High-Altitude Meteorology

Warm Temperatures Aloft Are Bad News

Warm Temperatures Aloft Decrease Performance

Temperatures warmer than standard significantly reduce aircraft climb and cruise performance:

At 10 degrees C warmer than standard, you can expect a moderate decrease in performance At 20 degrees C warmer than standard, you can expect a significant decrease in performance
Cant Climb or Cruise As Well

When temperatures are warmer than standard: You may not be able to climb to cruise altitudes that you could reach easily with cooler temperatures You can also expect a reduction in cruise speed by as much as 20 to 40 knots
Compare Actual Temperatures Aloft to Standard Temperatures

When you are getting a weather briefing, compare the actual temperatures aloft with the standard temperature for the altitudes at which you will be cruising.

You do this to determine: Your ability to climb to a planned cruise altitude at the start of the flight Your cruise performance at altitude
How to Compare Standard and Actual Temperatures Aloft The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

The standard temperature and pressure at any particular altitude are part of what is referred to as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). The International Standard Atmosphere values at sea level are: 15 degrees Celsius 29.92 inches of mercury There are standard values for every altitude. Here is how the temperature changes with altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere: At sea levelthe temperature is 15 degrees C Each 1,000 ft higherthe temperature is 2 degrees C cooler until about 36,000 feet 36,000 feet and higherthe temperature stays at -56.5 degrees C There are terms used to describe the atmosphere based on the way the temperature behaves with increasing altitude: Tropospherethe lower part of the atmosphere where the temperature decreases with altitude Tropopausethe boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere Stratospherethe upper part of the flyable atmosphere where the temperature stays the same as altitude increases (the temperature is said to be isothermal)

Temperature Aloft in the Standard Atmosphere

Tropopause Height Varies With Latitude and Season

As opposed to the standard atmosphere, the actual height of the tropopause varies. Here is where you can normally expect to find the tropopause:

Over the polesabout 20,000 feet Over the equatorabout 65,000 feet Higher in the summer Lower in the winter Higher in the daytime Lower at night
Significance of the Tropopause

Tropopause characteristics: Slopes down from the equator towards the poles Often has abrupt steps in the slope (this is where the jet streams form) Tends to cause the topping out of most thunderstorms
To Calculate Standard Temperature Aloft, Start With 15 Degrees C and Subtract 2 Degrees Per 1,000 Feet

The easy way to calculate standard temperature at a specific altitude: 1. Multiply the altitude in thousands times 2 2. Subtract 15 3. Convert the temperature to a negative number
Examples

18,000 feet: 24,000 feet: 30,000 feet:

18 x 2 = 36 - 15 = 21 (-21 degrees C) 24 x 2 = 48 - 15 = 33 (-33 degrees C) 30 x 2 = 60 - 15 = 45 (-45 degrees C)

Above 24,000 Feet They Leave Off the Minus Sign on Temperatures

On winds and temperature aloft forecasts: The first two digits represent the wind direction in tens of degrees, in regard to true north The second two digits represent the wind speed in knots The final two digits are the temperature in degrees Celsius. Since the temperatures are always below zero above 24,000 feet, they leave off the minus sign In the example at ONT at 30,000 feet, the winds are from 270 degrees true at 69 knots. The temperature is minus 45 degrees Celsius. FT 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 30000 34000 39000 ONT 2509 2408-01 2720-05 2825-09 2827-23 2853-33 276945 287051 286354

If Winds Are More Than 100 Knots, They Add 50 to the First Two Digits

Since there are only four digits available to express the wind direction and speed, they have to use a code when the winds are 100 knots or more. In this case they add 50 to the wind direction. For example, at PHX at 30,000 feet the winds are from 260 degrees and the wind strength is 111 knots. FT 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 30000 34000 39000 PHX 2309 2310+04 2517-03 2523-10 2538-22 2782-30 761130 761253 269056 To encode this they add 50 to the first two digits: 26 + 50 = 76 So the wind direction is expressed as 76. Since you cant have a wind from 760 degrees (more than 360 degrees), you know to subtract 50 from the first two digits to read the wind direction: 76 50 = 26

The wind is actually from 260 degrees. The fact that you had to subtract 50 from the first two digits tells you that you need to add 100 to the wind speed: The wind speed is given as 11. 11 + 100 = 111 The wind speed is 111.
The Maximum Wind Speed That Can Be Shown on the Forecast Is 199 Knots

Since only four digits are available to express the wind speed and direction using this system, the maximum wind speed that can be shown is 199 knots. In the rare case when the wind is stronger than 199 knots, it is shown on the winds aloft forecast as 199 knots. Practice at Comparing Actual Temperature Aloft to Standard FT 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 30000 34000 39000 PHX 2309 2310+04 2517-03 2523-10 2538-22 2782-30 761130 761253 269056 The temperature at PHX at 30,000 feet is -30 C (they left off the minus sign, so you have to supply it). The standard temperature at 30,000 feet is -45 C (30 X 2 = 60, 60 - 15 = 45). Temperature at PHX at 30,000 feet = Standard temperature at 30,000 feet = Temperature compared to ISA = (remember -30 is warmer than -45) -30 -45 ISA +15

ISA + 15 means your aircraft will not climb or cruise as well as normal.
Performance Charts Show Performance at Temperatures Compared to ISA

Performance charts often show jet aircraft performance at standard temperature (ISA) and ISA plus or minus so many degrees.

