In the annals of Chinese philosophy, Moh-zi was the first to have offered a robust theory of government.

As readers will see in this document, it contains the following components. (1) Unify all concepts of right by way of law. (2) Recruit the worthy into government. (3) Demand reports from below so as to keep track of what is really going on amongst the people. (4) Reward the virtuous and punish the wicked. Doing all of that, according to Moh-zi, is in accord with the Will of Heaven and the Way of sage-kings.

Moh-zis Theory of Government

An excerpt from The Six Patriarchs of Chinese Humanism Author: Peter M.K. Chan
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One cumbersome issue that Moh-zi had taken upon himself to address is this: Given the fact that everyone would tend to work and hold onto what he takes to be beneficial to himself, how could peace, order, and stability ever get to be established in the world? This is where his theory of government came in. The first requirement, he said, is to have an emperor -- such that one universal standard of righteousness could be set up for all to follow. As he put it: In the ancient past when Heaven gave birth to human beings, there was no ruler. Under such circumstances, there was one concept of right for one man, ten for ten men, a hundred for a hundred men, and a thousand concepts of right for a thousand men. (
Ibid. Chapter 13)

It was because of these innumerable concepts of right that everyone would regard himself to be right and all others to be wrong. What followed were conflicts among the strong and quarrels among the weak. (
Ibid.)

Within a family, fathers and sons as well as elder and younger brothers would dislike and complain against each other, rendering them divisive rather than united. People in the world would hurt one another with water and fire as well as poisonous medicines. No one would help another even when he had strength to spare. Everyone would let his material resources rot rather than share them with others. No one would teach another better ways of doing things. In short, the world of man was then as chaotic as that of animals. (
Ibid. Chapter 11)

For this reason, it was deemed desirable to unify all concepts of right in the world. This is why some worthy individual was selected to become the Son of Heaven (or emperor). (
Ibid. Chapter 13)

However, said Moh-zi, due to the fact that the territory to be governed was far and wide, and given the diversity of people that were in it, it was not possible for the emperor to know and do everything all by himself. Thus, when the Son of Heaven (emperor) realized that his knowledge and ability is not adequate to govern the world, he had to select some less worthy individuals and appointed three of them to be ministers. When these ministers too had come to realize that their knowledge and ability were also not sufficient for the job, they divided the world into territories to be governed by feudal lords. But when the feudal lords had also come to realize that their knowledge and ability were inadequate to rule over their territories, they also appointed other individuals to serve as officials. And when these officials too had found themselves to be inadequate, they also had to appoint other individuals as heads of villages and family clans. (

Ibid.)

As Moh-zi was also eager to point out, the above selection process was not marred by favoritism of any kind. For their honoring and elevating the worthy and employ the capable, the ancient sage-kings did not favor their fathers and brothers, and were not preferential toward those who were noble and wealthy. They did not just elevate the worthy and gave them wealth and high position. They also dismissed and banished the unworthy, causing them to be poor and humiliated. It was their so doing that caused people to value reward and fear punishment. As a result, many have become worthy, and few unworthy. (
Ibid. Chapter 9)

Thus, according to Moh-zi, another requirement toward maintaining peace, order, and stability in the world is to recruit and elevate the worthy (). As to how he knew that this is so, Moh-zis answer is that when the honorable and wise run the government, those who are ignorant and unworthy would become orderly. But when the ignorant and unworthy run the government, those who are honorable and wise would become rebellious. This is why elevating the worthy has got to be the foundation of government. (
Ibid.) As to what exactly is the way of the worthy,

his answer is that the strong among them are determined to help others, the wealthy among them are glad to share with others, the wise among them are eager to advise and teach others. In this way, those who are hungry will find food, those who are cold will be clothed, and those who are rebellious will be bought under control. When that happens, everyone would be able to live in peace and security. (
Ibid. Chapter 10)

Another thing to note, said Moh-zi, is that it is only by putting the worthy and capable into positions of authority that the emperor was able to govern effectively. When there are many to help one hear and see, one is bound to hear and see far. When there are many to help one speak, the sounds of ones virtues will circulate wide. When there are many to help one deliberate, discussion and planning will become efficient. And when there are many to help one act, things will also be accomplished quickly. (
Ibid. Chapter 12)

In this way, the Son of Heaven was able to reward virtuous individuals and punish those who were rebellious from as far away as a thousand miles, even when such individuals were not known to the local people. It was also because of such feats that people in the world have all become awe stricken (shaking and trembling); and would not dare to indulge in rebelliousness. The sight and hearing of the emperor, as they have come to say, is mysterious and spirit-like ( or quick and effective) indeed.
( Ibid. 13) This was also how the

ancient sage-kings governed the world. ..... They were surrounded by good people on both their left and right, and there were also many to help them hear and see on the outside.
( . Ibid.)

