1.

INTRODUCTION
RAJASTHAN ATOMIC POWER STATION PHYSICAL LOCATION
Rawatbhata is located at the bank of river Chambal near the Rana Pratap Sagar Dam. The nearest city is Kota situated at a distance of 60 KMs from the plant. There are four units of 220 MWe each and two units of 235 MWe newly constructed. There is lush greenery around the site. For employees various colonies are constructed with all the domestic facilities.

ABOUT NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear energy has turned out to be the achievement of the past century. The most clean environmental friendly and of less running cost mode of power generation is now in our hand. At present it is estimated that our natural reserves of U3O8 is about 70,000 tones, but the long run potentials depends upon the large reserves of Thorium which is about 3,60,000 tones. The optimum usage of the available resources takes place via three stages namely: The first stage and perhaps used widely is using natural uranium as fuel.

The plutonium thus yield by first stage along with thorium is fed in Fast Breeder Reactors.

The third stage would employ the U-233 obtained from second stage together with thorium is employed. Perhaps the third stage could either be a fast reactor or a thermal reactor.

In fast reactors high energy neutrons are required to bring about fission. It is most common with element having even number of mass number. In thermal reactors, thermal neutrons i.e. slow moving neutrons are required to being about the fission. Those having mass number as an odd number possess this type of property.

1.1 NEED FOR NUCLEAR POWER

The exploration of natural resources for generation of electricity has been an evolutionary process. Over the years, it has progressed from tapping the potential energy of falling water to burning of fossil fuels. But the quest for more sources of electricity, which is the cleanest and most efficient form of energy, is unending and the limits of the conventional sources have served to heighten mans anxious efforts in this regard. The discovery of fission and the promise of abundance which nuclear energy came to hold subsequently turned mans attention to utilize the potential of this source. Considering the current population growth which has already crossed 100 crores in the 21st century and improvements in standard of living of the forth coming generations, there will be a large increase in the need of electrical energy particularly from clean, green and safe energy sources. The electrical energy will play a vital role in sustainable development of the country. Among all the available conventional and non conventional energy sources, the nuclear energy is most efficient, abundantly available, sustainable and cost effective energy sources. It does not emit obnoxious gases that cause global warming, ozone hole and acid rain.

1.2 SO THE NUCLEAR POWER

It is thus evident that some new from of energy, such as nuclear, which is a large addition to our energy resources, has to be developed in a big way. The currently known uranium reserves in the country can support a PHWR programme of 10,000MW for a design life of 30 years. Even though there is every reasons can support an ultimate capacity of 350,000 MW(e) by fast breeder .the long range potential of so, on thorium resources which exceed 360,000tonnes.when used in the breeder reactors, the thorium reserves would be equivalent to 600 billion tones of coal. This is explained below.

1.3 NUCLEAR POWER IS SAFE

Improving the quality of life has been the driving force for making to push ahead with the use of modern technology. That these benefits carry along with them some risks, has been known for sometimes and one has also to recognize that there is nothing like an absolutely safe technological products be it the automobile, aircraft, Electrical industry, or for that matter, a nuclear reactor. If mankind had decided to take a zero-risk approach, we would not have undertaken space exploration or developed nuclear technology. They would have burnt more coal and oil, resulting in more acid rain, pollution and scarce oil.

2. INDIAN NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

The Headquarters of Indian Nuclear Power Projects are located at Mumbai It is the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) which covers all the aspects of R&D and power production. It is at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre where all the research works regarding the new technologies and nuclear science. The first nuclear power plant was constructed at Tarapur in 1969. It was a Boiling Water Reactor. The purpose of this reactor was to give the ground for development of Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs). The two units setup on turnkey basis by G.E., America is still working successfully. The list of various Nuclear Power Plants in India is as follows :Station TAPS-1&2 RAPS-1 RAPS-2 RAPS-3 RAPS-4 RAPS-5 RAPS-6 RAPS-7 RAPS-8 MAPS-1 MAPS-2 NAPS-1 NAPS-2 KAPS-1 KAPS-2 KAPS-3 KAPS-4 KAIGA-1 KAIGA-2 KAIGA-3 KAIGA-4 TAPS-3 TAPS-4 MADRAS Kk project 1 Kk project 2 Rated Capacity (Mwe) 2 x 160 100 200 235 235 235 235 700 700 220 220 220 220 220 220 700 700 235 235 235 235 540 540 500 1000 1000 Year of Criticality 1969 1972 1980 1999 2000 2009 2010 Project under construction Project under construction 1983 1985 1989 1991 1992 1993 Project under construction Project under construction 1996 1996 2007 2010 2006 2005 Fast breeder reactor Project under construction Light water reactor under construction Light water reactor under construction

3.PRINCIPLE OF NUCLEAR REACTION

When a heavy nucleus split into smaller nuclei, a small amount of mass is converted into energy. The amount of energy produced is given by Einsteins mass energy relation (E=m*c2) .this breaking up of nuclei is called nuclear fission. Natural uranium has two type s of isotopes, U238 and U235 isotope in the ratio of 139:1. The less abundant U235 isotopes that fissions when a U235 atom is struck by allows (or thermal) neutron, it splits into two or refragments. This splitting is accompiled by release of energy in the form of heat, radio-ability and two or there atom at high speed, are made to slow down in the split atom at high speed, are made to slow down in a moderation, i.e. heavy water, so that they have a high probability of hitting other U235 atoms which in turn release more energy and futher sets of neutrons. Attenuation of self sustained stage of spilling of uranium atom is called chain reaction. There is a particular size of fissionable material for which the neutron production by fission is exactly balanced by leakage and absorption. This is called the critical size at which the chain reaction is self substaining this the size of a reaction. The chain reaction: A typical reaction with uranium-235 is as follows: 92

U235 + 0n1 = 92U236 = 36Kr95 + 56Ba139 + 2 0n1

The fission energy is available in the form of heat energy. If this heat is removed from this place economically with the help of some fluid which utilizes this energy in converting water into steam which rotates a turbine and spins tee rotor of the generator, as a result of spinning of the rotor of generator, as a result of spinning of the rotor of the generator there would be production of electrical energy. For continuous and regular supply of electrical power the furnace should run continuously and systematically. Otherwise there would be a lot of fluctuations in the power in the power levels. Similarly in a nuclear power station, the reactor must run continuously and in a systematic way i.e. the fission chain reaction must be maintained with a particular number of electrons at a required level of power. In order to sustain a chain reaction the numbers of neutrons available to cause fission must be the same in each cycle of generation such that the value of multiplication factor must be unity and the value of reactivity must be zero for a certain level of power

