Bangladesh, Climate Disasters-Humanitarian Practice Challenged by Populations-URD &amp Rupantar-2010

Bangladesh, Climate Disasters Humanitarian practice challenged by populations resilience
Camille Raillon, edited by Vronique de Geoffroy Juin 2010
FOREWORD This report has been supported by Groupe URD, a French research, evaluation and training institute for the international aid sector, and the Bangladeshi NGO RUPANTAR, involved in both relief and development activities, has worked on disaster risk reduction in the areas affected by cyclones Sidr and Aila. However, despite the support of these two organizations, the study of the humanitarian response presented in this report aims to be as independent as possible, and also analyses the practice of a number of other different actors. This report follows 3 months evaluation fieldwork in Bangladesh, from January to March 2010, in the Delta area of Sundarbans, 6 months after cyclone Aila. Faced with the critical situation of people in this area, and the palpable sense of hopelessness felt by humanitarian workers with regard to the future for these communities, in this area prone to climate disaster. Groupe URD and RUPANTER NGO feel it is necessary to speak out about this new type of crisis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS : Thank you to Franois Grnewald (Executive Director, Groupe URD) Rafiqul Islam Khokan (Executive Director, Rupantar), Faruque Ahmed (Programme Coordinator, Rupantar), Luky Sultana (Field Officer, Rupantar), Rolf Gsell (Deputy Project Manager, SDC: Swiss Development Agency), Niaz Nazim Chowdury (Field Officer, SDC), Mahfuzul Haque (Project Assistant, IOM: International Organisation for Migration, United Nations), Mujibur Rahman (Adviser, Shushilan), Lesa Pate.
craillon@urd.org
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Aim, Methodology, and Limits of the Study
a. Aim of the Study b. Methodology c. Limits of the Study
Introduction PART 1: Serious crises and vulnerability

1.1 1.2 1.3
A high-risk situation Reducing vulnerability; an approach central to current governance policy Observations and threats
PART 2: Resilience and challenges

2.1 2.2 Resilience; a multi-stakeholder approach Responses and Aggravating factors a. Strategies at local level b. Strategies at national level c. Strategies at international level
PART 3: Observations, alliances and challenges for humanitarian actors

3.1 3.2 3.3 The current humanitarian situation Humanitarian practice and state policy: a dilema? Challenges and perspectives for humananitarian actors
ANNEXS
1/ Factsheets for humanitarian practices 2/ Bibliography
AIM, METHODOLOGY AND LIMITS OF THE STUDY

Aim
This study has the following aims: - To put in perspective the vulnerability and resilience strategies of people living in the Sundarbans Delta in Bangladesh, in the face of natural and/or climate disasters - To question humanitarian practices in the long-term - To contribute to thinking in terms of strengthening resiliance capacity, and relationships between state actors and supra-state actors.
Methodology This study is based on: - An in-depth analysis of existing literature on the subject, presented in the Annexs. - A series of interviews of humanitarian actors in the Sundarban Delta region: IOM, Rupantar, Solidarits International, Action Contre la Faim, Shushilam. - Discussions with people affected by the different slow onset disasters (rising sea-levels, land erosion) or rapid onset disasters (cyclones, flooding) in the Mongla, Shathira and Khulna districts. - The methodology used to analyse humanitarian practice is based on the Quality COMPAS1.
Delta des Sundarbans
Limits of the study A certain number of constraints should be highlighted: - The relatively new nature of the subject material strengthening resilience capacity to climate and/or natural disasters. - The difficulty in finding criteria and indicators to evaluate the impact of strategies to strengthen resilience capacity, set up by different actors within the community, at state level, internationally or by non-state actors. - Logistical constraints and limited amount of time spent with the people affected. - The breadth of the subject: the reduction of climate and/or natural disasters is a vast subject, one that involves numerous actors, with their respective and often varied interests, from issues as complex as adapting to climate change, disaster risk reduction and poverty reduction.
Tool for managing and evaluating humanitarian programmes, developed by Groupe URD and available for free download at www.urd.org
INTRODUCTION
Like many other countries, Bangladesh is situated in a high-risk region, prone to natural and/or climate disasters, which are occurring with increasing frequency and intensity. The impact of climate change is currently only being felt in terms of negative effects, leading many to fear the worst for the security and survival of people, both in the short and long term, in certain regions of the world. This sounds the alarm for potential humanitarian crises in both rural and urban areas, the scale of which is as yet impossible to predict accurately. Access to vital resources, such as water, food and space are increasingly under threat by changes in climate (reduced drinking water resources, loss of land to flooding caused by rising sea-levels, arable land under threat from soil salinity or recurring drought, etc). Today (and looking to the future) the main question for humanitarians is how to reduce the risk of disasters and therefore indirectly lessen potential tension between individuals and communities, in this high-risk area. Set against the backdrop of economic, environmental and security crises which affect the world today - and particularly high-risk countries such as Bangladesh building resilience of nations and communities to disaster (ref. Hyogo Declaration signed in 2004, between 164 states and numerous international organizations) is a complex cross-cutting issue. Clearly, disaster risk reduction, to natural and/or climate disasters, does not only mean working on vulnerability to natural hazards, but also to a whole range of economic, social and political vulnerabilities which make individuals vulnerable (or more vulnerable) to these disasters. Risk reduction is therefore central to the current debate and there are numerous issues at both local and global level, as climate disaster goes hand in hand with fears about meeting basic needs, and the possibility of massive regional or international migration. The scale of such a migratory movement is impossible to predict, as is its potential impact on peoples security. Many actors are called upon to mobilize at community, state and supra-state level in order to change the current state of affairs and limit the negative consequences of natural and/or climate disaster on people, infrastructure, and countries economy and development. Reminder: the number of disasters said to be natural is on the rise. In the year 1975 there were an estimated 100 natural disasters, with 50 million people affected, yet in 2008, numbers had risen to 350 natural disasters with 300 million people affected.2. At least 36 million people3 were displaced due to natural disasters in 2008, more than half of which (20 million) were displaced due to disasters linked to climate. To summarise, the growing number of people affected by disaster is becoming a huge priority for the humanitarian work of tomorrow4. It is also important to note that all the strategies to reduce peoples vulnerability to natural / climate disaster in Bangladesh have their limits. In this particular context - between emergency and development, affected by global environmental disasters and climate change, with community, state and supra-state actors involved, each with their own interests and strategies how will humanitarian actors make a stance to help build resilience of people affected by natural / climate disaster? Above and beyond the emergency phase of rapid onset disasters such as cyclones (ex. Cyclones Sidr and Aila) how can we support and build peoples resilience capacity to climate change and recurrent natural disasters, of which the causes and effects continue to grow and worsen?
EM-DAT Emergency Events Database. EM-DAT Emergency Events Database 4 A.Boinet and P.Miribel quelle piste pour les actions humanitaires franaises , 2010. Available in French on Youphil
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Part 1
SERIOUS CRISES AND VULNERABILITIES
1.1
A HIGH-RISK SITUATION
Bangladesh is a country in the Indian sub-continent. North of the Bay of Bengal and almost completely surrounded by India, it also borders Myanmar to the east. The geographical situation of Bangladesh gives it a heavy monsoon season and violent natural disasters such as tropical cyclones, storms, flooding and droughts. Cyclones as powerful as Aila are likely to happen every ten to twenty years explained Prof. Atiq Rahma, director of the Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS), stating that climate change is not responsible for the existence of cyclones, but for the fact that their frequency and extreme intensity is increasing. The south of Bangladesh, with its many deltas is also very vulnerable to climate disaster, especially because land there is less than 5 metres above sea level. As stated on a recent list compiled by the World Bank, Bangladesh is one of the twelve countries most at risk to climate change. Scientists at BCAS predict that sea levels will rise one metre by 2050, if no measures are taken to ensure otherwise. If this is the case, then 17% of Bangladeshs land will disappear underwater, leading to a 13% loss in agricultural production and massive population displacement.
Slow but irreversible, or rapid and chaotic, natural and/or climate disasters are fast becoming the major cause of a permanant humanitarian crisis in Bangladesh. Though the adverse impacts of these disasters are undoubtedly caused by natural phenomena (as has been scientifically
proven) it can however be noted that poverty, social exclusion and political marginalization are aggravating factors. A disaster is necessarily a political event. We can therefore justifiably speak of socio-natural disasters. Natural and/or climate disasters will potentially result in displacement on a huge scale, and the Bengal region (India, Bengladesh) would, on its own, be unable to prevent or manage it efficiently. Generally speaking, all evidence points to the fact that forced migration caused by climate change is one of the biggest political, humanitarian and development challenges for the 21st century. The consequences of these disasters are so great that predictions show a need for infrastructure, water and food, as well as potential competition for space and resources, in both rural and urban areas.5 As we embark on a new century, climate issues are added to the old tensions and conflict that have afflicted Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. The fact that vital resources such as air, water and land are under threat (or are becoming polluted) can no longer be ignored, though it is rarely recognized that this could potentially be a source of future conflict. As one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world, the next ten years will be crucial for Bangladesh. The political, social and economic framework is too fragile and unstable to support disaster risk reduction, to adapt to climate change or to reduce poverty (one of the major factors in vulnerability to disasters) at a national level. The sheer scale of the problem in terms of risk reduction and alleviation of the impact of disasters when they occur, will impact negatively on the economic growth and development of the country.
1.2 REDUCING VULNERABILITY; AN APPROACH CENTRAL TO CURRENT GOVERNANCE POLICY