And there is something else that an emperor must do, said Moh-zi. It is that when all the leading officials were put in the right places, the Son of Heaven would announce the following edict to the people saying: Everyone should report on the virtuous as well as the wicked to his superior. Everyone should accept what his superior approves and rejects what his

superior disapproves. When subordinates are virtuous, their good deeds should be made known; but when the superior is mistaken, subordinates should remonstrate with him. Those who report to and agree with their superior rather than their subordinates will be rewarded by their superior and praised by the people, whereas those who failed to do so should be punished by their superior and disparaged by the people. (
Ibid. Chapter 12)

This is what is known as

conforming with the superior (). It is to be employed by the Son of Heaven to govern the world. It can also to be employed by the feudal lords and heads of family clans to govern their territories and clans. (
Ibid. Chapter 13)

Further, according to Moh-zi, this policy of conforming with the superior is indeed essential to the foundation of orderly government (Ibid.) If all were to abandon their unkind words and learn how to speak and act as virtuously as the Son of Heaven, how could the world become disorderly? ( Ibid, Chapter 11) That is to say, when all the people in the world would emulate what the Son of Heaven says and does, who can still say that the world is not governable? ( Ibid, Chapter 12) It was for reason of this policy that the ancient sage-kings were able to succeed in their endeavors and established their fame for generations to come. (
Ibid.) It all goes to show that conforming with the superior is indeed essential to the foundation of orderly government ( Ibid, Chapter 13) This is also the only way

for the Son of Heaven to unify all concepts of right and bring order to the world. ( Ibid,
Chapter 11)

As to why people should be required to report on the virtuous as well as the wicked, Moh-zis answer is that it is to ensure that those who govern are in touch with what is really going on amongst the people. It is not possible to govern if those above are not in touch with those who are below as to what is really virtuous and wicked amongst the people. When this is not understood, those who are not really virtuous might be (wrongly) rewarded, and those who are not really wicked might be (wrongly) punished. And when those who are virtuous are not rewarded and those who are wicked are not punished, the state and its people are bound to become chaotic. (
Ibid. Chapter 13) This is why the ancient

sage-kings had to institute the policy of conforming with the superior ( ), such that when those above ignored and

neglected what was beneficial, those below would be able to offer help; and when those below had suffered unfairness and harm, those above would be able to put things right. (
Ibid. )

Furthermore, said Moh-zi, it is not difficult to distinguish between those who are virtuous and those that are not either. Watch their deeds. If they follow the Will of Heaven, call them virtuous. Otherwise, call them wicked. Watch what they say. If they follow the Will of Heaven, call them virtuous in words. Otherwise, call them wicked and verbally cunning. Watch how they punish. If it is in accordance with the Will of Heaven, call their punishments virtuous. Otherwise, call them wicked. (
Ibid. Chapter 28)

Now, as to why the virtuous had to be rewarded and the wicked punished, Moh-zi answer is that it is to further ensure that social order is really to be had. As he put it, to reward the virtuous and punish the rebellious is one sure way of bringing order to the state. (Ibid. Chapter 11) Since people in the world would like to be rewarded and praised rather than reproached and punished by their superiors, they would surely report on the virtuous as well as the wicked. When the virtuous are rewarded and the rebellious are punished, the world will surely become orderly. (
Ibid. Chapter 13)

This is why the former sage-kings had to institute their system of punishment so as to govern the world. ( Ibid. Chapter 12) It should thus be seen that laws and regulations are indispensable for those who govern. It is impossible to govern the world without laws and regulations.
( Ibid. Chapter 4)

Comment: So, according to Moh-zis theory of government, for society to find peace and harmony, the people must first select for themselves an emperor. This is the first requirement. After that, the emperor must also appoint those who are worthy and capable to serve as feudal lords and government officials. Thirdly, a crucial policy known as conforming with the superior () has also got to be implemented. Its purpose is to unify all concepts of right so as to bring about ideological unification. According to this policy, everyone will seek to agree with his superior, and will also be required to report on the virtuous as well as the wicked. This second component, if I may say so, is tantamount to a kind of free press required by law. Those who are diligent in this regard will be rewarded, whereas those who are slack will be punished.

As readers can see, what Moh-zi had in mind was basically a top-down administrative system. As he put it: the business of government is always directed from above, never from below. (Ibid. Chapter 26) That gave rise to this crucial question: Who will rectify the emperor if he becomes tyrannical and wicked? Well, according to Moh-zi, the emperor is not selfgoverned. There is Heaven to rule over him. Of course, people in the world only understand that the emperor govern the three dukes (or ministers), feudal lords, minor officials, and the common people. What they do not understand is that it is Heaven that governs the emperor. (
Ibid.) This is why the former sage-kings of the

three (ancient) dynasties had to show to the people that this is in fact so -- by making offerings to the Lord-on-High ( or God), ghosts, and spiritual beings, as well as praying to Heaven for Its blessing. (
.Ibid.)

