INFORMATION SHEET

POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

PAGE 1 OF 31

INTRODUCTION During the operating cycle of an engine, events must take place at the correct time and with the correct relationship to each other. The relationship between all the various events is known as the ENGINE TIMING. The engine timing determines when in the cycle a particular thing should happen. This includes:

The opening and closing of the intake valve. The opening and closing of the exhaust valve. The injection of the fuel on a diesel engine.

If

the

timing

of

any

of

the

above

is

not not

as

set

out at

in

the most

manufacturers efficient.

manual,

the

engine

will

perform

its

This module will explain engine cycles and how the correct timing is achieved on a 2-Stroke cycle and 4-Stroke cycle engine.

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

PAGE 2 OF 31

DIESEL ENGINE OPERATING CYCLES 2-Stroke Cycle As its name suggests, a diesel engine working on the 2-stroke principle uses two strokes of the piston (one upward stroke and one downward stroke) to complete its cycle. A cycle is complete when the piston has finished one full duty operation another. To explain how the 2-stroke diesel engine works, we must pick a point in the cycle and follow the progress of the piston from that point. As an example, we will consider that the piston is at the very bottom of its stroke. This position is known in all types of engines as BOTTOM DEAD CENTRE and often referred to as BDC. and has returned back to the starting point to begin

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

PAGE 3 OF 31

In 2-stroke engine construction, the air for combustion enters the cylinder through holes in the side of the cylinder liner. charger. These PORTS are connected to the air box that is supplied with air from a The exhaust leaves the cylinder unit through valves in See figure 1. the cylinder head.

EXHAUST VALVE EXHAUST VALVE

PORTS IN CYLINDER WALL

BLOWER

AIR BOX

Figure 1 Power Unit of a 2-Stroke Engine

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

PAGE 4 OF 31

Figure 2 - Scavenging

With the piston at BDC, the intake ports and the exhaust valves are open.

Air is blown from the charger into the air box and through the ports in the liner.

The air entering is at a higher pressure than the gases in the cylinder.

Exhaust

gases

from

the

previous

cycle

are

pushed

out

through the exhaust valves. Eventually, the cylinder is filled with clean, fresh air.

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

PAGE 5 OF 31

Figure 3 - Compression
As the piston moves up the cylinder, the exhaust valves close and the piston covers the inlet ports. The clean air in the cylinder is compressed as the piston continues to move up the cylinder.

The air that is squeezed into a very small volume increases i n t e m p e r a t u r e , t o a r o u n d 4 5 0 C ( 8 5 0 F ) .

Just before the piston reaches the very top of its stroke (a position known as TOP DEAD CENTRE and often referred to as TDC) the fuel injector sprays diesel into the cylinder.

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

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Figure 4 Power Stroke

The fuel mixes with the hot air and starts to burn. As the burning continues, the pressure in the cylinder

increases. The pressure pushes down on the piston, which turns the crankshaft.

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

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Figure 5 - Scavenging
When the piston is about three-quarters of the way down, the exhaust valves begin to open. Exhaust gases begin to leave the cylinder. When the piston moves lower, the intake ports are

uncovered and fresh air is again blown into the cylinder.

SCAVENGING of the exhaust gases takes place. When the piston is at BDC, the cycle is complete.

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POI: TITLE: You Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles will see from the diagrams and each that each

PAGE 8 OF 31

upward stoke is

stroke a

is

COMPRESSION stroke.

stroke

downward

POWER

To charge the cylinder with air and to remove the exhaust gases from the cylinder requires the use of air under pressure. charger takes care of both of these requirements. Two-stroke engines do not breathe very well. The scavenging of This The

the exhaust gases from the cylinder after the power stroke is not complete (there is always some exhaust gas left in the unit). is due to the very short time available during which the intake ports and the exhaust valves are open at the same time for the clean air to scavenge (clean out) the entire cylinder. The time when the inlet port (or inlet valve) and exhaust valve are open at the same time is called the VALVE OVERLAP.

