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Metacognition
Theo L. Dawson, Ph.D. (UC Berkeley, 1998), is a respected cognitive developmental psychologist. Her work focuses
on the description of learning sequencesthe actual pathways through which people learn complex concepts and skillsand the design of developmental assessments of these skills. She has worked closely with members of the IC since 2002, when she, along with her colleague Dr. Kurt Fischer (Harvard Graduate School of Education), conducted a study of the sequences through which critical thinking, leadership reasoning, and decision making skills develop in adulthood. Since then, her work with the IC has involved assisting with the design of leadership curricula, evaluating the extent to which curricula support leader development, and helping to define skill levels for a range of leadership and analyst standards. Metacognition 3
Using a metacognitive skill learned in one context to solve a problem in another context. A general term for thinking, sometimes distinguished from metacognition, which is thinking about thinking. Ill-structured problems are open-ended, with unclear goals, multiple solutions, and no right answerslike many of the problems we face in the workplace
Learning how the way one defines and solves problems can be a source of problems (Argyris, 1991).
Models of metacognition
The term metacognition is both a general term for thinking about thinking, and a term used by a particular group of researchers to describe their field. There are numerous models of metacognition, far too many to describe here. To complicate things further, metacognition is a central component of several skill sets that are central to education and the workplace, including (1) reflective judgment, (2) critical thinking, (3) decision making, and (4) problem solving. (Some researchers argue that these are components of metacognition.) Table 1 provides brief descriptions of some of the more prominent metacognitive models.
Metacognition
Self-regulated learners approach educational tasks with confidence, diligence, and resourcefulness; are aware when they know a fact or possess a skill and when they do not; proactively seek out information when needed and take the necessary steps to master it; find a way to succeed even when they encounter obstructions; view learning as a systematic and controllable process; accept responsibility for their achievement outcomes; and monitor the effectiveness of their learning methods or strategies. Self-regulated learning strategies include self-evaluation, organization and transformation, goal setting and planning, information seeking, record keeping, self-monitoring, environmental structuring, giving self-consequences, rehearsing and memorizing, seeking social assistance, and reviewing. (paraphrased from Zimmerman, 1990) In addition to metacognition, motivation and behavior are considered to be components of self-regulated learning.
Metacognition
Implication
Reference The Foundation for Critical Thinking (http://criticalthinking.org) This model includes standards of thought (clarity, accuracy, relevance, logicalness, breadth, precision, significance, completeness, fairness, and depth), which are applied to the elements of thought (shown on the left), resulting in the development of intellectual virtues. This is an iterative cycle, which is repeated as reasoning increases in complexity over the course of development. Critical thinking and creative thought are linked in this model (Paul & Elder, 2006).
The reflective judgment model is a very well-researched model of the development of thinking about thinking. Argyris brings metacognition to the workplace by highlighting the importance of becoming conscious of the consequences of ones actions. He uses real-life examples from the workplace to demonstrate methods for teaching upper level managers to think effectively about their thinking.
(Kitchener & Fischer, 1990; Kitchener & King, 1990; P. K. Wood, 1997) {Argyris, 1991 #14906; Argyris, 1982 #14625;
Metacognition
Metacognition research
Table 3: Metacognition and learning
Finding Metacognitive skills develop. Implication They can be learned. Reference (Baer, Hollenstein, Hofstetter, Fuchs, & Reber-Wyss, 1994; Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, & Campione, 1983; John H. Flavell, 1979; Ruth Garner & Alexander, 1989) (J. H. Flavell, 1981; Ruth Garner & Alexander, 1989; Glenberg, Wilkinson, & Epstein, 1982) (J. Borkowski, Carr, & Pressely, 1987; Bransford, Sherwood, Vye, & Rieser, 1986; Carr, Kurtz, Schneider, Turner, & Borkowski, 1989; R. Garner, 1990; Hascher & Oser, 1995; Mace, Belfiore, & Hutchinson, 2001; Pressley & Ghatala, 1990; B. J. Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001) (Bransford et al., 1986; EwellKumar, 1999; Heath, 1983)
Adults often fail to monitor their thinking. Students who have been taught metacognitive (self-regulated learning) skills learn better than students who have not been taught these skills.
Adults can benefit from metacognitive training. It is possible to produce better learners by teaching metacognitive skills.
