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ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH

The term environment implies all the external, factors-living and non-living ,material which surround man. In its modern concept, environment includes not only the water, air and soil that form our environment but also the social and economic conditions under which we live. For descriptive purpose, environment has been divided into three components, all closely related: ( i) Physical : (ii) Biologic : and animals. (iii) Social : Water, air, soil, housing, wastes, radiation, etc. Plant and animal life including bacteria, viruses, insects, rodents Customs, culture, habits, income occupation, religion etc.

The key to mans health lies largely in his environment. In fact, much of mans illhealth can be traced to adverse environmental factors such as water pollution, soil pollution, air pollution, poor housing conditions, presence of animal reservoirs an insect vectors of diseases which pose a constant threat to mans health. The purpose of environmental health is to create and maintain ecological conditions that will promote health and thus prevent disease. Two of the changes needed to achieve Health for All are concerned with a healthy environment and healthy lifestyle and require initiatives by the individual, the family and the community.

Water

Water is not only a vital environmental factor to all forms of life, but it has also a great role to play in socio-economic development of human population. Safe and wholesome water. Water intended for human consumption should be both safe and wholesome. The has been defined as water that is

a. b. c. d.

Free from pathogenic agents Free from harmful chemical substances Pleasant to the taste, i,e., free from colour and odour; and Usable for domestic purpose

Water requirement The basic physiological requirements for drinking water have been estimated at about 2 litres per head per day. This is just for survival. A daily supply of 150 200 litre per capita is considered as an adequate supply to meet the needs for all urban domestic purposes. In India 40 litres of water supply per capita per day was the set target to be achieved in rural areas.

Uses of water The uses of water include : (1) Domestic use : on domestic front, water is required for drinking, cooking, washing and bathing, flushing of toilets, gardening etc. (2) Public purposes: cleaning streets, recreational purposes like swimming pools, public parks. (3) Industrial purpose : for processing and cooling ; (4) Agricultural purpose : irrigation (5) Power production from hydropower and steam power; (6) Carrying away waste from all manner of establishments and institutions.

Sources of water supply In general, water sources must conform to two criteria : (a) the quantity must be sufficient to meet present and future requirement (b) the quality of water must be acceptable. There are three main sources of water : 1 RAIN Rain is prime source of all water. It is the purest water in nature. A part of rain water sinks into ground water, part of it evaporates back into atmosphere, and some runs off to form streams and rivers which flow into the sea. Some water in the soil is taken up by the plants and is evaporated in turn by the leaves. These events are spoken of as water cycle.

2 SURFACE WATER Impounding reservoirs : These are the artificial lakes constructed usually of earthwork or masonry in which large quantities of surface water is stored. The area draining into the reservoir is called catchment area. Rivers and streams : Rivers furnish dependable supply of water but i is always grossly polluted. Tanks, ponds and lakes; Tank s are large excavations in which surface water is stored. They are important source of water supply.

3 SEA WATER : The source of sea water is plentiful but it contains 3.5% of salts in solution . Desalting and demineralization process involves heavy expenditure .

4 GROUND WATER Rain water percolating into ground constites ground water. Advantages of ground water are ; 1 It is likely to be free from pathogenic agents 2 It is less subject to contamination than surface water The usual ground water sources are wells and springs.

WATER POLLUTION Pure water does not occur in nature. It contains impurities of various kinds natural and man made. The natural impurities are not essentially dangerous. A more serious aspect of water pollution is that caused by human activities urbanization and industrialization. The solurces of pollution resulting from these are .(a) sewage (b) industrial and trade wastes. (c) agricultural pollutants The indicators of pollution include the amount of total suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand at20 deg. C, concentration of chlorides, nitrogen and phosphorus and absence of dissolved oxygen.

WATERPOLLUTION LAW Parliament in 1974 passed the water act. The act seeks to provide legal deterrent against the spread of water pollution.