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POI: Engineering Officer Refresher Course TITLE: Combustion Cycles 4-Stroke Cycle

PAGE 9 OF 31

As its name would suggest, the cycle of events is completed in four strokes strokes). To explain how the 4-stroke diesel engine works, we must pick a point in the cycle and follow the progress of the piston from that point. As an example, we will consider that the piston is at the very top of its stroke (TDC). of the piston (two upward strokes and two downward

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TITLE: Combustion Cycles The first stroke in the cycle is downwards from TDC to BDC. is called the INTAKE or INDUCTION stroke. The open piston with and moves the the down the valve valve

This

cylinder closed.

intake

exhaust

Low pressure is created above the piston in the cylinder.

Air rushes in to fill the partial vacuum.

Figure 6
Piston at BDC

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PAGE 11 OF 31 This

POI: Engineering Officer Refresher Course The second stroke in the cycle is upwards from BDC to TDC. TITLE: Combustion Cycles is called the COMPRESSION stroke. The piston moves up the

cylinder. The intake valve and the

exhaust valve are closed. The air trapped in the cylinder is compressed giving a rise in temperature. Just before, and through TDC, fuel is injected into the cylinder.

Figure 7
Piston Rising On Compression Stroke And Fuel Injection

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PAGE 12 OF 31 The third stroke in the cycle is downwards from TDC to BDC. This POI: Engineering Officer Refresher Course is called the POWER stroke. TITLE: Combustion Cycles The has highly been atomized injected fuel that into

comes

contact with the very hot air in the cylinder. The fuel ignites with the

increase in its temperature. As the fuel and of air the mixture gases

burn,

expansion

occurs and the piston is pushed down the cylinder. The connecting rod turns the

crankshaft.

Figure 8
Fuel Burning and Piston Moving Down Cylinder

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PAGE 13 OF 31 The fourth stroke in the cycle is upwards from BDC to TDC. This POI: Engineering Officer Refresher Course is called the EXHAUST stroke. TITLE: Combustion Cycles As the piston reaches BDC, the exhaust valve is opened. Exhaust gases start to flow out. The upward stroke of the piston helps to clear the cylinder of exhaust gases. Near closes opens. When the piston reaches TDC, the cycle is complete and the unit is ready to start another cycle. TDC, and the the exhaust intake valve valve

Figure 9
Piston Moving Up The Cylinder Pushing Out Exhaust Gas

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

PAGE 14 OF 31

Figure 10
4-Stroke Cycle

DIESEL ENGINE TIMING DIAGRAMS

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POI: Engineering Officer Refresher Course You will now understand the basic operation of 2-stroke and TITLE: Combustion Cycles 4-stroke engines and also realize that the timing of the events is very important for efficient operation of the engine. For example, if the inlet or exhaust valve were to open during the compression stroke of the cycle, all the developed pressure, which is required to produce the heat needed for burning the fuel, would disappear. no heat to ignite it. The manufacturer, during the development of the engine, decided that intake and exhaust valves should be opened and closed, and the fuel injected at particular times in the cycle for that particular engine. Although the piston moves only up and down in the cylinder, its crank rotates in a circle. See figure 11. The position of the piston in the cylinder can be related to the number of degrees the crank has turned. Or if the fuel were injected when the piston was at BDC there would be

TDC PISTON STROKE BDC

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

PAGE 16 OF 31

Figure 11
If the position of the piston in the liner is not at TDC or BDC but somewhere in between, it is termed as a number of degrees of the crankshaft rotation with reference to TDC or BDC. For example:
A Piston at TDC B Piston X degrees after TDC C Piston 90 degrees after TDC D Piston at BDC

As the piston starts to move up the cylinder, the position of the piston in the liner can be termed as:

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course A number of degrees after BDC or Combustion Cycles A number of degrees before TDC

PAGE 17 OF 31

In

the

cycle,

the

full

listing

of

positions

of

the

piston

are

as

follows:

Top Dead Centre After Top Dead Centre Before Bottom Dead Centre Bottom Dead Centre After Bottom Dead Centre Before Top Dead Centre
FUEL INJECTION STARTS TDC

