Welding Stainless Steel

The stainless properties of stainless steels are primarily due to the presence of chrom than roughly 12 weight percent. This level of chromium is the minimum level of chrom continuous stable layer of protective chromium-rich oxide forms on the surface. The oxide in the weld region must be maintained to ensure stainless properties of the weld In commercial practice, however, some stainless steels are sold containing as little as chromium and will rust at ambient temperatures.

Stainless steels are generally classified by their microstructure and are identified as fe austenitic, or duplex (austenitic and ferritic). The microstructure significantly affects th the choice of welding procedure used for these stainless steel alloys. In addition, a n hardenable (PH) stainless steels exist. Precipitation-hardenable stainless steels have austenitic microstructures.

Iron, carbon, chromium and nickel are the primary elements found in stainless steels microstructure and welding. Other alloying elements are added to control microstruct properties. These other alloys affect welding properties by changing the chromium or thereby changing the microstructure of the weld metal. Generally, 200 and 300 serie austenitic and 400 series alloys are ferritic or martensitic, but exceptions exist.

Stainless steels are subject to several forms of localized corrosive attack. The preven corrosive attack is one of the concerns when selecting base metal, filler metal and we fabricating components from stainless steels.

Stainless steels are subject to weld metal and heat affected zone cracking, the forma phases and concerns about ductile to brittle fracture transition. The prevention of cra embrittling microstructures is another major concern when welding or fabricating stain

Welding Austenitic Stainless Steels

Ideally, austenitic stainless steels exhibit a single-phase, the face-centered cubic (fcc maintained over a wide range of temperatures. This structure results from a balance o primarily nickel, that stabilize the austenite phase from elevated to cryogenic tempera alloys are predominantly single phase, they can only be strengthened by solid-solutio hardening. Precipitation-strengthened austenitic stainless steels will be discussed se

The austenitic stainless steels were developed for use in both mild and severe corros Austenitic stainless steels are used at temperatures that range from cryogenic tempe exhibit high toughness, to elevated temperatures, where they exhibit good oxidation r austenitic materials are nonmagnetic, they are sometimes used in applications where not acceptable.

The most common types of austenitic stainless steels are the 200 and 300 series. W the alloying additions vary significantly. Furthermore, alloying additions and specific a have a major effect on weldability and the as-welded microstructure. The 300 series from 8 to 20 weight percent Ni and from 16 to 25 weight percent Cr.

A major concern, when welding the austenitic stainless steels, is the susceptibility to s liquation cracking. Cracks can occur in various regions of the weld with different orien centerline cracks, transverse cracks, and microcracks in the underlying weld metal or zone (HAZ). These cracks are primarily due, to low-melting liquid phases, which allow under the thermal and shrinkage stresses during weld solidification and cooling.

Even with the serious cracking concerns, the austenitic stainless steels are generally weldable of the stainless steels. Because of their physical properties, the welding be stainless steels is different than the ferritic, martensitic, and duplex stainless steels. F conductivity of austenitic alloys is roughly half that of ferritic alloys. Therefore, the we required to achieve the same penetration is reduced. In contrast, the coefficient of th austenite is 30 to 40 percent greater than that of ferrite, which can result in increases residual stresses, due to welding. The molten weld pool of the austenitic stainless ste viscous, or sluggish, than ferritic and martensitic alloys. This slows down the metal fl welds in austenitic alloys, which may promote lack-of-fusion defects.

Welding Ferritic Stainless Steels

Ferritic stainless steels comprise approximately half of the 400 series stainless steels from 10.5 to 30 weight percent chromium along with other alloying elements, particula Ferritic stainless steels are noted for their stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) resistance pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride environments, but have poor toughness, espe condition.

Ideally, ferritic stainless steels have the body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure kn temperatures below their melting temperatures. Many of these alloys are subject to t undesirable intermetallic phases when exposed to certain temperature ranges. The h can be embrittled by precipitation of the tetragonal sigma phase, which is based on th

Molybdenum promotes formation of the complex cubic chi phase, which has a nomina Fe36Cr12Mo10. Embitterment increases with increasing chromium plus molybdenum generally agreed that the severe embrittlement which occurs upon long-term exposur decomposition of the iron-chromium ferrite phase into a mixture of iron-rich alpha and prime phases. This embrittlement is often called "alpha-prime embrittlement." Addit chromium carbide and nitride precipitation may play a significant role in the more rapi embrittlement.

The ferritic stainless steels have higher yield strengths and lower ductilities than auste Like carbon steels, and unlike austenitic stainless steels, the ferritic stainless alloys e ductile-to-brittle behavior as the temperature is reduced, especially in notched impact brittle transition temperature (DBTT) for the ultrahigh-purity ferritic stainless steels is l standard ferritic stainless steels. It is typically below room temperature or the ultrahig steels. Nickel additions lower the DBTT and there by slightly increase the thicknesse toughness. Nevertheless, with or without nickel, the ferritic stainless steels would nee anything other than thin walled applications as they are prone to brittle failure.