Performance numbers are often given for: ISA +10 ISA ISA -10

Jet Streams
River of Air With a Core Speed of 50 Knots or More

A jet stream is:

A river of air aloft With wind speeds of at least 50 knots, up to 200 knots or more Concentrated into a core at the tropopause Usually located at one of the steps where the tropopause changes height abruptly

Where to Find Jet Streams

Knowing about the location of jet streams can be helpful: There can be several jet streams in the U.S. at one time They can combine and/or separate In the winter they tend to be at lower altitudes, stronger, and located closer to the equator
A Jet Stream Can Mean Bummer Headwinds and Turbulence

As a pilot you care about jet streams because: They can contain winds of up to 200 knots or more (great as a tailwind, a bummer as a headwind) Clear Air Turbulence (CAT), when not associated with thunderstorms, is almost always associated with a jet stream
It Can Mean Moderate to Severe Turbulence Over Great Distances

The speed of the wind associated with a jet stream can change dramatically as you move in and out of the core. This wind shear can cause moderate to even severe turbulence over great distances.
AIRMETs Are Issued for Moderate CAT, and SIGMETs for Severe CAT

When moderate turbulence aloft is forecast: An AIRMET is issued AIRMETs for turbulence are labeled with the identifier TANGO
When severe turbulence aloft is forecast:

A SIGMET is issued

The U.S. High-Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart

The U.S. High-Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart: Forecasts significant weather at altitudes above 24,000 feet to 60,000 feet Is handily available on www.duat.com Is updated on the same schedule as TAFs (00Z, 06Z, 12Z, and 18Z)
It Shows Jet Streams, Turbulence, Thunderstorms and More This Prog Is Your One-Stop Source for High Altitude Weather Information

The U.S. High-Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart also shows: The location and altitude of the core of maximum winds of jet streams Areas of moderate or greater turbulence Embedded thunderstorm clouds (CBs) or thunderstorm clouds with little or no space between them

How Altitudes Are Shown

Altitudes on the chart are shown as a three-digit number: To read the altitudes on the chart, add two zeros as you would when reading cloud heights on METARs and TAFs Altitudes below the base of the chart (24,000 feet) are shown with XXX instead of an altitude number

How Jet Stream Locations and Speeds Are Shown

Jet streams with a maximum speed of more than 80 knots are shown with: Bold lines along the core of the maximum winds Arrowheads to tell you the wind direction Wind speeds depicted by 50-knot pennants and 10-knot barbs The altitude of the core in a block underneath the wind speed indicator
How Far to Climb or Descend to Get Out of a Jet Stream

When the speed of a jet stream core is 120 knots or more: 3-digit numbers below the altitude tell you how far you would have to climb or descend from the core of maximum winds to reach an altitude where the winds are down to 80 knots The numbers are separated by a slash with a plus for a climb and a minus for a descent
Jet Stream Speed Changes

Wind speed changes are shown: In increments of 20 knots With double hatched lines along the core line Using wind speed indicators on either side of the double hatched lines to show whether the change is an increase or decrease in wind speed
Tropopause Heights

Tropopause heights are shown in boxes: Rectangular boxes show specific tropopause heights Home-plate shaped boxes with an H or an L show area centers of tropopause high or low heights

Thunderstorms

Scalloped lines show: Areas of embedded thunderstorms (CBs) CBs that have little space between them that would be difficult to fly around visually

The tops and bases of the thunderstorms are shown along with an abbreviation indicating isolated (ISOL), occasional (OCNL), frequent (FRQ), or embedded (EMBD) CBs.
Turbulence

Bold dashed lines show: Areas of moderate or greater turbulence Not associated with thunderstorms

The tops and bases of the turbulence are also shown.

Intensity of the turbulence is shown by: Moderate turbulencea mountain symbol

Severe turbulencemountain symbol with a cap cloud

You will notice that the areas of turbulence shown on the chart are usually located along the bold lines showing the jet stream locations.

Fronts Also shown on the chart is: Surface location of fronts with their direction and speed of movement NOT the location of the fronts at altitude
Cyclones

Tropical cyclones (hurricanes, typhoons, and tropical storms) are shown with: Tropical storma six/nine like symbol with the center open Hurricane/typhoona six/nine like symbol with the center of the symbol filled in
Squall Lines

Squall lines are shown with: Long dashed lines separated by a V

Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruption sites are shown by: A symbol that looks like a mountain with an explosion on top The name of the volcano Its latitude and longitude

Sandstorms and Dust Storms

Widespread sandstorms and dust storms are shown with: A large "S" symbol and an arrow No arrow indicates a severe sandstorm or dust haze
Avoid the North Side of a Trough

Turbulence generally is: Greater on the north side of a jet stream Strongest as the jet stream speeds up around the bend at the bottom of a trough

