of The TheoreticalAssumptions PolishAnthropology Facts and the Morphological

JanCzekanowski by
The present article was writtenat the editor's request as a commentaryon the Bielicki and WierciAskiarticles and comments,presented togetherin the February 1962 issue of CA, uinderthe title "Issues in the Study of Race: Two Views From Poland with Discussion." Dr. Czekanowski'scommentswere received at the CA office on January26, 1962. The translationfromPolish to English was done in Poland, under the supervisionof the author.

1910 to 1913 he was ScientificCustodian of the Ethnographic Museum of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.He was Professorof Anthropologyand Ethnology at the Universityof Lw6w from 1913 to 1941, and at the Catholic Uniin versity Lublin from1945 to 1949. In 1946 he became Professor Anthropologyat of Poznafi. Since 1924 he has been a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences and was made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland in 1961. Among Dr. Czekanowski's many publications are Forschungen im Nil-KongoZwlschengebiet. (5 vols. published, the 6th in preparation, 1911-1927), Wstep do Historii Slowian [Introduction to the History of Slavic Peoples] (1927, 1957), and Czlowiek w czasie i przestrzeni[Man in Time and Space] (1934, 1937, 1962, also in English).

pus, although altogetherisolated, was found to be associated with the Neanderthalgroup. Thanks to Rudolf Martin's textbook(1914) the foregoingexample became generallyknown. This quantitativeproofthat the was the first human races are anthropological(bioof logical) realitiesand not fictions the morphologists.At the same time, it yielded the earliest quantitative solution to the problemof anthropological typologyof individuals, i.e., of their determination. systematic In 1921 and 1922 I showed that the quantitative results of Karl Pearson's School in thefieldofheredity Biometric and Francis features of anthropological no represent Galton's law of regression more than deductions from the two fundamentallaws of Mendel: namely, the law of dominanceand thatof splitin fluctuations the ting.Simultaneously, of hereditycoefficients metricfeatures were found to derive fromMendelian (2) (p + q + r)2= 1 dominance.Indeed, I was able to prove As late as 1925 I had to defend this has of thatPearson'scoefficient heredity formula before my friend Ludwik the value: when I who rejectedit flatly Hirszfeld, p r r= P time in showed it to him for the first 1+p ~~~~~~(1) November, 1919. Thanks to Bernstein on the assumption that the recessives (1924), it has become generallyknown. the contribute part p and the dominant Determinationof the parametersp, q, q; and that: account of the r yields a satisfactory withregard human groupsinvestigated + q-= 1(la) P to participationof the serologicalcomis However,when heredity not compliponents AA, BB, and 00. Herein the cated by dominance,i.e., when: and second are dominantwith refirst - 1 and q = 0, we have r = 0.5 (lb) spect to the third,being at the same p time mutuallyequivalent. it Similarly, turnedout that the data of typology Central JAN CZEKANOWSKI, ProfessorEmeritus of Anthropologyat the State Universityin morphological from Poznafi. (Poland), was born October 6, 1882, in Gtuchow, Poland. He was educated European skull series,as I was to show in Warsaw, Libau (Latvia), and the Universityof Zurich, Switzerland.From 1906 to in 1928, can be handled by means of 1910 he was researchassistantat the K6nigliches Museum fur Volkerkundein Berlin, the ensuing analogical formula: and was a member of the German Central Africa Expedition in 1907-1909. From there has DISCUSSION THE PRESENT been too much reasoningand too little attentiongiven to the facts.It should that the essenceof all not be forgotten effort-andthis is surelytrue scientific as of anthropology well-consistsin the descriptionand orderingof observable facts.Hypotheses (assumptions)are of relevanceonly insofaras theyfacilitate material. of summarization theobserved They are no more than mnemonicaids. In this respect, the geneticists'genic is hypothesis no exception.Meanwhile, is thishypothesis a usein morphology ful analogy to the field of serology. are Analogies,however, not proofs. The object of anthropology consists in the description of human groups. becomesa mathematicalAnthropology problemifwe considertheinstatistical dividual as a point in then-dimensional space of analyticalmechanics.His position in n-dimensionalspace will then be determined by his n coordinates, which are given by the values of the respectiveanthropologicalfeatureswe take into account. As early as 1909 I showed that the to pointscorresponding the individuals can be proved to form aggregations (condensations, concentrations), and the latter correspond to the various races or racial complexes of the morfor phologists.This is exemplified, instance, by the graphic isolation from others theskullsconsideredto belong of to the Neanderthalrace. It is noteworthy,in this respect,that PithecanthroIN

This was the earliestanalyticalbiological constant. In the process of computing the by heredity coefficients means of the whichis thewayofdealfourfold-tables, ing with features not quantitatively measurable,the value of the coefficient is not loweredas a resultof Mendelian dominance. Pearson was unable to exof plain why the hereditycoefficients the metric features are considerably lower. He was, as it were,a prisonerof the anti-Mendelianposition he represented.For thesamereasonhisrepeated attempts to derive the "Law of Ancestral Heredity" remained unsuccessful. In 1933 I proved that this law is another deductiveresultof Mendelian laws and can be deriveddirectly. The assumption that the human groups investigatedcan be considered of as statisticalrepresentations intercrossed populations brought to light important anthropological properties of thesegroups. It is no longercontestedthat the frequencies of the isolatedserologicalcateto goriescorrespond Mendelian predicequation: tionas givenby the following

(2a) (a + e + h + 1) = 12 a, e, h, and 1 account The parameters for contributionsfrom the four races occurringin Central Europe: Nordic, Mediterranean, Armenoid and Lapto ponoid. Equation (2a) is referred as the law of type frequency.It controls all typologies carried out (systematic in determinations craniology). 481

Vol. 3 *No. 5 * December 1962

TABLE Surowiecki 1824 Plowowlosa Iberyjska

-

1. SYNONYMOUS DESIGNATIONS OF THE EUROPEAN RACES

Kollmann 1882 Leptoprosop dolichocephal Chamaeprosop dolichocephal

-

Deniker 1898 Nordique Ibero-Insulaire Occidentale

Littorale Adriatique Nord-

Ripley 1900 Teutonic Mediterranean

-

Czekanowski 1928 Nordyczna Srodziemnomorska

Polnocno-

von Eickstedt 1934 Nordische Mediterrane

-

Biasutti 1959 Nordica Mediterranea

Irlandese

Litoralna

zachodnia (Hybr. 1 and 2)

(Hybr. 2 and 3)

Dynarska

Leptroposop brachycephal
-

J
Subadriatique Ceveniole
Vistulienne

and 3) FArmenoidalna

(Hybr. 1

Dinarische

Dinarica

Armenide Alpine Lappide Osteuropide

-

Anatolica Alpina Lappone Baltica

Alpine
-Laponoidalna
-

Alpejska
and 4)

Laponska Slowianska
-

Chamaeprosop brachycephal
-

Subnordique

alna (Hybr. 2 and 4)

alna

Sublaponoid-

Subnordyczna

Fin'ska

Chamaeprosop
mesocephal

Orientale

{PaleoeuropeidCPaleoazjatycka

Sibiride

Forme europeidi
archaice

(c) A comparisonof formulas and (3) (3a) shows that the process of brachykaeaiei(A-E) + kahaihi(A-H)+ cephalization of Europe's population kalaili(A-L) + keheihi(E-H) + during the 13th and 14th centuriesis keleili(E-L) + khlhili(H-L) = Mi mosteasily explained by a re-tuning of (2b) dominance phenomena. This spares us the necessityof assuming an entirely Herein, the parameters E, H, and L A, improbablechange in population durare the required fundamentalaverages ing the late Middle Ages-a well-known of the skull index for the four races; period from which we possess a conkai, kae,kahli kehi, and khlaccount for kel, = 76a + 68.5e + 88(h + 1)Mg siderable number of historicalsources, the results of Mendelian dominance 7.5ae - 12ah - 19.5eh (3a) none of which,however, have anything whichalso mustbe determined; whereas It statesthatat thattime, dolichocranial to relate of a demographiccatastrophe the parametersai, ei, hi, and li, as in in equation (2a), give the contributions of Mediterraneanwas dominant with re- involvingresettlement Europe. to (d) Formulas(3) and (3a), referred the fourraces, as determinedby typol- spectto mesocranialNordicand brachycranial Armenoid, and mesocranial as the law of the anthropological mean ogy,to the skull seriesi; finally, Ml the is the average of the skull index in Nordic was dominant with respect to value of the cranial index, control the brachycranial Armenoid.The threere- anthropological quantitative analysis series i. maining racial combinationsreveal no whichled to the formulation the law of The solution of the equation (2b) in of typefrequency equation (2a). of 1930enabled me to expresstherelation- dominance. The foregoing statistical Table 1 contains the synonymous inductive ship between the anthropologicalcomresults necessarilylead to the following designations of the anthropological position of the craniologicalseriesand therespective averageskullindiceswith conclusionsof quite general biological races which rendered feasible the law of typefrequency. satisfactory accuracybymeansof an em- significance: (a) The phenomena of dominance This Table of anthropological synopirical formula.For recentskulls from are the 14th to 20th centuriesinclusive it and recessiveness linked to race. nyms shows that the leading anthro(b) This connection provides the pologistsisolated the same components has the form: biological proof that the races of an- of Europe's population, albeit attachmg= 76a + 68.5e + 88(h + 1) + are biological realities and thropology ing to them their own designations. 7.5ae + 12a(h + 1) (3) not fictions the morphologists. of The Such pettyvanitygave rise to the opinaiA + eiE + hiH + liL +

Having at least ten (the more the better) systematically well-determined Central European skull series,one can solve the following of i linear equaset tions with ten variables by the least squares method:

This empirical formula establishesby induction that,at present,the brachycranial Armenoid and Lapponoid are dominant with respect to the mesocranial Nordic, whereas the latter is dominantwithregardto dolichocranial Mediterranean.Within the remaining three racial combinations no dominance occurs. On the other hand, the analogous solution of equation (2b) for medieval skullseries(from approximately 4th the to the 13th centuries inclusive), resulted in the followingempirical formula:

graphic proof that the anthropological in raceshave theircounterparts thecondensations of points correspondingto individualsin n-dimensional space had brought me to this conclusion earlier
(1909).