Principal Of Heat Generation Fission Reaction

9 Sr90

n1

235

U236
- Ray

Xe144

n1

Since loss of mass of 1 a.m.u is equivalent to an fission, release of 931the masses of U235 and the neutrons. In the above equation, (1) the total mass before energy is the sum of MeV. Therefore energy release in t the above reaction could be calculated asis the sum of fission fragments and neutrons. Mass after fission follows. Since

4.CLASSIFICATION OF POWER REACTORS

On the basis of neutron energy
Each fission process produces 2.5 new neutrons and, at least one of these must produce a further fission for a chain reaction to be maintained. So for every 100 neutrons, produced in one neutron generation, at least 40 must cause further fissions so as to produce 40 x 2.5 or 100 neutrons in the next generation. Now the neutrons produced at fission are fast neutrons with an average energy of 2 MeV. If the fissions occur in natural uranium fuel, 99.3% of the nuclei are U- 238 which will only fission with neutrons having energies greater than 1.2 MeV. Therefore only half the fission neutrons can cause U-238 fissions. So out of the 100 neutrons produced at fission, only 50 can cause U-238 fissions. The inelastic scattering cross-section of U-238 is 10 times greater than the fission cross-section at these neutron energies. So, out of these 50 neutrons 5 will be able to cause fission and remaining 45 will be scattered and lose so much energy that they can no longer cause U-238 fission. The fast fission cross section in U-235 is only 1.44 barns and U-235 fast fissions can be ignored with so little U-235 in natural uranium,. Therefore, out of the 100 fast neutrons produced at fission only 5 will cause further fissions and produce 5 x 2.5 or 12.5 new neutrons. Thus, even if leakage and radioactive capture are ignored the chain reaction can not be maintained by fast neutrons in natural uranium. One of two alternatives are available which lead to a power reactor classification as follows:

4.1 Fast Reactors

The U-235 content of the fuel can be increased, i.e., the fuel is highly enriched in U-235 with a substantial decrease in U-238. The U-235 fast fissions are thus, considerably increased in a fast reactor. Some reduction in neutron energy does occur due to inelastic collisions of neutrons with nuclei of the fuel and structural material but most of the fissions are caused by neutrons of energies greater than 0.1Mev.The mass of U-235 required for the reactor to be critical varies with a mount of U-235 enrichment. In all cases the critical mass of fissile material required increases rapidly below 15% to 20% U-235 enrichment. To avoid large fuel inventories a practical fast reactor, such as case C above, would require fuel containing at least 20% U-235 by volume. Incidentally the critical mass of U-235 in a fast reactor is considerably greater than in a thermal reactor with the same fuel composition. The highly enriched fuel and absence of moderator results in a small core therefore, fast reactors have high power density cores. The average power density in a Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) is 500 MW/m3 compared with 100 MW/ m3 for a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR). It is therefore essential that a heat transport fluid with good thermal properties be used. The choice is also limited to a nonmoderating fluid and liquid metals seem to satisfy both requirements. The capture cross-sections of most elements for fast neutrons are small and since there is a relatively large mass of U-235 in the reactor, the macroscopic capture cross-sections of structural material and fission products are small compared with the macroscopic fission cross-section of the U-235.Consequently there is more flexibility in the choice of materials and stainless steel can be used instead of aluminum or zirconium. Fission product poisoning is not significant and for this reason, (and the fact that temperature coefficient of reactivity is low), the excess reactivity required in a fast reactor is small.

4.2 Thermal Reactors

Since a chain reaction can not be maintained with fast neutrons without considerable enrichment, the alternative is to reduce the neutron energy until the fission cross-section of U-235 is sufficiently increased. If the neutrons are reduced to thermal energies, the U-235 fission cross-section is 580 barns whereas the radioactive capture cross-section is 106 barns. Thus, even allowing for the low percentage of U-235 in natural uranium, the thermal neutron fission cross-section in natural uranium is 4.2 barns whereas the radioactive capture cross-section is 3.5 barns. Thus, for every 77 neutrons captured in natural uranium about 40 will cause fission and produce 40 x 2.5 or 100 new neutrons. For 77 neutrons out of every 100 to be captured, fewer than 23 neutrons can be lost by escape or radioactive reaction could be sustained. In thermal reactors the fission 6

neutrons are thermalised by slowing them down in a moderator. Most of the power reactors in existence are thermal reactors.

TYPES OF THERMAL REACTORS

In the previous lesson reactors were classified on the basis of neutron energy and the various advantages and disadvantages of fast and thermal systems were enumerated. It was mentioned that most of the reactor systems, at present in operation, are thermal reactors. Thermal reactors will now be classified further on the basis of core structure, the moderator used and the heat transport system used. Some reference will be made to the advantages and disadvantages of each type, but some of these considerations will be discussed later when moderator and heat transport system properties are discussed. The moderator may be: 1. Light water 2. Heavy water 3. Graphite 4. Organic liquids The heat transport system may be: 1. Pressurized light water 2. Pressurized heavy water 3. Boiling light water 4. Boiling heavy water 5. Gases such as CO2 or helium 6. Liquid metals 7. Steam or fog 8. Organic liquids

4.2.1 Heavy Water Moderated Reactors

Heavy water has a much lower neutron capture cross section than both light water and graphite. The principal advantage of using heavy water as a moderator is, therefore, the neutron economy that can be achieved with it. The thermal utilization factor, f, in the four factor formula, is increased because of lower neutron capture in the moderator. Neutron economy is so much improved that not only can natural uranium fuel be used, but that this fuel can be used in oxide or carbide form. Thus, there is no longer any need for an enrichment plant. In addition oxide or carbide fuel improve the fuel integrity and the fuel in less susceptible to distortion.

4.2.2 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

PHWRs have established over the years a record for dependability, with load factors in excess of 90% over extended periods. In the PHWR, the heavy water moderator is contained in a large stainless steel tank (calandria) through which runs several hundred horizontal zircaloy calandria tubes. The D2O moderator is maintained at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of about 70C. Concentric with the calandria tube, but separated by a carbon dioxide filled annulus which minimizes heat transfer from fuel to the moderator, is the zircaloy pressure tube containing the natural UO2 fuel assemblies and the heavy water coolant at a pressure of about 80 kg/cm and a temperature of about 300C. The term pressurized refers to the pressurized D2O coolant which flows in opposite directions in adjacent tubes and passes its heat to the secondary coolant via the steam generators. System pressure is maintained by a pressuriser on one of the legs of a steam generator.