PURIFICATION OF WATER Purification of water is considered under two headings. 1.) Purification of water on a large scale :The components of a typical water purification system comprise a.)storage :This is the natural purification which take place by physical chemical, biological b.)filtration:filtration is the second stage in the purification of water two types of filters are in use 1.biological or slow sand filters : Elements of slow sand filter (1)supernatant water The depth of the supernatant water above the sand bed varies from 1 to 1.5 metres. It provides a constant head of water so as to overcome the resistance of the filter bed and thereby promote the downward flow of the water into the sand bed. It provides waiting period of some hours for the raw water to undergo purification by sedimentation, oxidation and particle agglomeration. (2) A bed of graded sand The thickness of the sand bed is about 1 metre. The sand grains have an effective diameter between 0.2 and 0.3 mm. The sand bed is supported by a layer of

graded gravel 30-40 cm deep which also prevents the fine grains being carried into the drainage pipes. Water percolates through the sand bed very slowly and as it does so, it is subjected to mechanical straining, sedimentation, adsorption, oxidation and bacterial action. The rate of filtration of water lies between 0.1 and 0.4 m3/hour/per square meter of sand bed surface.

VITAL LAYER The slimy growth covering the surface of the sand bed is known as Schmutzdecke, vital layer, zoogleal layer or biological layer. This layer consists of threadlike algae, plankton, diatoms and bacteria. It may take several days for the vital layer to form fully and when fully formed it extends for 2 to 3 cm into the top portion of the sand bed. The formation of vital layer is know as ripening of the filter. The vital layer is the heart of the slow sand filter. It removes organic matter, holds back bacteria and oxidizes ammoniacal nitrogen into nitrates and helps in purifying the water. Until the vital layer is fully formed, the first few days filtrate is usually run to waste. (3) An under drainage system At the bottom of the filter bed is the under drainage system. It consists of perforated pipes which not only provides an outlet for filtered water but also supports the filter medium above.

FILTER BOX The filter box is an open rectangular box, 2.5 to 4 metres deep and is built wholly or partly below ground. The walls may be made of stone, brick or cement. The filter box consists of, Supernatant water Sandbed Gravel support Filter bottom 1 to 1.5 metres 1.2 metres 0.3 metres 0.16 metres

(4) A system of filter control values Filter control values are present to maintain a constant rate of filtration. The venturi meter is used to measure the bed resistance or loss of head. When the resistance builds up, the operator opens the regulation value so as to maintain a steady rate of filtration.

FILTER CLEANING When the bed resistance increases to such an extent that the regulating value has to be kept fully open, it it time to clean the filter bed. The supernatant water is then drained off and the sand bed is cleaned by scraping off the top portion of the sand layer to a depth of 1 2 cm. After 20 or 30 scrapings, the thickness of the sand bed will have reduced and a new bed is constructed.

RAPID SAND OR MECHANICAL FILTERS The steps involved are, (1) Coagulation : the raw water is first treated with a chemical coagulant such as alum. (2) Rapid mixing : the treated water is then subjected to violent agitation in a mixing chamber for a few minutes. This allows a quick and through dissemination of alum throughout the bulk of the water. (3) Flocculation : this phase involves a slow and gentle stirring of the treated water in a flocculation chamber for about 30 minutes. This result in the formation of a thick, copious, white flocculent precipitate of aluminium hydroxide. (4) Sedimentation : the coagulated water is then led into sedimentation tanks where it is kept for 2 6 hours, when the flocculent precipitate together with impurities and bacteria settle down in the tank. (5) Filtration : the partly purified water is then subjected to rapid sand filtration.

FILTER BEDS : Each unit of filter bed has a surface of 80 to 90 m2. Sand is the filtering medium. The effective size of the sand particles is between 0.4 0.7 mm. The depth of the sand bed is usually about 1 metre. Below the sand bed is a layer of graded gravel, 30 to 40 cm deep. The gravel supports the sand bed and permits the filtered water to move freely towards the under drains. The depth of the water on the top of the sand bed is 1.0 to 1.5m. The rate of filtration is 5 15 m3/m2/hour. Filtration removes the remaining alum floc not removed by sedimentation. As filtration proceeds, the suspended impurities and bacteria clog the filters resulting in their reduced efficiency called loss of head.

