A brief history of the development of the Science of Mechanics of fluids:

By the middle of the nineteenth century much empirical information had been obtained relating to flow in pipes and open channels but at that time practically nothing was known about the laws governing the influence of viscosity. Contemporary knowledge was based on many experimental observations made of particular fluids under particular circumstances which could only be related to similar fluids under similar circumstances to the observed study material. The results of the individual studies could not be brought together to form a universal law. It was, however, realised that there were two distinct kinds of fluid flow. Although the work of Hagen in 1840 served to emphasize certain consequences of this difference it was not until the experiments of Professor Osborne Reynolds in the early 1880s that the essential nature of the two types of flow were demonstrated.

Fundamental Principles of Fluid Flow

Types of Fluid Flow Flow may be described as either external or internal, external flow concerns the flow of a body of fluid past the surface of an object whereas internal flow concerns the flow of fluid between bounding surfaces. The airflow through a duct system is a common example of internal flow. This flow may further be subdivided into two categories, namely laminar and turbulent flow. The distinction between laminar and turbulent flow is most easily understood by reference to the work carried out in the early 1880s by Professor Osborne Reynold The apparatus used by Professor Reynolds is indicated below

A straight glass tube with a smoothly rounded faired end was place within a tank of water with the end of the tube extending through the wall of the tank. After a distance thought suitable to avoid turbulence caused by the valve influencing the results a valve was installed to control the fluid flow. At the centre line of the inlet to the tube a fine needle of colourer dye was injected which allowed Professor Reynolds to study the nature of the flow within the glass tube.

Professor Reynolds observed that, provided sufficient time was allowed for the water within the tank to become calm, then whilst the velocity of the water was kept low a filament of dye would travel down the tube without any disturbance. As the water flow was increased the filament would begin to waver and at a critical point the dye would, except for a region close to the inlet, suddenly become totally mixed. He further observed that the original fine filament of dye would be restored if the flow was reduced. Professor Reynolds noted with particular interest that the breakdown of the filament flow always began some considerable distance from the inlet equal to about 30 times the diameter of the tube. Although Professor Reynolds used water in his original tests it has subsequently been demonstrated that all fluids; liquid and gas behave in this manner. Also, these two types of flow are observed in all shapes and the phenomenon is not restricted only to round tubes. In the first type of flow the fluid is observed to flow in a very steady manner with the dye filament moving entirely in a straight line thereby demonstrating that the fluid particles are also moving in a straight line parallel to the axis of the glass tube. Although all of the particles are not necessarily moving at the same velocity they are moving in the same direction and may therefore be considered to be moving in layers or laminae and this kind of flow is now universally referred to a laminar flow. In the second type of flow the fluid particles are no longer moving in straight lines parallel to the axis of the tube but are moving in wavy three dimensional trajectories so that a thorough mixing of the dye is taking place. Under these conditions only the average motion of the fluid may be considered to be following the axis of the tube. Dynamic Similarity and the derivation of the Reynolds Number equation When considering the flow of air through building services ducts the forces acting on the system are reduced to only viscous, pressure and inertia forces. This is due to the fact that in a closed system there is no free surface and therefore surface tension has no effect, gravity cannot affect the flow pattern and as the speed of flow is well below the speed of sound therefore compressibility is also of no consequence. For dynamic similarity between two systems, the magnitude ratio of any two forces must be the same at corresponding points of the two systems (and, if the flow is unsteady, at corresponding times also). By convention, the ratio of | Inertia force| to |Net viscous force| is chosen to be the same in each case. The inertia force acting on a particle of fluid is equal in magnitude to the mass of the particle multiplied by its acceleration. The mass is equal to the density _ times the volume. The volume may be taken as proportional to the cube of some length l which is characteristic of the geometry of the system; the diameter of the conduit is usually used for this purpose.

The mass, then, is proportional to . The acceleration of the particle is proportional in magnitude to some particular velocity divided by some particular interval of time, that is, to u/t, say, however, the time interval may be taken as proportional to the chosen characteristic length l divided by the characteristic velocity, so that the acceleration may be set proportional to . The magnitude of the inertia force is thus proportional to The shear stress resulting from viscosity is given by the product of viscosity and the rate of shear; this product is proportional to u/l. The magnitude of the area over which the stress acts is proportional to l2 and thus the magnitude of viscous force is proportional to (u/l) l2 = ul. Consequently, the ratio |Inertia force| |Net viscous force| is proportional to

The ratio

is known as the Reynolds number.

For dynamic similarity of two flows past geometrically similar boundaries and affected only by viscous, pressure and inertia forces, the magnitude ratio of inertia and viscous forces at corresponding points must be the same. Since this ratio is proportional to Reynolds number, the condition for dynamic similarity is satisfied when the Reynolds numbers based on corresponding characteristic lengths and velocities are identical for the two flows. The length l in the expression for Reynolds number may be any length that is significant in determining the pattern of flow. For a circular pipe completely full of the fluid the diameter is now invariably used as except near the inlet and outlet of the pipe the length along its axis is not relevant in determining the pattern of flow. Provided that the cross-sectional area of the pipe is constant and that the effects of compressibility are negligible, the flow pattern does not change along the direction of flow except near the ends. Also by convention the mean velocity over the pipe cross-section is chosen as the characteristic velocity u. Under normal engineering conditions, flow through conduit at Reynolds numbers (Re No) below 2000 may be regarded as laminar and flows for Re No above 4000 may be regarded as turbulent. Relevance to Building Services Because air has a very low kinematic viscosity the conditions under which air flows through large building services ducts will usually be turbulent and this is demonstrated below using the following equation

As is demonstrated below the ReNo = ud/v therefore the critical velocity is given by vRe/d The kinematic viscosity of air at 20 deg C is 0.00001511m2s Then for a moderately large duct of say 1000mm dia the critical velocity where the change from laminar to turbulent flow may be expected is 0.00001511x2000/1 = 0.03m/s And even for a very small air duct of say 100mm dia the critical velocity where the change from laminar to turbulent flow may be expected is still very slow at only 0.3m/s As this paper is concerned with the anticipated piezometric pressure loss through large ducts it is clear that it is turbulent flow that needs to be considered. Notwithstanding this it remains good engineering discipline to carry out the check for turbulent flow and this is included in the final solution.