TDC ATDC BBDC BDC ABDC BTDC

By using this terminology, a graphical representation of the valve timing can be made.
103

EXHAUST VALVE CLOSES

EXHAUST VALVE OPENS

61 77

2-Stroke Cycle Timing Diagram

45 45

AIR INTAKE PORTS OPEN

AIR INTAKE PORTS CLOSE

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POI: Engineering Officer Refresher Course TITLE: Combustion Cycles COMPRESSION

PAGE 18 OF 31

POWER

Figure 12
2-Stroke Timing Diagram

The table in Figure 13 shows the timing of the valves and injection of fuel.

Item
Piston Inlet Valve

Operation
Stopped Open

Position
BDC BDC

Comment
Scavenging/Charging Scavenging/Charging

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POI: TITLE:
E x hn g isn e e r i n g E au t V ao v e b u s t i o n C lm Piston Inlet Valve Exhaust Valve Fuel Injector Piston Piston Exhaust Valve Inlet Valve Piston Open 770 BBDC Injection 250 BTDC Closed 610 ABDC

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Scavenging/Charging BDC Scavenging/Charging

Officer Refresher Course Cycles

Open

Moving up cylinder Closed 450 ABDC

Scavenging

Compression

Combustion begins

Stopped Moving down cylinder

TDC

Combustion continues Power Stroke Exhaust leaving cylinder Air enters cylinder Scavenging

Open Stopped

450 BBDC BDC

Figure 13
Different engines, even models from the same Manufacturer, may have timing different from that laid out in the table above.

The numbers chosen are only indications of the timing to be found. The Manufacturers manual will have the valve and injection timing listed for each particular engine.

4-Stroke Cycle Timing Diagram

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PAGE 20 OF 31 A four-stroke cycle engine requires four strokes of the piston to POI: Engineering Officer Refresher Course complete each combustion cycle. See Figure 14. TITLE: Combustion Cycles

TDC 1

EXHAUST

3
INDUCTION

TDC COMPRESSION

POWER

BDC

Figure 14

During the four strokes of the combustion cycle, various events occur. These are shown in Figure 15.

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

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Figure 15

From the diagram shown in Figure 15, you will notice that the inlet valve is opened before the piston reaches TDC. cylinder scavenging. By opening the inlet valve before the exhaust valve closes helps to give good The period when the inlet and exhaust valves are open is called VALVE OVERLAP.

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PAGE 22 OF 31 When the piston moves down the cylinder on the induction stroke, POI: Engineering Officer Refresher Course we would expect that the amount of air coming into the cylinder TITLE: Combustion Cycles would equal the space available above the piston. However, because the air has weight, it needs to have a force exerted on it to start it moving into the cylinder. cylinder produces the force needed. The air at The piston a higher moving down the cylinder and creating a partial vacuum in the atmospheric pressure now moves into the lower pressure area of the cylinder. The air cannot start moving until the vacuum has been produced, so there is a delay between the piston moving down and the air entering the cylinder. This is known as GAS LAG.

At high piston speeds, the lag can have a serious effect on the amount of air entering the cylinder for combustion. To help reduce the effect of gas lag, the inlet valve is kept open for a period after BDC. Figure 16 shows a typical timing diagram for a four-stroke engine.

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

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Figure 16

Figure 17 lists the timing of the valves and injection of the fuel for the diagram shown in figure 16.

Item
Piston Inlet Valve Exhaust Valve

Operation
Stopped Open Open

Position
TDC TDC TDC

Comment
Scavenging Scavenging Scavenging

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Piston Exhaust VC l vm b u s t i o n ao e Piston Inlet Valve Piston Injector Piston Exhaust Valve Piston Inlet Vale Piston

Engineering Officer Refresher Course

Cl l s s C y co e e s Moving up Closes Moving up Starts injection Moving down Opens Moving up Opens 130 BTDC TDC
TDC