4.2.3 Graphite Moderated Reactors

With a graphite moderator, a liquid or a gas must be used as the coolant. Although there are water cooled graphite-moderated reactors, e.g., the Soviet Unions RBMK series of power stations, of which Chernobyl is one, only gas cooled reactors will be referred to here. Whilst the United States and Canada pioneered, respectively, the light and heavy water moderated designs, France and United Kingdom undertook the early development of the graphite moderated reactor, selecting carbon dioxide as the coolant because of its relative Electrical inertness and low neutron activation. France abandoned this approach in favor of an extensive PWR programme. The UK continued to be heavily committed to gas cooled reactors in the form, initially, of magnox and subsequently the advanced gas cooled reactor.

5. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF RAPS

The Nuclear Power plant works on two cycles:1. Primary Cycle (Primary Heat Transport) 2. Secondary Cycle (Rankine Cycle)

5.1 THE PRIMARY HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM 5.1.1 Principle operation

Primary heat transport system provides the means for transferring the heat produced in the fuel (located inside the pressure tubes of the reactor) to the Steam generators (boilers) in which the steam to run the turbine is generated from ordinary DM water. The heat transport medium is pressurized heavy water and is circulated through the main circuit by primary coolant pumps. The principal feature of the system is to maintain continuous circulation of coolant through the reactor at all times i.e. during normal & abnormal operation and shutdown condition The PHT system provides continuous circulation of coolant through the reactor at all times by various modes as listed below: Normal operation: - By primary coolant pump. Sudden loss of power to pumps: - By inertia of pump flywheels to avoid a sudden drop in coolant flow. Thermo siphoning: - By placing main equipment above the elevation of reactor core. Loss of primary coolant: - By receiving emergency injection of heavy water from moderator system after depressurization of primary heat transport system. In case of paucity of heavy water from moderator system light water injection is initiated.

5.1.2 Description
The heavy water runs through the feeders into 306 coolant tubes, through the end fittings and feeders to the reactor outlet headers. The reactor utilizes restriction orifices in selected inlet feeders to achieve the flow required by the reactor channel ratings, commensurate with equal temperature from all channels. The reactors outlet headers distribute the flow through 8 boiler inlet valves, 4 on the north and 4 on the south, to the respective 8 boilers (in new PHWR it is only 4 boilers 2 on each side). From the boilers through the boiler outlet valve the heavy water arrives at the pumps. Each pump is associated with a respective boiler through an individual suction line. The pumps discharge the flow through pump discharge valves into the reactor inlet header. No common suction header has been provided and pumps are attached directly to the boilers, the only common connection being reactor inlet and outlet headers. This arrangement allows the isolation of any of the circulating pumps and leads to the loss of a boilers, the circuit has no spare pump. This situation is acceptable in view of the expected high reliability of the heat transport pumps and also that the loss of a pump and a boiler does not result in a substantial loss of plant capacity. From the reactor inlet headers the heavy water flows through the feeders and end fittings to the reactor coolant tubes. 9

Corrosion products and fission products are removed from the system by purification circuit. Purification circuit also helps to achieve a pH value between 9.5 to 10.5 and to maintain the conductivity of heavy water between 20 to 30 micromho/cm. In addition it reduces radiolytic decomposition of heavy water by controlling ionic impurities. The operating design pressure in the reactor outlet headers is controlled at 87 Kg/cm2 (1237.5 psig). The pressure is controlled by a feed and bleed system. In the event of a leak in the primary system, no matter how large it is, cooling of the fuel can be maintained or restored by the emergency injection system which is designed to pump heavy water from the moderator system into the primary system. For cooling the system below 300F and for holding the system at low temperature during plant maintenance, an auxiliary cooling system is provided which is known as standby cooling system or shutdown cooling system. The system is connected between reactor outlet and inlet header at each end of the reactor. If normal heat removal fails and normal pressure control fails or their capacities are exceeded, the increase in coolant volume caused by the reactor heat would be passed out of the primary system by relief valves. One relief line connects the pressurized end of the north standby cooling loop, to the bleed condenser through these instrumented safety relief valves in parallel. Isolated boilers are protected against accidental high pressure by system relief valves. The PHT pumps are provided with flywheels to provide better flow coast down after pump trip. The system layout as discussed above assures adequate flow for decay heat removal from reactor during shutdown by thermosyphoning action. A separate shutdown cooling system is provided to remove reactor decay heat during cold shutdown conditions. This mode of cooling permits the draining of the steam generators and pumps in the PHT system for maintenance. An emergency core cooling system provides adequate coolant flow to prevent overheating of the fuel in the unlikely event of loss of coolant accident.

PRIMARY HEAT TRANSPORT

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11

5.2 RANKINE CYCLE.

Rankine cycle is a vapour power cycle having two basic characteristics: The cycle consists of a succession of steady flow processes, with each process carried out in a separate component specially designed for the purpose. The working fluid used in the plant, i.e. water substance, when passes through the cycle of operation undergoes changes in pressure and temperature (enthalpy). It receives heat in various feed heaters and undergoes pressure change by pumps in the circuit. The preheated water is converted into saturated steam inside steam generators and finally supplied to the turbine, in which it undergoes a fall in pressure and increase in volume and gives up a certain amount of energy to the turbine shaft. On reaching the lowest pressure in the system, in the condenser, heat is extracted from it by the cooling water and it is thus restored to its original conditions as condensate. In the simplest possible form of heat cycle for a steam turbine power plant, the process thus comprises four steps. 1) Increase of pressure of the condensate in the feed pump, with a resultant very small absorption of work. 2) The supply of heat by the combustion of fuel to produce steam in the steam generator. 3) The expansion of the steam in the turbine, with the production of work. 4) The rejection of heat by the steam to the cooling water at constant pressure in the condenser, and the return of the water to its original condition. The cycle is rarely as simple as this and is often complicated by such devices as regenerative feed heating and reheating. Under ideal conditions of expansion in the turbine the above cycle is known as the Rankine cycle .The cycle shown in figure represents a power station cycle without feed heating. 1-2-3-4-5-6 Feed water receives the sensible heat 6-7.Feed water receives the latent heat 7-8 Adiabatic expansion of steam through high pressure turbine 8-9 Moisture removal and reheating 9-10 Adiabatic expansion of steam through the low pressure turbine.10-1 Condensation of steam in condenser at constant pressure.

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RANKINE CYCLE

Rankine Cycle on P-V ,T-S, H-S axis.