Consider an Altitude Change

To get out of turbulence: Consider an altitude change Ask ATC where other pilots are finding a smooth ride
Try Crossing at an Angle

The duration of the turbulence you encounter will usually be less if: You cross the jet stream at an angle instead of flying along the jet stream

Techniques for Thunderstorm Avoidance

Preflight Planning for Thunderstorm Avoidance

The simplest and best technique for thunderstorm avoidance is to plan a trip so as to completely avoid areas of potential thunderstorms. Helpful thunderstorm avoidance planning tools are:

High Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart Severe Weather Outlook U.S. Radar Summary Chart U.S. Doppler Radar National Radar Mosaic
Using Your Eyes

One of the very best tools you have to avoid thunderstorms in the air is the windows in the aircraft. Recommendations are: Stay at least 20 miles from any thunderstorm Avoid flight under an anvil, which may spit out hail at you even though you are flying in the clear well away from the main storm cloud Avoid like the plague any tall cloud that has a distinct cauliflower shapethis is exactly what the meanest thunderstorms look like

Airborne Radar, Your Best Tactical Tool

But there are times when you cannot stay completely clear of clouds. In this case you have to use other tools than your eyesight to avoid thunderstorms. Airborne tools for avoiding thunderstorms include: Up-loaded NEXRAD displaying precipitation returns for the entire 48 contiguous states Lightning detection devices, called sferics Airborne radar, which shows areas of precipitation up to about 160 miles NEXRAD: Gives radar information for the entire 48 states Is helpful in planning strategic doglegs to allow you to fly around areas of precipitation Is not useful as a tactical tool to fly around specific areas of precipitation, due to the delay in receipt of the data and lack of detail

Airborne Radar, Your Best Tactical Tool

But there are times when you cannot stay completely clear of clouds. In this case you have to use other tools than your eyesight to avoid thunderstorms.

Airborne tools for avoiding thunderstorms include: Up-loaded NEXRAD displaying precipitation returns for the entire 48 contiguous states Lightning detection devices, called sferics

Airborne radar, which shows areas of precipitation up to about 160 miles NEXRAD: Gives radar information for the entire 48 states Is helpful in planning strategic doglegs to allow you to fly around areas of precipitation Is not useful as a tactical tool to fly around specific areas of precipitation, due to the delay in receipt of the data and lack of detail

Airborne lightning detection systems: Give you good information to help you avoid hazardous weather associated with lightning Dont provide the detail and precision location that airborne radar does Airborne radar: Gives immediate information with detail and precise location Only gives reliable information out to about 160 miles Requires more operator knowledge and skill

Airborne lightning detection systems: Give you good information to help you avoid hazardous weather associated with lightning Dont provide the detail and precision location that airborne radar does Airborne radar: Gives immediate information with detail and precise location Only gives reliable information out to about 160 miles Requires more operator knowledge and skill
How Airborne Radar Works

There are week-long courses on how to do this, but here are some basics on the operation of radar: Radar sends a horizontally sweeping beam of radar signals like a light beam The beam is a cone shape that gets bigger in diameter the further away it is from the sending antenna Most small jets, with a 12-inch antenna, will have a beam width and height of 8 degrees4 degrees from the center of the beam to the edge When this beam hits precipitation it reflects back to your radar antenna, and the position of the precipitation along with your systems estimate of its intensity is displayed on your screen Since thunderstorm turbulence is frequently associated with precipitation, the system gives you information to help you avoid the worst turbulence. The worst turbulence is usually associated with radar returns: That are stronger In which intensity changes very quickly over a short distancein other words, when the contours are close together That have anything other than smooth, rounded edges That have unusual shapes such as hooks and bowsthese can be associated with tornadoes and hail

The Two Basic Controls

The two basic controls a pilot has over radar are: The range displayed on the screen The vertical tilt angle of the horizontally sweeping beam

Setting the Range Control

Most radar systems give useful returns from precipitation up to about 160 miles from the aircraft. Beyond that range, only more intense precipitation will paint a return on your screen.

Setting the range closer: Enlarges the display of the returns on the screen but gives no more information Eliminates the display of returns beyond the range you have selected Lets you see more detail when you are making tactical decisions to avoid precipitation that is relatively close to you

The tilt control adjusts the vertical angle of the beam sweep: On some radars, the tilt control adjusts the vertical angle of the beam sweep regarding the nose of the aircraft More expensive radars have gyroscopic stabilization that keeps the radar at a selected angle to the ground regardless of whether the nose of the aircraft is pitched up or down. These systems also keep the beam sweep horizontal even when the aircraft banks for a turn Radar tilt facts and techniques: Most pilots like to use the tilt control while enroute to keep some returns from the ground (often referred to as ground clutter) at the far edge of the display. This assures you that the radar is still working

