.

Choosing a suitable matrix S
S is skew symmetric. In terms of its null vector S = [s]
.
P
= [SF e
] = [ [s]
F e
]
56 77
Choose S = [s]
.
P
= [SF e
] = [ [s]
F e
]
We need to verify that P
= [ [s]
F e
] has rank 3.
[ [s]
F e
] will have rank 3 provided s
0. Why?
57 77
[ [s]
F e
] will have rank 3 provided s
0.
[s]
F has rank 2. The column space of [s]
F is spanned by the
cross product of s with the columns of F, and equals the plane
perpendicular to s.
If s
0 then e
is not perpendicular to s, and hence it does not

lie in this plane.
Thus [ [s]
F e
] has rank 3.
A suitable choice for s can be e
since we have e
0.
Thus we take S = [s]
= [e
58 77
The camera matrices corresponding to the Fundamental matrix F
can be chosen as:
P = [ I 0] P
= [[e
F e
] such that e
F = 0
The left 3 3 sub-matrix of P
i.e. [e
F has rank 2. This

corresponds to a camera with centre at
.
59 77
FAMILY OF CAMERAS WHICH HAVE THE SAME F
We can identify a family of cameras:

P = [ I 0] P
= [[e
F e
ke
]
vk are parameters
v is any 3-vector and k is a non-zero scalar.
60 77
Fundamental matrix
Next
After Fundamental matrix: .....

The Essential Matrix
61 77
Essential Matrix A special case of F
The Essential matrix is a special case of fundamental matrix for a
pair of normalized cameras.
It has fewer degrees of freedom and additional properties.
It makes use of normalized image coordinates.
Normalized Coordinates
P = K[R t] x = PX x = K
1
x = [R t]X
The matrix K
1
P = [R t] is the normalized camera matrix.
We have the normalized camera pair: P = [ I 0] and P
= [R t]
62 77
P = K[R t] x = PX x = K
1
x = [R t]X
The Fundamental matrix corresponding to the normalized camera
pair P = [ I 0] and P
= [R t] is called as the Essential matrix:

E = [t]
R = R
We have
x
Ex = 0
For the corresponding points x x
, the normalized image

coordinates are x x
63 77
x
Ex = 0
Substituting for x = K
1
x and x
= K
1
x
gives
x
EK
1
x = 0 F = K
EK
1
E = K
FK
Properties of Essential Matrix
Has 5 dofs: 3 for R and 3 for t and -1 for overall scale.
A 3 3 matrix is an essential matrix if and only if two of its
singular values are equal and third is zero.
64 77
Next
We show that E has TWO singular values which

are equal and the third is zero
65 77
Consider decomposition of E as
E = SR = [t]
R
S is a skew-symmetric matrix which can be decomposed as
S = kUZU
where U is orthogonal
Matrix Z is a block diagonal matrix of the form
Z =
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
as a matrix product =
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
66 77
E = SR = kUZU
R = [t]
R
Z is skew symmetric and
Z = diag1,1,0) W where W =
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
W turns out to be an orthogonal matrix. S = UZU
S = U diag1,1,0) W U
E = SR = U diag1,1,0) WU
R)
67 77
Consider decomposition of E as up to scale)
E = SR = UZU
R = [t]
R
SVD decomposition of
E = UDV
= U diag1,1,0) WU
R) where V
= WU
R)
Thus E has two singular values which are equal.
SVD of E is not unique. Alternate SVDs are given as:
E = UdiagR
22
1)) diag1,1,0) diagR
22
1)V
)
where R
22
is any rotation matrix.
68 77
Next
How to extract cameras from E

69 77
Extraction of Cameras Essential matrix E
Consider decomposition of E as up to scale)
E = SR = [t]
R
The two cameras can be chosen as: P = [ I 0] P
= [R t]
The vector t has to be chosen such that St = 0.
SVD of E is not unique. Alternate SVDs are given as:
E = UDV
= U diag1,1,0) WU
R) where V
= WU
R)
W =
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
R = UW
70 77
E = SR = [t]
R
= [R t]
The vector t has to be chosen such that St = 0.
We choose
t = U0 0 1)
= u
It can be veried that St = 0