However, it is not understood by people of the world that Heaven administers (its Will) by way of the Son of Heaven. (
Ibid, chapter 26)

Intellectuals and kingly persons today also do not understand

that it is Heaven that rectifies the Son of Heaven. They only understand that it is the Son of Heaven that rectifies the world. ( Ibid. Chapter 28) It is for this reason that the ancient sages had to explain the following to the people: When the Son of Heaven is good, Heaven will reward him. When he is wrong, Heaven will punish him. When the Son of Heaven rewards wrongly or judges and punishes unjustly, the world will be overcome by epidemics and calamities, on top of untimely frost and rain. (
Ibid. )

This is why the ancient sage-kings had to know what Heaven and spiritual beings desire so as to avoid what they abhor -- by promoting what is beneficial and eliminate what is harmful to the world. This is also why they had to lead the people to fast and cleanse themselves, as well as offering wine and other gifts to Heaven, ghosts, and spiritual beings. (
Ibid. Chapter 12)

Comment: I would like to register that it was perhaps due to the diligence of Moh-zi rather than any other thinker of the period in this regard that had helped to seal the idea of Rule by Heavens Decreed into traditional Chinese political thought -- as the Divine Right of Kings was once impregnated into traditional Western minds by Popes and what not.

In this connection, said Moh-zi, note should be taken that those who agree with the Son of Heaven but not with Heaven are not able to stop natural disasters. For these people, Heaven will dispense untimely heat and cold, snow and frost, as well as rain and dew. The five crops will not mature and the six domestic animals will not prosper. There will be sickness and pestilence as well as storm and torrential rain. Such are the punishments of Heaven for those who do not conform to (the Will of) Heaven. (

It is also to be understood that rewards and punishments from ghosts and spiritual beings are meant for states as well as their people. It is Heavens way of ensuring that all states would be governed for the benefit of the people.
Ibid.) ( Ibid. Chapter 31) If that were not so, it is difficult to

understand why corrupt officials, promiscuous persons, thieves, rioters, robbers, arsonists, killers, and the like have all run into ghosts and spiritual beings. (
Ibid.)

Last but not least, as Moh-zi further proclaimed, let it be known that even though there are deep gorges and dense forests where nobody would go, everyone must understand that there are still ghosts and spiritual beings watching. It is also to be noted that punishment from ghosts and spiritual beings are invincible against the wealthy, the honored, the many, the strong, including courageous warriors and their armors. (
Ibid.) That, I believe, was his way of warning those who might

be tempted to think that it may still be possible for them to get away with murder, so to speak.
Comment: As to how the world is to be governed therefore, Moh-zis message is clearly this. Unify all concepts of right by way of law. Recruit the worthy into government. Demand reports from below so as to keep track of what is really going on amongst the people. Reward the virtuous and punish the wicked. Do not waste resources and destroy lives by making war. Such is the Will of Heaven and the Way of sage-kings. Only those who follow in their footsteps are entitled to rule with Heavens consent. They will be rewarded with good name and fortune. However, those who do not should prepare themselves for the retributive wrath of Heaven that is to come. Last but not least, let it also be known (by way of religion perhaps) that Heavens watchfulness over human affairs by way of ghosts and spiritual beings is both comprehensive and constant -- on those who are entrusted with the power to govern in particular.

So, that is what I mean by the religious humanism of Mohzi. It consists of three interrelated components. Ethically, it is grounded on his method of mutual love and benefit. Metaphysically, it is under-girded by the Will of Heaven and its retributive justice by way of ghost and spiritual beings. Administratively, it is to be enforced by way of righteous laws and enlightened authoritarian rule. And it is on ground of religious beliefs that were then popular that Moh-zi had tried to hit home the idea that his method of mutual love and benefit should indeed be adopted by all -- in all places and at all times. Implicit in this theory, attention should now be called, is not only the idea of the divine right of kings as known in the classical West, but their divine responsibility as well. As such, it could also be said that the idea of government for the people is also implicit therein.
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Peter M.K. Chan is the author of The Mystery of Mind (published 2003), and Soul, God, and Morality (published 2004). Recently, he has also competed any work titled The Six Patriarchs of Chinese Humanism (copyrighted and available in ebooks, but not yet in print). For details regarding the above, please visit http://sites.google.com/site/pmkchan/home http://sites.google.com/site/patriarchsofchinesephilosophy/home http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/petermkchan
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