2 48-

CURRENT

ANTHROPOLOGY

ion that anthropologyis an inexact science,one in which different authors come to mutuallycontradictory results and nevertheless remain quite content. When, on the occasion of a synthetic review of the researchresultsattained during the 19thcenturyin the fieldof the anthropological composition of Europe's population, Ripley (1900) named only 3 races, whereas Deniker (1898) had managed to isolate as many as 10, it was generallyfeltthata public exposure had occurred.The situation became particularlycritical when the discussion held in England (Huxley Lecture for 1904) relating to this antinomy was unable to elucidate the divergencebetween the views of those worthy anthropologists.It was only after the law of type frequencyhad been formulated that it became apparent that Ripley and Deniker had arrived at essentiallyconsistentresults, and that the divergencebetween their respective syntheses but superficial. was Indeed, it became clear thatRipley had restricted himself isolatingraces,and to that his "Alpine race" comprised the two brachycephalic, darkly pigmented Lapponoid and Armenoidraces. Thus, he arrivedat threeraces,as the PalaeoTABLE 2. Observed Series
Nordic

Czekanowski: POLISH Europid componentwas overlookedby him. On the other hand, Deniker took into account not only the races, but theircross-products the first of degree. However, owing to the fact that he had included theArmenoidrace and its in Nordic cross-product, his Adriatic race, and had taken into account the Palaeo-Europid component (race Orientale) characteristic Northeastof ern Europe, he came to a total of 10 races. In thisway the systematics the of components of Europe's population were put in proper perspective by Polish anthropology. the same time, At it was proved that the Polish linguist Surowiecki had isolated four of the five relevant components as early as 1824. His fifth race, whichhe related to the Slavs,was the Nordic-Lapponoid cross-product most frequentamong the Northern Slavs. The Armenoid race, which Surowiecki had failed to take into account,was first isolated in 1882 by Kollmann. The fact that only four races occur in Europe's population, and that the fifth-the Palaeo-Europid component characteristic Northeastern of EuropeOF A QUANTITIVE ANALYSIS

ANTHROPOLOGY

is representedbut scantilyin Central Europe, was proved by Wanke in 1953. An investigationof 3,353 students in theacademicschoolsof Wroclaw,where a considerablenumberof EasternPoles also studied, showed that these combinations of anthropological features exforwhichthenumberof realisations ceed theoreticalpredictionby at least 50% correspondto the fiveraces consideredhere. analyticalinstruThe mostimportant mentof Polish anthropology the Apis proximation proposed by Wanke in 1952 at the Congressof Polish anthropologistsat Wroclaw and published in 1953.This makesit possible to compute the racial components of the human groups investigatedfrom their mean values, the basic assumptionbeing that the massesof the anthropologicalcomponents of the human groups under as investigation, concentratedin their respective centers of gravity,are at equilibriumif thevalues of thesemasses are inversely proportional to the squares of their distances from the center of gravityof the whole system (the mean values of the investigated

RESULTS

OF SWISS CONSCRIPTS

Elements % in Anthropological Mediterranean Armenoid Lapponoid

Mean Values of CephalicIndex Observed Theoretical Divergence

BernerOberland Obwalden Bern BernerMittelland Aargau BaSel-Land Solothurn Nidwalden SchaffhauSen ZUrich Luzern BaSel-Stadt Geneve Vaud Fribourg Neuchatel Zug GlaruS BernerJura

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... . .... ........ ..... ... . ... . ...... ... ... .... ...

59.8 54.6 53.3 53.1 52.0 51.1 50.2 50.0 49.0 48.2 48.2

18.2 21.7 19.7 19.5 20.4 23.2 20.9 21.2 21.0 21.0 20.9

9.9 11.7 12.2 12.3 13.0 12.4 13.5 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.4

12.0 12.0 14.8 15.0 14.6 13.3 15.4 14.5 15.6 16.3 16.5

80.70 80.57 81.16 81.24 81.16 80.48 81.17 81.32 81.38 81.40 81.44

80.44 80.53 81.00 81.05 81.02 80.58 81.14 81.03 81.26 81.35 81.37

-0.26 -0.04 -0.16 -0.19 -0.14 +0.10 -0.03 -0.29 -0.12 -0.05 -0.07 +0.50 +0.60 +0.48 +0.30 +0.40 +0.15 +0.20 +0.20 -0.01 -0.09 -0.18 +0.11 -0.01

39.2 39.6 44.0 45.3 44.1 44.5 43.7 45.3

32.3 30.8 28.6 24.4 24.9 23.7 22.8 22.5

13.5 14.2 13.7 14.4 14.7 15.5 16.0 15.2

15.0 15.4 13.7 15.9 16.3 16.3 17.5 17.0

79.60 79.75 79.85 80.70 80.64 81.08 81.29 81.18

80.10 80.35 80.33 81.00 81.04 81.23 81.49 81.38

AppenzellAuS. Rh. St. Gallen Uri Schwyz ----1Thurgau GraubiUnden ValaiS AppenzellIn. Rh. Ticino
SwiSS ConScriptS Vol.3 -No.5-

.. *-- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46.4 45.4 45.0 44.1 43.4

20.8 19.8 20.1 20.4 19.7

15.5 16.0 16.2 16.7 16.6

17.3 18.8 18.7 18.8 20.3

81.60 82.01 82.06 81.81 82.14

81.59 81.92 81.88 81.92 82.13

35.5 37.5 37.7

25.0 20.8 19.0 18.0

20.5 19.6 20.6

19.0 22.1 22.7

81.49 82.26 82.85

81.86 82.49 82.82 83.80

+0.37 +0.23 -0.03

27.7
47.5

28.5
14.5

25.8
16.5

83.66
81.31

+0.14
+0.02 483

21.5

81.33

December 1962

are Wanke's Approximation is not only these modifications given in parenthat it has made possible the analysis theses. In thisTable the Alpine race is seen series,as the conof large observational to have gone over into the Lapponoid reduced amountof labor does siderably as not depend on the size of the series race of Polish anthropology a result having been restricted when one was re- of its definition analyzed.Previously, eury strictedto the method of differential to hyperbrachycephaly, and hyperand diagnosis,as is still the case in craniol- euryprosopy, browneyes.Similarly, ogy, the amount of labor involved in- the Dinaric race became the Armenoid as creased at the rate of .5n(n-1), where race of Polish anthropology a result its of restricting definitionto hypern denotesthe numberof individualsin verydark leptoprosopy, the observational series analyzed. For brachycephaly, this reason, only small observational eyes,and black hair. The Littoral race turnedout to be a series could be analyzed. It is no less important that this Approximation mixture in which the Mediterranean made accessibleto analysisthosepapers and Armenoid races are the most limited to the publication of the mean stronglyrepresented. I had already values of metricfeaturesand the fre- recognized it as such in 1928 when the quencies of the pigmentationclasses, formulating law of typefrequency. 25 This was confirmed years later by and which otherwise could not have Wanke's Approximation. Moreover, purpose. servedany further 1.09721 Wanke's Approximationis especially therecan be no doubt as to the identity wherein M. is the theoretical mean importantfor anthropologicalsystem- of Michalski'sCromanid and Deniker's cranial index computed fromformula atics. In particular,it allows a precise Orientale which was termed East(3), and Mk the correspondingmean by pur- Europid (Homo Vistulensis) Schlagof formulation the anthropological of the head index of the living. port of the variousraces introducedby inhaufen. This race had been termed Anthropological quantitative analysis different authors, provided the latter Palaeo-Europid by Kocka (1958), who utilizing Wanke's Approximation was the charhave taken the trouble to definethem consideredit as representing dealt with in detail by the present componentof Europe's mesoaccuracy,which is not acteristic with sufficient authorin 1954. Hence, I restrict myself always the case. Thus, for example, it lithic population, and still playing an to giving the resultsof the anthropopart in archaicNortheastern not only enables us to come to an exact important in logical analysis of Swiss conscripts, of formulation Schlaginhaufen'sinter- Europe. Applying Wanke's Approxiorder to exemplify the degree of accu- pretation(1946) of Deniker's"six races" mation makes it possible to prove that, racy attained (Table 2). (1904), but also to show how the defi- in the presentcase, we are not dealing The extensiveagreementbetween the nition of race has to be modifiedin with distinct races but rather with theoreticalmean values as computed order to provide a more accurategrasp synonymous designations. from formulas and (3b) and theones (3) The fact that the resultsof typoloof the anthropologicalcomponentson deriveddirectly from observation makes the basis of the hypothesesof Polish gizing living individuals did not conpossible the conclusion that the for- anthropology. Table 4 the resultsof form the results obtained fromtypolto In mulas and the Approximation conexact. The latter stantsare sufficiently RACES OF DENIKER'S INTERPRETATION TABLE 4. SCHLAGINHAUFEN'S were formulated in Table 3. as The mean values of eye and hair color Elements Anthropological by Deniker's races, as interpreted Otto were expressed in a-units (standard LappoArmeMediter. on Schlaginhaufen the basis of Swiss Obin deviation),the figures Table 3 giving noid noid ranean Nordic servationalData and the Hypothesesof the deviationsfromthe mean values of % Polish Anthropology as all Swissconscripts computedon the % % % assumption of normal (Gaussian) dis1 .8 3.9 1 .6 92.7 Nordic Race (Homo Europaeus) persion of the frequenciesof eye and 4. 6 3. 6 82.1 9 .8 Race (H. Mediterraneus) Ibero-Insular hair color. Herein, for all Swiss con54.3 14.9 12.8 17.9 Alpine Race (H. Alpinus) scriptsthe mean value of eye color is (88.3) (6.6) (2.4) (2.6) ditant from the boundary be.670 22.4 37.7 20.9 18.9 tween numbers 12 and 13 of Martin's Dinaric Race (H. Adriaticus) (12.8) (79.4) (4.0) (3.9) scale; thatof hair color,is .SO6c distant 17.0 27.1 39.8 from the boundary of light hair be- Littoral Race (H. Atlanto-Mediterraneus) 16.1 23.0 9.7 16.2 51 .1 tween the shades 0-P and P of the East-Europid Race (H. Vistulensis) ... ... . ...... ... ...... . ........ Fischer-Sailer scale. ......... ...... ...... .. . . R.ae. 8. G6 15.8 and.. C rom 24.8 50.8 The enormous importance of Cromanid Race of I Michalski (1949) 484
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

