282 ETFINOGRAPHY

On the other hand, Ukrainian tribes

in the Carpathians and the ethnic groups which developed from them absorbed, through the intermediary of the Southern Slavs, the Slovaks, Czechs, and Poles, certain western and southern European influences. Situated on both sides of the

Carpathian chain ridge, they were in close contact with a number of tribes and peoples of the Danube basin. Many ancient rites and customs, objects of material culture, as well as spiritual conceptions, motifs, and themes have resulted from this association, appearing most clearly among the western Lemkians and the southern Hutsuls.

In 1946-8 the Poles transferred a great number of the Lemkians to the USSR and resettled others in those Polish provinces which were German before World War II. During the last few years many Lemkians have returned from what is now western and northern Poland. In Sloval<ia all the Lemkians have remained in their old territory. Until recently the Lemkians preserved their native costume (with the characteristic
homemade, except for some foreign items (e.g., the men's caps were bought in Czech Olomouc). Their repertoire of songs, as has been shown by the collections and studies of F. Kolessa, is rich and original and is related to Slovak songs, as it was, formerly, to Czech songs, from which have come some ballad motifs and love songs. Near the Lemkians, to the north of the city of Krosno, live the Zamislzantsi. Thev call themselves Rusyng (Ruthenians). The Boikians. To the east of the Lemkians lies the territory of the Boikians, called Boikiashchyni 1th" Boikian region), which extends to the Solotlyt Bystrytsia nian Bvstrvtsia and the Tereshva in the east. The Boikians themselves. esnecia IIv east, themselves, especiallt 'ranscarpathia, this those in Transcarpathia, do not like thir name which thel' regard as derisive, and prefer to call
themselves Verkho-

present time uses the Slovak language, but is of the Greek Catholic faith, shos's clearly that it is of Ukrainian origin.

woolen mantles-chlrhy), lvhich

was

Westerrr Ukrainian (Carpathian) and

Neighboring Ethnic Groups

The population on both sides of the Carpathians is divided into three approximately equal groups: the Lemkians, the Boikians, and the Hutsuls, who have inhabited the same regions since they first settled there. Ukrainian ethnic group is that of the Lemkians, who are also known in Transcarpathia as the Lemaky. Until 1946, they inhabited both sides of the main Carpathian range from the Poprad in the west to the sources of the Sian (San ) and the Uzh in the east, extending in a wedge
Polish ethnic territhey have lost parts

The Lemkians. The

westernmost

into Slovak and

tory. In the course of many centuries of their territory to

the Slovaks and the

Poles, retaining only small enclaves

outside the compact area of their

such as Osturnia

tory in

oyntsi (Mountaineers). The inhabitants of the southern Boikian terripathia are known
TranscarPeople)
pioneers coloin those

They have
rrcuns 181.
LEMKTAN

main

as the Dolqniantl

territory.
shown

(Valley

and are considered

nrcunn 182. A
FROM THE
AREA GrRL

more resistance to the Poles than to

the Slovaks;

woua.N's cosruME

group which at the

BOIKIAN

nization regions. Although

of Ukrainian

to be the

TRIBAL DIVISION AND ETHNOGRAPHIC CROUPS

283

both areas of the Boikian region belons to the same general ethnic g.5,rp, certaiil difierences cian be noted in"the'southern region especially in dialect and in house_ building,-the miin type of house being a two-room structure, consisting onlv of an enlrance hall and the house p"rop"'r. TIre Boikian group also incl-udes the Tukhol'tsi who llve in the neighborhood of Skole and Smorzhe and who"sneak the dialect of the Boikians but differ from them in type and in disposition. Whereas the Boikians breed catlle, the Tukhottsi show a great ability for trade, and before World War I *er" kno*n in Galicia and beyond as sellers of grapes and other fruit. The Boikians have preserved their ancient customs and rites and much of their material culture, architecture, and costume. In their burial rites thev have preserved certain features whicfi have disappeared in other sections of Ukraintypes of graves ). The Boikian regioir still preserves the old type of wooden house