BACK WASHING Rapid sand filters need frequent washing daily or weekly, depending upon the loss of head. Washing is accomplished by reversing the flow of water through the sand bed, which is called back washing. It helps in dislodging the impurities and cleaning up the sand bed. The washing is stopped when the wash water is sufficiently clean. The whole process of washing takes about 15 minutes.

ADVANTAGES

Slow sand filter It is simple to construct and operate preliminary

Rapid sand filter It can deal with raw water directly. No storage is needed.

The cost of construction is cheaper The physical and chemical quality of slow sand Filtered water is very high

The filter beds occupy less space Filtration is rapid,40 50 times that of a filter

The total bacterial count is reduced by 99.9 to 99.99%

There is more flexibility in operation

c.)chlorination:Chlorination is a supplement and not a substitute to sand filtration. Its actions include, Chlorine kills pathogenic bacteria, but is has no effect on spores and certain viruses except in high doses. It oxidizes iron, manganese and hydrogen sulphide It destroys taste and odour producing constituents It controls algae and slime organisms It aids coagulation

Action of chlorine : When chlorine is added to water, there is formation of hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid. The hydrochloric acid is neutralized by the alkalinity of the water. The hypochlorous acid ionizes to form hydrogen ions and hypochlorite ions. The disinfecting action of chlorine is mainly due to the hypochlorous acid. Chlorine acts best as a disinfectant when the pH of water is around 7 because of the predominance of hypochlorous acid.

Principles of chlorination : The water to be chlorinated should be clear and free from turbidity. The chlorine demand of the water should be estimated. The chlorine demand of the water is the difference between the amount of chlorine added to the water and the amount of residual chlorine remaining at the end of a specific period of contact at a given temperature and pH of the water.

The point at which the chlorine demand of the water is met is called the break point. If further chlorine is added beyond the break point, free chlorine begins to appear in the water. The free residual chlorine should be present for a contact period of at least one hour to kill bacteria and viruses. The minimum recommended concentration of free chlorine id 0.5mg/litre for one hour. The free residual chlorine provides a margin of safety against subsequent microbial contamination which may occur during storage and distribution. The sum of the chlorine demand of the water plus the free residual chlorine of 0.5mg/1 constitutes the correct dose of chlorine to be applied.

METHOD USED Chlorine is applied either as Chlorine gas : It is the first choice because it is economical, quick in action, efficient and easy to apply. However, it is an irritant to the eyes and poisonous. Chloramines ; They are loose compounds of chlorine and ammonia. They have a less tendency to produce chlorinous taste and gives a more persistent type of residual chlorine. Perchloron : It is also called high test hypochlorite and is a calcium compound. Break point chlorination : The addition of chlorine to water to a point at which free residual chlorine begins to appear is called breakpoint chlorination. Superchlorination Superchlorination comprises of the addition of large doses of chlorine to the water and removal of excess of chlorine by dechlorination. This method is used for heavily polluted river water.

Other agents used for water purification

Ozonation : Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent which has a strong virucidal effect. It eliminates undesirable odour, taste and color. The drawback of ozone is that there is no residual germicidal effect. Ultraviolet irradiation : It is effective against most microorganisms including viruses. The apparatus needed is expensive.

2.)Purification of water on a small scale:1.household purification of water: three methods are available for purifying water A .boiling: boiling is a satisfactory method of purifying water the water must be brought to a rolling boil for 10-20 min B .chemical disinfection: it is done by using bleaching powder, chlorine solution ,hytest hypochloride ,chlorine tablets, iodine ,potassium permanganate. C . filtration: water can be purified on a small scale by filtering through ceramic filters such as Pasteur chamber land filters.