human group). In this manner Wanke brought theoreticalanthropologyinto closer connection with analytical mechanics. Indeed, anthropologicalquantitativeanalysis came to be based on the law of gravity.The great importance of the positive finding thus reached is proved by the example, to be considered later on, of the Swiss anthropological assay.The success was all the greater as the attempt undertaken by Pearson (1894) failed. In cases when the anthropological componentsof the human group were defined with sufficient accuracy, Wanke's Approximationled to analytical findings which coincided with the law of the mean value of cranial index, i.e., that the mean values computed theoreticallyfrom equation (3) differ but negligiblyfrom those yielded by directcomputation. shouldbe stressed It thatat presentthe problemof applying Wanke's Approximation has been solved with respectto observationson the living only, and that formula (3) yieldsmean values of the cranial index. Thus, thelatterhas to be converted into mean values of the head index of the living. This is made possible by the empiricalformula whichI publishedin (3b) 1907: M Ms + 8.6 s

TABLE 3. DEFINITIONS

OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL

ELEMENTS

(RACES)

Elements(Races) Anthropological Features Anthropological Cephalic Index Morphological Facial Index Nasal Index Eye Color Hair Color . ;Nordic 78 89.5 63 -1.252 -1.052 Mediterranean 71.5 88 63 .984 .074 Armenoid 89 86 57 2.170 1.146 Lapponoid 89 80 72

.944 .477

ogizing skulls in accordance with formula (2a) led Wanke to the conclusion that with respectto the living, should the principle of type frequency be expressedas follows: = I (2c) (a + e + h?l) + The reason forthischange in the principle of type frequencyis not difficult is to guess.Craniologicaltypology based on two sets of mutually independent features, namely, the neurocranium (cranial and and the splanchnocranium facial features). Hence the quadratic formof the principleof typefrequency of (2a). Independently thesetwo,typologyof the livingmusttake accountof a consistingof pigthirdset of features, mentation.This is the reason for the cubic formof the principleof typefrequency as given by formula(2c). Here Howwe are dealing with trihybrids. ourselvesto two sets ever,if we restrict the of featuresin typologizing livingthe face (photography)and pigmentation-the quadratic form (2a) of the principle is valid, as shown by the investigationcarried out by Pavelcik (1948). He establishedthe anthropological compositionof the inhabitantsof the small townshipof Nivnice in Moravia on the basis of their passport applications. These contained photographs and data relatingto pigmentain tion. The racial differences the extremelymixed population of Europe are so great that such inexact obserfor vational data are sufficient a satisfactoryanthropological analysis, proThis vided one is a good morphologist. explains why eminent anthropologists after 1824 (Surowiecki),although unaware of it, arrivedat concordantformulations of the races, as shown by from the Table 1,whichgivessynonyms fieldof anthropologicalsystematics. The necessityfor the cubic formof the principle of type frequencywhen the typologizing living is best exemplified by the computation of the theoretical expectationswith respectto the numberof light-eyed (16-13by Martin's scale) on the basis of the anthropological compositionof the human groups With regardto the results investigated. of investigationsby Rosinski (19471948), it is only necessaryto assume thatthe Nordic lighteyesare dominant when mated with the dark eyes of the Lapponoid race. One is thenled to the formula whichI proposedin 1959at the Conferenceof Polish Biometriciansat Wroclaw:
Y = 100[(a + l)'
-

Czekanowski:

POLISH

ANTHROPOLOGY

In Table 5 the agreementbetween the observed and theoreticalpercentages is remarkablygood. In only six cantons in which the number of conscripts exceeded 401 was the divergence found to be greaterthan 3.0%, ranging between3.21 and 3.79%. The onlycases in whichI could findstillgreaterdivergences were those of the semi-cantons Obwalden (+ 6.08%) and Nidwalden (+ 4.72%). Here, however, the conscripts numberedno morethan206 and 219, respectively.There remains no that doubt,therefore, dominanceof eye color and cranial formis intimately related to race. The statement that blue Nordic eyes are dominant is of great importance for practical reasons. It was generally believed that dark eyes were always dominant, and doubt had to be cast on paternityin all cases in which a child had eyes darkerthan its parents. This is especially often the case, as provedby theresults Rosinski(1947of 1948),in regionswhere the Nordic and Lapponoid components play an imTABLE 5.
AGREEMENT BETWEEN OF LIGHT-EYED THE PERCENTAGE

Slavs portantpart,as withthe Northern Germans. and Northeastern of The factthat typologies the living yieldresultswhichare in quite satisfactory agreementwith the principle of type frequency(2c) is proved by Miszkiewicz' North Polish observational series(1960),givenin Table 6. As the critical value of the x2sum is 27.6 in the presentcase, agreementcan between be said to be quite satisfactory exresultsand theoretical the typology pectations. Theoretical expectations were computedafterWanke's Approximation yielded the followingcomposition of the human group typologized: Nordic race .................. 44.8% 17.1% Mediterraneanrace ........... 18.1% Armenoid race ............... Lapponoid race . ............. 20.0% Mean cephalic index as 82.60 .......... computed directly Mean cranial index from 81.90 formula (3) ................ From formula(3b) the corresponding cephalic index is 0.58 larger by an amount of......
AND THEORETICALLY CONSCRIPTS COMPUTED AMONG SWISS

OBSERVED

INDIVIDUALS

Observed Series

Obevd Observed

Theoretical %l,Nmbro to Divergence According Formula (4)Cnsrpt

Conscripts

BernerOberland Obwalden Bern BernerMittelland Aargau Basel-Land Solothurn Nidwalden Schaffhausen Zurich Luzern Basel-Stadt Geneve Vaud Fribourg Neuchatel Zug Glarus JuraBernois AppenzellAusserRh. St. Gallen Schwyz Thurgau Valais AppenzellIn. Rh Ticino SwissConscripts
Graubuinden Uri
...........................

34.02 23.29 29.34 28.79 28.34 25.73 28.65 21.81 25.23 25.79 23.09 16.15 19.64 22.74 24.95 23.41 20.76 22.02 27.19
..........

36.84 29. 37 31.26 31.24 29.23 26.47 27.86 26. 53 26. 58 26.40 26.63 15.58 16.27 18.95 22.52 21.60 22.04 22. 39 23.69
...........

+2.82 +6.08 +1.92 +2.45 +0.89 +0.74 -0.79 +4.72 +1.35 +0.61 +3. 54 -0. 57 - 3.37 - 3.79 -2.43 -1.81 +1.28 +0.37 - 3. 50
...........

206 8,723 2,971 801 1,139 219 455 3,454 1,971 761 401 1,997 1,467 698 237 346

24.25 24.49 24.63 21.01 23.97 16.17 23.82 18.71 17.14 25.14

25.33 25.80 25.19 24.22 25.01

+1.08 +1.31 +0. 56 +3.21 +1.04 -0. 57 - 3.73 +2.16 -3.54

...........

670 2,627 274 713 1,320 1,092 15364 259 1,209

lP]

(4)

predicted Y denotes the theoretically percentageof lighteyesif a and 1 stand for respectively the proportionsof the Nordic and Lapponoid races in the human group investigated. Vol. 3 -No. 5 - December 1962

15.60 20.09 20.87 13.60 25.77

+0.63

35,764 485

TABLE

6.

COMPARISON BASED

OF

TYPOLOGY

RESULTS FREQUENCY

AND

THEORETICAL

PREDICTIONS

ON THE TYPE

PRINCIPLE

(2c).

Termsqf Formula(2c) a3

Typology Results

Theoretical Expectations

Divergence

Divergence Squared

x2

3a2e 3a2h 3aW1 6aeh 6ael 6ahl

6ehl e3

33 34 32 29 31 32 26
..

