Chapter 6: Nuclear division

Summary:
Cell division is needed so that organisms can grow and reproduce. It involves division of the nucleus followed by division of the cytoplasm. During nuclear division the chromosomes become visible. Each is seen to be formed of two chromatids. The chromosomes of a body cell can be photographed and arranged in order of size as karyotype. This shows that each cell has either one set of chromosomes, known as haploid, or two sets of chromosomes known as diploid. In the diploid condition, one set comes from the female parent and one from the male parent. Gametes are haploid cells. Body cells divide by the process of mitosis to produce two identical daughter cells whose nuclei contain the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This allows growth and repair of a multicellular organism and is the basis of asexual reproduction. Meiosis halves the number of chromosomes in the nucleus. This prevents chromosome number doubling in each generation of organisms which reproduce sexually. Cancers are caused by uncontrolled mitosis, possibly as the result of a mutation in a gene or genes which control cell division. Agents which cause cancer are known as carcinogens and include ionising radiation, many chemicals and viruses. Some cancers have a hereditary link.

Cells reproduce by dividing and passing on their genes (hereditary information to "daughter" cells. Nucleus always divides before a cell divides. Each daughter cell contains its own nucleus. This is important because the nucleus controls the cell's activities through the genetic material DNA. So, nuclear division combined with cell division allows cells, and therefore the whole organisms, to reproduce themselves. It also allows multicellular organisms to grow. All cells in one body are identical (apart from the gametes); they were all derived from one cell, the zygote.

The nucleus contains chromosomes

Just before an eukaryotic cell divides, thread-like structures gradually become visible in the nucleus. They stain intensely with particular stains so they were termed chromosomes because chromo means "coloured" and somes means "bodies". The number of chromosomes is characteristic of the species. In human cells there are 46 chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of heterosomes). A karyotype is a number and visual arrangement of the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of an organism or species. There are matching pairs of chromosomes called homologous pairs. Each pair is given a number. Accurate and precise nuclear division during growth results in all cells of the body containing the two sets of chromosomes. The pairs of chromosomes can be distinguished because each pair has a distinctive banding pattern when stained. One pair of chromosomes contain the sex chromosomes which determine the sex. All the other chromosomes are called autosomes. Females have two X chromosomes and males have an X and Y chromosome which is smaller because it has a portion missing. Each chromosome has a characteristic set of genes which code for different features.

Haploid and diploid cells

Diploid: a eukaryotic cell or organism containing two complete sets of chromosomes (two copies of each homologous chromosome), shown as 2n, such as human body (somatic) cell. Haploid: a eukaryotic cell or organism containing only one complete set of chromosomes (only one of each homologous chromosome), shown as n, such as gametes. Therefore, a 2n body cell has 46 chromosomes, and a gamete has 23.

The structure of chromosomes

Chromosome is made of two identical structures called chromatids. This is because during the interphase each DNA molecule in a nucleus makes an identical copy of itself. Each copy is contained in a chromatid and the two chromatids are held together by a narrow region called the centromere, forming a chromosome.

Each chromatid contains one DNA molecule. The fact that the two DNA molecule in sister chromatids, and hence their genes, are identical is the key to precise nuclear division. The gene for a particular characteristic is always ound the same position, or locus, on a chromosome. The total number of different genes in humans is thought to be about 30 000.

Homologous pairs of chromosomes

Homologous means "similar in structure and composition". Each member of a homologous pair of chromosomes comes from one of the parents (23 maternal chromosomes and 23 paternal chromosomes). Each member of a pair possesses genes for the same characteristics. They may however differ in exactly how they code for those characteristics. Allele are variant forms of a gene.

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Two types of nuclear division

Two requirements of a life cycle must be satisfied: 1) Growth: When a diploid zygote (one cell) grows into a multicellular diploid adult the daughter cells must keep the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell, The type of nuclear division that occurs here is mitosis. 2) Sexual reproduction: If the life cycle contains sexual reproduction, there must be a point in the life cycle when the number of chromosomes is halved. This means that the gametes contain only one set of chromosomes (otherwise the number of chromosomes would double every generation). The type of nuclear of nuclear division that halves the chromosome number is called meiosis.

Mitosis in an animal cell

Mitosis is a nuclear division that produces two genetically identical daughter nuclei, each containing the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.

The cell cycle

The cell cycle is the period between one cell division and the next. It has three phases, namely interphase, nuclear division and cell division. During interphase the cell grows to its normal size after cell division and carries out its normal cell functions, synthesising many substances in the process. At some point during interphase, a signal may be received that the cell should divide again. Dna replicates and nuclear division follows. Then the whole cell divides.

The length of the cell cycle depends on environmental conditions and cell type. In animal cells, cell division involves constriction of the cytoplasm between the two new nuclei, a process called cytokinesis. In plant cells it involves the formation of a new cell wall between the two new nuclei.

Mitosis
The four main stages are called prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The behaviour of chromosomes in plant and animal cells is identical. However, plant cells do not have centrioles and after nuclear division, a new cell wall must be formed.

Biological significance of mitosis Mitosis allows growth of multicellular organisms from unicellular zygotes. Replacement of cells and repairs of tissues is possible using mitosis followed by cell division. Cells are constantly dying and being replaced by identical cells. Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction, the production of new individuals of a species by one parent organism. For unicellular organisms cell division inevitably results in reproduction. For multicellular organisms, new individuals may be produced which bud off from the parent in various ways (e.g. Hydra). This eventually becomes detached from the parent and lives independently.

Cancer
Each cell contains genes that help to control when it divides. It is important that cell divide by mitosis only when they are required to do so. This usually involves signals from the neighbouring cells, to which the cell responds by either dividing or not dividing. If this control goes wrong, then cells may not divide when they should (so growth does not take place, or wounds do not heal) or they may divide when they

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wrong, then cells may not divide when they should (so growth does not take place, or wounds do not heal) or they may divide when they should not (so that a tumour may form). Cancers are a result of uncontrolled mitosis. Cancerous cells divide repeatedly, out of control, and a tumour develops which is an irregular mass of cells. The cells usually show abnormal changes in shape.

Carcinogens
Cancers are thought to start when changes occur in the genes that control cell division - mutation of genes. The particular term for a mutated gene that causes is an oncogene. Most mutated cells are either crippled in some way that results in their early death or are destroyed by the body's immune system. Cancerous cells manage to escape both faiths so the mutation is passed on to all that cell's descendants.
A factor which brings about any mutation is called a mutagen and is described as mutagenic. Any agent that causes cancer is called carcinogen and is described as carcinogenic. Some of the factors that increase the likelihood of cancer are: Ionising radiation: This include X-rays, gamma rays and particles from the radioactive decay. They cause the formation f damaging ions inside cells which can break DNA strands. Chemicals: Tobacco, certain dyes (known as aniline dyes) are known to be carcinogenic. They all damage DNA molecules. Virus infection: Viruses that cause cancer usually carry oncogenes, or regulatory genes that can become oncogenes. Hereditary predisposition: The disease itself is not inherited, but susceptibility to the factors that cause the disease is inherited . Some cancers do, however, appear to be caused by a single faulty gene.

Benign or malignant?
A small group of tumour cells is called a primary growth. There are two types: Benign tumours, which do not spread from their site of origin, but can compress and displace surrounding tissues. Malignant (cancerous) tumours, which are far more dangerous since they spread throughout the body, invade other tissues and eventually destroy them. They interfere with the normal functioning of the area where they have started to grow. Cells can break off and spread out to other parts of the body through the blood and lymphatic system to form secondary growths. The spread of cancer in this way is called metastasis.

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