GUIDLINES FOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY:The guidelines for drinking water quality recommended by WHO(1993&1996) relate to the following variables, 1.)Acceptability aspects Physical parameters: a.should be free from turbidity.water with turbidity of less than 5 nephelometric turbidity units (NUP)is acceptable. b.should be free from color.the guideline value is up to 15 true color units. c.should be free from taste and odor. no health based guidelines value is proposed for taste and color.

Inorganic constituents: Aluminium: Chloride: Ammonia: Copper:

0.2 mg/l 250 mg/l 1.5 mg/l 1 mg/l

Depositions,discolouration Odour &taste Taste,corrosion Staining of laundry&sanitaryware(helth based provisional guideline value 2 mg/l. High hardness :scale deposition,scum formation;low hardness;possible corrosion odour&taste Staining of laundry &sanitaryware Staining of laundry &sanitaryware(health-based provisional guideline value 0.5 mg/l)

Guideline value: Hardness: Hydrogen sulphide: Iron: Manganese:

2 mg/l 0.05 mg/l 0.3 mg/l 0.1 mg/l

Guideline value: Dissolved oxygen: pH: sodium: sulphate: total dissolved solids: zinc:

0.5 mg/l 200 mg/l 250 mg/l 1000 mg/l 3 mg/l

Indirect effects Low pH:corrosion;high ph;taste,soapy feel preferably less than 8.0 for effective disinfection with chlorine Taste Taste,corrosion Taste Appearance,taste

11. MICROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS (a) Bacteriological indicators (i) Coliform organisms : If the coliform organisms are present in a water sample, the assumption is the probable presence of intestinal pathogens. (2) Faecal streptococci : The finding of faecal streptococci in water is regarded as important confirmatory evidence of recent faecal pollution of water. (3) Cl. Perfringens : Cl. Perfringens in a natural water suggests that faecal contamination has occurred, and their presence, in the absence of the coliform group, suggests that faecal contamination occurred at some remote time.

(b) Virological aspects : to be acceptable, drinking water should be free from any viruses infections for man. (c) Biological aspects : 1. Protozoa: Drinking water should not contain any pathogenic intestinal protozoa. 2. Helminthes: A single mature larva or fertilized egg can cause infection and such infective stages should be absent from drinking water. 3. Free living organisms: Free living organisms that may occur in water are fungi and algae, which gives water a bad odor and taste.

3) 3) CHEMICAL ASPECTS Inorganic constituents: Arsenic: o.o1mg/litre. Cadmium: 0.003mg/litre. Chromium: 0.05mg/litre. Cyanide: 0.07mg/litre. Fluoride: 1.5mg/litre Lead: 0.01mg/litre. Mercury: 0.001mg/litre. Nitrate and nitrite: 3mg/litre and 50/mg litre. Selenium: 0.01mg/litre.

Organic constituents: Pesticides: Aldrin/dieldrin Upper limit of concentration (g/litre ) 0.03

Chlordane DDT 2,4-D

0.2 2 30 0.03

Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide Hexachlorobenzene Lindane Methoxychlor Pentachlorophenol 1 2 20 9(p)

iv). RADIOLOGICAL ASPECTS Radioactivity in drinking water should not only be kept within safe limits; it should also, within those limits, be kept as low as is reasonably possible. From a radiological point of view, they represent a value below which water can be considered potable without any further radiological examination. . The activity of a radio-active material is the number of nuclear disintegration per unit of time. The unit of activity is a Becquerel (Bq); 1Bq = 1 disintegration per second. Formerly, the unit of activity was curie (Ci). ` The proposed guideline values are : Gross alpha activity 0.1Bq/L Gross beta activity 1.0 B/q L

HARDNESS OF WATER Hardness may be defined as the soap-destroying power of water. The hardness in water is caused mainly by four dissolved compounds. These area (1) Calcium bicarbonate (2) Magnesium bicarbonate (3) Calcium sulphate, and (4) Magnesium sulphate. Hardness is classified as carbonate and non-carbonate. Hardness in water is expressed in terms of milli-equivalents per litre (mEq/l). Classification of hardness of water