Students with good metacognitive skills are better critical thinkers, problem-solvers, or decision makers than students who are not. People whose thinking is more complex tend to have better metacognitive skills. In most people, the development of cognitive complexity progresses at different rates in different knowledge domains, depending upon experience and learning in particular domains. Cognitive development involves both knowledge acquisition and (largely unconscious) knowledge structuring. (If there is no knowledge to organize, then there is no development.) Content knowledge is more easily accessed in real-world situations if students learn how new concepts and procedures can function as tools for solving relevant problems. Both content knowledge and metacognitive skills are essential for learning.
It is possible to produce better critical thinkers, problem-solvers, and decision makers by teaching metacognitive skills. Metacognition and cognitive complexity are related. Since cognitive complexity and metacognition are related, we might expect metacognition to be more advanced in more developed knowledge domains. Because metacognitive skills involve the conscious structuring of knowledge, they are likely to be more developed in areas of greater knowledge. Learning environments should include opportunities for students to reflectively apply new concepts and tools in real-world contexts. Learning may be enhanced when instruction (1) provides explicit content knowledge while (2) asking students to use metacognitive skills to operate on that knowledge. Increased self-confidence and a sense of increased personal responsibility may provide motivation for learning.
(Swanson & Hill, 1993; Vukman, 2005) (Fischer & Pruyne; Fischer, Yan, & Stewart)
(Glaser, 1984)
Metacognitive training can increase students self-confidence and sense of personal responsibility for their own development.
Metacognition
Implication Training in metacognitive skills may enhance students sense of self efficacy, thus increasing their motivation to learn. Metacognitive strategies should be embedded in assignments and classroom activities across the curriculum at every level of instruction
Reference (Bandura, 1986; Hofer & Yu, 2003; Sperling, Howard, Staley, & DuBois, 2004) (Ruth Garner & Alexander, 1989)
Moving adult learners to a point of acknowledging that old routines no longer work as well as new, instructed ones takes time and many demonstrations of the superiority of the new routines. Intelligent novices can use general metacognitive skills to figure out how to obtain knowledge in an unfamiliar domain.
Once adults have gained expertise and learned how to use a range of metacognitive skills in one domain, they can use some of their metacognitive skills to more rapidly learn in another domain. Teachers or intelligent tutors can support the use of existing metacognitive strategies in new knowledge areas by providing feedback that reminds students to employ metacognitive strategies they have used in familiar knowledge areas. Classrooms in which covering the content is emphasized over understanding can deprive students of the opportunity to learn and master learning skills. Concept mapping, used well, is a useful metacognitive skill.
Students receiving intelligent novice feedback acquire a deeper conceptual understanding of domain principles and demonstrate better transfer and retention of skills over time than students who do not receive such feedback. When students perceive an emphasis on mastery goals in their classroom, they report using more metacognitive learning strategies. Use of concept maps helped adult students develop thinking skills, promoted growth in understanding their learning processes, and fostered understanding of knowledge construction. Repeated experiences of dyadic discussions within the classroom improved reasoning skills (over controls). Informal learning is enhanced in managers who employ a wide range of metacognitive strategies. Students in problem based learning classrooms have been found to have higher levels of intrinsic goal orientation, task value, use of elaboration learning strategies, critical thinking, metacognitive selfregulation, effort regulation, and/or peer learning compared with control-group students.
(Daley, 2002)
Active engagement in thinking about a topic enhances the quality of reasoning about that topic. Training in the use of metacognitive strategies may increase informal learning in less metacognitively sophisticated managers. Problem based learning environments may enhance metacognitive skills relative to conventional instructional environments.
Metacognition
Finding Gifted learners have been found to employ fewer metacognitive strategies than less gifted students.
Implication Gifted learners, because they learn easily, may not need to employ metacognitive strategies to excel. This could result in reasoning deficits in later life.
Metacognition
Figure 1: Model of metacognitive skills and conditions for their development and use
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Figure 3: Learning model for the workplace, emphasizing motivation, assessment, and metacognition (adapted from http://www.bbi.school.nz/philosophy/learningtolearn.html)
Metacognitive skills learned in one context are not automatically transferred to another context.
Metacognitive skills are learned and applied more effectively in supported active learning contexts than in direct instruction contexts. An application of metacognition to diversity issues. Could be useful as a starting place for discussion. The role of formative assessment in self-regulated learning. (Byars-Winston & Fouad, 2006) (Nicol & MacFarlaneDick, 2006)
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Activity Cromley summarizes the research findings, then translates them into practical activities for the classroom. This is an excellent resource for adult educators.
