Fall 2012

Week 2 Motion in One Dimension

Change is perhaps the most conspicuous aspect of nature. Our shadow, long and pointing west in the morning, slowly rotates toward north and gets shorter as the sun moves up in the sky. It is shortest at noon and points north. Then it starts getting longer while moving from north towards east. This change in the length of the shadow is accompanied by the varying intensity of light. These changes along with changing colors of foliage with seasons and the motion of planets and stars in the sky keep reminding us of the continuous changes taking places all around us. Here we study the simplest change; motion, or the change of position of object with time. The location of a particle in space at a given time t is one of its important physical quantities. Motion is the variation of this quantity with time. Motion along a line is an example of such motion, which includes the motion of a person, or insect on a stick, that of a vehicle along a road and the up and down motion of a mass attached to a spring. Whatever is the object; living, or non-living; big or small, in the following discussion we shall approximate it by a point of mass m O and refer to it as a particle. Fig 2.1 Coordinate System: For finding the location of a particle along a line we choose a point on it as a reference point, or the origin and assign positive sign to the location of all points situated on its right and negative sign to the location of all points lying on its left. Thus, if a particle is located at 5 units to the right of the origin then its location is 5 units. If it is located 3 units to the left of the origin then its location O is -3 units. In general, we denote the location of the particle at time t with respect to the origin by x(t ) as shown in Fig 2.1. x(t ) is positive if the particle is to the right of the origin and negative if the particle is to the left of the origin. Fig 2.2 (a) Distance and Displacement: Consider taking a leisurely walk on the road just outside your house. Let the arrow heads in Fig. 2.2 (a) represent your locations at times t1 , t 2 and t 3 with respect to your house marked by O. If we assume that you maintained constant speed throughout your walk then the dashed lines in Fig2.2 (b) would represent your displacement x and the dotted lines would represent your distance from your house as a function of time. For varying speeds such a x sketch of distance verses time might look like that shown in (b)

2 1

12 3

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Distance

Average Speed: Let (t ) be the distance covered along the path up to time t and (t + t ) is the distance covered up to time t + t as shown in Fig 2.2 (c). We define the average speed s t ' as the ratio of the displacement during the time interval t : (t ) (c) (t + t ) (t ) t s t' = = (2.1) t t Average speed is normally associated with the middle of the time interval, t t' = t + 2 The average speed is the slope of the line joining the points { ( t + t ) , ( t + t )} and { t , ( t )} as shown in Fig 2.2 (c). The value of average speed depends on the length of the time interval and its location. This time interval may cover the entire duration of travel or a small part of it

( )

( t + t )
t + t

( )

For example, if after t = 5 min , (t ) = 0.2km , and after t + t = 45 min , ( t + t ) = 3.4km , then (t + t ) (t ) 3.4 0.2 3.2 s t' = = = = 0.08km / min = 1.33m / s = 4.8km / h , is the t 45 5 40 40 = 25 min after the start of the walk. average speed at t ' = 5 + 2

( )

Instantaneous Speed: If we shrink the time interval t by bringing the point { ( t + t ) , ( t + t )} closer and closer to the point { t , ( t )} , then in the limit when t becomes infinitesimally small the average speed becomes the instantaneous speed s( t ) at time t . Mathematically, lim lim d s( t ) = s t' = = (2.2) t 0 t 0 t dt Geometrically, when 0 , the line joining the two points becomes tangent to the verses t curve at the time t and, in this limit, s( t ) is given by the slope of this tangent. Fig 2.3 Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity: As we mentioned earlier distance is always non-negative but x1 x2 displacement can be positive, zero or negative. In Fig 2.2 x as a function of (a) we have also shown the displacement time t for our hypothetical walk along a straight line. The reference point for measuring x is our initial starting point, taking x to be positive in the upward direction and negative in the downward direction. For measuring time t the instant t1 t2 we start our walk is the reference instance. In this case there is no restriction on the shape of the displacement x