Classification (a) Soft water (b) Moderately hard (c) Hard water (d) Very hard water

Level of hardness (mEq/litre) less than 1 (<50mg/L) 1-3(50-150mg/L) 3-6 (150-300mg/L) over 6 (>300mg/L)

DISADANTAGES OF HARDNESS 1) hardness in water consumes more soap and detergents 2) when hard water is heated, the carbonates are precipitated and bring about furring or scaling of boilers. This leads to great fuel consumption, loss of efficiency and may sometimes cause boiler explosions. 3) hard water adversely affects cooking; food cooked in soft water retains its natural colour and appearance 4) fabrics washed with soap in hard water do not have a long life 5) there are many industrial processes in which hard water is unsuited and gives rise to economic losses (6) hardness shortens the life of pipes and fixtures. (a) Removal of hardness The methods of removal of hardness are briefly stated as below: Temporary hardness (a) Boiling (b) Addition of lime (c) Addition of sodium carbonate (d) Permutit process Permanent hardness (a) Addition of sodium carbonate

(b) Base exchange process

AIR The immediate environment of man comprises of air on which depends all forms of life. Composition Air is a mechanical mixture of gases. The normal composition of external air by volume is approximately as follows: Nitrogen - 78.1 % ; Oxygen -20.93 % Air is rendered impure by (1) Respiration of men and animals (2) Combustion of coal, gas, oil, etc. (3) Decomposition of organic matter and (4) Trade, traffic and manufacturing processes which give off dust, fumes, vapours and gasses. Under ordinary conditions, the composition of outdoor air is remarkably constant. This is brought about by certain self-cleansing mechanisms which operate in nature (1) Wind : Wind dilutes and sweeps away the impurities by its movement. Because of wind movement, impurities do not accumulate in any one place; (2) Sunlight : The atmospheric temperature and sunlight play their own part by oxidizing impurities, and killing bacteria; (3)Rain: it cleans the atmosphere by removing the suspended and gaseous impurities ; (4)plant life:the green plants utilize the carbondioxide and generate oxygen;this process is reversed during night time when the rate of pollution becomes too high or when cleansing process becomes ineffective ,it constitutes a health hazard. The Air of occupied Room:a.)Chemical Changes:the air becomes progressively contaminated by carbondioxide and the oxygen content decreases due to metabolic processes b.)Physical Changes: (1)raise in temperature (2)increase of humidity

(3)decrease in air moment (4)body odours (5)bacterial pollution Unless the vitiated air is replaced by fresh air,it may adversely affect comfort ,health and efficiency of the occupants. AIR POLLUTION The phenomenon calledpollution is an inescapable consequence of the presence of man and his activities.the termair pollution signifies the presence in the ambient (surrounding )atmospheres of substances (eg:gases,mixtures of gases &particulate matter ) generated by the activities of man in concentrations that interfere with human health,safety or comfort or injurious to vegetation and animals and other environmental media resulting in chemicals entering the food chain are being present in drinking-water &there by constituting additional source of human exposure. Source of air pollution: (a)AUTOMOBILES (b)INDUSTRIES (c)DOMESTIC SOURCES (d)the health of many people is tobacco smoking (passive smoking) (e)MISCELLANEOUS Meteorological factors: The level of atmospheric pollution at any one time depends upon meteorological factors eg:topography ,air moment and climate. Air pollutions: The importent ones are carbonmonoxide,carbondioxide,hydrogen sulphide,sulphurdioxide,sulphurtrioxide,nitrogen oxides,fluorine compounds,organic compoundes(eg:hydrocarbons,aldihydes,ketones,organic acids),metallic contaminants(eg:arsenic,zinc,iron resulting from smelting operation),radioactive components,photochemicals ,oxidants(eg:ozone).