Welding Martensitic Stainless Steels

Martensitic stainless steels are considered to be the most difficult of the stainless stee carbon contents will produce greater hardness and, therefore, an increased susceptib

In addition to the problems that result from localized stresses associated with the volu martensitic transformation, the risk of cracking will increase when hydrogen from vario the weld metal. A complete and appropriate welding procedure is valuable to preven sound weld.

Martensitic stainless steels are essentially alloys of chromium and carbon that posses (bcc) or body-centered tetragonal (bct) crystal structure (martensitic) in the hardened ferromagnetic and hardenable by heat treatments. Their general resistance to corros corrosive environments, but not as good as other stainless steels.

The chromium content of these materials generally ranges from 11.5 to 18 weight per content can be as high as 1.2 weight percent. The chromium and carbon contents ar martensitic structure after hardening. Martensitic stainless steels are chosen for their creep, and fatigue strength properties, in combination with moderate corrosion resista resistance.

The most commonly used alloy within this stainless steel family is type 410, which co percent chromium and 0.1 weight percent carbon to provide strength. Molybdenum c mechanical properties or corrosion resistance. Nickel can be added for the same rea chromium levels are used to improve corrosion resistance, nickel also serves to main microstructure and to prevent excessive free ferrite. The limitations on the alloy conte the desired fully martensitic structure restrict the obtainable corrosion resistance to m

Welding Duplex Stainless Steels

Duplex stainless steels are two phase alloys based on the iron-chromium-nickel syste steels usually comprise approximately equal proportions of the body-centered cubic ( centered cubic (fcc) austenite phases in their microstructure and generally have a low as, additions of molybdenum, nitrogen, tungsten, and copper. Typical chromium cont percent and nickel contents are 5 to 10 weight percent. The specific advantages offe steels over conventional 300 series stainless steels are strength, chloride stress-corro resistance, and pitting corrosion resistance.

Duplex stainless steels are used in the intermediate temperature ranges from ambien degrees Fahrenheit (depending on environment), where resistance to acids and aque required. The weldability and welding characteristics of duplex stainless steels are be stainless steels, but generally not as good as austenitic materials.

A proper welding procedure is needed to obtain sound welds. Duplex stainless steel good, although it is not as forgiving as austenitic stainless steels. Control of heat inpu Solidification cracking and hydrogen cracking are concerns when welding duplex stai significant for some other stainless steel alloys.

Current commercial grades of duplex stainless steels contain between 22 and 26 wei to 7 weight percent nickel, up to 4.5 weight percent molybdenum, as well as some co nitrogen. Modifications to the alloy compositions have been made to improve corrosi workability, and weldability. In particular, nitrogen additions have been effective in im resistance and weldability.

The properties of duplex stainless steels can be appreciably affected by welding. Du maintaining a balanced microstructure and avoiding the formation of undesirable met welding procedures must be properly specified and controlled. If the welding procedu disrupts the appropriate microstructure, the loss of material properties can be severe.

Because the steels derive properties from both austenitic and ferritic portions of the s single-phase base material characteristics are also evident in duplex materials. Auste have good weldability and low-temperature toughness, whereas their chloride SCC re are comparatively poor. Ferritic stainless steels have good resistance to chloride SC toughness, especially in the welded condition. A duplex microstructure with high ferri have poor low-temperature notch toughness, whereas a structure with high austenite low strength and reduced resistance to chloride SCC.

The high alloy content of duplex stainless steels also makes them susceptible to the f phases from extended exposure to high temperatures. Significant intermetallic precip loss of corrosion resistance and sometimes to a loss of toughness.

Duplex stainless steels have roughly equal proportions of austenite and ferrite, with fe The duplex stainless steels alloying additions are either austenite or ferrite formers. extending the temperature range over which the phase is stable. Among the major a duplex stainless steels chromium and molybdenum are ferrite formers, whereas nicke copper are austenite formers.

Composition also plays a major role in the corrosion resistance of duplex stainless ste resistance is easily affected. To determine the extent of pitting corrosion resistance o pitting resistance equivalent is commonly used.

Welding Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steels

Precipitation-hardening (PH) stainless steels are iron-chromium-nickel alloys. They g corrosion resistance than martensitic stainless steels. The high tensile strengths of th due to precipitation hardening of a martensitic or austenitic matrix. Copper, aluminum (columbium), and molybdenum are the primary elements added to these stainless ste precipitation hardening.

Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are commonly categorized into three types m semiaustenitic, and austenitic based on their martensite start and finish (Ms and Mf) te resulting microstructures. The issues involved in welding PH steels are different for e

It is important to understand the microstructure of the particular type of alloy being we stainless steels solidify as primary ferrite and have relatively good resistance to hot cr stainless steels, ferrite is not formed, and it is more difficult to weld these alloys witho

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