13

SECONDARY CYCLE

14

STATION FLOW DIAGRAM

15

6 MAIN COMPONENTS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

6.1 REACTOR BUILDING
Reactor building mainly consists of two system6.1.1 PHT system 6.1.2 Moderator system 6.1.1.1 Calandria Calandria is a huge cylindrical structures which houses bundles. The specifications regarding 200 MWe reactors calandria are:Weight Length Main Shield I.D. Small Shell I.D. Thickness of Shell 22 tons 4645 mm 5996 mm 4928 mm 25 mm

There are 306 channels each accommodating 12 bundles. The calendria is housed in steel lined concrete. calandria vault filled with light water which provides shielding and cooling of vault structure. calandria tubes made up of zircaloy.

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6.1.1.2 Control Rods The control rods contain material that regulates the rate of the chain reaction. If they are pulled out of the core, the reaction speeds up. If they are inserted, the reaction slows down. In RAPS, cobalt(Co-59) is used as control rods.The used cobalt is then processed and enriched .The enriched cobalt is then used for different purposes such as cobalt therapy etc.

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6.1.1.3 Fuelling Machine Reactor fuel is moved into and out of reactor by a pair of fuelling machines that is clamped to channels on north and south ends of the reactor. It consists of Head, which contains positioning the mechanisms for manipulating the fuel, a carriage for Head in line with any desired fuel channel, and numerous houses and cables, which supplies fluid and electrical services. A ram and associated mechanism is provided for pushing reactor fuel and handling plugs in the reactor channels. The ram is operated by the hydraulic pressure of Heavy water. The fuelling machine is left in the vault when not in the use, unless maintenance operations are required on it. The various plugs and fuel handled by the fueling machines are stored in the various chambers of the rotary magazine. The magazine has twelve chambers. Refueling can be done in a number of channels during one refueling session 6.1.1.4 Dump Tank Just below the calandria and connected to it by a transition section and expansion joint is the dump tank. The purpose is to provide containment to the moderator when dumped through the S-shaped dump ports. In normal operation the tank will be empty and contain helium at 24 psi to support the moderator in the calandria. 6.1.1.5 Coolant Channels Coolant channels are placed inside the calandria channel with air in between them as an insulator. Coolant i.e. pressurized Heavy Water is paved through there coolant channels where bundles are placed and thus carry vary the heat generated there in. It is called PHT (Primary Heat Transfer). The reason for using Heater Water as coolant is that its neutron capturing capacity is less than light water. Coolant channels are made up of Zr-2.5% Niobium. This material is having very lot neutron absorption cross-section and good mechanical strength. In RAPS-2 all the coolant channels were replaced during 1994-98.

6.1.1.6 Nuclear Fuel The fuel used in a PHWR type reactor is sintered natural uranium di-oxide in the form of small pellets. These pellets are kept in the zircalloy tubes and are 24 per tube. The tubes are known as pencils and 19 pencils make a complete fuel bundle. The pencils are held between end plates and zircalloy provide spacing between the tubes and zircalloy pads provide bearing action. This help mixing of the coolant flow with the sub channels between the elements.

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Fuel Bundle

6.1.1.7 STEAM

GENERATORS.
Heat energy generated in the reactor is transported by the PHT heavy water to steam generators (boilers). Heat transfer takes place in steam generator from primary to secondary ordinary water in order to generate steam which in turn drives the turbine. 6.1.1.7.1 Description of Steam Generator Heavy water is flowing through tube side(primary side) of steam generator and the ordinary water is circulated through secondary side (shell side) of steam generator. Each steam generator comprises of ten hair pin type heat exchangers and a common steam drum containing moisture separator. (a) Primary side or Tube side Each hair pin heat exchanger has 195 tubes, 10 mm dia. and the tube material is made of monel. Hot heavy water from reactor outlet header enters in boiling leg of the heat exchanger and comes out through the pre-heat leg. There is no provision for manual inservice inspection for this type heat exchanger. 19

In case any tube leaks, tritiated heavy water will come in secondary circuit. Manual sampling of steam and feed water will monitor any tube leak. Provision is being made to detect on line tube leak by N16,O19 activity monitor installed on blow down line of steam generator. (b) Secondary side or Shell side All sides of each of the ten heat exchanger shell sides forming the boiler are connected to a steam-drum through individual risers. There are two legs in each steam generator. One is called preheat leg and the other is boiling leg, as shown. The pre-heated feed water of 173oC after HP heaters enters in the pre-heat leg of the steam generator and rises through baffle plates. The hot water after receiving heat from primary will go to the common steam drum through riser .The water is circulated from drum through the down comer to the boiling leg .Boiling takes place on the water surface of the drum and steam formation will be there above the drum water. The steam is withdrawn from steam generator through peerless type four bank top outlet moisture extractor. By removal of the end baffles from the Vthbank of the moisture extractor, provision for increasing the steam capacity to 1.2 x 10E6 kg/hr. ( 3 x 106 lb./hr.) was made. The out let steam line from all four SGs in each side combined together form the main steam line for north and south side respectively.

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6.1.1.7.2 Material of Construction SG failures are usually tube leaks and tube sheet cladding defects. Selection of tube material involves variables such as good thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, the long term build up of radiation fields etc. Tube material of SG is INCOLOY-800. Incoloy 800 (Ni 35 Cr 23 Fe) is a relatively recent material for use in nuclear SGs and is reported to be highly corrosion resistant in water and steam services and has good resistance against stress corrosion cracking with controlled water chemistry, low stress level etc. Incoloy 800 with a limited cobalt of 0.03% (max.) is a better material than Inconel-600 or Monel-400 due to its lower Ni content so far as cobalt release into the system is concerned. 21

6.1.2 MODERATOR SYSTEM The following are the parts of moderator system1. Calandria 2. Coolant Channels 3. Over Pressure Rupture Disc 4. Dump Tank 5. Expansion Joint Heater water moderator is filled in calandria serving the essential purpose of slowing down the fast neutrons as well as acting as heat sink in case of an emergency. For the cooling of moderator another cycle runs through heat exchangers where heat is transferred to process water system. The specification of 220 MWe No. of pumps : 05 Heat exchangers : 02 8. 6. Dump Port

7.Moderator Pumps Heat Exchanger 9.Control Valves

In Unit 1&2 moderator is filled up to 98.6% and rest is filled with Helium gas. This proposal is necessary for shutdown of the plant. In Unit 3&4 moderator is filled up to 100% of moderator as the shutdown mechanism is entirely different. It has got primary shut off rods which gets inserted into calandria and absorbs neutrons thus causing breakage of chain reaction. For this there are 14 shut off rods made up of Cadmium sandwiched in SS. It was seen that the fission cross-section for thermal neutrons is so much greater than the radioactive capture crosssection that the high fuel enrichment, required in fast reactors, is no longer necessary. In heterogeneous thermal reactor systems, little or no enrichment is required. The slowing down of fission neutrons to thermal energies takes place in two stages: (a) Inelastic scattering by the heavier nuclei, such as U-238, which are already present in the fuel. During this stage the neutron energy is only reduced to about 0.1 MeV and so, further slowing down of the neutrons is required.