( )

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verses time t sketch. Fig 2.3 shows such a sketch for a more general walk along a straight line. In this case the average velocity v 12 between t1 and t 2 as indicated in Fig 2.3, is given by, x x1 x v 12 = 2 = (2.3) t 2 t1 t With, t = t 2 t1 , and. x = x 2 x1 . Here the magnitude and sign of v 12 , which is also given by the slope of the line joining the two points ( t1 , x1 ) and ( t 2 , x 2 ) ., depend on the size and location of the time interval t = t 2 t1 . The instantaneous velocity v at time t1 is obtained by shrinking the time interval t by bringing t 2 closer and closer to t1 . We express this mathematically as follows, lim lim x dx v= v 12 = = (2.4) t 0 t 0 t dt Geometrically, in this limit the line joining the two points ( t1 , x1 ) and ( t 2 , x 2 ) becomes tangent to the displacement verses time curve and v at t = t1 is given by the slope of this tangent. Note 2.1: a) While the average speed s 0 and the instantaneous speed s 0 , the average velocity v 12 and the instantaneous velocity v can take positive, zero or negative values. b) The average speed s is NOT necessarily always equal to the magnitude of the average velocity v 12 , but the instantaneous speed s is always equal to the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity v . c) Most of the time we will be dealing with instantaneous speeds and instantaneous velocities. . Therefore, from now on we will be dropping the word instantaneous. However, we will explicitly mention the average with speed and velocity, whenever we need it. d) We could also define average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration in similar way using the velocity verses time sketch. Therefore, v 2 v1 v a 12 = = , and (2.5) t 2 t1 t lim lim a da a= a 12 = = (2.6) t 0 t 0 t dt Up and down Oscillations of a mass attached to a spring shown in Fig 2.4 (a) is another example of motion in a straight line. Fig 2.4 motion (a) (b)

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With origin at the mean position of the spring the top curve in Fig 2.4 (b) gives a sketch of the displacement as a function of time. Shifting the origin to a location where the spring has a maximum or a minimum extension will shift this curve left or right by the corresponding amount. Question 2.1: Using Fig. 2.4 (b) calculate values of v 12 and s 12 for t1 = 0s , t 2 = 3s and t1 = 3s , t 2 = 4 s . Question 2.2: (a) Indicate time intervals on the top curve in Fig.2.3 where v 12 is greater than, equal to and less than zero b) From your own sketch of the distance verses time graph what can you say about the corresponding values of s 12 on the basis of this sketch? Q 2.3: Given that x(t ) = t + 2t 2 + t 3 , a) Sketch x(t ) as a function of t . b) Find an expression for v(t ) and give its sketch as a function of t . c) Calculate the values of v (t ) for t = -1, -1/3, 0, 1 d) Check if your results are consistent with the qualitative reasoning in the paragraph preceding Note 2.2. Q 2.4: a) Using the expression for v (t ) derived in question 2.3 (b) derive an expression for a (t ) and sketch it as a function of time. b) Using the definition of a (t ) as the slope of the tangent to the v(t ) v/s t curve at that time convince yourself that the 2nd curve from the top in Fig. 2.4(a) represents the velocity of the mass verses time. c) Using the 2nd curve also convince yourself that the 3rd curve from the top in Fig. 2.2(a) represents the acceleration of the mass verses time Summary: The following is a summary of our discussions during the previous week. Depending on the choice of the origin and direction, displacement x(t ) can be positive, negative or zero while distance covered is always non-negative. Average velocity v 12 during the time interval t1 to t 2 ; Average speed s12 during the time interval t1 to t 2 ; (t 2 ) (t1 ) s12 = = (2.1) t2 t1 t x (t 2 ) x(t1 ) x v 12 = = (2.3) t 2 t1 t Average acceleration a12 during the time interval t1 to t 2 ; v (t ) v(t1 ) v a 12 = 2 = t 2 t1 t Instantaneous velocity v(t ) at time t