Disasters are not first and foremost the result of a geographic process (Hilhorst, 2004, p. 53, citing K. Hewitt). The role of poverty has of course been noted, and more generally the role of social and economic processes, in the 1980s. Recognising the importance of the socio-cultural aspect of vulnerability to natural hazards has meant that scientists working on understanding disasters have had to make the distinction between physical processes (hazards) and human processes (vulnerability). The now well-known formula Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability was borne out of this thinking. These changes in the way in which vulnerability is perceived were the result of observing that the effects of disasters were determined not only by the initial state of buildings and infrastructure (cf. politique de dveloppement) but also by the social, economic and environmental conditions of the area before the disaster hit.6 It is now recognised that the impact of a disaster largely depends on the level of individual and collective vulnerability prior to that disaster occurring.
GRIP, La dgradation de lenvironnement, source de tensions majeures . Collection GRIP Information. 1992 6 International Strategy for Disaster Reduction United Nations, Living with Risk: A global review of disaster reduction initiatives, ISDR - United Nations, 2003, p. 41-43.
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Political/ social and economic dimension of vulnerability (Adapted from Watts and Bohle, 1993)
Disaster risk reduction necessarily implies a multi-actor approach. Reducing vulnerability to disasters is multi-faceted (political, economic and social) and currently based around three inter-dependent issues; climate change adaptation; disaster risk reduction and poverty reduction. In reality, it is unlikely that poverty can be reduced if disasters and the stress linked to climate issues are not taken into account, in both the short and long-term. To summarise, it is very difficult to work on disaster risk reduction without reducing poverty and the causes and effects of climate disasters. The three are intimately linked. A new idea is currently coming up more and more frequently in humanitarian and development practice resilience. The concept is now being integrated into the famous equation Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability, the resilience capacity of communities being a factor which limits risk. However, we crucially lack real information on resilience capacities, which would help us support them, with the objective of tangibly reducing the risk of disasters, but by using local strategies. In this respect, the 2004 worldwide report on disasters by the International Federation of Red Cross Societies and Red Crescent highlighted that the international community remains too focused on needs and vulnerability, and lacks analysis of the way in which people can actually survive disasters and overcome them. The report also argues that there are very few programmes which support peoples coping strategies and little advocacy to push for resilience rather than vulnerability being at the core of debates about aid. At a time like this, when the nature of disasters is changing and existing responses are proving insufficient, people at risk should take the initiative to find new responses to these disasters. Then such initiatives should also be central to humanitarian thinking and discourse.
1.3. OBSERVATIONS AND THREATS