Description Skills need to be taught in the context in which they will be used. For example, if students are learning to lead in a high security situation, they need to practice confronting the kinds of issues that come up in high security situations, not just "general" skills. Reading skills are subject-specificunderstanding what you read in a technical report does not guarantee that you will read well in another subject area. Problem-solving skills in one subject area are different from those in other areas. Problem-solving skills need to be taught separately for each subject. Since problem-solving skills do not automatically transfer from one subject area to another, instructors need to show students how to transfer these skills and give them lots of practice. Students need more and better mental models of the world in order to learn and master new information and skills. Thinking skills, such as inferring unstated facts, need to be taught explicitly in the classroom; they do not develop on their own (except in a very few students). These strategies need to be practiced over and over again. Most adult learners have a very limited number of strategies for understanding new material or solving problems. Teaching them more strategies can help them learn much better. Learning lasts when the student understands the material, not just memorizes it. Information needs to be presented in small chunks so that working memory can process it. Students need immediate practice to move information from working memory to long-term memory. It is impossible to remember without associating new information with what you already know.
(From the abstract) This paper proposes an expanded conception of scaffolding with four key elements: (i) scaffolding agency expert, reciprocal, and self-scaffolding; (ii) scaffolding domain conceptual and heuristic scaffolding; (iii) the identification of self-scaffolding with metacognition; and (iv) the identification of six zones of scaffolding activity; each zone distinguished by the matter under construction and the relative positioning of the participant(s) in the act of scaffolding.
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Table 12: Metacognition fads Fad Learning styles Claim Different people have different learning styles (that can be measured with survey-type instruments) and these have an impact on learning. Comments Adjusting teaching style to accommodate different learning styles has not been shown to impact learning. Moreover, catering to learning preferences may limit versatility, having a negative effect on learning over time. Much of the data necessary for demonstrating the unique association between EI and work-related behavior appears to reside in proprietary databases, preventing rigorous tests of the measurement devices or of their unique predictive value. For those reasons, any claims for the value of EI in the work setting cannot be made under the scientific mantle (p. 411) Source (Cromley, 2000; Curry, 1990; Stahl, 2002)
Resources
Table 11: Metacognition curricula
Resource IDEAL problem solving: Identify, Define, Explore, Act, and Look, and Learn. Description The IDEAL problem solving system is based on evidence that successful problem-solvers actively attempt to (a) identify problems that others may have overlooked; (b) develop at least two sets of contrasting goals for any problem and define them explicitly; (c) explore strategies and continually evaluate their relevance to their goals; (d) anticipate the effects of strategies before acting on them; and (e) look at the effects of their efforts and learn from them. (p. 3) Focuses, in part on helping adults manage their own learning using metacognitive skills. Level Premanagement Resources (Bransford, Haynes, Stein, Lin, & NashvilleRead, 1998)
TV411a national television series aimed at adult learners Curricula to enhance students higher order cognitive skills Cognitive Strategy Instruction (CSI)
Premanagement
A handbook offering a number of activities designed for adult learners. Many of these are appropriate for premanagers, especially if they are contextualized (free from Eric). An instructional approach that has been shown to enhance learning by emphasizing the development of thinking skills and processes. The objective is to enable all students to become more strategic, self-reliant, flexible, and productive learners. A useful resource for students of critical thinking in the workplace.
Premanagement
Premanagement
(Scheid, 1993)
Premanagement
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Description Several research-based suggestions for creating learning activities with a strong metacognitive component
Level
International Critical Thinking Basic Concepts and Understanding Online Test International Critical Thinking Test Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ)
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Description Method for evaluating learning/reasoning outcomes that involves 5 levels of learning. Is often used to scaffold the development of scoring rubrics. Rubrics are high inference and inter-rater agreement is difficult to maintain. Nonetheless, when inter-rater agreement is properly controlled, the rubrics are reliable enough for course evaluations (not usually for individual evaluation). 1. Pre-structural Learners acquire bits of unconnected information, which have no organization and make no sense. 2. Uni-structural Learners make simple and obvious connections, but show little evidence that their significance has been grasped. 3. Multi-structural Learners make a number of connections, but metaconnections between them are missed, as is their significance for the whole. 4. Relational Learners appreciate the significance of the parts in relation to the whole. 5. Extended abstract Learners make connections both within and beyond the subject area, showing they are able to generalize and transfer the principles and ideas.
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