26.3 30.3 31.9 35.4 24.4 26.9 28.3

10.9

h3

3ae2 3e2h 3e21 3ah2 3eh2 3h21 3a12 3h12 e3+h3+13

3el2
13

13 2 3 4 13 7 3 3 18 7 3 293

..

1.5 11.5 4.7 5.1 1.7 12.9 4.9 5.8 2.3 15.8 6.0 6.4 5.5 293.0

+10.9

-6.7 -3.7 -0.1 +6.4 -6.6 -5.1 -j2.3 +1.5 -1.5 +2.7 +2.1 -2.3 -0.1 -2.1 +2.8 -0.7 -2.2 -1.0 +3.4 +2.5

118.81

44.89 13.69 0.01 40.96 43.56 26.01 5.29 2.25 7.29 4.41 0.01 4.41 7.84 4.84 1.00 11.56 6.25

10.91

1.71 0.45 0.00 1.16 1.79 0.97 0.19 0.20 1.55 0.86 0.00 0.90 1.35 0.31 0.17 1.81 1.14

+32.1 -32.1

25.46

FromTable 7 a numberof important factscan be derived. It is immediately obvious that Kocka's most recent attempt to apply Wanke's Approximation to craniology is just another example helps to show completefailure.For skullswhich preThe foregoing sent the usual anthropological comthat Polish anthropology attained a positionof GreaterPoland (Wielkopolhigh degree of scientificprecision in of the investigation the living. This is ska), as proved by the identityof the proved by the agreementachieved be- anthropolgical structurewith that of and the the conscripts from the district of tween morphologicaltypology analysis as carried out by means of NowyTomysl,Kocka's procedureyields a fantastic analyticalresult.One might Wanke's Approximation. however,that, expect such an anthropological forIt should,be stressed, as yet,Wanke's Approximationcannot mation to occur somewherenear the applied in the fieldof Caucasus, though even there it would be satisfactorily craniology.I pointed this out as early be improbable owing to the great dibetweenthemean values. as 1955. The followingexample is in- vergence The comparison in Table 7 of the tended to show that, as yet, no exact by craniological definitionof the races is humangrouprepresented theLowyn skulls with the conscriptsshows that available. has The village Lowyn,at the boundary Polish anthropology been successful exact soluin providinga satisfactorily of of the districts Nowy Tomysl and Miendzychod, contains an epidemic tion to the problem of comparing cemeteryin which only persons who craniological resultsand observational died of theplague in theyear1710were data obtained from the living. Unin skullsex- fortunately, analyzing craniological buried.The 45 well-preserved cavated by Wokroj in 1959 and 1960 data, it is as yetnot possible to do away of necessity utilizingthehighly were typologizedby Gibowski (1961), with-the who applied the methodof differential tedious method of differentialdiagdiagnosis(Czekanowski1909). The ana- nosis. The factthatthosewho died in 1710 lyticalresult obtained by this method composition an present anthropological is compared in Table 7: on the one of hand, with analyses of conscriptsof identical with that of conscripts our Nowy Tomysl and Miendzychodcom- generationdraws our attentionto the of great stability anthropologicalstrucdata (1928),and Mydlarski's puted from among the rural popuon the other,with the result obtained tures,primarily Approxi- lation. Wokroj was able to prove such byapplyingWanke's modified mation, as introducedinto craniology stabilityin a number of cases. An example of stabilityreaching back into (1958), to the Lowyn skulls. by K6c1ka Theoreticalmean of thecephalic index .82.48 in Hence, thedivergence cephalic . 00.12 index amountsto 486

the 14th centuryis to be found in the village of Podbereice, lying east of Lwow. The peasants of this village, whichwas founded towardsthe end of the 14th centuryby WiadystawOpolczyk,have retained their Silesian anthropologicalstructureto the present day in spite of theircomplete cultural Ukrainization. However, they marry within theirgroup, as they exclusively despise the surrounding Ukrainian Wokroj was able population. Moreover, to prove that the Germans from the Pfalz, whom the Austrian government settled in the Carpathian mountains subsequent to the partitionof Poland, retained theirPfalzian anthropological in intactforat least a century structure entirely different geographical surroundings, because of biological isohe lation. Similarly, showed that those resettledamong the who were forcibly in Ukrainian cossacks the steppesof the Kuban region by the EmpressCatherine II in 1775 retained their anthropological features.At the end of the theirdescendantshad the 19thcentury same anthropological composition as had thosein 1648 when the Bernardine in was stormed Lemberg. cloister The facts presented here, which could be expressed in a satisfactorily exact manner only as a result of the recent achievementsof Polish anthrothatneither pology,prove convincingly selection nor mutations,about which geneticistsare apt to speak so much, produce any noticeable changes in the anthropological composition of the rural population throughout sedentary On manycenturies. the otherhand, the highly exclusive aristocratic city of Basel presentsa similar phenomenon. its Anthropologically, population has of retained the characteristics a GalloRoman municipium,whereasthe semicanton Basel-Land is inhabited by offspring of Germanicpeasants. Even resettling in entirelynew geographical surroundingswould seem to produce strucno change in the anthropological ture,if the settlerscontinue to live in biological isolation. The most remarkableresult of our analysis consistsin the statementthat A, the same values of the parameters E, H, and L occur in the computationof mean values of the crathe theoretical (3) nial index by formulas and (3a), i.e., at going back to the 4th century least, whereasthe mean values of the anthropological componentsshiftcorrespondingly with changes in dominance. No relationhas as yet been establishedbetween theseparameters, which seem to remain constant during considerable time intervals,and the "constants"of Wanke's Approximation (the mean values of the anthropological components, the definitionsof the races)
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

Czekanowski: POLISH ANTHROPOLOGY which fluctuate in connection with dominance modifications. Nevertheless, there can be no doubt that the time 13. Far-reachingcontrol of anthro- theoreticalanthropology. numberof A factor has to be taken into account pological resultswas achieved through relationships, checking one another, when utilizing Wanke's Approximation Wanke's Approximation, whichderives were formulated.At present,interest in craniology. fromthe increasingly close relationship centers upon the development of a Much has already been achieved in between theoreticalanthropologyand controlled quantitatively morphological the field of theoretical anthropology. analytical mechanics and is based on methodof investigation. the law of gravitation. It is to be regretted that thisbranch is CURRENT ISSUES 14. The relationships between the so littleknownto thoseanthropologists who take theirinspirationfrom In the currentdebate the Polish Anzoology races of Europe's population,according and, primarily,genetics. Theoretical to various anthropologists, were given thropological School has been mencan anthropology be said to be develop- a precise formulation,thanks to the tioned repeatedly.I consider it necesing towards closerconnectionbetween possibilityprovided by Wanke's Ap- sary to discuss briefly a the anthropoloproximationof presentingthe anthro- gistsgrouped under this term.So far, biology and analytical mechanics and has already rendered many discussions pological content of these entities in only membersof the third generation pointless. The most importantresults quantitativeform. of Polish anthropologistshave taken 15. It was proved stochastically achieved in this fieldby Polish anthrothat part in the discussion, exhibiting to only fiveraces occur in Europe exclud- theirforeign pology are the following: colleaguestheir Sturmund 1. A solutionwas found to the prob- ing its Asiatic and African periphery. Drang attitude.This is the reason I am 16. The problemof comparing lem of anthropological typology of crani- endeavoring to sketch the theoretical craniologicalmaterial by means of the ological results with those obtained framework Polish anthropology, of as differential diagnosis method (Czeka- from investigationof the living was it was built up in the inter-war yearsin solved. nowski1909). Lwow, and as it is now, in the post-war 17. Anthropological 2. The quantitativeresultsobtained formations (pop- period, being further developed at by Karl Pearson's Biometrical School ulations) were proved to possessa high Wroclawand Poznai. relatingto heredityof anthropological degree of stability. The so-calledPolish Anthropological 18. The morphologicalbasis of an- School was created in Poland by anfeaturesand Francis Galton's law of regression were proved to represent de- thropologicaltypology(threemutually thropologists trained at Zurich by ductive consequences from Mendel's independent sets of features) was Rudolf Martin.Listed accordingto age, laws. proved to reveal nothingthatmightbe these were: Jan Czekanowski,Edward 3. Results of typology were general- interpretedas traces of selection,mu- Loth, Stanislaw Poniatowski and Miized by the law of type frequency (for- tation,or environmental influence. chatReicher.They specializedin trends mulas 2a and 2c). 19. The basic mean value of the which were timelyat the beginningof 4. Human groups were satisfactorily races, going back to the 4th century, the present century: Loth (killed in describedon the assumptionthat they as obtained by the law of mean value 1944 fighting Germans)and Reicher the are representations inter-crossed of pop(formula3a), seemsto remainconstant; representthe followersof Carl Gegenulations. on the other hand, the constants in bauer's Heidelberg ComparativeAnat5. The problem of quantitative an- Wanke's Approximation(definitions of omy School and became prominent thropologicalanalysiswas solved. the anthropological races) undergo a macroscopic anatomists. Czekanowski 6. The eminentanthropologists since shiftwhich would seem to be related and Poniatowskideveloped the fieldof 1824 were found to have distinguished to modification dominance phenom- biometryfor the Zurich Anthropologof the same races in the population of ena. ical School and later, for practical Europe, althoughusing different desig20. Changes in dominance phenom- reasons,theyalso dealt much with ethnations. ena make it necessary take into con- nology.In those days ethnologists to had 7. The racial designations intro- siderationthe time factorwhen apply- better prospects of participating in duced by various anthropologists were ing Wanke's Approximation thefield exotic researchexpeditions.Czekanowin of craniology. synonymized. ski enteredthe PrussianMuseum Serv8. The apparent discrepancy beThese are the chiefresults reachedby ice and, 6 monthslater,in May, 1907, tween the syntheses Deniker (1898) Polish anthropologists working in was assigned to take part in the exof and Ripley (1900) relatingto the comTABLE 7. LOWYN SKULLS COMPARED WITH DATA ON CONSCRIPTS position of Europe's population was FROM NEIGHBORING DISTRICTS cleared up. This had been considered to representa breakdown of anthroConscripts pology. SkullsfromLowyn(1710) Conscripts 9. Resultsof typology Mendelian and from Dtowy DiPferential Procedure Races Racs Ac- Miendzychod District Diagnosis cording K6ckaM District synthesis were verified means of the by omysl to law of lightnordic eyes (formula4). 10. Phenomena of dominance were 31.6 31.1 20.6 36.4 foundto be relatedto race,withrespect Nordic Mediterranean 12.7 13.3 4.7 15.6 to bothhead shape and eye color. 18.8 18.9 46.5 19.0 11. The necessity taking into ac- Armenoid of 36.9 36.7 23.8 29.0 count the biological realityof human Lapponoid Palaeo-Europid ... ... 4.3 races was proved. 12. The simplestexplanation forthe Mean cephalicor brachycephalization which occurred cranial index among the populations of Europe dur85.18 84.75 84.75 83.75 ing the late Middle Ages was found to Observed 84.52 84.05 86.60 83.59 reside in a modification dominance Theoretical of Divergences -0.66 -0.70 +1.85 -0.16 phenomena.