Bangladesh is a densely populated country, with a population of approximately 150 million in an area just half the size of France. The income per capita is $470 per year. A third of the population still lives in extreme poverty (29% live on less than a dollar a day and 84% live on just two dollars a day). The majority of Bangladeshis still live in rural areas, but slums and informal settlements in the Bay of Bengal are growing rapidly. A quarter of the countrys GDP comes from agriculture, making the economy relatively sensitive to changes and variations in climate.7 For
Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate change and livelihood of the poor and marginalized people. A Framework for Oxfam GB Bangladesh, final report, April 2009
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the poorest and most vulnerable people in the country, the benefits of economic growth (5% annually) have had little or no impact on their quality of life, which remains unstable. Extremely vulnerable people are mostly living in remote areas, or in areas at risk (environmental or climate) such as the Sunderbans Delta, where recurrent natural disasters threaten their low incomes (80% of the population lives in rural villages, though rapid urbanisation has lead to the prediction that Dhaka will be one of the biggest cities in the world by 2015). In terms of the human development index, published by UNDP in 2009, Bangladesh was 146th out of 182 countries. At local level in the Sundarban Delta region, climate disaster has manifested itself in the form of a latent food crisis, chronic poverty (repeated destruction of jute and rice harvests, on which 80% of people in the Sundarban region are dependant for their livelihoods), an untenable demographic explosion, and massive waves of migration to the already full slums in the big cities of Bangladesh and neighbouring countries. In the districts we visited in Khulna, Satkhira and Mongla, there is a very high risk of humanitarian crisis. The loss of life, as well as loss of material goods and land, as a result of climate disaster (salinisation of land and rivers, and particularly rising sea-levels) and natural disaster (cyclones and erosion), has been extreme. Since Cyclone Aila in May 2009, despite numerous humanitarian interventions, communities have not yet managed to get back to the same standard of living that they had before. Yet life was precarious and living standards were low even before the disaster hit). One year after the cyclone, the salt water which had covered arable land still remains, potentially damaging present and future agriculture. To add to this, numerous coastal breakwaters and villages continue to be destroyed by the strong tides, and roads continue to disappear under rising water. This results in villages being increasingly isolated and cut off from one another, creating growing fears among people as to what the future may hold. As well as these climatic upheavals and disasters, schools and social infrastructure have also been affected. Not only were these services already too few and far between, but now they are also damaged or risk disappearing completely. Local markets, piers, roads and health centres have all been affected. People also have little access to electricity, the sanitation situation is critical, and potable water is very difficult to access. It is also worth cohighlighting the huge problem of arsenic, though this report cannot unfortunately cover the issue here. The Bangladeshi state cannot cope with the enormity of the disaster, and the impact it is currently having on populations. The reasons for this are partly historical, and partly connected to current political, economic and social fragility, which undermine all the strategies for climate crisis adaptation and risk-reduction, at a national level. Let us now examine more closely the roots of this fragility.
History of imbalance in global governance In the 1990s, the policy of structural adjustment which was more or less promoted by international economic institutions such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB), necessitated less state involvement, whilst economic liberalism progressively broke done all national and international regulations. Like many other countries, Bangladesh has been subjected to these dogmas over recent decades, even though this dominant global system seems to accentuate poverty and instability in certain developing countries, according to the Economist and Nobel prize winner J. Stiglitz8,Bangladesh, like so many other countries, seems to be fragile economically (effect of domination) and politically (little or no redistribution of the profits of economic growth, which is at 5% per annum) making it difficult to meet the scale of its natural and climate disasters.
The Roaring Nineties, W.W. Norton & Company, October 2003.
On top of this, the country has huge problems in terms of governance, inequality, corruption and bureaucracy, which undermine the resilience strategies of populations faced with the impact of national disasters.
Political and Economic Fragility in Bangladesh Under British domination since the end of the 18th century, Bangladesh was once East Bengal of the Indian Empire. Though the British left the region in 1947, the conflict between Hindus and Muslims let to the creation of an Islamic state, Pakistan, made up of two distinct areas separated by northern India. East Pakistan was more than 1,600 km from West Pakistan, and the capital of the country. Due to the authoritarianism of the central power in Islamabad and its indifference to the suffering of Bangladeshis during cyclone Bhola, an independence movement rapidly formed and gathered strength. During the course of a bloody civil war, it proclaimed independence on 26th March 1971. Supported by India, the young democracy quickly adopted the name Bangladesh (Land of Bengali people). However, in 1975 a military coup led to the assassination of the first President of the Republic of Bangladesh, Sheihk Mujib Ur-Rahman, marking the beginning of a long period of political instability. Two dynasties and two parties were locked in opposition; the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, and the country saw no less than four more coup detats. The Awami League postponed the December 2008 legislative elections, and is now likely to stay in power for the whole of its mandate. In 2010, economic policy is likely to follow along the same lines as it has done over the last two decades, i.e. maintaining close relations with multi-lateral donors (including the World Bank) which are setting up a 3 billion dollar (1 billion = 1000 milliards) aid programme, over 15 years, with the aim of improving Bangladeshs resistance to natural disasters. It should be noted that tensions between the main two parties, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) and the Awami League, could once again erupt into demonstrations. The risk of social unrest also remains, due to the fact that poverty rates are high, and the fruits of economic growth are not redistributed equally. Political tensions and a tense social climate weigh heavily on investment (adaptation to climate change, risk reduction, the fight against poverty etc), though the country already suffers in terms of lack of governance, and the problem of corruption. In this context, strategies to reinforce the resilience capacities of populations remain difficult to implement on a national level. The redistribution of the fruits of economic growth is largely insufficient. Social protection9 is inexistent for the most vulnerable people. Yet it is social protection (crop insurance, rebuilding assets, including distribution of livestock and cash transfers10) that could be the means to protect, promote and transform livelihoods, strengthen resilience capacity at an indidual level and fight poverty. However, in order for social security to withstand the impacts of climate change, it is necessary to also look at how to reduce dependency on traditional agricultural activities, which are extremely vulnerable to variations in climate. The fact is that without large public or private investment in agricultural research and sustainable economic development, at a national or international level, peoples vulnerability to climate disasters will only increase.
Social protection describes all initiatives that transfer income or assets to the poor, protect the vulnerable against livelihhods risks, and enhance the social statuts and rights of the marginalised. Its overall objectives are to extend the benefits of economic growth and reduce the economic or social vulnerability of poor, vulnerable and marginalised people (Source: IDS 2006, Devereux and Sabates Wheeler 2004). 10 Research and analysis from the Institute of Development Studies, Connecting Social Protection and Climate Change Adaptation., Issue 2, 2007
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The international community also seems to be stretched beyond capacity by the challenge of dealing with the detrimental impacts of distasters at a local and national level. Global governance seems no longer able to control the negative impacts of globalization and the rush for financial profit which is valued in this system. Economic growth at any price, and the nonsustainable development which it engenders, leads to degradation of the environment, and a dramatic impact on the worlds climate. And it is countries like Bangladesh which pay the price. According to GIEC studies, all of humanity are walking a tightrope Today, humanitys very existence is threatened by changes in the ecology and climate change, by drugs, by pandemics, by genetic engineering, and by arms. Humanity is being suffocated by its own pollution, by its very size and number, by the desertification it has caused, by the rapid diminishing of its resources (gradually built up over millions of years), by the destruction of its bio-diversity, its agricultural land, its oceans and its barrier reefs.11
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J.Attali, 7 leons de vie pour survivre face aux crises .
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Part 2
RESILIENCE AND CHALLENGES
2.1 RESILIENCE, A MULTI-FACETED APPROACH
In the light of these many crises, and the sheer scale of needs, what should be done? How can individuals, communities and states deal with this situation? The notion of resilience is a central concern for local, state and supra-state actors. Resilience is defined as the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions.12 Resilience refers principally to the capacity to be resistant to dangerous situations, a minimum of damage, and to bounce back after such a shock. We can talk about different kinds of resilience; mental, moral, physical, material and financial. Resilience highlights bright new ideas such as opportunities (even in a chaotic situation) and sustainable development for all. Unfortunately, current studies tend to focus more on vulnerability factors than on strategies to strengthen resilience capacity, which are still given little importance. It is, however, an understanding of both vulnerability and resilience mechanisms that present the real key to the survival of both people and states.
Definition from the International Strategy for Disaster Prevention, of the United Nations, available at: http://www.unisdr.org/eng/terminology/terminology-2009-eng.html
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It is essential to develop social protection and solidarity initiatives at local, state and supra-state level, in order to reduce the risks and strengthen peoples resilience capacity to climate disasters. Exploring the links between adaptation to climate change and social protection in the agricultural sector, the British Governments Department for International Development (DFID) and researchers from the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) have developed the concept of social protection adaptation. Studying social protection approaches in order to adapt to climate involves examining the economic, social and political relationships in order to adapt and build resilience capacity with regards to climate.13
In this conceptual framework, social protection (i.e. solidarity between individuals) connects strategies to strengthen resilience capacity to climate disaster (adaptation and risk reduction). However, as we will see, this theoretical approach represents an ideal, and the current situation appears not to follow this model.
2.2 RESPONSES AND AGGRAVATING FACTORS