Contaminants differ greatly from place to place depending upon the specific complex of contaminant source.pollutants maybe in the form of solids,liquids(vapours)or gases.the combination of smoke and fog is called (smog). Effects of air pollution:(a)health aspects:the immediate effects are borne by the respiratory system,the resulting state is acute bronchitis.if the air pollution is intence it may result in even in immediate death suffocation .the delayed effects most commonly linked with air pollution are chronic bronchitis,lung cances,bronchial asthma,emphysema,and repiratory allergies . Prevention & control of air pollution:+The WHO has recommended the following procedures for the prevention and control of air pollution (a)containment: i.e,prevention of escape of toxic substances into ambient air containment can be achieved by a variety engineering methods such as enclose, ventilation &air cleaning . (b)replacement: i.e,replacing a technological process causing air pollution,by a new process that does not. (c)dilution: the capacity for dilution is,however,limited and trouble occurs when the atmosphere is over burdened with pollutants (d)legislation: air pollution is controlled in many countries by suitable legislation,eg:Clean Air Acts (e)international action: to deal with air pollution and a world wide scale the WHO has established an international network of laboratories for the monitoring study of air pollution Disinfection of air: (1)MECHANICAL VENTILATION (2)ULTRAVIOLET RATION (3)CHEMICAL MISTS (4)DUST CONTROL LIGHT

+ The requirements of good lighting : good lighting is essential for efficient vision,the following light factors are essential:(1)SUFFICIENCY:the lighting should be sufficient to be enable to the eye to discern the details of the object as well as the surroundings without eye starain (2)DISTRIBUTION:the distribution of light should be uniform ,having sane intencity,over the whole field of work. (3)ABSENCE OF GLARE:glare is excessive contrast the eye cannot tolerate glare because it causes actute discomfort and reduces critical vision . (4)ABSENCE OF SHARP SHADOWS (5)STEADINESS:the source light should be constent .it should not flicker (6)COLOUR OF LIGHT:the colour of light is not very importent,so long as the intencity is adequate. (7)SURROUNDINGS

Light measurement units

DESCRIPTION

QUANTITY MEASURED NAME 1.Brightness of point Luminous intensity source Luminous flux 2.flow of light Illumination 3.amount of light Illuminance reaching surface Brightness 4.amount of light luminane reemitted by surface Lighting standards:-

RECOMMENDED UNIT Candela Lumen Lux lumen /cm^2(phot) lambert

OTHER UNITS

Candel power Foot candel Foot lambert candles/cm

The eye responds to a range of illumination ranging from 0.1lux(full moon light night)to 100000lux(bright sunshine).the visual efficiency increases with the increase of illumination but curve flattens out at higher levels. NOISE Noise is often defined as unwanted soundbut this definition is subjective because of the fact that one mans sound maybe another mans noise . noise has become a very important stress factor in the environment of man . the term noise pollution has been recently coined to signify vast cacophony of sounds that are being produced in the modern life ,leading to health hazards. Sources: the sources of noise are many and varied these are automobiles,factories,industries,air-crafts.the domestic noises form the radios,transistors,TV sets,all added to the quantum of noise in daily life Properties: (1)LOUDNESS:loudness or intensity depends upon the amplitude of the vibrations which initiated the noise.the loudness of noise is measured in decibels(db). (2)FREQUENCY:the frequency is denoted as Hertz(hz).one hz is equal to one wave/sec .the human ear can here frequencies from about 20 to 20000 hz.

Effects of noise exposure:(1)AUDITORY EFFECTS: (a)auditory fatigue:it appears in the 90 DB region and greatest at 4000hz it maybe associated with side effects such as whistling and buzzing in the ears. (b)deafness:the most serious pathological effect is deafness or hearing loss. (2)NON-AUDITORY EFFECTS: (a)interference with speech:noise interferes with speech communication.in everyday life,the frequencies causing most disturbance to speech communication lie in the 300500hz range.