Moving down

PAGE 24 OF Induction stroke

Induction Compression stroke begins Induction complete Compression starts

31

100 ATDC BDC 430 ABDC

290 BTDC

Fuel enters unit Power stroke

460 BBDC

Exhaust starts to leave cylinder Exhaust stroke Scavenging begins Scavenging

APPROXIMATELY 90% OF PISTON STROKE IS COMPLETE WHEN T h eC mA N KmI u m 5p u s h R axi S 4 0 t h e BcB D C e c t i n g r o d . onn

F1g u r e 1 7 i
on the crankshaft is when the crank is at 900 to The piston stroke is 90% complete when the 3
PISTON STROKE
2

crank is 450 BBDC, so by opening the exhaust valve at 460 BBDC d o e s n o t c a u s e a g r e a t l o s s 4i n p o w e r , a s t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r o k e i s nearly complete. See figure 18.
5 6 7 8 BDC 1 2 3

CONNECTING ROD

MAXIMUM CRANK EFFORT AT THIS POINT

6 7 8

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Figure 18

FUEL INJECTION Compressing the air charge inside the cylinder of the diesel engine raises the temperature of the air. At the TDC, the pressure and the temperature will be at the maximum value.

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PAGE 26 OF 31 If the fuel is injected at TDC, it will not start to ignite until the POI: Engineering Officer Refresher Course piston is already moving down on the power stroke, since it will TITLE: Combustion Cycles take time to come up to a temperature high enough to ignite it. If the fuel is injected too early, ignition will occur before the piston has reached TDC. This early ignition will cause heavy knocking and may cause severe mechanical damage to the engine. The POINT OF INJECTION (POI) is a carefully chosen position in the combustion cycle when the fuel is injected into the cylinder. Two main factors that will determine the point of injection are: Self ignition temperature Delay period

Self-Ignition Temperature (SIT) If a mixture of air and fuel is heated gradually in a container, a certain temperature will be reached at which the reaction speed will become so fast that some of the mixture will self-ignite. It will

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PAGE 27 OF 31 burst into flame and cause the entire mixture to burn rapidly. This POI: Engineering Officer Refresher Course is called the ignition temperature of the mixture. TITLE: Combustion Cycles For diesel fuel, the SIT is approximately 3000C. For a specific fuel, the SIT always has the same value.

Delay Period The delay period is the time taken from when the fuel is injected into the cylinder until the SIT is reached. The engine manufacturer takes all these factors into account and then calculates the most efficient point of injection. This is usually between 200 and 250 BTDC.

TIMING MARKS To ensure that the valves open and close and that the fuel is injected at the right moment in the operating cycle, the valves and the fuel pump are TIMED by gearing to the crankshaft.

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CAMSHAFT GEAR FUEL INJECTION PUMP AND GOVERNOR DRIVE GEAR

PAGE 28 OF 31

IDLER GEAR

CRANKSHAFT GEAR

Figure 19

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POI: TITLE: Engineering Officer Refresher Course Combustion Cycles

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Figure 20

Figure 20 Timing Gears

To ensure that the timing is always reassembled in the correct relationship after maintenance, each of the gearwheels is marked with TIMING MARKS (MESH MARKS). To assist in maintenance during valve tappet setting and fuel pump timing, the flywheels of most engines are marked with the position of No.1 cylinder TDC.

The

timing

marks

are

found

on

the

outer

circumference

of

the

flywheel. TDC.

A pointer is fixed to the flywheel housing.

When the

pointer lines up with the flywheel timing mark, No.1 piston is at

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PAGE 30 OF 31

N o t en g i n e e r i n g O f f i c e r R e f r e s h e r C o u r s e E A n C o m ib u s t i o nk C ygc lo n t h e f o u r - s t r o k e c y c l e h a s t h e p i s t o n eng ne wor in es at TDC twice in the cycle, once on the compression stroke and once at the end of the exhaust stroke.

FLYWHEEL MARKING

Figure 21

On some Caterpillar hole in the flywheel. is at TDC.

engines, TDC is found by inserting a bolt When the bolt can be screwed in, No.1 piston

through the flywheel-housing and into a specially drilled and tapped

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PAGE 31 OF 31

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