In the field, on a very practical level, disasters and and climate change have forced individual people to use different strategies to adapt, survive and be resilient. However, such strategies can sometimes actually make them more vulnerable to natural and climate disaster in the long-term.
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Centre for social protection, Socio-economic security over the life course: A global review of social protection, July 2009
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A. LOCAL STRATEGIES At a local level, disasters and climate change force individual people to adopt different adaptation and survival strategies. Two examples of such problems can be cited here. The first: the deforestation that has become a survival strategy for some villages. The second: massive migration to the informal settlements of the big cities in the region (Khulna, Dhaka or Kolkata). Whether these migrations are only temporary or whether they are permanent, they have more negative than positive impacts in the short-term.
Fishing and Deforestation Importance of the coastal area and paradoxes At the moment, there are two main ports in the country: Chittagong and Mongla. Economically, the 720km coastal area plays an essential role within Bangladesh, thanks to maritime transport. The coastal waters are also an important source of marine fishing. More than 60% of the active population works in the fishing sector in the Sundarban Delta. Today prawn farming also continues to be a highly lucrative activity. But these sectors, including transportation, trading and fishing, are all threatened by disasters and climate change. The paradox is that through reducing peoples economic vulnerability (strengthening resilience capacity), and developing more and more industry and fishing in the area, the impact of disasters such as cyclones and rising sea levels, is actually worsened. Unrestricted and unmanaged deforestation of the Sundarban mangroves in order to develop shrimp and crab farming is undoubtedly a large source of revenue for the country, as is developing the production of paper to print newspapers.14 However, the valuable Sundarban area is also home to a tropical marine ecosystem which includes swamps, marshland and mangroves. This ecosystem is considered to be an important habitat for certain species, and a natural protective barrier against disasters.
Migrations Rural and urban vulnerability Closely linked to adaptive or survival strategies to deal with climate change, there is massive population movement to the countrys big cities (as well as to cities in India) on a temporary or seasonal basis. Motivating factors for these migrants vary, but economic reasons are more often than not the principle cause. Climate disasters regularly destroy sources of income for the coasts inhabitants. Different opportunities and new vulnerabilities often emerge for those who migrate to urban areas, as well as for those people who stay behind, and for those people who already live in the urban areas where new arrivals migrate to. The jobs done by migrants are often extremely tough and under-paid. Even though rates of urban poverty are lower than the chronic poverty affecting the countryside, the urban poor are mostly excluded from the advantages of growth. They also often find themselves faced with new vulnerabilities linked to housing, sanitation, violence and insecurity. Local mafias are very present and powerful in Bangladesh. In parallel, the poverty and many vulnerabilities of the rural and urban poor also feeds into the significant problem of human trafficking.15 However, a greater concentration of people in urban areas also creates opportunities to better manage the risks for those people who have remained in isolated rural areas. Migration should not be considered as having a solely negative impact - it can also play a positive role. For the most vulnerable, migration can be an
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Vulnerability of Bangladesh coastal region to climate change with adaptation options. Anwar Ali. Bangladesh Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization (SPARRSO) 15 "Le trafic dtres humains : un problme majeur du Bangladesh", Christoph Tometten, Collections Esquisses
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accumulation strategy (Scott, 2008). For example, rural agricultural workers can voluntarily choose to move to urban areas after having suffered a shock, in order to move from the agricultural sector to the non-agricultural sector. Such a transition can be an interesting lever in terms of social protection and poverty reduction at an individual level (informal social protection). For Bangladeshis who migrate to another country, their vulnerability seems to be even greater, and more complex (particularly those who migrate to India). They have no rights based on citizenship, and they generally find themselves excluded from any protection system (as flimsy as that system may be). On top of this, they have no internationally recognised legal status such as climate/environmental refugees, making their vulnerability even more acute. The vicious circle of physical, economic and social vulnerability seems to only get worse, whether they are migrants within Bangladesh or elsewhere in the region. Yet, what other solutions exist in order to survive when there is little investment at a state or international level in terms of key areas such as adaptation, risk reduction, social protection and the fight against poverty in rural and urban areas? The impact of natural and climate disasters in Bangladesh is greater than the local adaptive capacity to respond, resulting in the fact that vulnerability continues to rise. According to an IRIN article from June 2010 entitled Bangladesh, number of landless farmers on the rise, the number of farmers who have lost their land due to climate disasters is increasing, as is the level of migrations to the shanty towns of the big metropolises. Millions of Bangladeshi households have lost their property, due to poverty, natural disasters or because they have been dispossessed by a corrupt elite. According to a study carried out in 2008 by the Bureau of Statistics in Bangladesh, out of a population of 160 million, almost 4.5 million people no longer have any land at all, most of these land-less live in rural areas. A report by the researcher Tahera Akter, published by the think tank Unnayan Onneshan (based in Dhaka) states that with every large flood approximately 39 million Bangladeshis are displaced, and every large cyclone displaces at least 3 million people. According to a study by Habibur Rahman and Somprawin Manprasert, from the University of Chulalongkorn in Bangkok, the distribution of land in developing countries is indicative of the high level of social inequality. This study also revealed that rural areas in developing countries are characterized by highly unequal social structures, or what many call bi-modal agrarian systems, in which big commercially-managed domains control large areas of fertile land, whilst many farmers cultivate tiny areas of land, or simply have no land at all. Being deprived of land can stir up social problems, because poverty linked to land and migration to urban areas, when they are not accompanied by development in terms of housing and public services, leads to expanding shanty towns, with all the economic and social problems that they entail.
B. NATIONAL STRATEGIES At state level, the strategy used to deal with this situation results in a complex challenge involving economic growth and redistribution, state and citizens. From an international point of view, the state can be seen as victim in terms of the impacts of climate change. Who benefits from economic growth in Bangladesh? Foreign policy and the economy in Bangladesh are open to direct foreign investment, particularly India. Though relations between these two countries remain tense, dialogue has opened up again since the League Awami came to power. For example, agreements concerning terrorism and state security have recently been signed between Bangladesh and India. Bangladesh also has commercial relations with China, as well as links with its military and police.16 However, China still seems far from playing an important role in the development of the
16
Official website of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
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country. Bangladeshs foreign policy also supports the growth of exports, particularly to the United States, which represents 25% of total exports. The American market is therefore vital for Bangladeshi products, especially textiles. Furthermore, Washington considers Bangladesh to be a safe ally in the international coalition against terrorism. Both sides have vested interests in this relationship, and with huge financial sums at stake it is hardly surprising that Bangladeshs economic growth is at about 5% per annum. Third largest Muslim nation in the world, Bangladesh is also an eminent member of the Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC). Saudi and Emirates companies have a strong presence in Bangladesh, whilst Bangladeshi manpower is used for many jobs in the Gulf states. For example, two million Bangladeshi workers are currently employed in Saudi Arabia. Finally, Bangladeshs foreign policy supports maintaining a high level of foreign aid, from International Institions such as the IMF, World Bank, or the European Commission. The growth of the country seems to be stimulated but the fruits of this growth are rarely redistributed evenly to the vulnerable populations, and even more rarely do they reach the victims of natural disasters and/or climate disasters, which are more and more frequent. Management of public finances remains weak, and public sector reform is limited.
State and Citizens, a fragile balance In many countries, the fiscal system provides an institutional mechanism through which resources can be collected from citizens and private enterprises, channelled via the State, and then redistributed. In Bangladesh, the states capacity to raise and allocate funds through public expenditure is rather weak (problem of governance, democracy and especially of corruption). An important part of the finances necessary to support millions of people vulnerable to climate change therefore comes from elsewhere, provided by international donors, NGOs and civil society. This means that spending is strongly influenced by external actors, who play an important role in the design and implementation of projects. Due to this, the link between the Bangladeshi state and its citizens through budgetary mechanisms is quite weak, hindering social (and also economic) protection for people faced with the impacts of climate change. Why is this relationship between the state and its citizens so weak? Citizenship, good governance and a welfare-oriented state necessitate a democratic State and an active and informed civil society. This in turn involves a social contract built on a history which is shared and defended by all. But in the case of Bangladesh, the last 50 years have seen more than 5 coup detats, and it has been difficult for democracy to put down strong roots. Citizenship for poor and marginal groups in South Asia seems to present two challenges. Firstly, there is the vertical challenge, the rights to citizenship which are tied to the relations between society and the State, and the distance between them. The people we met in the the Sundarban Delta, for example, receive little support from the State. Secondly, there is the challenge of horizontal citizenship, based on the type of relations between different groups in Bangladeshi society (involving tension, pressure, and attacks between Hindu and Muslim groups).
International Politics and palpable tension Faced with the fact than there is a link between environmental degradation and climate disaster (see the Giec report), Bangladesh positions itself as a victim state, a role which is sadly linked to the failure of the global system. Bangladesh appears to adopt a passive attitude (on the international stage) to investment in terms of risk reduction and adaptation to climate disasters, seeming to expect this investment to come from the international community. The question of migration is extremely important here, as it seems to put in danger the security
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of neighbouring states in the region. Who is responsible? What legal status could protect these citizens? Yet the international community and other countries in the region (notably India) do not seem ready to face this type of question - like the question of strengthening the resilience capacities of migrants leaving them unanswered. It must also be noted that the failure of the current global economic, social and political system has led to a palpable tension which vacillates from admiring to threatening all that comes from the West. Religious radicalism is firmly wedged between this rock and hard place, apparently growing daily, as the journalist F. Dentinger has noted. The rising importance of religious radicalism is also evident in the numerous demonstrations (banners, religious speeches etc) held in the streets of Khulna. The possibility of a huge security problem, at a national level, should not be underestimated. The threat of the negative effects of climate change () causing widespread loss of land and livelihoods, leading to displacement of large numbers of people and rising inequality, could bring with it civil unrest and support for fringe or radical groups.17
C. INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES On the international stage, Bangladesh continues to play a vital role in defending the interests of the LDC (least developed countries), particularly within the United Nations and the World Trade Organisation. In recent years Bangladesh has also been very involved in representing the countries the most affected by global warming. However, on an international level, strategies to strengthen peoples resilience capacity to climate disasters in high-risk countries need to be further discussed. The most difficult question is who would pay for real adaptive strategies and disaster and/or climate risk reduction, which affect people globally? It is somewhat utopian to imagine global governance capable of ridding the world of inequality and protecting those most vulnerable to climate change, wherever they may be. It is also utopian today to talk of protecting public assets18 (such as the Sundarban forest, one of the largest and richest in the world, source of potable water, etc). However, this is where the challenge for communities and nations seeking resilience to climate disaster lies. We need much more than a coalition of nations. In the words of J. Attalli We need institutions that share the weight of the issues at stake, and put in place strategies which are far more ambitious than those discussed at the moment, often in vain, by the G8, G20, IMF, WB and Security Council.19 In any case, the coastal population of Bangladesh seems to be the first victim of this globalisation which is unable to regulate the problems it generates; environmental, economic, politic and social. The question is so complex that at the moment, no new international accord on climate has been signed (cf. the failure of Copenhagen.20 It must be noted however that there have been advances in terms of strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with a common aim of limiting the risk of disasters for populations (see Kyoto Protocol). State and local bodies have also been mobilised, for example, risk reduction programmes and capacity building (economic, social and political) funded by state institutions and international donors but the impact on resilience of people stay limited. et leurs les impacts sont de toutes vidences des avances. If we believe the scientists of GIEC; these efforts are still however too insignificant to reduce the negative effects of climate risk for humankind. The world seems to be moving forward slowly but surely towards chaos. Strengthening resilience capacities as an ideal to be followed is threatened at every level by a multiplicity of actors; community, state, supra-state. All these actors have different interests, and their strategies lack coordination and coherence
Bangladesh Country Gouvernance Analysis 2008 , BCGA, 2008. Pierre JAQUET Economie du dveloppement, comment produire des biens publics mondiaux ? , Article appeared in Le Monde conomique. Oct 2007. 19 J.ATTALI 7 leons de vie, survivre aux crises, Ed. le livre de poche. May 2010 20 Dans la confusion, Copenhague sachve sur un chec. Article appeared in Le Monde. 19th December 2009
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(deforestation is a good example). We are far from achieving the reduction of risks for populations21. Vulnerability to natural and/or climate disaster is on the rise, as are potentially intensified and massive humanitarian crises, worse than the crises that people living on the riverbanks of the Sundarban Delta have experienced up until now. The most recent crisis, Cyclone Aila (which hit in June 2009) caused thousands of victims and displaced thousands more. Even now, six months after the disaster, many people are still stuck in a complex situation somewhere between emergency and development. And future disasters could unfortunately have an even more catastrophic impact.
TWIGG, John, Characteristics of a Disaster-resilient Community: A Guidance Note, Version 1, Disaster Risk Reduction Interagency Coordination Group, August 2007, p. 6.
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Partie 3
OBSERVATIONS, ALLIANCES AND CHALLENGES FOR HUMANITAIRIAN ACTORS
3.1 THE CURRENT HUMANITARIAN SITUATION