(b)annoyance:this is primarily a psychological response.neurotic people are more sensitive to noise than balanced people (c)efficiency:where mental concentration is to be undertaken ,a low level of noise is always desired.reduction in noise has been found to increase to work output. (d)physiological changes:a number of temporary physiological changes occur in the human body as a direct result of noise exposure .these are rise in blood pressure,a rise in intracranial pressure,an increase in heart rate and breathing and increase in sweating Control of noise:(1)CAREFULL PLANING OF CITIES:(a)division of city into zones with separation of areas concerned with industry and transport (b)the separation of residential areas from the main streets by means of wide green belts. (c)widening of main streets to reduce the level of noise penetration into dwellings. (2)CONTROL OF VEHICLES:-heavy vehicles should not be routed into narrow streets .vehicular traffic on residential streets should be reduced.indiscriminate blowing of the horn and use of pressure and horn should be prohibited (3)TO INMPROVE ACOUSTIC INSULATION OF BUILDING:-insulation that produce noise or disturb the occupants within dwellings should be prohibited .buildings should be sound proof where necessary. (4)INDUSTRIES & RAILWAYS:-special areas must be year marked outside residential areas ,for industries,railways,marshalling yards and similar installations (5)PROTECTION OF EXPOSED PERSONS:-hearing proction is recommended for all workers who are constantly exposed to noise louder than 85 decibels in the frequency bands above 150hz.periodical audiogram checkups and use of ear plugs, ear muffs,are also essential as the situation demands. (6)LEGISLATION:-many states had adopted legislation providing for controls which are applicable to a fide variety of sources .

(7)EDUCATION:-no noise abatement program can succeed without pupils participation. Therefore,there education through all available media is needed to highlight the importance of noise as a community hazard RADIATION Sources of radiation exposure: The sources of radiation to which man is exposed are divided into two groups. Sources of radiation exposure Natural (1) Cosmic rays (2) Environmental: (a) Terrestrial (b) Atmospheric (3) Internal: Potassium - 40 Carbon - 14 Man-made (1) Medical and dental: X-rays, Radioisotopes (2) Occupational exposure (3) Nuclear: Radioactive fall-out (4) (4) (4)Miscellaneous: Television sets, Radioactive dial Watches, Isotope tagged products, Luminous markers

Types of radiation: The term ionizing radiation is applied to radiation which has the ability to penetrate tissues ad deposit its energy with in them. Ionizing radiation may be divided into two main groups : (1) electromagnetic radiations - X-rays and gamma rays, and (2) corpuscular radiations - alpha particles, beta particles (electrons) and protons. Radiation units The unit of activity is a Becquerel (Bq); 1Bq is equal to 1 disintegration per second. Formerly, the unit of activity was curie (Ci) and 1Bq corresponds approximately to 27 picocuries. The potency of radiation is measured in three ways: (1) Roentgen: Roentgen is the unit of exposure. It is the amount of radiation absorbed in air at a given point, i.e. number of ions produced in 1 ml of air (2) Rad : Rad is the unit of absorbed dose. It is

the amount of radioactive energy absorbed per gram of tissue or any material. (3) Rem : Rem is the product of the absorbed dose and the modifying factors. Biological effects of radiation Immediate SOMATIC: (1) Radiation sickness (2) Acute radiation syndrome Delayed : (1) Leukaemia (2) Carcinogenesis (3) Foetal developmental abnormalities (4) Shortening of life

GENETIC:

(1) Chromosome mutations (2) Point mutations

Radiation Protection : Radiation protection is the youngest branch of hygiene, and is called radiation-hygiene, It has been recommended that the genetic dose to the whole population from all sources should not exceed 5 rems over a period of 30 years.

SOLID WASTES
The term solid wastes includes garbage(food wastes) rubbish (paper,plastics,wood,metal,through away containers,glass),demolition products(bricks,masonry,pipes),sewage treatement residue(sludge&solids from the course screening domestic sewage),dead animals,manure&other discarded material Methods of disposal:The principal methods of refuse disposal are

(a)dumping: refuse is dumped in low lying areas partely as a method of reclamation of land but mainly as a easy method disposal of dry refuse . as result of bacterial action , refuse decreases considerably in volume and is converted gradually into humus. (b)controlled tipping: controlled tipping or sanitary land fill is the most satisfactory method of refuse disposal where suitable land is available . The material is placed in trench or other prepared area adequately compacted,and covered with earth at the end of the working day . (c)incineration:refuse can be disposed of hygienically by burning or incineration. It is the method of choice where suitable land is not available . (d)composting: composting is a method of combined disposal of refuse and night soil or sludge. It is a process of nature where by organic matter breaks down under bacterial action resulting in the formation of restively stable humus-like material,called the compost.