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(b)

Further slowing down of neutrons, below 0.1 MeV, occurs by elastic scattering of the neutrons by the lighter nuclei of the moderator. The basic requirements of moderators will now be discussed at greater length and the suitability of substances, as moderators, will be considered.

MODERATOR SYSTEM

6.1.2.1 SPECIFICATION OF MODERATOR HX 23

During nuclear reaction fast moving neutrons are slowed down by moderator due to this temperature of moderator increases .So it is necessary to cool down the moderator.This is done by using two horizontal shell & tube type HX. Parameters Fluid Flow rate (Kg/hr ) Temperature ( 0C ) No. of Passes Velocity(m/s) Pressure drop(Kg/cm2) Design pressure Design Temperature ( 0C ) Overall Dimension(mm) Heat transfer area( m2) No. of tubes Hold up Shell Process water 22,72,800 (35/43.9) Split flow 1.8 4.5 49 1276 ID, 8153 long, 10thi. 872 5 tonnes Tube D2O 9,53,000 (65/43.8) two 1.66 0.7 11 82 12.6 OD, 6676 long, 1thi. 3300 -

6.2 STEAM TURBINE

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Steam turbine is a rotating machine in which heat energy of steam is converted into mechanical energy. 6.2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STEAM TURBINE The steam is caused to fall in pressure in a passage or nozzle; due to this fall in pressure a certain amount of heat energy is converted into mechanical kinetic energy, and the steam is set moving with a greater velocity. The rapidly moving particles of steam enter the moving part of the turbine and here suffer a change in direction of motion which gives rise to a change of momentum and therefore to a force. This constitutes the driving force of the machine. 6.2.2 IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF TURBINE

i. The Nozzle: This is the element in which the steam expands from a high pressure and a state of comparative rest to a lower pressure and a state of comparatively rapid motion. ii. The Blades or deflector: This is the element in which the stream of steam particles strike and experience a change in momentum due to change in direction resulting in a tangential force for rotation of turbine. The blades are attached to the rotating element of the machine, or rotor; whereas, in general the nozzles are attached to the stationary part of the turbine, which is usually termed the stator, casing or cylinder. 6.2.3 Turbines are of two types : 1. Impulse turbine :In this, steam is expanded in turbine nozzle and attains a high velocity, also complete expansion of steam takes place in the nozzle & steam pressure during the flow of steam over turbine blades remains constant. The blades have symmetrical profile. 2. Reaction turbine :In this, only partial expansion takes place in nozzle and further expansion takes place as the steam flows over the rotor blades.

6.2.4

Compounding in Impulse Turbine

Several problems crop up if the energy of steam is converted in one step, i.e. in a single row of nozzle-blade combination. With all heat drop taking place in one row of nozzles, the steam velocity becomes very high and even supersonic velocity. The rotational speed of the turbine also becomes very high and impracticable which may result in failure of blades due to centrifugal force. So, in order to convert the energy of steam within practical speed range, it is necessary to convert it in several steps and thus reducing the velocity of steam and rotor speed to practical levels. In addition to above there will be a high leaving loss. Following are the various types of compounding. 6.2.4.1Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine Like simple impulse turbine this has also only set of nozzles and entire steam pressure drop takes place there. The kinetic energy of high velocity steam issuing from nozzles is utilized in a number of moving row of blades with fixed blades in between them (instead of a single row of moving blades in simple impulse turbine). The role of the fixed guide blades is just to change the direction of steam jet and guide it to next row of moving blades. This type of turbine is also called Curtis turbine.

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6.2.4.2 Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine This is basically a number of simple impulse turbines in series on the same shaft the exhaust of one steam turbine entering the nozzle of the next turbine. The total pressure drop of the steam does not take place in the first nozzle ring, but is divided equally between all of them. Steam is passed through the first nozzle ring in which it is only partially expanded. It then passes over the first moving blades wheel where most of its velocity is absorbed. From this ring it exhausts into the next nozzle ring and is again partially expanded. The velocity obtained from the second nozzle ring is absorbed by the next wheel of moving blades. This process is repeated in the remaining rings until the whole of the pressure has been absorbed. This type of turbine also called Rateau turbine after its inventor.

6.2.4.3 Pressure-velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine Pressure Velocity Compounding is a combination of both the previous methods and has the advantage of allowing a bigger pressure drop in each stage and so less stages are necessary. Hence, for a given pressure 26

drop the turbine will be shorter, but the diameter of the turbine is increased at each stage to allow for the increasing volume of steam. This type was once very popular, but it rarely used as efficiency is quite low.

6.2.5 IMPULSE VS REACTION-PRESENT TREND The hard and fast distinction between the impulse reaction is becoming progressively less important. The trend is to have some percentage of reaction for an impulse turbine or to have some percentage of impulse for a reaction turbine. It can be mathematically proved that efficiency of reaction stage is greater than efficiency of impulse stage. A pressure difference exists across the reaction type moving blades, therefore, the changes of leakage of steam from around the blade is more in a reaction stage. The advantage of efficiency is off set by the inter stage leakage of steam which flows without doing useful work. Hence a reaction stage should be located in the low pressure region of turbine. There is a general rule to use a greater percentage of impulse on the HP end and greater percentage of reaction on the L. P. end. The percentage of reaction progressively increases as we go towards L. P. end. In actual turbines it is common for the best feature of various types to be ncorporated in one machine. For example, a turbine may have a velocity compounded (Curtis) first stage followed by pressure compounded impulse (Rateau) stages and at the low pressure end of the machine, reaction balding