Following the first realisation of the existence of climate disaster, there has been a catastrophic impact on populations. Responses to mitigate this situation are extremely limited at every level, from local to global. What role could humanitarian organisations play to strengthen the resilience capacity of communities affected by these disasters - in terms of climate, the economy and security? The analysis of numerous field projects (see Annex 2, fact sheets on humanitarian practice) leads us to the following thoughts and conclusions.
In an emergency, the implementation of assistance projects is often delegated to NGOs (particularly in ECHO's strategy), as was the case after cyclones Sidr and Aila, because NGOs are usually more reactive than governments or international institutions. However, what is the impact of these humanitarian programmes on people's resilience capacity? Thinking on resilience "capacity building" is still in its early stages for humanitarian action. However, Bangladesh has rapidly emerged as an important area to analyse, in order to better
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understand the use of technical (infra)structure in zones affected by natural or climate disasters. Technical structures, such as floodwater barricades, embankments, wells or even rainwater collection, are undoubtedly useful in the short-term, but are limited as solutions in the longterm. Local materials which are used for such technical solutions are not resistant enough; they deteriorate over time and are badly affected by the disasters in the Sundarban Delta region. The result is that these infrastructures are actually destroyed each time there is a new disaster, thereby increasing physical vulnerability (and indirectly economic vulnerability) in the villages, and increasing the risk of a future humanitarian crisis. In this global context of climate disasters, economic and security crises, it seems to be essential to question humanitarian practice and to create links and coalitions between actors and institutions, local, state and supra-state. It is obviously here that things become complex. How can humanitarians integrate the notion of cooperation in order to promote resilience, whilst still maintaining humanitarian values and principles? Yet the vulnerabilities of communities continue to become more acute, despite the relief assistance provided in response to Cyclone Aila by communities, local and national authorities, and NGOs. The question now is how to move from a system which responds to humanitarian crises in an emergency, to a more complete system which builds and strengthens people's resilience capacity long-term, even whilst responding to an emergency in the short-term.
3.2 HUMANITARIAN PRACTICE AND STATE POLICY, A DILEMMA?

Clearly, humanitarian actors need to decide on policy, and how to position themselves in relation to this issue. Three main types of strategic relations are possible, with communities, states and supra-state actors: 1. Cooperate with the State and the International Community but also with all other nonstate actors, including private actors such as companies and centres of economic power. This means cooperating on key questions such as land planning and programmes to strengthen resilience capacity: adaptation, risk reduction, poverty reduction, etc. This question is proving to be quite sensitive as it is also well-known that the Bangladesh Government is very corrupt (according to Transparency International). 2. Advocate for damages to be paid and lobby the State and International Institutions to defend the interests of vulnerable populations affected by the impacts of climate change, massive poverty, etc. 3. Provide means to vulnerable people to help them mobilise, defend their own interests, support their creativity, their strength and their strategies in order for them to be able to withstand different crises. The impact of climate disaster is only the tip of the iceberg in terms of vulnerability. As has already been explained, it is because people already suffer from economic, political and social vulnerability that they are even more affected by natural hazards. For humanitarian action, the question of strengthening the resilience capacity of communities to climate, economic and security crises must be looked at in the light of these three types of strategic relations. In today's world, it seems essential to work in cooperation with all actors involved, whilst at the same time continuing to highlight their different respective responsibilities. The community and its local dynamics must of course always be central to decision-making. In this respect, it is fundamental to better take into account the communities that we support, in order to further support their work. History has proved time and again that profound change nearly always comes from within a society itself. Faced with the failure of the global approach to see local, we must now focus on local solutions from a global perspective.
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We must start by using our local programmes to help us better understand what people think about their living conditions, natural disasters and climate change. What changes would individual people like to see taking place, and how can the community reach its goals? Faced with the crises expected within the next decade, the international community and the State invest too little in durable solutions that strengthen the resilience capacity of communities. People unfortunately know that they can only really count on themselves. They therefore put in place survival strategies. Unfortunately, we still fail to properly recognise or understand these strategies, which are based on peoples identity, traditions, knowledge, relations with the risks, creativity and collective dynamics (in order to put pressure on current governance in terms of risk reduction). We should work together, supporting their strategies in the face of climate, economic and security risks, whilst also bringing knowledge and power to advocate on their behalf in future political decisions.
3.3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES FOR HUMANITARIAN ACTION