DISPOSAL OF HEALTHE CARE WASTE

Health care waste is defined as all the waste generated by health-care establishments, research facilities and laboratories. In addition, it includes the waste originating from minor or scattered sources such as that produced in the course of health care undertaken in the home (dialysis, insulin injection etc.). Waste produced in the course of health care activities carries a higher potential for infection and injury than any other types of waste. Categories of health care waste: 1. Infectious waste : Waste suspected to contain pathogens. Eg. Tab cultures, equipment that have been in contact with infected patients. 2. Pathological waste : Human tissues or fluids. Eg. Body parts, blood 3. Sharps : Needles, blade 4. Pharmaceutical waste : Expired drugs

5. Genotoxic waste : Contains Genotoxic substances which may have carcinogenic properties. Eg. Cytotoxic drugs, vomit or urine of patients using these drugs. 6. Chemical waste : Lab reagents, solvents, disinfectants 7. Wastes with high content of heavy metal : Mercury 8. Pressurized containers : Gas cylinders, aerosol cans 9. Radio active waste : Unused liquid from radiotherapy, contaminated glassware.

Handling, storage and transportation of health care waste : 1. Sharps should be collected together, regardless of whether they are contaminated or not. Containers should be puncture-proof, rigid, impermeable, tamper-proof and with covers. 2. Bags and containers for infectious waste should be marked with the international infectious substance symbol. 3. Highly infectious waste should preferably be packaged in red bags and sterilized immediately by autoclaving. 4. Expired pharmaceuticals should be returned to the pharmacy for disposal 5. The identity of the waste should be clearly marked on the container. Eg. Cytotoxic waste or name of the chemical in case of chemical waste. 6. Waste with a high content of heavy metals like cadmium or mercury should be collected separately. 7. Aerosol containers if empty may be collected with general health care wastes. They should not be incinerated. 8. Low level radioactive wastes may be collected in yellow bags if destined for incineration. Collection : The waste bags should be tightly closed or sealed, when they are about three-quraters full, light gauge bags can be closed by tying the neck but heavier guage bags probably require a plastic sealing tag. Storage : The waste should be stored in a separate area, room or building of a size appropriate to the quantity of waste produced and the frequency of collection.

Transportation : Wastes should be transported by means of wheeled trolleys, containers or carts that are not used for any other purposes.

The treatment and disposal options are : INCINERATORS:Incineration is a high temperature dry oxidation process that reduces organic and combustible waste to inorganic incombustible matter & results in a very significant reduction waste volume & weight CHEMICL DISINFECTION:Chemicals are added to waste to kill are inactivate the pathogens Types of chemical disinfections: (1)formaldehyde (2)ethyleneoxide (3)glutaraldehyde (4)sodiumhypochlorite (5)chlorinedioxide WET THERMAL TREATMENT:Wet thermal treatement or steam disinfection is based on exposure of shredded infectious waste to high temp,high pressure,steam. MICROWAVE IRRADICATION:Most microorganisms are destroyed by the action of microwaves of a frequency of about 2450mhz and a wave length of 12.24cm. ENCASULATION:Density polyethylene are metal drums ,with waste.it is a simple ,low cost and safe method but not recommended for non-shape infectious waste. SAFE BURYING:-

Safe burial of waste maybe used when this is the yiable option avaible especially in establishment which use minimal programs for health cares waste managements . INERTIZATION:This process involves mixing wastes with cement and other substances before disposal in order to minimize the risk of toxic substances contained in the waste migrating into surface water or ground water.