St = U diag1,1,0) W U
) t
= U diag1,1,0) W U
) u
= 0
71 77
It can be veried that St = 0
St = U diag1,1,0) W U
) t
= U diag1,1,0) W U
) u
_
a
1
a
2
a
3
b
1
b
2
b
3
c
1
c
2
c
3
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
a
1
a
2
a
3
b
1
b
2
b
3
c
1
c
2
c
3
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
a
2
a
1
0
b
2
b
1
0
c
2
c
1
0
_
_
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
72 77
_
a
2
a
1
a
1
a
2
a
2
b
1
a
1
b
2
a
2
c
1
a
1
c
2
b
2
a
1
b
1
a
2
b
2
b
1
b
1
b
2
b
2
c
1
b
1
c
2
c
2
a
1
a
2
c
1
c
2
b
1
c
1
b
2
c
2
c
1
c
1
c
2
_
_
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
0 a
2
b
1
a
1
b
2
a
2
c
1
a
1
c
2
b
2
a
1
b
1
a
2
0 b
2
c
1
b
1
c
2
c
2
a
1
a
2
c
1
c
2
b
1
c
1
b
2
0
_
_
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
a
2
b
1
b
3
a
1
b
2
b
3
+ a
2
c
1
c
3
a
1
c
2
c
3
a
3
b
2
a
1
a
3
b
1
a
2
+ b
2
c
1
c
3
b
1
c
3
c
2
c
2
a
3
a
1
a
2
a
3
c
1
+ c
2
b
1
b
3
c
1
b
2
b
3
_
_
a
2
b
1
b
3
+ c
1
c
3
) a
1
b
2
b
3
+ c
2
c
3
)
b
2
a
3
a
1
+ c
1
c
3
) b
1
a
3
a
2
+ c
3
c
2
)
c
2
a
3
a
1
+ b
1
b
3
) c
1
a
2
a
3
+ b
2
b
3
)
_
_
=
_
a
2
a
1
a
3
a
1
a
2
a
3
b
2
b
1
b
3
b
1
b
2
b
3
c
2
c
1
c
3
c
1
c
2
c
3
_
_
= 0
73 77
E = SR = [t]
R
= [R t]
We choose
t = U0 0 1)
= u
R = UW
There are 4 possible pairs of cameras:

P
= [R t]
= [UW
+ u
]
= [UW
]
P
= [R t]
= [UWV
+ u
]
= [UWV
]
74 77
There are 4 possible pairs of cameras:
P
= [R t]
= [UW
+ u
]
= [UW
]
P
= [R t]
= [UWV
+ u
]
= [UWV
]
W and W
are related by a rotation througth 180

0
about the
base-line.
75 77 76 77
Summary
Intrinsic projective geometry of 2-views.
Epipolar geometry
Fundamental matrix
Deriving the fundamental matrix from camera matrices.
Deriving the fundamental matrix from point correspondences.
Deriving the camera matrices from the fundamental matrix.
Essential matrix
Deriving the camera matrices from the essential matrix.
77 77

Lecture 9h

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture 9h

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COMPUTER VISION: TWO-VIEW GEOMETRY

and the 3D point X.

are coplanar lie on ) and intersect

are the corresponding points.

is the epipolar line corresponding to the point x.

lies on this epipolar line l

in the second image.

This mapping is the fundamental matrix F. It is a projective

which matches to x must lie on l

in the second image.

lies on the epipolar line l

is the transfer mapping from image 1 to image 2 via plane .

the epipolar line l

for a suitable vector e.

is singular, and e is its null vector right or left).

has rank 3, F is a matrix of rank 2.

is the pseudo inverse of P, i.e. PP

x at = 0) and camera centre C at

Comparing this with the previously derived formula F = [e

= Fx. Since point x

lies on this line, we have

in the two images

is the fundamental matrix of the pair in opposite order P

= Fx contains the epipole e

F)x = 0 for all x e

contains the epipole e.

are corresponding epipolar lines.

What is F for special special motions between two

For camera translating parallel to x axis:

The fundamental matrix has 2 dofs which correspond to the

x = 0. Hence x lies on line [e

of the two cameras.

Fx = 0 are projective relationships.

there is a corresponding map

) are the same.

), it is always possible to identify a

) will form a canonical camera pair.

) have the same fundamental matrix F, then the pairs of

where v is any 3-vector.

are indeed the camera matrices

This is indeed skew symmetric if S is skew symmetric.

] will have rank 3 provided s

] will have rank 3 provided s

F has rank 2. The column space of [s]

is not perpendicular to s, and hence it does not

F has rank 2. This

We can identify a family of cameras:

After Fundamental matrix: .....

= [R t] is called as the Essential matrix:

, the normalized image

We show that E has TWO singular values which

How to extract cameras from E

It can be veried that St = 0

There are 4 possible pairs of cameras:

are related by a rotation througth 180

You might also like