First Challenge: Manage the possible contradictions between aiming for rapid results and strengthening resilience capacity in the long-term. For the work of the humanitarian community, reducing risks and strengthening resilience capacity is a central new challenge. In practice, humanitarian aid is too often judged solely on operational programme results, and not enough on the dynamics of strengthening peoples resilience capacity to disasters.22 As well as providing an effective response to basic needs, humanitarian interventions should also aim to have a positive impact in the long-term, above and beyond project implementation. With this objective in mind, the link between relief, rehabilitation and development (link between humanitarian aid and cooperation for development) can be consolidated, and those people supported by projects should be less vulnerable for future possible climate disasters and /or natural disasters. Evidence for this tension between short and long-term impact can be found in the humanitarian practices observed in the Sundarban area, six months after cyclone Aila. All the humanitarian programmes focus on the short-term, so despite the humanitarian presence, people are actually not less vulnerable to possible future disasters. Water pumps, rainwater collection ponds (to compensate for river salinisation), raised houses and flood barrier construction (to protect villages), all of these interventions are limited to short or medium term impact, and there is little leverage to encourage long-term development. (see Annexs, fact sheets on humanitarian practices). Two reasons should be highlighted to explain the limits observed in current humanitarian practice. The first reason is that rapid and visible results are encouraged by top-level management, and various different donors. It cannot be denied that available funds for disaster prevention are still somewhat limited, which hardly encourages NGOs to invest in specific DRR programmes which would involve capacity building. Especially as capacity building is often hard to quantify, and perhaps produces less visible results (Action Aid, 2006). It can be noted that the Millenium Development Goals, with their specific objectives for health, education etc, may well reinforce the trend of prioritising rapid results. The second reason is that there is a critical lack of indicators and evaluation of capacity building in terms of resilience and risk reduction. The mechanisms and dynamic processes are still little known. In fact, in recent years, research has
Experience has shown that these two objectives operational and capacity building are often contradictory, at least in the short term.
22
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been more focused on factors of vulnerability rather than on peoples own resilience mechanisms. In terms of operations and depending on the context, we must find a compromise and promote a more effective and systematic monitoring and evaluation process in order to really change the quality of humanitarian action.23
Second Challenge: Governance and questioning relations between local, state and supra-state actors In the current context of world-wide economic, climate and security crises, many high-risk countries are likely to see a rise in poverty and vulnerability, and therefore an increase in the risk of humanitarian disasters. Furthermore, environmental degradation is on the rise, which will most probably lead to an increasingly dramatic impact on the worlds climate, and on humankind itself. The main conclusion we can draw from this situation of global crisis is that the question of survival is not just about the here and now. It depends on a long-term perspective. And one thing is certain; peoples resilience capacity does not only depend on conservation and a miraculous return to traditional livelihoods in order to cope with the current crises (from economic crises to climate change). Communities resilience capacity to climate, economic and security crises are at the heart of much wider socio-political thinking. Because of this, attempting to lessen crises (by improving the way in which they are managed, and by better anticipating them) presupposes research work on the very functioning of the system itself. And the question of climate change and its impact on people presupposes behaviour change and a change in development models. Taking these factors into account, we find that there is a real scientific opportunity to probe and reinvent the paths of development. Today, humanitarian actors are questioning their practice at local level, in order to support the people most vulnerable to climate to cope with new risks and potential future conflicts over space and resources. Numerous NGOs are currently trying to help people by aiming to reduce the gap between them and their governments at both local and regional level. However, the process of change and real strengthening of resilience capacity is still too insignificant, even if it is the first step in a new way of working for humanitarian actors. The example of womens committees (ref. Annex 2: Fact Sheets for humanitarian practice Social practices) follows this logic, by linking communities to political debates in order to reduce peoples vulnerability. This type of programme is interesting because the populations decide for themselves what their priorities are, and how they expect to achieve their objectives. The NGO is simply a support to make things happen. This type of social structure is undoubtedly more part of the development style of working than humanitarian, but both sectors should share techniques in order to constructively manage the transitions from emergency to development (as was the case after Cyclone Aila). On a global level, new alliances between local, humanitarian, state, supra-state and even nonstate actors are being established (or at least studied), in order to prepare together for the future. Certain alliances could potentially bring into question humanitarian values and principles, but seem essential nevertheless because they contribute to strengthening resilience capacities. Furthermore, such activities cannot be conducted by one actor alone, but must be worked on via partnerships with a diverse range of actors. Strengthening resilience means working together. It does not involve competition between different actors, but cooperation, and seeking out partnerships. The fundamental issue at stake, of course, is to give a voice to those people affected, in order to live together on this planet.24
23
Christian Castellanet and Cline Blanc, GRET, Assistance technique et renforcement des capacits : problmatiques et grandes tendances, 2007. 24 Cf. Pierre Henri Chalvidan Aprs le dluge, Babel ?... , La lettre du forum de Delphes, n58, janvier 2005
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ANNEXES
1. HUMANITARIAN PRACTICE FACT SHEETS

POTABLE WATER EMBANKMENTS HABITAT ECONOMY AND FOOD SECURITY SOCIAL PRACTICES
2. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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HUMANITARIAN PRACTICE FACT SHEETS
POTABLE WATER Individual rainwater collection recepticles

Risk reduction strategy Collecting rainwater. As rivers and groundwater in the Sundarban Delta become more and more saline, ingenious solutions have been developed by local people in order to compensate for the lack of potable water.
Long-term resistance of individual recepticles Weak resistance Mitigated resistance Resistance
Cyclones and storms X
Floods x
Rising sea levels x
Rainwater collection
Risk reduction strategy Collecting rainwater with a filtering system. (Village: Koalatola, 370 persons, 70 houses, Mongla District). NGO: RUPANTAR and BCAS: Bangladesh Center for Advance Study.
Long-term resistance of brick reservoir
Cylones and storms
Floods
Rising sea levels

If villages disappear, so do the reservoirs
Weak resistance
Mitigated resistance Brick and concrete reservoir is highly resistant to cyclones according to the SDC The reservoir is protected. However, it is only during the rainy season that it fills up and is really useful.
Resistance
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Strengthening resilience capacities No impact Little strengthening of capacity Mitigated strengthening Significant strengthening
Rise in living Personnal standards security
Food security
Economic security
Asset security x
Spacial security x
x x
Humanitarian Practice
The project strengthens the resilience of different groups
The post-project phase is anticipated and planned for
In certain contexts, preparation and/or prevention strategies are planned
The economic and technical viability, as well as management issues, is thought out in certain cases
The water reserves aim to increase The project the quantity aims for of potable positive water for impacts the village. beyond But the implementati quantity of on water stocked is still insufficient and limited
Peoples vulnerability may The NGO worsen with the Rupantar (with climate crisis. Both BCAS) has space and trained local resources are teams to manage under threat, and the installation. could disappear However, the under seawater. sustainability and Prevention and cost of this preparation maintenance has strategies are not yet been limited because of discussed the complexity of the situation
The limited capacity of the reservoir is such that the water can only be used for individual consumption (and neither for animals nor for growing vegetables at household level) In order to optimise the impact of this type of programme, partnerships and new funding should be commited to supporting this project.
Likelihood of the population replicating this system: It is impossible for the communities to develop these systems using the human and financial means currently available to them.
From ponds to pots