Vol. 3 No. 5 - December 1962

487

TABLE 8.
Races Races t

THE

RACES

OF MICHALSKI

IN RELATION

TO THE "POLISH

SCHOOL"

Elements Anthropological of Polish School,in %

I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Mean Values of CephalicIndex Lapponozd pponoid 5.0 5.0 8.4 Assumed 80.0 75.0 88.0 76.0 74.0 72.0 76.0 Theoretically Calculated 79.05 73.82 87.32 Dzvergence -0.95 -1.18 -0.68

A ccordzng to

Michalski Nordic Mediterranean Armenoid

Ireneus,-.

|Armenoid NVordic |vMediterranean 80.8 11.6 3.1 50.8 21.8 14.0 20.4 8.8 77.2 2.5 24.8 51.5 67.0 34.7 5.4 6.3 85.9 8.6 11.5 9.3 16.7

Lapponoid

5.0

4.3

9.9

80.9
15.8 15.2 9.7 28.2

89.0

87.25

-1.75
+4.29 +3.91 +3.54 +5.13

Cromanid Highland Oriental Berberic

80.29 77.91 75.54 81.13

pedition led by Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg; for two years he did research workin CentralAfrica.On the other hand, Poniatowskiundertookan expedition to East Asia for American scientists 1913. Later he became proin fessor of ethnologyand in 1943 was executed by the Germans in the Majdanek concentration camp near Lublin. These men were the first generationof anthropologists belongingto the Polish Anthropological School; all of them took theirdoctor'sdegreesfromRudolf Martin in Zurich. They studied anatomy with Georg Ruge, a pupil of Gegenbauer,and ethnology withOskar Stoll; later, however,Poniatowskiand Czekanowskijoined the Vienna Historical School of R. P. Wilhelm Schmidt. At the same time, Czekanowski took regular mathematicscourses with the functional theorist Heinrich Burckhardtand comparative anatomycourses with Arnold Lang. The second generation of anthropologists of the Polish School were Czekanowski's pupils. Those trainedby Poniatowski became ethnologists, and the pupils of Loth and Reicher became anatomists. The sole exceptionwas the naval staff doctorWiestawLasinski. He worksin anthropology althoughhe will of be shortly made professor anatomy. As pupils of Czekanowskithe following prominent anthropologistsshould be R. mentioned:Jan Mydlarski, P. Boleslaw Rosinski, Stanislaw Klimek (first lieutenant,killed in action in 1939 at Ozarow,a suburbofWarsaw),Stanislaw Zejmo-Zejmis (murdered by the Germans in 1943 in the Oswiecim-Auschwitz concentration camp), Salomon Czortkower(murdered by Ukrainians in the Lwow ghetto),Gisella LempertBauer-(killed by Germans in the same place), Karol Stojanowski, Tadeusz Henzel, and Roscis1aw Jendyk.From who took thisgroup of anthropologists their doctor'sdegreesin Lwow during the inter-war period,thereremainalive only R. P. B. Rosinskiand two women living abroad: MartynaPuzyna (South
488

Africa) and Irene Ulbrich-kudelska fourracesproposedbyMichalski.More(Switzerland).Adam Wanke and Fran- over, his novel races show unexpected ciszek Wokroj also survived the war. deviations of considerable magnitude in the opposite direction.This diverBefore the war broke out, they had concluded theirstudies for the Master gence between the resultsobtained by of Science; theytook theirdoctor'sde- Schlaginhaufenand by Michalski calls the of gree afterthe war, and at presentthey attentionto thenecessity revising of by are among the leading Polish anthro- definition races put forth Michalski. pologists. Cooperating with Michalski is AnThe thirdgroup of anthropologists, who in many instances should be as- drzej Wierciiski, a pupil of Rosinski who took his doctor's degree under signed to the Polish School only on a historicalbasis, consistsof the pupils Michalski. His negative attitude towards the Polish Anthropological of Mydlarski, Rosinski, Wanke, and Stojanowski. This third generation is School is made veryclear in one of his papers in which his tabulation of very much "de-Mendeled," if such an of expression can be permitted, and the various classifications races entirely majority is more or less vehemently omits those of the Polish School (CA opposed to thebiometric-morphological 3:18-19, Table 7 and 8.) whereas in Americantextbook (1948),the trend of the firstand second genera- Kroeber's tions. Palaeontological morphological- Polish School is mentioned promibasis of this That the theoretical anthropogenetic researchis being con- nently. tinuedbyWanda Stenslicka-Mydlarska. young scientist'sgeneral judgment is matureis shownby the folHer most bitter opponent is Ireneusz not yetfully Michalski,also one of Mydlarski'spu- lowing blunder which he committed. attackedmylaw havingrepeatedly pils. During the anti-Mendelyearsfol- After lowingthe war,he was passionately op- of typefrequencyas did Michalski,he statesin his article(1962:18): posed to biostatistical methods and representeda most primitive typoloby is In theend,a population described of relative frequencies its gism.This is due to the factthathe uses thehypothetical on which computed the are a subjectivelyconceived key of combi- racialelements, according basisof typological composition nationsin his systematic determination to the following equation: of examined individuals; he also estabnZ n. nx, lishes new races based merelyon his 2N +2~N_+---+ a-+_, morphological impressions. In 1956, if a1 + a2 + ... + a, = 1. using Wanke's Approximation,I set forth (Table 8) the characterof the He still fails to perceive that this foranthropologicalcontentof Michalski's mula he recommendsis just another in way of expressing its squared version definitions races (1949). Even so, he of paid no attentionto this characteriza- the very law of type frequencyhe so opposes! tion, as shown by the fact that he was vehemently verymuch surprisedto learn fromme Wojciecj Kocka, chieflya prehistoin September, 1961,duringa discussion rian who tookhis doctor'sdegreein anat the Fifth Congress of Czechoslo- thropologyunder Stojanowski, is opvakian Anthropologistsat Mikulov, posed to the law of type frequencyas thathis Cromanidrace is almostidenti- well as to the law of mean values of the cal withDeniker's Race Orientale. its separatedfrom cephalicindex which, It appears fromTable 8 that the in- Mendelian basis, is being used as a terpretation of Deniker's races sug- plainly empirical formula even by gested by Schlaginhaufenmost decid- Michalski.Misled by Wanke's determiedly agreesbetterwithmylaw of mean nation that the cubic formulationof values than does the definition our the law of typefrequency of should be apCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

plied in typologizingobservationson living individuals,Kocka conceivedfor Wanke's Approximationa cubic form which would astonisheven a mediocre mathematician. did not even bother He to adjust the constantsof thispeculiar Approximationto the resultsof typologizing. With the skull fromLowysi, for example, it has been demonstrated thatKocka's "novelties"yieldedabsurd analyticalresults. An altogether different level of scientific thoughtis represented the by critical approach adopted by Bielicki towardthe morphologism the Polish of School. This attitudeis broughtabout by his enthusiasm genetics.In view for of thisfactwe (Wanke and Czekanowski) sent him to the United States in