Using the Tilt Control to Get the Most Information

The usual 8-degree beam is 8 miles or 48,000 feet tall at a distance of 60 miles and will sweep both high-level and low-level precipitation and will sweep both high-level and lowlevel precipitation With ground clutter at the far edge of the display and with a range setting of 60 miles or more, you will most likely paint any strong precipitation beyond 60 miles As they get closer, returns from things on the ground (cities, and most terrain) and from lower-level precipitation will disappear from your screen as they move under your beam angle While at jet cruising altitudes, anything that displays on the screen inside of 30 miles should demand your attention When you want to avoid precipitation closer than 60 miles, you will occasionally want to tilt the beam up and down (as much as 10 degrees) to look for precipitation your beam might be missing Some radar systems have a vertical profile mode that lets you select an azimuth and have the beam sweep vertically in that direction instead of horizontally. This allows you to see the vertical extent of the precipitation in the direction you have selected

When you are climbing or descending you may want to tilt the beam so that it displays the weather in the 18,000 to 25,000 foot altitude range, where thunderstorms serve up the nastiest turbulence. Provided your radar tilt control is calibrated properly, if you tilt an 8degree beam up 4 degrees, the bottom of the beam will be parallel to the ground and at a range of 30 miles will display precipitation from your altitude up to 24,000 feet above your altitude. This will help you see whats higher than your altitude and minimizes the display of ground clutter, which can be confusing on departure and approach

Loss of Returns Beyond Heavy Precipitation

In some cases heavy precipitation can reflect back all of the radar signals, leaving no signals to reflect off of precipitation beyond the heavy area. This loss of returns is often referred to as attenuation:

 In this case you have no information beyond the point at which all the signals have been returned These areas will show up on your radar screen as having no returns. This can be a trap since there may be heavy weather in an area that shows no returns If you have a little ground clutter at the far edge of your display, the ground clutter disappears in this situation. This is a clue that you cannot rely on the information you are receiving in that area

Some radars have a setting that will display a blue color to tell you when you are receiving no returns beyond an area of heavy precipitation. Like the absence of ground clutter, this warns you that you are getting no information about precipitation in that area.

Coping With Icing Conditions

Icing Is a Bad Thing

The presence of icing on an aircraft can significantly: Raise the stalling speed Degrade the flight and stall characteristics Increase the incidence of engine damage or failure due to ice forming on the engine inlets then breaking off and going through the engine Icing is a possibility anytime you are flying: In visible moisture At temperatures of freezing and below. The temperature that is relevant is not the SAT (the temperature of static, or ambient, air), but the temperature that the aircraft feels, the TAT (static air temperature plus temperature rise)

If the Systems Are Used Properly, Jets Usually Cope

Jets usually have anti-icing capability in the form of: Bleed air or electric heat for engine nacelles Bleed air for the wings and tail

Some aircraft can have de-ice in the form of either: Boots A weeping wing system, which pumps deicing fluid through a very fine mesh on the leading edge of the wing Some combination of these systems is used to allow most jets to legally fly in known icing conditions. All manufacturers will state when anti-icing systems must be activated, usually at a temperature a few degrees warmer than freezing. Some manufacturers state a temperature below which antiicing is no longer required. There is usually a performance penalty from turning on anti-icing systems: Most systems use bleed air, which when diverted from the engine, can significantly reduce aircraft performance Turning on anti-icing can reduce your climb rate when you are in icing conditions, just when youd like to climb as fast as you can Regardless, the wise thing to do is follow the manufacturers recommendations.

Use of Anti-Icing Degrades Performance

Mountain Waves
Mountain Waves Mean Updrafts and Downdrafts But Not Necessarily Turbulence

When stable air flows over mountains it creates: A wave of smooth up and down oscillations This can create updrafts and downdrafts for hundreds of miles downwind of the mountains

Since at cruise altitude in a jet you are normally far above any rotor clouds, a mountain wave does not usually mean turbulence.

Mountain Waves Can Cause Difficulty in Holding Altitude

Usually the problem with a mountain wave is difficulty in holding: Altitude, and/or Airspeed This can occur even well into the flight levels. You should be aware that strong winds aloft, particularly in the wintertime, can mean difficulty in holding altitude on the lee side of mountain ranges. As with jet stream turbulence, ATC will normally have a good handle on the location of any mountain wave activity.

Respiration Is Otherwise Known As Breathing

Its All About Getting Oxygen In and Waste Gases Out

Breathing gets oxygen into the circulatory system and waste gases out.
Its Oxygen Molecules Per Breath That Count

The amount of oxygen that gets into the circulatory system with each breath is determined by:

The number of oxygen molecules in a given volume of air, say a gallon of air This number of oxygen molecules per gallon is referred to as the molecular concentration of the oxygen in the air
Dont Count Oxygen Molecules, Use Partial Pressure

Since molecules are hard to count, partial pressure is used: Partial pressure is a handy way of expressing the molecular concentration of oxygen in each breath of air The partial pressure of a particular gas is the pressure it would exert if it alone occupied the space taken up by the mixture
We Use Millimeters of Mercury to Express Partial Pressure

Air pressure can be expressed in lots of ways including: Pounds per square inch Millibars of pressure Inches of mercury Millimeters of mercury The convention when talking about air pressure in regard to the human body is to use millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). The standard pressure at sea level is: 760 mm Hg
Partial Pressure of Oxygen Is About 21% of Air Pressure

Oxygen is about 21% of the air for all altitudes up to about 70,000 feet.

The partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) at sea level is: .21 times 760 mm Hg About 160 mm Hg
At Sea Level Hemoglobin Is 97% Saturated

By the time the oxygen works its way through the lungs to the blood: The partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood is reduced below 160 mm Hg It is now about 100 mm Hg This works well in a healthy person at sea level, since: This results in about 97 percent saturation of the hemoglobin cells of your blood, which transport the oxygen in the circulatory system About 87 to 97 percent hemoglobin saturation is required for proper functioning

At Altitude Hemoglobin Saturation Decreases Dramatically

But lets take a look at what happens as you go to higher altitudes without: Supplemental oxygen Pressurization

PO 2 In Air PO 2 In Blood Hemoglobin Saturation Altitude Sea Level 160 mm Hg 100 mm Hg 97% 10,000 Feet 110 mmHg 61 mm Hg 87% 15,000 Feet 90 mm Hg 44 mm Hg 79%
20,000 Feet 73 mm Hg 34 mm Hg 67%

At About 10,000 Feet and Above You Need Help Breathing

Since the body needs at least 87% hemoglobin saturation to function normally, it is just a matter of mathematics that as you take the body to altitudes above 10,000 feet without supplemental oxygen or pressurization, the body doesnt do well.

Hypoxia Is Lack of Sufficient Oxygen to Tissues

The Brain and Eyes Need Help

The reason the body doesnt do so well at high altitudes without the use of oxygen or pressurization is hypoxia, lack of sufficient oxygen to the tissues, especially the brain and the eyes.
Hypoxia Sneaks Up On You

One major concern about hypoxia is that the onset of symptoms is subtle and insidious:

It takes awareness and thoughtfulness to realize you have hypoxia Those are the very characteristics that you tend to lose as a result of hypoxia Your own intellectual impairment makes it difficult to recognize that you are impaired
Your Eyes Are Affected Early

The very earliest symptom of hypoxia can come, some sources say, at altitudes as low as 5,000 feet.

The symptom is reduced dark adaptation of the eyes: Over time you can experience a gradual loss of sharpness in your vision Sometimes if you take a breath of supplemental oxygen, it can feel like someone immediately turned up the lights
Later Symptoms Include Fatigue

As your hypoxic state progresses you may feel: Extremely fatigued Uncoordinated Drowsy Headachy Dizzy Breathless Your skin can take on a bluish tint, especially under the fingernails.

Depending on your individual response, hypoxia can, like alcohol, induce any number of emotional feelings, such as: Carefree Elated Euphoric Unreasonably overconfident Irritable Pugnacious Sad The symptoms of hypoxia: Vary from individual to individual Your individual symptoms will tend to remain the same whenever you experience hypoxia One major benefit of an altitude chamber experience is that you can determine your own individual symptoms.
Contributors to Hypoxia Symptoms Vary With Individuals

Symptoms Can Include an Emotional Response

Anything that could impair your functioning properly can make you more susceptible to the symptoms of hypoxia. This includes things such as: Alcohol consumption Smoking Carbon monoxide poisoning Stress Fatigue Dehydration

Supplemental Oxygen Increases the Oxygen in Each Breath

Oxygen Works Up to a Point

One way to avoid hypoxia is to use supplemental oxygen to increase the amount of oxygen in each breath you take:

This works up to about 39,000 feet Above that altitude the air pressure becomes so low that even 100% oxygen does not supply enough partial pressure of oxygen to make you fully functional
Above About 39,000 Feet Pressure Breathing Is Required

To be functional at higher altitudes: You have to use pressure breathing, which is a system that delivers increased oxygen pressure to the lungs Pressure breathing only adds about 5,000 feet of altitude capability Above about 63,000 feet the pressure is so low that the blood boils at body temperatures (about 98.6 degrees F). So it becomes essential to have either: Pressurization Pressure suit
Above About 63,000 Feet Without Pressure on the Body, Your Blood Will Boil (This Is Not Good)

Pressure Changes on the Body Can Cause Problems

Without Pressurization Your Body Experiences Lots of Pressure Changes

Another problem with relying on supplemental oxygen only is that without pressurization the body is subject to large pressure changes with every climb and descent.
The Middle Ear Normally Can Compensate

The middle ear can normally handle these changes because of the Eustachian tube, that connects the middle ear to the nasal passage. During a descent you have to open the Eustachian tube by:

Swallowing Yawning Tensing the muscles in your throat Sometimes even pinching your nose closed and attempting to blow out of your nostrils
But With a Cold or Allergy You May Have Ear Block

If you have congestion from an infection or allergy it can be difficult or impossible to open the Eustachian tube to relieve the pressure in the middle ear: This very painful condition is called ear block It is possible you could even rupture your ear drum Of course, the solution is: Dont fly when you are congested
Theres Possible Sinus Agony

Pressure changes can also result in severe pain in the sinus cavities. Normally the sinuses are equalized to cabin pressure with small openings that connect to the nasal passages. However: If you have an infection or an allergy, congestion can block the openings This can cause excruciatingeven incapacitatingpain, usually during a descent
Tooth Pain Can Happen

In some rare cases pressure changes can cause toothache: This occurs when there are air spaces in the teeth from cavities, fillings or caps The pain is usually relieved when you descend If you want to use a fancy word for this toothache, it is barodontalgia. In other words, toothache from barometric pressure changes.
Even The Bends Is Possible

Plus, with large pressure changes there is the risk of what scuba divers call decompression sickness or the bends. This is caused by the formation of nitrogen bubbles in the blood when you go to higher altitudes where there are lower pressures. You can see the same effect when you open a soda can and bubbles form when the dissolved gas comes out of the liquid because of the reduced pressure.