Risk reduction strategy Rainwater is stocked in this open air reserve. This pond is protected by embankments on all sides which prevent the saltwater infiltrating and mixing with this rainwater. Usually we can find pumps with filters close to these types of ponds, which clean the water making it safe to drink. Unfortunately many of these pumps are no longer working properly (lack of money to maintain them, damaged and broken after Cyclone Aila, etc), but people still continue to drink the water.
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NGO: RUPANTAR, Oxfam, SDC "Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation" Pondwater purification system
Oxfam, individual system for purifying pondwater
SDC, Pump with filtering system for purifying pondwater
Long-term resistance
Cyclones and storms
Floods
Rising sea levels At the moment, these ponds are in isolated parts of the waterways, however, there are huge risks for the future
Weak resistance
Mitigated resistance
Depends on the resistance of the embankments to the strength of the disaster
Depends on the resistance of the embankments to the rising water and the pressure this puts on the structures
Resistance
Strengthening resilience capacities No impact Little strengthening of capacity Mitigated strengthening Significant strengthening x x x x x (cheptels) Rise in living Personnal standards security Food security Economic security Asset security Spacial security x
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NGO Practice.
The postproject phase is anticipated and planned for
The programme (rehabilitation or construction of embankments) aims to strengthen the resilience of communities. This water enables people to survive The project despite the aims for positive increasing scarcity impacts of potable water. It beyond also provides implementation water for livestock. However, there are two preconditions: the resistance of protective embankments and that the pumps function!
Individual vulnerability, coupled with the increased The intensity and objectives of frequence of this type of cyclones, limits project are the positive access to impact of this potable type of project in water for the long-term. At people, the same time as livestock, these technical etc. Postconstructions, project, Rupantar also better food maintains security is numerous risk also an aim. prevention activities (awareness building, preparation, etc.)
The monitoring and maintenance of these embankments is currently being discussed. However, partnerships with other NGOs or companies in the area are not planned as yet. To what extent do populations have the means to maintain these systems themselves? Will the embankments resist future disasters?
Likelihood of the population replicating this system: It is impossible for people to pay for these types of reservoirs themselves. The price is approximately 1,185,000 Takas or 11,850 Euros (which only covers the pond). In the longterm, maintainance of this type of structure is too expensive for the community.
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EMBANKMENTS
Risk reduction strategy The structure is made out of bamboo and sacks of sand or soil, forming canals for the riverwater (saline), protecting houses, crops and land from the rising water levels and also from high tides. NGOs and State: Government, RUPANTAR and SDC (Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation). within the framework of a cash for work / livelihoods programme. Long-term resistance of this type of embankment Cyclones and storms
Floods
Rising sea levels
Weak resistance
These embankments are often damaged by the increasingly strong high tides Depends on the resistance of the embankments to the strength of the disaster Depends on the resistance of the embankments to the rising water and the pressure this puts on the structures
Mitigated resistance
Resistance
Food security
Economic security
Asset security
Spacial security
x x
x (not directly)
x (not directly)
x x (but limited)
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NGO Practice
The project strengthens The post-project the resilience phase is anticipated and planned for of different groups The post-project phase is thoughtthrough, but limited. Only repeated transfers, at regular intervals, enable people to plan their spending and to invest in savings in the longer term. A treasury seems to allow the accumulation of assets, reducing poverty and thereby reducing risks (Tanner et Mitchell, 2008b) than occasional and irregular transfers (Devereux and CollNoire 2007; Marcus 2007). However, the local materials used to construct these embankments are not resistant enough.
The (re)constructio n of embankments enables assets and people to be protected, whilst also providing The project economic aims for support positive (through cash impacts for work or beyond implementati cash for livelihoods). on Indirect social and economic exchange because these embankments are often also roads. Local economy is supported.
Context of recurring natural disasters, and increasing individual vulnerability. Development of partnerships, and strong cooperation between the State and its embankment reconstruction strategies.
The cash transfer programmes can contribute to accumulating assets, as well as generating and multiplying economic effects, by creating new25. As climate change increasingly puts stress on livelihoods (ADB et al. 2003) cash transfers could play an important role in attenuating chronic poverty.
Likelihood of the population replicating these dykes: Constructing 3 kilometres of embankment costs approximately 30,000 Euros. Governmental or international aid is essential.
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jobs (GTZ 2005, 2006 and Mattinen Ogden 2006; Slater et al.; DFID 2004; Devereux, 2006).
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Habitat Raised Houses Risk reduction strategy Raising homes can protect them from floods. ONG: RUPANTAR and OXFAM within the cash for work framework. Village: PUSSUR, 200 inhabitants.
Long-term resistance of this type of house Weak resistance Mitigated resistance Resistance
Floods
Rising sea levels
Rise in living Personnal standards security x
Food security x
Economic security x
Asset security
Spacial security
NGO Practice
The positive impact beyond implementation is significant. The project aims for People have positive impacts greater beyond implementation security with regard to future disasters.
Natural disasters are naturally recurring phenomena. Peoples vulnerability to climate risk s are such that alongside this project Rupantar also carries out risk awarenessbuilding, and disaster prevention activities.
Local resources are supported, and people are asked to contribute to the houses in their villages. Also, local materials are used.
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Good practice and lessons learnt The security of the family is strengthened during the rainy season. However, the sustainability of this type of structure largely depends on how heavy the rainy season. We should also be conscious of the difficulties surrounding land rights, in order to support local land law. Likelihood of the population replicating this system: Difficult for the populations unless they receive outside support. Cost: 7,000 Takas (70). Individual anti-cyclone shelter Cyclone risk reduction strategy Cyclone resistant family shelters. Made out of concrete and steel. During a cyclone: people go up to the first floor where there are reserves of food and water, and also toilets. The main room should be approximately 20 sq metres in size. The whole family, and the neighbours, can find safety if there is a crisis. NGO: RUPANTAR
Long-term resistance for this type of shelter Weak resistance Mitigated resistance Resistance
Cyclones and storms
Floods
Rising sea levels
X x x
Food security x
Economic security
Asset security
Spacial security x
x x x x
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The project strengthens the NGO Practice resilience of different groups

This type of structure offers physical protection to a family. But this does not mean that following the disaster the family will be more resilient.
The project aims for positive impacts beyond implementation
Likelihood of the population replicating this system: This type of prototype is very rare in this area, for the simple reason that it is too expensive for local people. The price of a single shelter : 2,000,000 Takas (20,000 Euros). For this prototype the familys contribution was 100,000 Takas. The NGO RUPANTAR funded the rest.
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Economy and food security
Prawn and crab farming Adaptive strategy and fighting poverty With increasing soil and water salinity, people have tried to adapt and develop new economic activities. NGO: RUPANTAR and BCAS: Bangladesh Center for Advance Study
Long-term resistance Weak resistance Mitigated resistance Resistance

Floods X
Rising sea levels
Rise in living Personnal standards security x
Food security
Economic security
Asset security x
Spacial security x
x x

This type of sylvofisheries, has enabled certain households to make a The project living by selling prawns aims for and crabs on the local positive market. But the impacts negative environmental beyond repercussions are not implementation negligeable : deforestation, water pollution, reduction of biodiversity.
The economic and technical viability, as well as management issues, is thought out in certain cases This programme is economicly viable and should enable people to become more and more financially selfsufficient. And this should in turn lessen the risk of food crises, economic crises etc.
The economic vulnerabilities are likely to worsen with the impact of recurrent disasters, which are increasingly destructive.
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Likelihood of the population replicating this system: Difficult. Cost: 8,000 Takas (80 Euros). Vegetable Gardens Risk reduction strategy and poverty reduction Disasters and climate change have destroyed many agricultural crops. Combined with rising food prices, it is increasingly difficult for people to access basic foods items. These vegetable gardens can therefore be an important subsistence strategy. NGO: RUPANTAR and BCAS (Bangladesh Center for Advance Study), KOALATOLA village
Long term resistance Weak resistance Mitigated resistance Resistance