clusions are based on the presupposition that morphologicalsimilarity corresponds to biological relationship. This presuppositionis open to discussion since sometimes differentiation between homologies and analogies is almost impossible.But the presupposition is the only feasibleone. Any opinions that geneticistscan express are merelyanalogies. On theotherhand, when considering in anthropological characteristics the our discussion. perspectiveof sociological time, it is In anthropologyalso I consider it necessary everyconcreteinstance to in advisable to conform with the old, suc- provesatisfactorily here is evidence that cessful maxim of the Prussian staff of evolutionary The processof progress. officers: "march separately but strike evolution is by no means a theoretical unitedly." In the language of anthro- assumption.It is a biological fact that and can not be discussedseriouslyunless it pologythismeans thatmorphology physicaleducation and to sports;Krystyna Modrzewska is the best Polish specialiston problemsof the sociological-anthropologicalboundary; R. P. Czestaw Biatek solved the problem of theanalysisof theAfricanpopulation. Afterthis briefreporton the young and youngestanthropologists who received their doctor's degrees on the bases of anthropological dissertations, I wish to add some remarks the comon ments of several other participantsin tremes shouldalso be noted.This,I thinik, seem the most likely one. I did not mean, of course,that the possibility of confirm Garn'sprediction; ... fully etc. selectiondirectedagainstboth extreme As one of my American colleagues phenotypes simultaneouslyis a new remarkedin a letterto me, the above- and hitherto unexplored idea as far as quoted sentencesmay make the reader some othermetrictraits metrictraits or think that the conceptsof an adaptive in general are concerned! In fact, a peak and of stabilizingselection came study aimed at detectingthe possible to me only as a revelationafterI had operation of this type of selection on read Garn's comment.I am verysorry infants has forsome timebeen in progindeed if such an impression can really ressin thiscountry, too. be gained fromthe passage in question. Perhapsthewhole misunderstanding, What I actuallyhad in mind,when call- forme a veryembarrassing one, would ing Garn's observation-on the possibil- not have arisen had I used the exity of two-sided selectionan "excellent pression"Garn remindsus," instead of point" and a "prediction,"was simply "Garn remarks . . ." Unfortunate and that this exactly turns out to be the misleadingformulations sometimes do case withregardto the traitconsidered, crop up when-as in my case-a person i.e., head form-a result which,in the writesin a language which he knows lightof craniologicalevidence,did not not as well as his mothertongue.
is an excellent point . . . [Recent findings]

On Two-sided Selection
By TADEUsZ BIELICKI My reply to Garn's comments on my article "Some Possibilities for Estimating Inter-population Relationship on the basis of Continuous Traits" (CA 3:42) contains the following passage referring to the recent Polish studies on differential survivorship in relation to head form: The historicallydocumented trend todid suggestthat diward round-headedness rectionalselection may be involved in this case. Garn, however,remarksthat selection is not always a one-sided process,and that in many morphological traitsthe possibilityof differential at the phenotypicexloss

[Wroclaw,Poland. 14.3.62]

order to obtain details on the successes gained by the young American genetically oriented anthropologists. We wanted this informationbecause we were under the impressionthat,judging from the last edition of Ashley Montagu's book (1951), theymightnot yethave passed much beyond serology. In his article(1962) Bielicki believed us to be much retarded due to our reputed, and much criticized,isolation. Thus was he meant to reportto us on the latestAmericanaccomplishments. The remainingmembers the third of generation cooperate studiously with the old generation.Tadeusz Dzierzykray-Rogalski should be mentionedfirst; while professor anatomyhe created of in Bialystokan AnthropologicalInstitute which maintains contact with Africa. Bruno Miszkiewicz must be commended for having spread knowledge of the Polish methodsof investigationin Germany;Halina Milicer and Zbigniew Drozdowski (the youngest memberof the second generation)are prominentspecialistsdealing with the problemsof applying anthropology to Vol. 3 *No. 5 December 1962

human geneticsmust aim at theirsyntheses independently, and only the comparisonof both syntheses yield can noteworthy results.Workingwithmorphological-genetichash will lead to futilediscussions. thefield absolutely In of Slavics I have demonstrated that a satisfactorily exact placement of the primarySlav home in the Vistula and Odra basins has been obtained by combining the synthetic resultsof linguistics, floristics, prehistory,the scanty data fromhistoricalsourcesand, above all, anthropology(still only morphology,withoutgenetics).During the last International Slavistic Congress (Moscow 1958), I had occasion to convince myselfthat this concept, which I formulated in 1927, although initially muchcontested, sincebeen accepted has by the enormousmajorityof Slavists. It should be kept in mind that anthropologylooks at man in two different timeperspectives: geologicaland sociological time.In the perspective of geological time,anthropology deals exclusivelywith morphologicalevidence of the processof evolution. Here, con-

has been proven beyond any doubt to be a fact.It mustbe kept in mind that man lives in an artificialenvironment createdby his activities. Therefore,the possibility must be consideredthat,in the perspective sociologicaltime,the of processof evolution may proceed very feeblyor not at all in the artificial environment. For example, as junior assistant to the well-known anatomist Georg Ruge, I prepared, in 1906, a paper on muscularvariabilityin man; thispaper was printedin a special issue publishedin honor of Franz Boas. In it I demonstrated that the processof evolution, which cannot be disclaimed in the comparative-anatomicalperspective,does not appear in Central European man as far as myologyis concerned. This is shown by the fact that it proved impossible to determine polarity of closed complexes of progressiveand regressive variantsby the use of coefficients correlation. of As regards processes of selection, I wish to state the following.When investigating the anthropologically effects of processesof selectionin the prosec489

one noticesthat toriesof largehospitals, disharmonic combinations of anthropological traits occur uncommonly often,a factwhich makes verydifficult corpses.The to any attempts typologize constitutionaltypes of pathology apof combinations pear to be disharmonic anthropologicaltraits.This would explain why the attemptsat correlating them with races have led to very conof opinions. The correlation tradictory the disposition to cancer with disharmonic combinations of pigmentahas tion features alreadybeen observed by the old school of clinicians (e.g., Neisser 1855-1916). Since then, these by observations have been corroborated Polish anthropologists.However, genetics is bound to throw much more light on this subject than does morphology. researchon So far our fragmentary processes of selection have failed to yield an indisputable result. The reof stability the anpeatedlydetermined thropologicalcompositionof the peasant population, extendingover several centuries,seems to indicate that processes of selection do not cause notable composichangesin theanithropological tion of human groups. Nevertheless, (1938) show JacekSzmyt's investigations that among those whose death was caused by cancer, the Mediterranean nearly twice componentis represented as as strongly in the totalpopulation of SouthernPoland. This tendencyof selection is in accord with the continued since the Neolithic, of the shrinking, share of the Mediterraneancomponent in the population of Europe inhabiting regions north of the Alps. It is well of known that the shrinkage the Mediterranean component started the idle talk about the decay of the Nordic race -gossip which anthropologists with methodswere theirextremely primitive not able to refute critically. This yielded sorry results indeed for anthropology also. The turning aside towardsgeneticsis a frommorphology further example. It should also be mentioned that the determinations of homogamy proved to be sociological and not biological phenomena. The same explanation refersto the ostensiof ble determination the selectivecharacter of Landflucht (migration from open countryto towns)and of emigration. The anthropological results of these processes,as far as theymay be determined quantitatively,are consein quences of differences the anthropological composition of the social strataof the population of Europe. As in to Polish immigrants America,who no there, tendintermingled thoroughly encies towards homogamy of anthroweredetermined, pological components as shown by investigationsmade by
490

This is an entirely arbitrary assumption based on the resultsof the investigations of Michalski,Miszkiewicz, and my experience, as are my previously stateddefinitions our principalraces of of the Central European population, i.e., the Nordic,the Mediterranean, the Armenoid and the Lapponoid. The regularities establishedon the basis of these definitions are the only justificaBielicki's article testifies a new direc- tion for our assumptions.Similar into stancesoccur in astronomy. tion in anthropologicalresearchin Poland. Bielicki concludes that the method of "inLet me stressthe point that,accorddividual taxonomic diagnosis" (which ing to experience,the Palaeo-Europid formsthe kernel of Czekanowski'smethod) in is untenable; its premises are not recon- componentshould be considered our analyses only in instances where the cilable with modern genetics. The author of this comment subscribes,for the most consideration of the fifthcomponent part, to the criticalremarksof Bielicki and leads to closer agreementbetween the to objections in previous critical works. mean values of the cephalic index (the To me, as a mathematician who has index theoreticallycalculated on the been dealing for almost 60 years with basis of thelaw of mean values,and the the application of the quantitative index determined by observations). method in anthropology (morphology) Here it turnedout thatthe mean value and in sociology (linguistics and ethof the cranial index of the Palaeonography), and who in his youth, at the Europid component equals 75.5, and beginning of this century,was much inthatits effect the mean value of the on fluenced by Henri Poincare and Karl group is not complicatedby the occurPearson, the above quotation sounds rence of any dominants. somewhat too fideistic. Since no "reAs to the "six typicalgroups" menvealed genetics" nor "infallible authoritioned by Bunak (1932:464), I analyzed ties" exist in science, scientific genetics them morphologically by means of must adjust itself to morphological Wanke's Approximation and compared facts, provided the latter are based on theresults withresultsdealing withthe observations of satisfactory accuracy. Cheremiss (Fedorov 1905), the MordAfter all, genetics consists to a considervinians (Majnov 1891), the Merians able extent of hypotheses which are (Bogdanov 1880,Jendryk Czekanowin upheld as long as they are not contraski 1937), the prehistoric Tveritchians dicted by facts based on observation. (Ibid.), and the skullsof the Fatjanovo After these preliminary remarks culturepopulation fromthefirst of half which have brieflysummarized the Old the 2nd millenium B.C. (Drozdowski Polish School point of view, I consider 1952). The analyticalresultsare given it most appropriate to limit myself to in Table 10. In the first reporting the results which might be place it is amazing how obtained by analyzing Professor closely Bunak's "six characteristic Bunak's observations according to the groups" agree with my law of mean analytical methods of Polish anthrovalue of the cephalic index. In my pology. opinion this is the best proof that As early as 1898 Deniker had pointed Bunak is an excellent morphologist
CURRE NT ANTHROPOLOGY