(2.5)

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v(t ) =

dx(t ) dt (t) = v s

(2.4)

Instantaneous acceleration at ) at time t dv (t ) d 2 x(t ) (2.6) a (t ) = = dt dt 2 Note 2.2: EQs (2.4) and (2.6) are very important equations. These two equations form the basis for several other equations of translational motion. In writing EQs (2.2), (2.4) and (2.6) we have used the basic concepts of differentiation. Example 2.1- Motion in Straight Line with Constant Acceleration: Consider releasing a stone from rest from a height of 2m above the ground. Using EQs 2.4) and (2.6) for v( t ) and a ( t ) answer the following questions. a) Derive an expression for the velocity v( t ) of the object and its displacement y ( t ) from its point of release as a function of time t measured from the instant of its release. b) Using your result in part (a) find the time t as a function of the height h . c) From the given data with g = 9.8m / s 2 calculate the time it takes to reach the ground and the velocity with which it hits the ground. Solution: Given information; h = 2m , g = 9.8m / s 2 , Choices to be made; 1) Choice of origin from which to measure displacement 2) The direction in which displacement, velocity, acceleration are taken to be positive. 1) There are two convenient choices for the origin. i) The point from where the stone is released ii) The point where the stone finally hits the ground. Here we arbitrarily choose the point of release as the origin. We also choose the instant of release as the origin for time measurement, then velocity at time t = 0 , or initial velocity v 0 = 0.0m / s . This choice of the origin also gives the value of the displacement y ( t ) at t = 0 , or y 0 = 0 2) We also have two choices for choosing positive direction. These are up, or down direction. We again arbitrarily choose down, the direction in which the acceleration due to gravity g always points, as the positive direction. This gives the value of a = g for the value of acceleration in EQ (1.6) for this example. Note 2.2: Had we chosen up as our positive direction, then we would have a = g . With these two choices we are now ready to answer all of the three questions with the help of EQs (2.4) and (2.6) and basic concepts of integration. .

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dv( t ) = g , or, dv( t ) = gdt , given by EQ. 2.6, since g is constant dt and v( 0 ) = v 0 = 0 , when t = 0 , we get the definite integral, a) Integrating a (t ) =
v( t ) t

dv = g dt , giving
0 0

v( t ) = gt Alternately, we might have used the indefinite integral,

(2.7)

dv = g dt + c , or v( t ) = gt + c
Using the initial conditions v( 0 ) = v 0 = 0 , when t = 0 , gives the value of the constant of integration c = 0 . dx( t ) = gt , giving dx( t ) = ( gt ) dt , or b) From EQ. (2.4) and (2.7) we get; v( t ) = dt x( t ) t 1 dx = g tdt , giving x ( t ) = gt 2 (2.8) 2 0 0 From EQ. (2.8) we get the expression for the time t in terms of x( t ) = h and g to be; h t= 2 , (2.9) g The above expression, except for the proportionality constant 2 , is the same as that obtained by dimensional analysis. c) Finally, substituting the given values of h and g in EQ (2.9) we get the value of 2 time it takes the stone to hit the ground to be t = 2 0.64 s 9.8 The velocity with which the stone hits the ground is given by substituting the above value of t in EQ. (2.7), which yields; v = 0.64 9.8 = 0.63m / s In general, given an expression for the acceleration and ideas of simple integration we can derive expressions for velocity and displacement in terms of the acceleration a using EQ (2.6). In particular, for constant a , using EQ (2.6) we get; dv(t ) = a , or dt dv = adt Integrating both sides of the above equation gives,
v0

dv = adt = a dt
0 0

v( t ) v0 = at , or, v( t ) = v0 + at

(2.10)