Cyclones and storms x
Floods x
Rising sea levels X
Rise in living Personnal standards security x x
Food security
Economic security
Asset security x
Spacial security x
This type of activity is not expensive, and is The project accessible to everyone. The aims for products can be consumed positive by the family and/or sold on impacts the local market. But the beyond main problem is still access implementation to land and water, and the acute vulnerability to disasters.
Economic viability and self-sufficiency of affected communities. The project strengthens peoples capacity to cope with rising or variable prices for basic foodstuffs.
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Likelihood of the population replicating this system: The cost for a medium-sized garden is approximately 3,000 Takas (30 euros). This investment is feasible for most people, but they need to have land to plant, and also access to water. Boat and fishing material
Adaptive strategy and poverty reduction Families with means can invest in fishing activities. Some NGOs also support this kind of programme. Boosting the economy is crucial in order to support livelihoods and strengthen resilience capacities. In this context it is equally important to consider other opportunities above and beyond agriculture and fishing (which are easily affected by natural and/climate disasters. In this regard, it is interesting to pay attention to operators, services and small companies, as well as to agriculture and fishing. 95% of local markets functioned soon after Cyclone Sidr and food was available in the market (even though prices were high, due to the scarcity of products). Local traders quickly got their businesses up and running again, though this of course does not mean that they were economically strong. Disasters and climate change affects households livelihoods and therefore their consumption, which in turn has an impact on the local economy. This is a vicious circle, because if these crisis factors were reduced, then collective vulnerability would no longer rise. In parallel, much emphasis is also put on the notion of helping those in need and solidarity between community members (Oxfam, 2008). In this context, there should be a real drive to pay greater attention to the impacts of humanitarian or development interventions, as there is potential for negative impacts on the local economy and market.
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Social Practice
Pot for Song Traditional practice of civil education
Early warning can never have more than a small impact if people are not able to take the right decision in terms of preventative action, or evacuation Rupantar NGO
Risk reduction strategies and prevention Carrying out preventative activities and strengthening the capacity of communities to be more resilient to disasters. NGO: RUPANTAR
Strengthening resilience capacities No impact Little strengthening of capacity Mitigated strengthening Significant strengthening x (information) Rise in living Personnal standards security x x x x (information) (information) (information) Food security Economic security Asset security Spacial security x (information)
NGO Practice
Building awareness in the community of the dangers and The project risks of disasters aims for (techniques to positive protect animals and impacts beyond goods are given implementation priority). Resilience capacities are therefore supported.
This type of programme, for a wide audience, communicates easy-toEvaluating this understand messages and therefore has a strong type of impact. During 2009, programme RUPANTAR carried out could appropriate. 1,166 presentations, and therefore built awareness for an audience of one and a half million people.
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Remarks Awareness building seems to be more difficult for international actors (due to the language and culture barriers). Yet, the messages are absolutely crucial in order to strengthen peoples capacity to protect themselves against risks, when they occur. Likelihood of the population passing on key messages: The messages passed on can be later communicated to other people in the village who were not able to attend the meeting, or to people in other nearby villages. Local community for disaster management Strengthening capacity, risk-reduction strategies Group within a village, for managing disasters. Strengthens governance, and the relevance of humanitarian practices. NGO: ASHROY and SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Coorporation
Strengthening resilience capacities No impact Little strengthening of capacity Mitigated strengthening
Food security
Economic security
Asset security
Spacial security
x (depend choices and Significant strengthening priorities)
x (depend choices and priorities)
x (depend x (depend choices and choices and priorities) priorities)
Remarks The project is based on a participatory approach. The group for managing disasters is made up of a dozen people, chosen by the local population themselves, with an obligatory quota of women. Facilitation techniques, influenced by AHROY (Bangladeshi NGO) are used to enable communities to assess their vulnerabilities and their capacities in the face of certain potential dangers. Their involvement in identifying the proplems, solutions, and putting in place their own strategies, puts them in a position of responsibility and increases their involvement in the project.
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Womens committees
Risk reduction strategy, combatting poverty and marginalisation. Lobbying. Social organisation, community taking a stand and lobbying the local government (social protection). Valuing the role of women in the community. NGO: SHUSHILAN Remarks This type of activity reinforces womens role within the community, and their capacity to organise themselves in order to have better access to political institutions, and to make their voices heard. The NGO facilitates the creation of this type of space, for learning and discussion. It also helps the voice of the community to be heard by the local authorities. Questioning the limits? This community is a Hindu community. However, the majority of people in Bangladesh are Muslim. Would this type of community management also be feasible in a community of people of the Muslim faith? Another point to consider is the notable marginalisation of men in this type of organisation.
Conclusion Each of these practices has its limits, both in terms of sustainability and in terms of financial cost. Managing situations in transition is challenging. Better linking relief, rehabilitation and development (LRRD) in such a way that relief aid always has a realistic exit strategy in mind, without leaving a gap, is no mean feat. Strengthening resilience capacity is a complex issue especially when we bear in mind the dramatic situation in which Bangladesh finds itself today and strategies to reduce the risks are highly likely to bring into question current governance at every level, from local to global.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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OXFAM. Concept on Focal NGO of South-west Region of Bangladesh for the disaster response. PAVANELLO, Sara; RAMALINGAM, Ben. Cyclone Nargis: lessons for Operational Agencies. ALNAP, mai 2008.16 P. Disponible sur : http://www.alnap.org/pool/files/ALNAPLessonsCycloneNargis.pdf RIVIERE, Anne. Eau secours ! Pour le Bangladesh : Leau en souffrance au Bangladesh : rapport de mission dvaluation: mai 2006. 10 P. RUTANTAR; SDC. Report on cash for livelihood project. 2007. 5 P. SOUTH ASIA DIVISION. Coopration strategy Bangladesh 2008-2012. SWISS AGENCY FOR DEVELOPMENT AND COOPERATION, 2008. 31 P. UDDIN, Abu Mostafa Kamal. Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate change and livelihood of the poor and marginalized people: A framework for Oxfam GB Bangladesh. OXFAM, mai 2009. 20 P. Disponible sur : http://www.preventionweb.net/files/15694_vulnerbailityandlivelihoodframework.pdf Case study1 : Cash for work, flood rehabilitation programme, Bangladesh, 2001. OXFAM. 2 P. Disponible sur : http://www.alnap.org/pool/files/TLL_OxfamCase.pdf Concept note of Oxfam international capacity building project (Phase III). OXFAM. 8 P. Concept on focal NGO of South-west Region of Bangladesh for the disaster response. OXFAM. 5 P. Living with the reality of climate change. DFID, UKAID. NEWSLETTER ON CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTH ASIA special issue. 2 P. SHRIMP- From coast to processing industries: trends, consequences and corporate social responsibility in Southwest Bangladesh. 66 P. The UK governments: Programme of work to fight poverty in Bangladesh. DFID; UKAID. 9 P. DEVELOPMENT IN BANGLADESH 2009-2014.
Articles Bangladesh : Le nombre de paysans sans terre augmente. IRIN, 9 juin 2010. Disponible sur : http://www.irinnews.org/fr/reportfrench.aspx?Reportid=89425 Cartes CIESIN. Bangladesh : Population density within and outside of a 5m low elevation coastal zone. 2007. 1 P. Cyclone SIDR: Damage information. CDMP; UNDP; DFID; ECHO; DER GROUP. P. 3 Sitographie ASIAN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS CENTRE : www.adpc.net/v2007/
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BANGLADESH CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES : www.bcas.net/ CATASTROPHES NATURELLES.NET : www.catnat.net CLIMATE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT CENTRE : www.ids.ac.uk/go/climate-change COSI POUR LES HOMMES EN CAS DE CATASTROPHE : www.cosiong.fr DFID : www.dfid.gov.uk/ DPH : www.d-p-h.info/index_fr.html INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT STUDY : www.ids.ac.uk/ INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT : www.iied.org/ INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUT : http://irri.org Annexes Annexe 1: Definition of social protection, international agencies Annexe 2: Map of embankment in Bangladesh
43

Bangladesh, Climate Disasters-Humanitarian Practice Challenged by Populations-URD &amp Rupantar-2010

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Bangladesh, Climate Disasters Humanitarian practice challenged by populations resilience

Camille Raillon, edited by Vronique de Geoffroy Juin 2010

Introduction PART 1: Serious crises and vulnerability

PART 2: Resilience and challenges

PART 3: Observations, alliances and challenges for humanitarian actors

AIM, METHODOLOGY AND LIMITS OF THE STUDY

1.2 REDUCING VULNERABILITY; AN APPROACH CENTRAL TO CURRENT GOVERNANCE POLICY

1.3. OBSERVATIONS AND THREATS

The Roaring Nineties, W.W. Norton & Company, October 2003.

J.Attali, 7 leons de vie pour survivre face aux crises .

2.2 RESPONSES AND AGGRAVATING FACTORS

Official website of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

3.1 THE CURRENT HUMANITARIAN SITUATION

3.2 HUMANITARIAN PRACTICE AND STATE POLICY, A DILEMMA?

3.3 CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES FOR HUMANITARIAN ACTION

1. HUMANITARIAN PRACTICE FACT SHEETS

HUMANITARIAN PRACTICE FACT SHEETS

POTABLE WATER Individual rainwater collection recepticles

Long-term resistance of individual recepticles Weak resistance Mitigated resistance Resistance

Cyclones and storms X

Rising sea levels x

Long-term resistance of brick reservoir

Cylones and storms

Rising sea levels

Rise in living Personnal standards security

The project strengthens the resilience of different groups

The post-project phase is anticipated and planned for

In certain contexts, preparation and/or prevention strategies are planned

From ponds to pots

Oxfam, individual system for purifying pondwater

SDC, Pump with filtering system for purifying pondwater

Cyclones and storms

Depends on the resistance of the embankments to the strength of the disaster

The project strengthens the resilience of different groups

The postproject phase is anticipated and planned for

In certain contexts, preparation and/or prevention strategies are planned

Rising sea levels

Rise in living Personnal standards security

In certain contexts, preparation and/or prevention strategies are planned

Cyclones and storms X

Rising sea levels

Rise in living Personnal standards security x

The project strengthens the resilience of different groups

The postproject phase is anticipated and planned for

In certain contexts, preparation and/or prevention strategies are planned

Cyclones and storms

Rising sea levels

Rise in living Personnal standards security

The project strengthens the NGO Practice resilience of different groups

The postproject phase is anticipated and planned for

In certain contexts, preparation and/or prevention strategies are planned

The project aims for positive impacts beyond implementation

Economy and food security

Long-term resistance Weak resistance Mitigated resistance Resistance

Cyclones and storms X

Rising sea levels

Rise in living Personnal standards security x

The project strengthens the NGO Practice resilience of different groups

The postproject phase is anticipated and planned for

In certain contexts, preparation and/or prevention strategies are planned

Long term resistance Weak resistance Mitigated resistance Resistance

Cyclones and storms x

Rising sea levels X