Rosinski in Texas, U.S.A. 1929, 1931, and by Stolyhwo (1931) in Parana, Brazil. Processes of selection acting in different directions seem to counterbalance one another. This appears to be corroborated by the stability, established for the last several centuries, of the anthropological composition of sociologically combined human groups. Morphology makes it possible to assemble synthetically the total effectsof processes of selection. On the other hand, genetics merely supplies indications as to certain components of the complex of processes of selection. Morphology and genetics supplement each other. Even so, thus far I consider the contribution of human genetics rather meagre, notwithstanding the great enthusiasm towards genetics shown especially by Anglo-Saxons. A full statement of the oldest representative and co-founder of the Polish Anthropological School regarding the heterogeneous opinions expressed by so many anthropologists would fill a big volume. In order to limit my remarks in this interesting discussion, I shall confine myself to those few instances in which I may be able to present something new and worth mentioning. Professor V. Bunak claims (1962):

out thatin the anthropological investigationof theEasternEuropean population, one must take into consideration the fifth component,his "race Orientale" which,in agreement with K6c1ka, I shall call Palaeo-Europid. Aftermany trials,I decided that this fifth component may best be definedas shown in Table 9.
TABLE 9.
DEFINITION OF THE PALAEo-EUROPID COMPONENT

Length-Width Cephalic Index ............ 76.9 Morphological Facial Index ................ 79.3 Nasal Index .................. 74.3 Eye Color (No. 13 of Martin'sScale). ... -0.978 Hair Color................... -1.500

(typologist). Thus, our quantitative methods make possiblean impartialrating of anthropologists. The second resultgained fromTable 10 is the proof that anthropologically the Eastern Slavs very much resemble thepopulation of theVistula Basin and of the adjoining Baltic shore,and that theycan by no means be looked upon as Slavicized Finns, an opinion occasionallyvoiced especiallywithregardto the Great Russians. It is only the Rjasanians who represent exception; an in theircase the Finnish admixtureis beyond any doubt, as already pointed out by Tschepurkowsky's investigations (1912). That theSlavs have replaced the Finns and, for the most part, failed to assimilate them,is shown by the comparison of prehistoric skulls,probably fromthe 11thcentury, whichattestthe Finnish autochthons, with the presentday population of the Tver region which is anthropologically typically Slav. The old skulls reveal a characteristicFinnish constellation.Even so, thereoccur Great Russian groups that must be looked upon as Russianized Finns; this has been demonstrated by investigations made in the former Kostromaprovince. The thirdimportant resultobtained fromour analysesis the determination that the Maris investigatedby Bunak closelyresemblethe Cheremissinvestigated by Fedorov (1905) on the one hand, and on the other, the series of skullsof the earlyhistoricMerians and Tveritchiansas well as the prehistoric of representatives the Fatjanovo culture. These series of observations, derived from various periods of time, constitute a sharply defined anthropological formationof the autochthonous population whichwas almostcompletely replaced by Slavic super-strata in and merelysurvives scantyenclaves. The particulartraitof thisformation is the strong of representation the PalaeoEuropid component.In the Fatjanovo skulls and the early historic Tveritchians this component constitutesa relative majority, whereas in the Meriansit forms strongest the minority, and in theFinnishseriesofobservations and theRjasanians thenext to strongest In a paper I read on May 27, 1961, at theFinno-Ugrian Societyin Helsinki, I had occasion to mentionthat anthroto pology also testifies a separation of the Finns fromthe Finno-Ugriancommunityhaving taken place in the great bend of the Volga River. The extraorof dinary strength the Mediterranean component might be ascribed most easilyto an Arian (Indo-Iranian)stratification,since it is knownthatthe oldest waves of the Indo-European invasion, anthropologicallystill very much reVol. 3 No. 5 December 1962
minority.

TABLE

10.

ANALYTICAL

INTERPRETATION

OF THE EAST-EUROPEAN

OBSERVATIONS1

Components Anthropological Series: Observed LivingPersonsand Skulls White Russians Great Russians Rjasanians Nordic % 67.2 Mediterranean

Divergences

between TheoretiArme- Lappo- Palaeo- cal and Observed noid Europid Mean Values of nozd

Index Cephalic

13.9 (22.8) 19.7 17.8 15.1 16 8 25.2 21.7 18.1 27.7 25.6 34.6 16.9

8.6 (9.6) 8.3 13.7 16.2 15 3 9.8 11.3 11.7 10.0 8.9 .... 17.3

10.2 (11.9) 10.3 17.6 18.8 20.4 16.5 19.3 24.1 12.6 12.8 13.1 33. 8

....

-+0.16 (-1.66) (+0.38) -0.34 -0.33 -1.31 -0.99 +0.21 -0.16 -0.13 -1.32 +0.23 ? +0.37

(55.8) 48.2 51.0 Aleksandrovians Tverians 49.9 47.5 Vetlugans 27.2 Mari (Cheremiss) 26.9 Gornyje 23.2 Lugovyje Merians 24.2 Tveritchians, prehistoric 21.9 15.4 Fatjanovo culture 32.0 Mordvinians, Ersja

.... 13.5 ....

.... ...

21.3 20.8 23.0 25.6 30.8 37.1

....

(+1.39) (+-1.19) (+1.04)

(-1.36)

'The numbers in parenthesesrefer to "the other alternative." If the divergence,as for instanceamong the people of Mari, takes the 5th component into account, then the number in parenthesesrefersto the analvsis without consideringit again. Otherwise,as in the case of the White Russians, the 5th component is not taken into account. There, the 5th componentis already included in the number in parentheses.

sembling the Neolithic population of Europe, revealed the above-mentioned Mediterraneantype. For the youngest waves of expansion, those of the Celts, the Germans,the Slavs, and the Baltic tribes, predominanceof the Nordic the component is characteristic. In hispaper "Neues MaterialzurAussonderung anthropologischer Typen unter der Bevblkerung Osteuropas," Bunak, following Deniker's example and applyingthe geographicalmethod, races and subraces.In ordistinguishes der to throwlighton this subject matter,I analyzedtheseraces and subraces, as I had previouslyanalyzed the "six typicalgroups," by means of Wanke's Approximation; the results are presentedin Table 11. with his races and subUnfortunately, races Bunak has not been as lucky as with his "six typical groups." In our morphological perspective he merely presents selectionof local populations a which happen to agree verywell with our law of mean values of cephalic index. I suspect that this selection was made with Bunak's approach in mind: "A complexof traits acquires the meanonly if it ing of a racial characteristic territory" is closelylinked to a definite (Ibid. 24). I fail to perceivethescientific thisdebatable benefit be gained from to race there opinion. In his North-Pontic are joined subraces radically differing from each other, such as the LowerOka subrace disclosinga Finnish structureand the EasternCentralEuropean race showing a Scandinavian concentration of the Nordic element. The Polesian subrace and the Volgarace are almost Kostromaintermediate

identical. For the Eastern Central European race the definitiongives a if cephalic index of 80-82; however, we enter value 82 in our analysis,we are face to facewiththeWaldai subrace! Bunak states (Ibid. 25): "Both authors[Bielicki,Wiercifiski] assumethat thereis a definite numberof races and that their complexes of characteristics have remained unchanged since the period of race formation.This is inof compatiblewiththe theories modern biology." The allegation that an assumptionis incompatiblewithmodern evitheories is by no means scientific dence. Theories must be adjusted to facts,and this is the reason for their oftenbeing changed ratherspeedily.It has been demonstratedhere that the present-day Wolga-Finnsare successors to the bearersof the Fatjanovo culture. This authorizesus to assume a stability of the anthropologicalelementsreaching farback. It is impossibleto establish this duration by the methodsused by Bunak. The law of mean values of the cephalic index revealsthat the stability of anthropologicalcomponentsmay be consideredestablishedback to medieval times. Anybodyquestioning the number of anthropological components which we have taken into account is under obligation to divulge that it is possible to obtain a betterdescription of the investigatedgroups by other methods;unlesshe can comply, nobody is going to take him seriously. Concluding his comment Bunak writes(Ibid. 25): "It is evidentthat the so-called'elementary racial types'are in reality conventional extraterritorial variantswhich do not characterizethe 491

racial history of the population studied." The term "evident" is a miraculous word, often employed for uncertainproblemsinto cerconverting tain facts.Can it be consideredadmisracial types" sible to call "elementary conventional illusions,in view of evidence showing that they are closely of linkedwiththeoccurrence dominant such as is the case witheye color? traits, I Furthermore, dare claim thatBunak's contributionto the "racial history"of the population of Russia has gained by considerably the application of our analytical methods based on "elementary racial types." Not only have the been separated from Slav super-strata the autochthonous Finnish lowerstratum;on top of this, a perspective extendingbackwardsas far as the 2nd milleniumB.C. is now accessible. As regards the comment made by Hiernaux (1962) I wish to say: On June 30, 1907, I crossed the frontier of Mporoto, at that time nominally on Depart of Ruanda; afterwards, cember 14, I left Rutshuru in orall der to roam in manydirections over part of the Congo and the northeastern the Uganda Protectorate.During this period I examined 4,500 Negroes and Pygmies and collected 1,019 skulls. These experiencesentitleme to discuss the morphologically geneticresultsobtained by Hiernaux. My pupil, Biatek, succeeded (1962) to in adjustingWanke'sApproximation the needs of anthropologyin Africa of on the basis of the definitions race components published in 1939 by I replaced the definiMydlarski. merely component tion of the Austro-African by the Pygmycomponent.The results to obtained so far are shortly be published in a monograph honoring From this FreiherrEgon von Eickstedt. reportI am takingthe analysesdealing withRuanda and its adjoining regions. up Unfortunately, to now it has been impossibleto establisha law of anthropological mean value for the African population; thusthe Africananalytical resultsare less certain. Even so, these analysespresenta picturewithmarked seem to be regularitiesand therefore The trustworthy. analysesare based on of the definitions the anthropological in components Table 12. deOn the basis of these definitions and reprerived fromour observations senting our empiricallyfounded presuppositions,the analytical results in Table 13 were calculated by the use of Wanke's Approximationin which they were enteredas constants. Table 13 showsthat by using parameterscalculated withWanke's Approximation the results of investigations manmay be arrangedin a satisfactory ner. However, unless one rejects the
492

TABLE

11.