6.2.6 Turbine Design Data:

6.2.6.1 General: 27

a. Number of extractions and stages : 7 extractions (after HP3 & 4, from whey they are taken out cold reheat & after LP stages including the extraction to reheater. 1,2,3,4 b. Number of exhaust paths : 2 c. Last stage annulus area in each flow : 7.81 m2 d. Last stage blade length & pitch : Length: 944.88 mm diameter Pitch Dia: 2633.47 mm 6.2.6.2 Rotor details: a. HP rotor : 5 stages (impulse/ reaction blade design; all shrouded, In addition stage#4 blade packets are under strapped) b. LP rotor : 2 x 5 stgs. (Impulse/ reaction blade design, stelite strips brazed to outer leading edge of last row moving blades, blades in stages # 1 to 3 are shrouded & stage # 4 & 5 have lacing wire & lacing rods respectively, in addition stage # 3 blade packets are under strapped.) 6.2.6.3 Materials of construction: a. HP turbine casing : 2.25% Cr-Mo steel casting b. LP casing (inner & outer) : Mild steel fabrication c. CIES valve steam chest : 2.25% Cr 1% Mo steel casting d. HP moving blades : Stainless steel (12-14% Cr) e. HP diaphragm blades : Low carbon 12-14% Cr. I stainless steel f. LP moving blades : Stainless steel (12-14% Cr.) g. LP diaphragm blades : Low carbon 12-14%Cr. I stainless steel h. HP rotor : 3.25-3.75% Ni Cr Mo -V Steel i. LP Mono-block Rotor : 3.5% Ni Cr - Mo-V steel j. Stelite strip : 68% Co, 26% Cr, 5% W, 1% C k. HP & LP labyrinth glands : Ni leaded bronze (excl. HP # 4&%) l. HP stages # 4&5 packing ring : 13% Cr. Steel casting 110 m. CIES & HP governor valve body : 2.25% Cr 1% Mo steel , stelited & seat n. CIES & HP governor valve spindle : Nitralloy Steel forging 6.2.6.4 Working pressure and temperatures (at full load): CIES Valve HP Cylinder LP Cylinder Pressure (kg/cm2, a ) 40.33 38.31 5.67 Temperature (0C) 249.65 246.64 232.9

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6.3 CONDENSOR
6.3.1 The functions of condenser i. To provide lowest economic heat rejection temperature for the steam. Thus saving on steam required per unit of electricity. ii. To convert exhaust steam to water for reuse thus saving on feed water requirement. iii. Deaeration of make-up water introduced in the condenser. iv. To form a convenient points for introducing make up water. v. To provide means for venting and draining of associated equipment of feed water system.

6.3.2 Types of Condenser Condenser is basically a heat exchanger and hence can be of two types: i. Direct contact. In this type, condensation of steam takes place by directly mixing exhaust steam and cooling water. Requirement of cooling water is much less here compared to surface type. But cooling water quality should be equal to condensate quality ii Surface Contact The condenser essentially consists of a shell, which encloses the steam space. Tubes carrying cooling water pass through the steam space. The tubes are supplied cooling water from inlet water box on one side and discharged, after taking away heat from the steam, to the outlet water box on the other side. Instead of one inlet and one outlet water boxes, there may be two or more pair of separate inlet-outlet water boxes, each supplying cooling water to a separate bundle of tubes. This enables cleaning and maintenance, of part of the tubes while turbine can be kept running on a reduced load.

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6.3.3 Materials for Condenser Tubes Selection of tube material depends mainly on the quality of cooling water and the cost. Copper bearing alloys are preferred as copper has very high heat transfer coefficient. But as copper has very little mechanical strength; it has to be reinforced by alloying with other metals. Copper alloys are basically of three categories: (i.) Brasses, (ii) Cupro-nickel and (iii) Bronzes. Stainless steel tubes has also been used and has good corrosion resistance though heat transfer co-efficient is quite lower than the copper alloys. Because of high cost, stainless steel is used only where water is highly corrosive. Some sea side power plants are also using Titanium despite high cost, because of high corrosive environment. Now a days monel material is also preferred as one of the high corrosion resistant material In RAPS 3& 4, Cu-Ni alloy (70-30) is used as material for condenser tubes. 6.3.4 Technical Specification of Condenser 1. Type : Surface condenser 2. No. of Pass : Single 3. Heat load at MCR (Kcal/hr.) : 4.452 x 10-8 4. Effective heat transfer area : 19,500 m2 5. Cooling water flow (m3 /hr.) : 55,740 0 6. Design cooling water inlet temperature ( C) : 33 7. Design shell pressure [kg/cm2 (g)] : 2.0 8. Design water box pressure [kg/cm2 (g)] : 2.0 9. Design Temp. - shell (0C) : 100 10. Design Temp. - water box (0C) : 100 11. Design code : HEI & ASME Sec. VIII : Div. - 1 12. Tube Material : St. steel TP 7161 13. Tube outside dia./ thickness : 22.225 mm : 0.711 mm 14. Effective length between tube sheets : 13.5 m 3 15. Hot well capacities (m ) Normal level : 47.0 Higher level : 58.0 Lower level : 31.5

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6.4 DEARATOR
6.4.1 Functions The presence of certain gases like Oxygen, carbon dioxide and ammonia, dissolved in water is harmful because of their corrosive attack on metals, particularly at elevated, temperatures. Thus in modern highpressure boiler, to prevention internal corrosion, the feed water should be free, as far as practicable, of all dissolved gases, especially oxygen. This is achieved by embodying into the fled system a deaerating unit, apart from this; a dearator also serves the following functions: 1) Heating incoming feed water. 2) To act as a reservoir to provide a sudden or instantaneous demand. 6.4.2 Principle of Deaeration a) The solubility of any gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. This holds within close limits for any gas which does not react electrically with the solvent. b) Solubility of gases decreases with increase in solution temperature and or decrease in pressure. 6.4.3 A typical Dearator A constant pressure dearator, pegged at 7 kg/ cm2 (abs.) is provided in turbine regenerative cycle to provide properly deaerated feed Water for boiler, limiting gases (mainly oxygen) to 0.005 cc/Liter. It is a direct contact type heater combined with feed storage tank of adequate capacity. The heating steam is normally supplied from turbine erections but during starting and low load operation the steam is supplied from auxiliary source. The dearator comprises of two chambers: i.) Deaerating column ii.) Feed storage tank. Deaerating column is a spray cum tray type cylindrical vessel of horizontal construction with dished ends welded to it. The tray stack is designed to ensure maximum contact time as well as optimum scrubbing of condensate to achieve efficient deaeration. The deaerating column is mounted on the feed storage tank is fabricated from boiler quality steel plates. Manholes are provided on deaerating column as well as on feed storage tank for inspection and maintenance. The feed water is admitted at the top of the deaerating column and flows downwards through the spray valves and trays, the trays are designed to expose to the maximum water surface for efficient scrubbing to affect the liberation of the associated gases. Steam enters from the underneath of the tray and flows in counter direction of condensate. While flowing upward through the trays, scrubbing and heating is done. Thus the liberated gases move upwards along with the steam. Steam gets condensed above the trays and in turn heats the condensate. Liberated gases escape to atmosphere from the orifice opening meant for it. This opening is provided with a number of deflectors to minimize the loss of steam. In some dearator designs, a vent condenser is also located above the dearator. A portion of feed water is first passed through the vent condenser before it enters the dearator. This water is heated by remaining steam after steam has passed through the dearator. Thus only gases escape to atmosphere.

