Optimum Altitude Optimum altitude is the cruise altitude for minimum cost when operating in the ECON mode

and for minimum fuel burn when in the LRC or pilot selected speed modes. The Optimum altitude increases under the following conditions: -In the ECON mode when airplane weight or cost index decreases. -In LRC or selected speed modes - when airplane weight or speed decreases. -On each flight as weight decreases during flight. Flight plans not constrained by short trip distance are typically based on conducting the cruise portion of flight within plus or minus 2000 feet of optimum altitude. Since the optimum altitude increases as fuel is consumed during the flight, it is necessary to climb to a higher cruise altitude every few hours to achieve the flight plan fuel burn. This technique, referred to as Step Climb Cruise, is typically accomplished by initially climbing 2000 feet above optimum altitude and then cruising at that flight level until 2000 feet below optimum. For most flights one or more step climbs may be required before reaching TOD. Optimum altitude gives the minimum trip cost for a given trip length, cost index and gross weight. It provides approximately a 1.5 load factor (approx. 48 degree bank to buffet onset) or better buffet margin. As deviation from optimum cruise altitude increases, performance economy deteriorates. On airplanes with higher thrust engines, the altitude selection is most likely limited by maneuver margin to initial buffet. Projected temperature and turbulence conditions along the route of flight should be reviewed when requesting or accepting initial cruise altitude as well as subsequent step climbs. Heading and Tailwind Management The existence of a headwind or tailwind respectively decreases or increases range from the no wind conditions found in basic POH curves and tables. Whenever practical, speed adjustments should be used to optimize either condition. In particular, strong headwinds reduce range severely, especially when not managed correctly. The longer a headwind works on the airplane, the greater the damage. Conversely, prolonging the beneficial effects of a tailwind optimizes the advantage. Therefore, the rule is that headwinds call for increasing airspeed, and tailwinds for decreasing speed, compared to the no wind maximum range airspeed, VMR. Analysis of the POH based empirical data yielded the fol practical rules: -Headwind Rules of Thumb If cruising at or above VLRC*, do not adjust speed unless headwind component exceeds 25% of VLRC (TAS). Since VLRC=1.07VMR, minor headwind conditions receive automatic compensation.For each five knots that headwind exceeds the .25 VLRC threshold, increase cruise TAS 2 knots above no wind VLRC. Example: VLRC=120 KTAS and headwind component is 60 knots. "Excess" headwind is 60-.25x12O=30 knots. Therefore, cruise speed should be increased to 120+(6x2)=132 KTAS. Ground speed is increased from 60 to 72 knots, reducing enroute time by 17%, while fuel burned (per ground mile) is reduced 3.7%. A rare example of "having your cake and eating it too!" -Tailwind Rule of Thumb Decrease TAS 1 knot for every two knots of tailwind component, but not below 0.8VLRC. Example: VLRC=120 KTAS and tailwind component is 36 knots. To maximize range, decrease speed to (120 . 5x36)=102 KTAS=.85VLRC. SR increases 3.5%, although enroute time is increased 13%. MAXRNG (* VLRC = Long Range Cruise Speed for the type, VMRC = Max Range Cruise Speed. Long Range Cruise is a bit faster than Max Range, simply because in that area of the performance graph you can go

10% faster (saving quite a bit of time) for only 1% more fuel.) Wind Trade The Wind Altitude Trade Table (WTT) is one of the least understood and (consequently) least taught and used tables in the QRH. Which is a pity, since there is a wealth of information hidden in this simple table. However to understand the what's and why's of this, it is necessary to understand what the numbers mean / are and where they come from. To start this at the beginning, we have to understand Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC). A simple definition would be Unit of Fuel per Unit of Air Distance (or the other way around - the numbers are easier depending upon the size of the beast). In this part of the world we talk, usually, of Kilograms per Nautical Mile. For a medium weight -200 at optimum cruising altitude it works out around 13.5 kgs/nm. The formula is simply FF/TAS. The important thing to remember is that the BEST SFC (lowest value) is, for a given weight, obtained at Optimum Altitude. ALL OTHER ALTITUDES will produce a WORSE (larger) SFC. If you understand that, then all of the rest is relatively easy. There will be those who want to say "But ISA?" Well ISA is largely cancelled out of this equation in a Mach Limited Cruise. But remember SFC is a STILL AIR figure. The numbers on the WTT are penalties, nautical miles in a sense, that you pay for being anywhere other than at optimum altitude. They are more specifically the number of Air Miles less that you will obtain from the amount of fuel burnt / Air miles travelled at one hour at the Optimum Altitude. So you can quickly see that where the table shows 0 is, in fact, the Optimum Altitude for that weight. All but the most mathematically challenged should now be able to understand the rather cryptic method that is printed below the table for using it as a WTT proper. I would like to pass on the use of the WTT for its' original purpose by at the moment. We do not carry wind data for alternate levels (just now), so this is a rather inappropriate topic. However the WTT has much more to tell us. Conventional wisdom and teaching has it that we fly 2000 ft on either side of (above/below) the Optimum Level (as shown on the FMC) for selection of cruise levels. As far as it goes, this rule works fine and it errs on the side of sensibility since the aircraft is always reducing weight as fuel is burnt. For those of us who do not know the Rule of Thumb: 1000 kgs off the AUW will increase Optimum (and all the other Altitudes) by 100ft. Fuel Policy Start and Taxi Fuel. The mass of fuel used in starting and operating the APU and the main engines and in taxying to the runway threshold for take off. It is assumed that at the point of releasing the brakes for take off the aircraft is at or below the regulated take-off mass for the conditions prevailling. In operations where fuel is critical the start and taxi fuel must not be less than the amount expected to be consumed during the start and taxi procedures. Trip Fuel. This is the mass of fuel required to complete the take-off run, the climb, the cruise, the descent, the expected arrival procedures, the approach and landing at the designated airport. Contingency Fuel. Fuel carried in addition to the trip fuel for unforseen eventualities such as a avoiding bad weather or having an extended hold duration at the destination airport, the contingency fuel mass and balance calculations is usually given as a percentage of the trip fuel i.e. f the trip fuel is 1000 kg mass the contingency fuel at 5% of the trip fuel would be 50 kg. Dont forget that the contingency fuel is part of the landing mass if it is not actually used during trip Alternate (Diversion) Fuel :That mass of fuel required to carry out a missed approach at the destination airfield, the subsequent climb out, transit to, expected arrival procedures, approach, descent and landing at an alternate airfield