.:..,.,!:

nrcunl 183. youNc woMAN

AND youNc MAN

FIIO\{ THE HUTSUL AREA

ian territory ( the wake and special

tain rites, in costumes, and in folk art. The Hutsul region, although mountainous, is better suited to agriculture than the Boikian region. Neiertheless, the principal occupations of the population are the breeding of cattle (inarzhqna) and sheep, and work in the forests,"cutting, hauling, and floating timber. The Hutsuls are also rlittfut builders,

under the sa*e tobi as the farm building;, the old_agricultural implements (e.g.

kadooby, clay receptaclei for gtui.ri, typical old churches, characteristic*forms of costume and ornament (shirts, head coverings, beads, long cloaks, etc.), and some survivals of old customs ("the

area has receded somewhat before the advance of the Rumanian population, which has long tended to mbv^e to the north and northwest. The pioneers of the Wallachians, have left certain traces in Hutsul life and local nomenclature" but have not remained on Ukrainian ierritory. However, the Hutsul group's relations with the Rumanians have iesulted in the spread of cultural features of the Balkan type, which are apparent in cer-

southeast, Iive the Hutsrlk. Their ethnic

The Hutsuls. In the area to the east of the Boikians, extending down to the Rumanian ethnic territorvln the east and

terminology.

great family," "maiden fairs")

and

Rumanian colonization, tnown as the

rrcunn 184. HUTsuL woMAN oN HoRsEBAcK

and almost all the oid wooden Hutsul churches, which resemble the old Byzantine tlT)es, are the work of Hutsul
craftsmen.

crafts, especially wood-carvin$, brasswork, rug-weaving, and pottery-making. The Hutsuls' originality and artistic taste are particularly evident in their ornamentation and choice of colors (see "Popular Art"). The Hutsul costume is of the same southern, Balkan tlpe as that of the Boikians, the Lemkians, and the rest of the Carpathian population, but its colors and adornment are more striking than those of the Boikians or Lemkians. It differs from theirs in details and, until recently at least, has been made from the Hutsuls' own materials. The Hutsul region has its own special type of architecture (the enclosure-

its highly developed domestic handi-

The Hutsul region is widely known for

Lemkian region and the territory of the Pidhiriany in the south (Sianik [Sanok]Peremyshl [PrzemySl] ) to the southern Kholm (Chelm) region in the north inthis area is related to the Lemkian group,

both sides of the Sian (San) from the

cluding enclaves in ethnically Polish territory. In the south the population of and in the northeast ( to the east of Yavoriv and Rava Ruska) to the Opolian ( Dniester ) group, but in the center of the region the people's characteristics as a group entitle them to be considered as a separate unit known as the Dolyniany-

tic porches), which is also widespread in the transitional Boikian-Hutsul belt (see Fig. 226). The people live in scat-

grazhda, high-roofed houses, characteris-

"valley people." The Dolyni,any speak their own Sian dialect (see "Language") and difler from their neighbors in dress. They a)so have certain characteristic details in their customs and rites (the singing of spring songs called ryndziaky). The old type of town-dwellers with their ancient costumes and customs have survived in this region. In general, this interesting border territory has been Iittle studied. Among the most important ethnic sub-groups should be mentioned
the Batiuky who inhabit the area extending up to Nesteriv (Zhovkva) and Rava Ruska, and the border group to the east of Yavoriv, t}'e Veresiuky (so named after the Vereshytsia River). The Opolians. The Opolians inhabit western Podilia up to the river Strypa and, in some places, as far as the Seret in the east. They speak, with slight variations, the same dialect, that of the Dniester group. The Podilians. "Galician" Podilia begins at the Strypa, and extends to the Zbruch. Eastern Podilia, lying between the Dniester and the Boh, stretches as far as the area south of Balta. The Podilian ethnic region shows many features characteristic of Western Ukraine especially in its customs and rites (e.g., ceremonies for the dead ) and folklore (e.g., folk tales and the songs of the opryshky [robbers] ), which are unknown in eastern Ukraine. The northern section of the Podilian ethnic group is related to the southern Volhynian belt.