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6.4.4 DEAERATOR SPECIFICATION 1. Type 2. Design Code 3. Design Temperature 4. Design Temperature 5. Condensate flow rate at MCR 6. Extraction steam flow MCR 7. Condensate out let temperature at MCR 8. Capacity of dearator storage Tank at normal Level 9. Dissolved oxygen in Effluent Feed water 10. Steam dumping condition 11. Deaerator Outside diameter Overall length Thickness Material No. of spray nozzles 12. Storage tank Outside diameter Thickness Overall length Material : Spray-Cum-Tray : ASME sec VIII Div - I : 6 kg/cm2 (g) and full vacuum : 1650C :1017735.5 kg/hr. : 5791.0 kg/hr : 156.50C :235m2 : 0.005 cc/litre : 0.60C : 2.60m : 9.00m : 16.00mm : SA 515/516 Gr : 10 : 4.0 m : 18.0 m : 23350 mm : SA 515/516 Gr

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6.5 DRAIN COOLER

This is a shell and tube heat exchanger using the main condensate as cooling water. The main condensate passes through the tube side and the drains from the LP heaters pass on the shell side, give away the heat to the main condensate before being drained to the condenser hot well. 6.6 Types of feed water heaters 6.6.1 High pressure feed water heaterFunctional needs The structural design of high-pressure (HP) feed water heaters are determined by two1main needs: (a) To contain the steam and HP feed water at the appropriate cycle conditions. (b) To provide the heat transfer surface to raise the feed- water temperature by the specified amount.

Construction The heater has both integral drain cooling and de-superheating sections. The desuperheating section is placed on the outlet end of the U-tubes in order that the incoming super- heater steam can raise the feed water near to or above the saturation temperature of the body pressure before it leaves the heater. The drain cooling section is placed at the inlet end of the tubes to allow the outgoing drains to be cooled to as near to the incoming feed water temperature as needed. Steam enters the de-superheating section and is reduced in temperature by transferring its heat to the feed water to within 27C of the temperature of saturation of the condensing section pressure. The steam then flows to the condensing section, where it leaves as water at saturation temperature to enter the drain cooling section. A water seal is maintained at the inlet to the drain cooling section by a level control system to prevention loss of prime in the section. In the drain cooling section, the condensate is cooled to the drain outlet temperature and then discharged to the next lowest pressure heater. Each section within the heater is provided with baffles to ensure flow across the outside of the tubes by the heating medium. As the heating steam is condensed in the heater, non-condensable gases are released. Unless correctly vented these would rapidly blanket the heat transfer surface and would impair the heater thermal performance. To remove these gases, vents connected to the condenser are provided at strategic points throughout the heater tube-nest

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6.6.2 Low pressure feed water heater Functional needs Because LP heater extraction points are normally on the LP turbine cylinders, the superheat (even on the highest-pressure LP heater) does not justify the provision of de-superheating section within the heaters. Drain cooling section can be provided but the complication and the cost of a drain level control system can seldom be justified. It is usual practice to have the LP heaters and to provide a drain cooler upstream of the lowest pressure heater to recover some of the heat in the drains. Construction The construction of vertical and horizontal LP heaters is very similar. The following descriptions are for horizontal heaters but any significant points of dissimilarity between horizontal and vertical heaters are included. The maximum head that the condenser extraction pump can generate occurs at the no flow condition and is sometimes called the closed valve head. The LP heaters are designed on the feed water side to withstand the extraction pump closed valve head. The general form of the LP heater is similar to HP heaters but, because the feed water side pressure is modest, the water header can be of cylindrical design with a dished end. The shell side pressures are also modest, so again the shell is cylindrical in section with a welded dished end. A fixed and a sliding foot are provided to support the heater. The shell, tube plate and water headers are all made of mild steel. An all-welded construction is used and it is accepted that in the unlikely event of access being required to the heater internals, the shell will have to be removed by cutting close to the back of the tube plate. The tubes are roller-expanded into the tube plate. The tubes of LP heaters may be of 70/30 brass or stainless steel as dictated by steam temperature or boiler feed water chemistry requirements. Brass, cupronickel may be used in LP heaters where the steam temperature is not greater than 150C,above this temperature stainless steel is used.

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6.6.3 Specification of HP & LP feed water heaters

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6.7 PUMPS
In RAPS ,mainly pumps are categorized into five groups 6.7.1 Moderator Circulating Pump 6.7.2 Primary Heat Transport Circulating Pump 6.7.3 Boiler Feed Pump 6.7.4 Condensate Extraction Pump 6.7.1 Moderator Circulating Pump Heavy water used as moderator inside the Calendria gets heated up due to neutron moderation and capture, attenuation of gamma radiation as well as due to transfer of heat from other reactor components in contact. This heat is transported to moderator system heat exchanger outside of the core where it is transferred to Active L.P. process water system which in turn transfers this heat to the induced draft cooling system. Circulation of moderator through moderator heat exchangers is accomplished by moderator pumps. These pumps are installed at 95 m elevation in Reactor Building. 6.7.2 Primary Heat Transport Circulating Pump Primary Circulating Pumps (PCPs) are located at the downstream of each steam generator and pump and coolant into the respective reactor inlet header. These are vertically mounted centrifugal pump. Pump casing is at 114.6 in Elevation and motor top touches 121.20 m Elevation. PHT pumps circulate heavy water through the reactor and steam generators; hence directly affect the availability of the station. The pumps are on the downstream side of the steam generators and thus located at a point of lowest temperature in the circuit. Each of the PHT pumps equipped with a fly wheel located at the motor top. The energy stored in the fly wheel keeps the pump operating for 2 minutes after loss of power and with the specified slowing down rate, the coolant flow isadequate at all times. Natural gravity circulation (Thermosyphoning) starts after the pump comes to rest and this will suffice to remove about 6% of the full power. The actual heat input to the coolant after the pump in down is approximately 6% of full power. 6.7.3 Boiler Feed Pump There (3) nos. 50 % boiler feed pumps 4321-P-1003, 1004 & 1005 each of capacity 716 MR/hr located in the Turbine Building ground floor take suction from the dearator storage tank by means of independent suction lines of size 350 mm. The pump common discharge passes through the HP heater No. 6 located on the mezzanine floor to the roof of the DG building where it bifurcates into four headers-going to four steam generators. 6.7.4 Condensate Extraction Pump Condensate extraction pumps are normally multistage, vertical, centrifugal pumps. They are generally required to operate on minimum net positive suction head NPSH. The condensate pumps operate on few inches of suction submergence. A vent line connects the hot well, from where the condensate pumps take suction with the condenser. This equalizes the vapour pressure of condenser and hot well. No. of stages in the pump is determined by the discharge pressure required for the condensate cycle. In 220 MW unit, two condensate extraction pumps, each having 100% capacity, are provided for pumping the condensate to dearator.