The nitrogen gas bubbles in the bloodstream can: Interfere with circulation Cause symptoms and damage similar to a stroke
There Can Be Gas Pain Too

Another symptom that can result from large pressure changes is abdominal pain due to sudden expansion of gas in the intestines.
Minimize or Prevent These Problems From Pressure Changes With Slow Climbs and Descents

Most of the problems associated with pressure changes, even the risk of the bends, can be minimized or prevented by slow climbs and descents.

Using Oxygen Can Be a Pain

Reliance on Continuous Oxygen Use Is Problematic

There are a number of reasons why it may not be desirable to rely on continuous oxygen use. Some reasons are physiological:

 Many people find the use of a mask uncomfortable Prolonged use can cause irritation and redness where the mask contacts the skin Prolonged use of high concentrations of oxygen can produce: Bronchial irritation Infection Aviation oxygen is very dry in order to prevent freezing in the linesit is dehydrating to users Other reasons are operational: The difficulty in communicating due to muffled speech from the mask can be annoying and fatiguing Your oxygen quantity may be more limiting for a flight than your fuel quantity: Oxygen duration charts can help you figure out how long your oxygen supply will last When you calculate your oxygen duration, remember that breathing rates and oxygen consumption increase when you are under stress You will need to refill the oxygen tank frequently: Getting oxygen refills is time-consuming FBOs do not always have the equipment to do them

Pressurizing the Cabin Solves a Lot of Problems

Eliminates the Need to Use Oxygen

Pressurizing the cabin:

Eliminates the need to use supplemental oxygen except in emergencies Provides far greater comfort and less fatigue to the pilots and passengers Minimizes the problems associated with pressure changes on the body, with cabin altitude changes as little 8 to 10 thousand feet instead of 10s of thousands of feet
How It Works Pumps In Air and Regulates Outflow

Heres how pressurization works: A compressor from a turbine engine or a supercharger pumps a continuous flow of air into a structurally reinforced cabin Pressurization is maintained by regulating the air that leaves the cabin through the outflow valve A safety valve opens automatically in the event of failure of the outflow valve to prevent the pressure differential from exceeding the maximum allowed A pressurization dump valve can be used to quickly depressurize the cabin to clear it of fumes or smoke A proximity switch on the landing gear (squat switch) will open the outflow valve to depressurize the aircraft when the aircraft is on the ground (opening the cabin door when the aircraft is pressurized could prove disastrous)

Pressurization terms: When the air pressure in the cabin is higher than the outside ambient air pressure, it is said that the cabin altitude is lower than the pressure altitude The difference between the cabin air pressure and the outside air pressure is referred to as the pressure differential

Keeps Cabin Altitude Lower Than Pressure Altitude

How You Operate a Pressurization System

Mismanagement of the System Is Usually Only Uncomfortable

Operation of the pressurization system is usually a matter of passenger comfort more than safety. Once you have assured a supply of pressurization air to the cabin, and verified the cabin is pressurizing after takeoff, failure to reset the controls for climb or descent:

May result in disconcerting pressure changes, but Should not result in a loss of pressurization

Three Gauges Tell You What You Need to Know

There are three gauges that tell you the status of the pressurization system: Pressure differential is shown on a gauge in the cockpit that reads in pounds per square inch (A) A cabin altimeter tells you the cabin altitude in thousands of feet (B) A cabin vertical speed indicator tells you how fast the cabin altitude is climbing or descending in feet per minute (C)

The Two Basic Controls

The two basic controls of a pressurization system are: The rate control (A) The altitude selector (B)

The Rate Control

You use the rate control to set the rate youd like the cabin to climb or descend, say 500 feet per minute.
The Altitude Selector

You use the altitude selector to set the cabin altitude. On older systems the altitude selector has two circular scales: The outer scale is for setting the cabin altitude that you want the aircraft to be pressurized to The inner scale is for setting the cruise altitude On systems that work through the Flight Management System (FMS) there is no separate control panel for the pressurization system. For normal operations: You set the departure airport and the destination airport in the FMS o The database knows the elevations of the airfields You also set your cruise altitude in the FMS at the same time you enter your departure and destination information o The system sutomatically sets the desired cabin altitude and the cabin climb or descent rate so there is no rate control knob In the event the FMS control malfunctions, there will be a backup control panel with rate control and altitude selector knobs

Your Aircraft Flight Manual will spell out the procedure you should follow to preflight your pressurization and oxygen system before take-off. Typically the procedure will include: Check that the pressurization source(s) is ON, and set properly (this ensures you have a source of air to pressurize the cabin) Make sure the gauge for the emergency oxygen shows the required pressure in the system Test the flight crews oxygen mask(s) to confirm that you can get oxygen from them (on some systems, the oxygen gauge tells you the bottle pressure but does not confirm there is pressure in the lines to the oxygen masks)
On Takeoff Set Cruise Altitude

Preflight the System Before Takeoff

On takeoff you set the indicator to your intended cruise altitude as shown on the inner scale. Next to your cruise altitude on the inner scale the outer scale will show you what the cabin altitude will be at maximum differential when you reach cruise altitude.