tered settlements. But, to a large extent, Transcarpathia has lost the Hutsul mountain type of architecture, except in the region of upper Tysa. In the Hutsul region the old rituals are still well preserved. There is a great realm of demonology, as well as of rites and customs connected with the folk

wealth of beliefs, in particular

calendar.

in

the

The Pokutians. Pokutia lies to the northeast of the Hutsul area and extends, in both Galicia and Bukovina, to the

this section has many

Dniester in the north. The population of

characteristics

similar to those of the Hutsuls. The h'ansitional type between the Hutsuls and the Boikians, on the one hand, and the population further to the north, on the other, is represented by the Pidhiriang"people of the foothills." Northwestern llkrainian Ethnic Groups

These groups inhabit the region on

TRIBAL DIVISION AND ETHNOCRAPHIC GROUPS 285

Volhynia. Volhynia todaY is not an ethnicailv homogeneous area, but is characteiized by" t*o closely related Wpes: the southern, which begins in northwestetn Galicia and extends up to

(northern dialects) (see "LangYage")' Polisia and its population. To the east of Podlachia stretches the quite broad belt of Polisian territory, where much has been preserved from ancient times: and Rir,te, and the northern, the old wtod culture, the old costume Lutsk which extends to which shows traces of the traditions of Polisia. As in the the medieval period, and widespread case of Podilia, the rituals, which aie basically analogous to nolitical frontier those of the Boikians and the Hutsuls in i.ras not destroved the Carpathians. Polisia has a great ihe ethnograPhic wealth ol oral tradition, which is closely rrnitv here and has related in content and type to Ukrainian folklore in general, not'produced noas for example the ticeable differences terminology relatin the ethnic tYPe ing to the Danube, and dialect. VolhYthe Kozaks, and Unia has preserved kraine. Polisia has not only manY old preserved a great koliadkq (winter number of koltadku and festival"carols ) ( carols ) with anshchedriaky (New cient themes, many rrcunr I85. t.orteN's Year songs), but ritual songs which also a number of COSTUtr4E FRON{ VOLare today regarded HYNL}' carols and Church as "survivals" (".g., Lyre-playing has, been reliqious songs' aolochibni, songs espEcially widespread and popular in androhul'ky Easter this region.
Northern Ukrainian Ethnic GrouPs The entire northern part of Ukraine from the Buh to the Seim, south of the

songs), and the themes of many

tales which the Belorussians, who live

Yaselda and the Prypiat, on both sid-es of

the Desna and on the left bank of the rrcunr 186. tvoMau's north, have taken cosruMEAriiorr PoD- tJ:i, til Dnieper is occupied by the northern lli-"" Ukrainian ethnic g.oupt, who settled on the old territories" of ihe Derevlianians krainian-Belorussian Lthnic boundary.) Etl'rnically Polisia is not entirely homoand Siverianians' They have preserved geneous, and its eastern part in particular the old Ukrainian folk culture; but in Polisia the westernmost area' the Kholm ilto*r variations.into fouras a whole is belts: Polisia th"Y usuallv divided IChelm] region and Podlachia, able to resist Polish pres- prop"i, thc Pinsk region, the Volhynian, ir",r" ttot bein The people are sure. The inhabitants of the Kholm re- and Chernihiv Polisia. usuallv called Polishchuks or Pinchuks, gion do not form a separate ethnic type; but many local names are also used. t"he eastern part of the area was settled and the southern part, bv Volhynians, Z. Kuzela bv the Doluniana. 'The Podiachia"ns deffnitely belong to BIBLIOGRAPHY the northern Ukrainian tlpe with its BmnnueN, L, Die ungarischen Ruthenen, cultural and ethnic characteristics and 2 vols. Innsbruck, 1882. Kor-nrnc, O., they speak basically the same dialect Pokuc-te,4 vols., 1882-9' Bensov, N., Ocherki

further to

the