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Where, v 0 is the value of the velocity at time t = 0 , and v is its value at time t . The acceleration a , being constant, was taken out of the integration sign. Similarly, since, dx(t ) = v (t ) , integrating which we get, dt
x0

dx = v(t )dt
0 x t t t

Here x0 is the value of x at time t = 0 . Substituting the value of v(t ) from EQ (2.10) in the above equation we get,
x0

dx = (v0 + at )dt = v0 dt + atdt

0 0 0 x t t t t

Both v 0 and a , being constant, can be taken out of the sign of integration in the above equation giving,
x0

dx = v0 dt + atdt = v0 dt + a tdt
0 0 0 0

As before, the integral on the left and the first integral on the right are very straight forward and the second integral is also not difficult. Therefore, 1 x(t ) x 0 = v 0 t + at 2 , or 2 1 x(t ) = x 0 + v 0 t + at 2 (2.11) 2 Reaction Time: If we suddenly see an obstacle in our way then the time we take to react to it is known as the Reaction Time. It can be measured by holding vertically a ruler in our fingers, letting go and catching it again as suddenly as we can. Activity 2.1 a): Calculate your reaction time by measuring the distance through which the ruler falls in between your fingers as described above. Give an estimate of your error. Q 2.5: Imagine that you suddenly see a something on the road in front of you while driving at 120 km/hr on the Motorway. (a) Using your reaction time that you measured in activity 2.1, calculate the distance you will cover before slamming on your brakes. (b) Assuming that you come to a complete rest in 100 m after applying your brakes, calculate the deceleration of your car and compare it to g , the acceleration due to gravity. (c) How far the object should have been in front of you if you were to miss hitting it? Q 2.6: Consider throwing a ball vertically upward with velocity v 0 .

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c)

a) Sketch its displacement and distance as a function of time while it goes up and comes back to its original location and indicate the direction and magnitude of its by an arrow while it is in the air. b) Is the time it takes to go up is the same as the time it takes to come down? Why or why not? Measure the time of its round trip. d) For v 0 = 1m / s and g = 9.8m / s 2 , calculate the maximum height it can reach. Activity 2.2: a) Using the results of Q 2.6 find the maximum speed with which you can throw an object. b) How does this speed depend on the mass of the object? Give an estimate of the error in your measurements and the corresponding error in your calculated quantities. Q 2.7: Using the basic equations; EQs. (2.10) and (2.11) derive the following additional useful equation describing motion in one dimension with constant acceleration.
2 v 2 v 0 = 2a ( x x 0 ) 1 ( x x 0 ) = (v + v 0 )t 2

(2.12) (2.13)

Q 2.8- Which of the two Objects has More Velocity as they reach the Ground? Object A is thrown towards the ground from height h with velocity. An identical object B is thrown upwards from the same height h and with the same velocity v0 . Activity 2.2 Fastest Bowler: a) Using the results of Q 2.6 find the maximum speed with which you can throw an object. b) How doe this speed depend on the mass of the object? Give an estimate of the error in your measurements and the corresponding error in your calculated quantities. Q 2.9: Using the basic equations; EQs. (2.10) and (2.11) derive the following additional useful equation describing motion in one dimension with constant acceleration. v

2 v 2 v 0 = 2a ( x x 0 ) 1 ( x x0 ) = (v + v0 )t 2

(2.12) (2.13) Fig 2.5

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Qualitative Reasoning: What can you say about the acceleration of an object with sketches of its velocity and displacement as functions of time shown in Fig 2.5 (a) and (b). Is it zero, constant or varies with time? Home Work: 1. Watch and try to understand a) MIT OCW Physics 801, lecture 2, and all demonstrations of Disc 1 of Encyclopedia of Physics and some related Physics Animations 2. Go through all the check points and sample problems in Chapter 2 and make sure you understand them 3. Attempt the following questions/problems given at the end of Chapter 2 Question 2, Problems 3,9,11,17,19,25,35, 37,39, 41,51,53,57,63 sample problems in Chapter 2 and make sure you understand them

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