When you take off: The cabin will climb automatically at the selected rate, say a comfortable 500 feet per minute (A) The aircraft climbs at a much higher rate (B)

The Cabin Climbs Automatically

Since the cabin only has to climb about 8,000 feet or less, while the aircraft climbs as much as 40,000 feet or more, the selected cabin altitude and cruise altitude are usually reached about the same time.
You Should Check to Make Sure Its Working

It is good procedure to always make sure that the pressurization process has started by:

Checking the pressure differential soon after takeoff

There are many reasons why the aircraft may fail to pressurize, but by far the most probable is:

Failure of the pilots to ensure that compressed air is being supplied to the pressurization system

On Descent Set in the Landing Elevation

When you are descending: - Set the indicator to or slightly above the airport elevation of your destination - The cabin will begin a slow descent - The aircraft descends much faster

Again, since the aircraft has much further to descend than the cabin does, everything works out smoothly. If you climb or descend at an unusual rate, you can always use the rate control to change the rate of climb or descent of the cabin.

Dealing With Depressurization

Be Prepared

When you are flying a pressurized aircraft there is one particular emergency you should be prepared to handle:

A sudden loss of pressurization.

There Are Many Possible Causes of Depressurization

You can lose pressurization for many different reasons. There can be failure of: The pressurization vessel including structural failure of the cabin, a door, or a window The system that provides compressed air to the cabin as a result of a hose rupture or a clamp coming off The squat switch which can erroneously signal that the aircraft has landed and open the outflow valve The air conditioning system which may overheat and shut off the pressurization source while the emergency pressurization source valve fails to activate In cold, wet weather control valves can freeze open or closed
The Depressurization Rate Can Vary

An aircraft depressurization can, depending on the cause of the failure, range from: A slow loss of pressure to Explosive decompression
You Must Perform the Emergency Procedure

Every depressurization requires immediate execution of emergency procedures.

With an Explosive Depressurization You Will Be Very Distracted

With an explosive decompression, you will have to deal with significant distraction while executing the emergency procedures.

During an explosive decompression you can expect: A loud popping noise A wind in the cabin along with flying debris A sudden and dramatic drop in temperature Fogging due to condensation of the water in the air Additionally, you may suffer all of the effects of pressure changes we talked about earlier: Ear block Sinus pain Tooth pain Abdominal gas expansion

Perform the Procedure Anyway

Despite all of this very significant distraction, it is critically important that you promptly perform the emergency procedure as outlined in the emergency checklist for your aircraft.
Put on Oxygen First

In every checklist the checklist requires the flight crew to: 1. Put on oxygen masks 2. Execute an emergency descent

The aircraft checklist will describe the procedure for an emergency descent in the particular aircraft you are flying.
Without Oxygen You Have Little Time of Useful Consciousness

This table gives you what is known as time of useful consciousness without supplemental oxygen at various altitudes. This is the time available to an aircrew member to recognize they are suffering from hypoxia and to take appropriate action (put on an oxygen mask and/or descend the aircraft to an altitude where oxygen is not required). Average Effective Performance Time for flying personnel without supplemental oxygen: 45,000 40,000 35,000 30,000 28,000 25,000 22,000 15,000 feet ..............................9 to 15 seconds feet ............................15 to 20 seconds feet ............................30 to 60 seconds feet .................................1 to 2 minutes feet............................2 1/2 to 3 minutes feet .................................3 to 5 minutes feet ...............................5 to 10 minutes to 18,000 feet ..........30 minutes or more

This makes the urgency of putting on an oxygen mask after a depressurization in the flight levels obvious.
Be Prepared for Difficult Communications

Once you have an oxygen mask on you will have difficulty communicating with other crewmembers and ATC:

Even if you have a microphone in your mask and an intercom system, your voice and that of others on oxygen will be muffled ATC will have difficulty understanding you and communications will be difficult with other crewmembers This means you have to be prepared to work as a crew without talking much.