Final Reverse Fuel: The minumum fuel that should be in the tanks on landing. Essentially it is a final reverse for unplanned eventualities and should allow a piston engine aircraft to fly for a further 45 minutes or a jet engine aeroplane to fly for a further 30 minutes at a given height and holding speed. Additional Fuel : Only required if the sum of the trip, contingency, alternate and final reserve fuels are insufficient to cover the requirements of AMC OPS 1.255(instrument landings and power unit failures which not required for mass and balance calculations). BOEING 737-200 WIND TRADE

OPTIMUM ALT

OPTIMUM HOLDING ALT

OPTIMUM HOLDING ALT

1 ENG INOP MCT ISA +10

LRC M.74 A/ICE OFF

52T 50T 48T 46T 44T 42T 40T 315 325 335 340 350 360 370 310 320 330 335 345 355 365 290 300 305 315 325 335 345

M.78
FL 250 FL 250 FL 250 FL 250 FL 300 FL 300 FL 300

220 KIAS
FL 100 FL 100 FL 110 FL 120 FL 150 FL 150 FL 150

1 ENG INOP
FL 118 FL 130 FL 145 FL 160 FL 174 FL 188 FL 204

BUFFET LIMITS
MAX WT (kg) FOR FLIGHT LEVEL FLIGHT LEVEL
370

CRUISE SCHEDULE
LRC .72 .74 .78 LRC .72 .74 .78 LRC .72 .74 .78 LRC .72 .74 .78 LRC .72 .74 .78

MANDATORY
43.5 43.6 44.2 43.8 48.2 48.0 48.6 48.0 52.8 52.7 53.4 52.9

ADVISORY
43.2 43.3 42.0 35.0 47.5 47.6 46.1 39.0 52.0 52.1 50.7 43.0

TURBULENCE
35.7 35.7 35.7 35.7 39.1 39.1 39.1 39.1 42.9 42.9 42.9 47.1 47.1 47.1

350

330

42.9

310 290

47.0

47.1 51.5 51.5 51.5

52.0

51.5 LRC .72 .74 .78

270

FUEL CORRECTION FOR DEVIATION FROM OPTIMUM ALTITUDE: CONSTANT

LRC TANKER ANALYSIS @ FL 350 TRIP DIST SURPLUS

LRC
2,000 1% - 4,000 2% - 8,000 8% -12,000 15% Cruise N1 N1 = (2 x Alt/1000) + 10

MACH
2% 4% 12% 22% eg @ FL350 N1 = 70+10 = 80%

NM
800 700 600 500

BURNOFF
9% 8% 7% 6%

WIND-ALTITUDE TRADE
LONG RANGE CRUISE
FLIGHT LEVEL 52T 370 350 330 310 290 270 250 230
Eg

50T 15

48T 7 0 6 17 30 44 58

46T 19 2 2 11 23 37 50 66

44T 8 0 6 17 29 44 58 74

42T 2 2 11 23 36 51 66 83

40T 0 6 17 30 44 59 76 93 38

38T 3 12 24 53 69 86 105

5 0 8 19 31 45

1 3 12 24 37 52

@ FL290, 50T present wind = -20 kts. Breakeven wind @ FL 330 = {20 + (1-12)} = -31kts. If HWC is stronger than 31 kts @ FL330, remain @ FL290.

M0.72-M0.74 CRUISE
FLIGHT LEVEL

52T 370 350 330 310 290 270 250 230 7 0 8 22 40 62

50T 18 2 3 13 30 50 74

48T 9 0 7 19 39 60 84

46T 22 4 2 12 28 49 72 99

44T 10 0 6 19 38 60 86 115

42T 3 2 12 28 49 73 101 132

40T 0 6 20 38 63 89 117 150 51

38T 2 13 30 76 106 139