Virtue Theory: Aristotle is commonly associated with virtue theory.

. He believed everything in life has a goal or telos For example, the goal of a knife is to cut. In striving for ones goal, one finds fulfilment and happiness Aristotle used the words Eudaimonia which can be translated to happiness or a life well lived. Unlike popular conceptions of vanity, Aristotle emphasises that the journey of happiness starts with self-love. Virtue can be construed as a character trait that enables you to reach your telos or goal. For example, for a knife to cut well, virtues like sharpness of the blade, durability and firmness of the grip would be considered characteristic that would enable the knife to reach its goal. But how do we know what our virtues should be? Aristotle starts off with arguing that every individual has their own natural inclinations or dispositions. These dispositions can be controlled by rational thought. If we exercise our rational thought we can control these natural dispositions in which can be called our second nature. The characteristics of our second nature are our virtues and should be maintained throughout life. So like the Hilux add, happiness is a journey, not a destination. Natural dispositions may cause us to be inclined to do something in excess or in deficiency. Aristotle then advises us to aim for the midpoint between excessive and deficient which he calls the mean.

 For example if the mean is courage, the excess would be rashness and its deficiency cowardice. Can you give me other examples? Shyness Modesty Shamelessness Take note: Every individual has their own unique dispositions and therefore their own journey. Its not about what actions are good, but how we can cultivate our virtues and gain a life well lived in the process.

Deontological ethics: The classical representative of this theory is Immanuel Kant. He insists that there are objective ethical standards of behaviours that everyone should respect. In contrast with Aristotle, Kant shifts the focus away from the quality of agents to the quality of actions.NBNBNB Test question. He believed that the only reliable source of moral guidance resdes in our own independent thinking or rationality. Deontology can be translated as the study of duty and obligations. Kant here argues that we should follow this standard of behaviour that we have discovered through rationality, irrespective of wheter we personally benefit from it. He calls this standard a good will In his search for this objective standard of ethics, he discovered an objective moral law against which all actions could be judged which he called the categorical imperative. The categorical imperative states that an action can only be ethical if one can allow for all to perform the same action. In other worlds all your action should be universalisable.

He further argues that before any action, we should consider that action as becoming a universal law which he calls the principle of universalisability. For example, if you consider cutting into traffic, you should picture a world where its the law that everyone cuts into traffic. Such a world would not allow us safe passage and therefore that action is unethical. Kant further lists three types of actions: Actions from duty, immediate inclination and those impelled by some other inclination. Action from duty simply follows the categorical imperative which pertains to the universal moral law, no other considerations necessary. Action by immediate inclination are actions that one performs out of our natural inclinations. Life saving example for respect. Actions impelled by some other inclination are actions which seem to conform to duty but is done as a means to an end. Example shopkeeper. Kant expands his categorical imperative and states that we should treat other people only as an end and never as a means to an end. This is the only of treating others with respect. Utilitarian ethics: Similar to dentological ethics, it focuses on actions. Classical representative is J.S Mill. The ultimate goal: Happiness, similar to Aristotle. Greatest happiness principle: Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and

the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain or the privation of pleasure. That means whenever we are deliberating an action, we simply have to calculate which of our alternatives for action would result in the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. Or what later utilitarians calls cost/benefit analysis: The choice that would produce the most happiness and the least amount of pain. Mills claims that people are motivated to do the right thing because of sanctions. He lists two types: External and internal External sanctions are external power that are able to influence ones moral behaviour. Judgement by other people and God. It pertains to external consequences. Internal sanctions reger to the sense of duty, which is present in human consciousness. It pertains to internal consequences.