Why You Need to Descend

There will be a tendency to feel that once you have the oxygen masks on, you can take time to troubleshoot the problem before you start an emergency descent. This would not be wise for any number of reasons: You and your passengers may not be receiving oxygen properly At altitudes above about 39,000 feet you cannot maintain full functionality without a pressure-breathing system If you stay at high altitude, you and your other crewmembers may suffer the effects of decompression sickness You dont know the condition of the aircraft or what other failures may be associated with the one you know about You will continue to have communications difficulties with your other crew and ATC so long as you have to wear an oxygen mask

The altitude you should descend to would be: 12,500 feet or less Unless terrain dictates otherwise If you are over the ocean and a descent could mean that you would not have fuel to reach a safe landing point, you could consider: Stopping your descent at 25,000 feet Ensuring that all occupants are receiving oxygen (25,000 feet is the maximum altitude to which most passenger oxygen masks are certificated)

Unless Terrain Is a Problem, Descend to Where You Dont Need Oxygen

Requirements Based on Cabin Altitude

At Cabin Pressure Altitudes Above 12,500 Feet (MSL) Up to and Including 14,000 Feet (MSL)

The required minimum flight crew must use supplemental oxygen any time you are at cabin pressure altitudes:

Above 12,500 feet, and Up to and including 14,000 feet for more than 30 minutes
At Cabin Pressure Altitudes Above 14,000 Feet (MSL)

The required minimum flight crew must use supplemental oxygen: Any time you are at cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000 feet
At Cabin Pressure Altitudes Above 15,000 Feet (MSL)

Each occupant of the aircraft (including passengers) must be provided with supplemental oxygen: At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet

Requirements Based on Flight Level

At Flight Altitudes Above Flight Level 250

At least a 10-minute supply of supplemental oxygen must be available for each occupant for use in the event that a descent is required due to loss of cabin pressurization This is in addition to any oxygen required based on cabin pressure altitudes
At Flight Altitudes Above Flight Level 350

Both pilots must have quick-donning oxygen masks A quick-donning mask is one that can be placed on your face with one hand within 5 seconds and be properly secured and sealed, and supplying oxygen. Anytime there is only one pilot at the controls, that pilot must use oxygen

Above Flight Level 410, one pilot must use oxygen at all times When oxygen use is required, the mask must be secured and sealed and either: Supplying oxygen at all times, or Automatically supplying oxygen whenever the cabin pressure exceeds 14,000 feet

Airspace
Flight Levels

At and above 18,000 feet MSL you set your altimeter to the standard pressure of 29.92 Hg. You are now flying at flight levels, instead of altitudes: The abbreviation for flight level is FL Flight levels are referred to in 3-digit numbers Example: 39,000 feet with 29.92 set in your altimeter would be referred to as FL390

Class A Airspace

The airspace at and above 18,000 feet MSL in the 48 contiguous states and Alaska (but not Hawaii), up to FL600, is Class A airspace. This means that at and above 18,000 feet MSL: No VFR flight is allowed You must be: Instrument rated Current to fly instruments Your aircraft must be: Equipped for instrument flight Current regarding the equipment tests and checks for instrument flight Regardless of the weather conditions, you must have: Filed an IFR flight plan Received a clearance from ATC

RVSM Airspace

Previously, because aircraft altimeters did not have adequate precision above FL290, the vertical separation between aircraft above FL290 was 2,000 feet. In order to make more flight altitudes available, Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) airspace has been introduced in most of the world (including the U.S.): RVSM airspace goes from FL290 up to and including FL410 In RVSM airspace the vertical separation between aircraft is 1,000 feet Above FL410 the vertical separation is still 2,000 feet

To fly between FL290 and FL410: Special pilot training, aircraft equipment, and maintenance are required The operator of the aircraft must document that all of these requirements have been met and receive RVSM operational approval from the local FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)

Equipment Requirements
Transponder Requirement

An operable transponder with Mode C capability is required when flying: In all airspace of the 48 contiguous states at and above 10,000 feet MSL Excluding the airspace at and below 2,500 feet above the surface Specifically in Class A airspace

Flight Planning
When you do your flight planning for a high-altitude flight, there are some new things to think about.
Using the High Altitude Enroute Charts

As you remember, the IFR Low Altitude Enroute Charts are for use up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL.

At and above 18,000 feet MSL, up to FL450, you use the IFR Enroute High Altitude Charts instead: The airways are now called Jet Routes The route designation will usually start with J The high altitude airways do not follow the same tracks as the low altitude airways

Altimeter Setting Procedures

Flying at high altitude requires you to remember to re-set your altimeter as you climb or descend through 18,000 feet MSL (in the U.S. and Canada other countries use different altitudes): At and above 18,000 feet MSL you set your altimeter to the standard pressure of 29.92 Hg and fly at flight levels Below 18,000 feet MSL you set your altimeter to the local altimeter setting given to you by ATC and fly at altitudes

Checking the Weather

It is very easy, when flying at high altitudes, to focus on the departure and destination weather and ignore the enroute weather: This is risky, since an emergency could require a descent and landing before you reach your destination If you do not familiarize yourself with the weather in the area you are overflying, you could be surprised by some very unpleasant weather such as: Thunderstorms Icing Very low IFR conditions The jet stream winds you encounter at altitude can give you much stronger headwinds (or, hopefully, tailwinds!) than you have been used to: Particularly if you are flying into a jet stream headwind, consider its effect on your range and your ability to reach your: Destination Alternate

DME Requirement

At and above FL240, if VOR navigation equipment is required: You must also have DME equipment GPS can be used to substitute for DME equipment

High Altitude