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6.8 COOLING TOWERS

Mainly there are two types of cooling towers:IDCT : Induct Draft Cooling Towers NDCT : Natural Draft Cooling Towers

The main purpose of these cooling towers is to bring down the temperature of circulating water. This is light water that circulates through the heat exchanger and carried away the heat generated by the DM water. This DM water condenses the steam. Hence the application of cooling towers enhances the efficiency of the plant. Following is the description of the types of cooling towers: IDCT

As the name indicates it requires induced draft for cooling the active process water. Big fans are used to produce the draft. The active water is used in Reactor Building to cool various process equipments etc. NDCT

The inductive water that is used to condense water is further cooled by natural draft. They are 150M high with hyperbolic shape atomizing action.

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7. ZONE CLASSIFICATION
Depending on contamination level the entire plant is divided into four zones. This classification is as follows: ZONE 1 zero contamination (admin. buildings, official buildings etc.) ZONE 2 zero contamination (shop floors) ZONE 3 little contamination (service buildings) ZONE 4 very high contamination (reactor building)

METHODS OF MEASURING DOSE

For measuring dose absorbed by a person, devices known as dosimeters are used. Generally there are two types of dosimeters these are: 1. Direct Reading Dosimeters (DRD). 2. Thermo Luminescence dosimeter (TLD). Direct Reading Dosimeters (DRD): This device measures the dose directly and is used for day to day dose control. It is a pen shaped device and lenses are fitted on both the ends. On bigger lens, a scale is marked which directly tells about the dose absorbed. For reading the DRD it is so held that the bigger lens should face the light source and it is seen from the smaller lens. This dosimeter is used in Third and Fourth Zone only. Thermo Luminescence dosimeter (TLD): This is a badge type device and is used to dose absorbed during one months time. TLD badge consists of a TLD CARD loaded in a CASSETTE. The dose measured by TLD is based on the phenomenon of THERMOLUMINISCENSE. TLD cassette has a dual metallic filter and an open window to distinguish between doses received due to different type of radiation (alpha, beta & gamma) and provides energy dependence correction. Personal data such as Name, TLD No., Service months etc. are written on it. The person has to wear his TLD badge at his chest level when entering the operating island. After one month, the TLD card is sent to the TLD laboratory where the absorbed dose is measured.

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8. RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT

GENERAL
Operation of a nuclear facility like nuclear power station inevitably leads to the production of low level radioactive wastes which are collected segregated to select best processing method, and conditioned for either interim site storage or for disposal. The design of facilities is such that the average public exposure from radioactive materials at the exclusion boundary is a small fraction of the recommended AERB limits. The radioactive wastes produced at the site may belong to one of the following categories: Spent Fuel, Solid Wastes, Liquid Wastes & Gaseous Wastes. Spent fuel is stored in a pool of water until it is ready for shipping for reprocessing at special facilities. 8.1 SOLID RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Solid radioactive waste in segregated into three general categories based on contact dose. Category -1 wastes. : Largely originates Protective clothing, contaminated metal parts and miscellaneous items as it may contain no radioactivity. This waste will be collected in unshielded standard drums. Category-II & III Wastes. : Filter cartridges and Ion exchanges resins Typically this waste has an unshielded radiation field greater than 1 R/hr. on contact. These require additional shielding and greater precautions than for category-I during transportation, handling and storage operation. 8.2 LIQUID RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM The Liquid Radioactive Waste Management System provides for collection, storage, sampling and necessary treatment and dispersal of any liquid waste produced by the station. The system is designed to control the release of radioactivity in the liquid effluent streams so that radiations dose to members of the public is with in those stipulated by the regulatory board. This system handles radioactive wastes that are carried in liquid streams from the laundry active floor drains, decontamination center and Electrical laboratories. 8.3 GASEOUS RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM An extensive ventilation system collects potentially active exhaust air from such areas as the Reactor Building, the spent fuel handling and storage area, the decontamination center and the heavy water management area. The active and potentially active exhaust air and gases are all routed to a gaseous effluent exhaust duct. This exhaust flow is monitored for noble gases, tritium, iodine and active particulate before being released. Facilities for filtration are provided. Signals from the iodine, wide range beta-gamma and particulate monitors are recorded in the control center. Tritium monitoring is carried out by laboratory analysis.

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9. RADIATION SAFETY
In a Nuclear reactor the Radiation is produced in following ways: - Directly in fission reaction - By decay of fission products Following types of radiations are encountered: Alpha radiation Beta radiation Gamma radiation Neutron radiation Out of the above types of radiations Alpha radiation is practically zero, whereas Beta and Gamma radiation fields may be present almost everywhere inside the reactor building and in negligible amount even outside the reactor building. Neutron radiations are mainly present inside the reactor vault. It is worth noting that the secondary side of the plant i.e. feed water and steam cycle etc. are completely separate from the nuclear systems and are therefore not supposed to be and neither they are to carry any sort of radioactive particle and therefore free of contamination and radiation. It is also wroth noting that all radiations are emitted from the nucleolus of every radioactive nuclide which will always have a tendency to become stable by emitting radiations through disintegration. Following methodologies are used to control the exposure to the radiation and therefore receive of the radiation dose. Administrative Control Zoning Technique Design Control Operation Control Maintenance and house keeping Exposure to any kind of radiation can be controlled by an individual by following methods: (1) Distance (2) Shielding (3) Decay (Time to Decay)

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10. CONCLUSION
The practical training at R.A.P.S. has proved to be quite faithful. It proved an opportunity for encounter with such huge components like 220MW generators, turbines, transformers and switchyards etc. The way various units are linked and the way working of whole plant is controlled make the students realize that engineering is not just learning the structure description and working of various machines, but the greater part is of planning, proper management. It also provides an opportunity to learn technology used at proper place and time can save a lot of labor for example almost all the controls are computerized because in running condition no any person can enter in the reactor building. But there are few factors that require special mention. Training is not carried out into its tree spirit. It is recommended that there should be some projects specially meant for students where the presence of authorities should be ensured. There should be strict monitoring of the performance of students and system of grading be improved on the basis of the work done. However training has proved to be quite faithful. It has allowed as an opportunity to get an exposure of the practical implementation to theoretical fundamental.

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