RACES

AND SUBRACES

ACCORDING

TO PROFESSOR

V.

BUNAK

IN THE LIGHT

OF WANKE'S

APPROXIMATION

Subraces According to V. Bunak Ural Race

Racesand

_______

beDivergences tweenTheoretical ~~Medi- Arme- Lappo- Palaeo_ and Observed Nordic terranoid noid Europid Mean Values of nean CephalicIndex
-

Anthropological Components
_______ ________ _______ -

Race Proto-Asiatic Race North-Pontic

Middle Volga Subrace 28.8 Wjatka-Kama Subrace 27.5 38.8 70.5 50.9

19.3 14.3 25.0 12.1 11.9 11.6 8.6 14.6

9. 8 17.4 12.7 8.0 14.0 12.2 4.6 16.5

16.5 21.2 9.4 9.3 23.2 12.6 4 7 19 4

25.6 19.6 14.0

-

-0.25 (+1.22) -0.31 (+1.35) +0.33 (+1.10) -0.92 -0.16 -0.47 -1.15 -0.53

Baltic Race

Lower Oka Subrace CentralEasternEuropean Race Polesian Subrace

63.7 Waldai Subrace Upper Dnepr Subrace 82.1 Volga-Kostroma Intermediate Race 49.5

hypothesisof the validity of anthropological (morphological)types(races), theseparameters throwlighton the anthropologicalconstellationsof the investigatedgroups. This hypothesis, so very useful for practical purposes, is based on the assumptionthat the observational series may be regarded as statisticalrepresentations interminof gled populations. The geneticists' attitude towards these morphologicalfactsexpressedin our table of parameters of interest is to the morphologists, it althouglh is by no means decisive. It would only be decisive if the geneticistssuggesta better solution to the problem of comparing the investigated groups.In myopinion, theyare stillfarfromthisachievement. The morphologicaltreatment the of problems of anthropologyin Ruanda yieldsthefollowing conclusions: 1. The ruling class of shepherd nobility living in the lake district, apart fromBuganda and Bunyoro,is not anthropologicallyhomogeneous. In this sociological formation two markedly different strata may be distinguished. The topmost stratum,including the dynasty from ruling in Ruanda, differs the common shepherdnobilityby the factthatit revealsan absolutemajority of the Oriental componentcharacteristic of Semitico-Hamitic populations. It

might be mentioned here that the mothersof legitimateroyal offspring, entitled to succession to the throne, must belong to the Bega clan. This name reminds one of the Bedja, a Lower-Cushitictribal group. On the other hand, the commonrank of shepherdsdisclosesfeeblerelativemajorities of the Mediterranoidcomponent.This indicatesa markedinfluence Nilotoof Hamites,who are even more Negroid: namely they disclose larger shares of the Negriticcomponent. 2. Our analysis solved the Buganda problem. Predominance of the Mediterranoid component is characteristic for so-called Niloto-Hamitic tribes,as for the Bari from the Nile Valley. The very fact that anthropologically theycan hardlybe distinguished from each other illustratestheir origin. At present they are typical lake district Bantu in culture as well as language. As to theirorigin we remained in the dark; it was known only that theyhad nothing in common with the Shilluck who subdued the Bunyoro.Presentevidence is that the Buganda are NilotoHamites who have been assimilatedby the Bantu. 3. The Bahutu and Bahiru, Bantu soil-tillers ruled by the shepherdtribes, show relativemajoritiesof the Negritic component,whereas the strongest miMorphological Facial Index 78 80 82 94 87 4.80
CURRENT

TABLE 12. DEFINITIONSOF AFRICANTYPES OF RACES

Anthro.pological Ty.pes of Races Negritic Type Austro-AfricanType (Pygmy type) Mediterranoid Type Oriental Type Australoid Type Standard Deviation Ce.phalic Index 71 80 72 73 72 3.45 Nasal Index 95 92 72 62 100 9 .97

ANTHROPOLOGY

norities consist of the Mediterranoid component;here the admixtureof the Austro-African componentis alreadyso marked that it always occupies third place. 4. Anthropologically Batwa conthe stitute a very heterogeneous group. Without exception, the forestBatwa show absolute majoritiesof the AustroAfrican component. On theotherhand, in the Batwa scatteredbeyond the forest area, majoritiesof the Negriticelement may be observed; there, these people seem to represent very old relicts,perhaps dating back to the period beforethe invasion of the NilotoHamites. 5. The forest tribes show absolute commajorities of the Austro-African for ponent characteristic the Pygmies. conThese are the most significant clusions obtained with little effort by the use of Wanke's Approximation. However, ending his comment,Hiernaux states(Ibid. 30): In thisarea,component frequency analymost thefacts of siswouldhaveoverlooked revealedby the analysisfromD2 values, thoughthreecomponents Tutsi, 'Bantu,' and it are and Pygmy) actuallypresent, definiwould have requiredan arbitrary tion of the 'typical'values of each component priorto itsmixture withtheother
two.

Czekanowski: POLISH solutionof equations.Yet, thistiresome method has been made irrelevantby It Wanke's Approximation. seemsto me that Hiernaux's critical comment on this subject is also irrelevant. In keepingwithHiernaux's approach is his remark(Ibid. 30): "It [our quantitativemethod]workswithfanciedcomponents.It is evidentthatsound knowledge cannot be gained from such a procedure."Reading theseperemptory thatanwordsone gains the impression research Africais in its of thropological infancy. Nevertheless,as early as the beginning of this centurythe components of the African population were and Bernknownto Sir HarryJohnston hardAnkermann such an extentthat to later on only a more exact formulation was needed. This of their definitions task was undertaken in 1939 by Mydlarski,as I have alreadymentioned.In Table 13 I presented the results obtained for Ruanda. I am looking forward to amendmentsfrom Hiernaux, who puts his faithin having made use of "the bestmethodeverelaborated."
TABLE 13.
MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

ANTHROPOLOGY

I considermostsensationalthe claim made by Hiernaux (Ibid.): "I could show a shiftof the morphology the of Bantu tribes who are recentimmigrants to the equatorial forest of Eastern Congo towards that of the Pygmies, withtheabsenceof a similar contrasting shiftin blood groups." This would be the one subject of significance come to out of this controversy. There is only the question how far this discoveryis based on sufficiently accurate observations;it is contrary European knowlto edge. Since Hiernaux and I have been workingin the same territory a time at intervalof half a century, should be it mentionedhere that in my time there did not existany Bantu tribesthatwere considered tropical forest immigrants arrived from the east. On the other hand, the tropicalforest Bantu, i.e., the Babira, were on the move in a northeasterndirectionand in Stanley'stime, 1887, theirfirst waves had long before deeply penetrated the grasslands.Perhaps Hiernaux has in mind the tribes whichhave been pushed into the tropiINHABITANTS OF RUANDA AND ITS

OF THE

ADJOINING

REGIONS

At the end of the paragraphstarting withthe above opinion we findthisauthor's conclusion: "It would lead to resultsresorting more to fiction than to a real analysisof the data." At least this is conciseand straightforward. Since in this subject matterwe are dealing with problemsof considerable I scientific significance, would suggest to Hiernaux that he demonstrateby means ofhis "D2 values," in his opinion "the besteverelaboratedforcontinuous traits," which "facts revealed by the D2 analysis from values would have been overlooked by the component frequencyanalysis."This would be a most valuable lesson for us. In view of the fact that Hiernaux discussesRuandaUrundi, I collected from the sixth volumeof mypublication"Research in the region between the Nile and the Congo," on which I am working,the analysesdealing with Ruanda and presented themin Table 13; I would like Hiernaux to commenton them,and to demonstrate the advantages to be gained fromthelaboriousD2 method. The surenessshown by Hiernaux in his discussionof our analysisbased on Wanke's Approximation implies his being very familiarwith this analysis. Thus I am astonished at his not perceiving that Bielicki's remark on the number of traitsto be taken into account when assuminga certainnumber of components does not refer to Wanke's Approximation but to the Vol. 3 *No. 5 * December 1962

Components Anthropological

ofthe African Population

Negritics Austro-Mediter- Orien- AustraAfricans ranoids tals loids

BatutsiStratum Uppermost Batutsi and Bahima

Royal house and court

21.0 28.1 26.0 27.4 30.7 32.3 38.2 38.5 37.5 38.4 36.1 39.0 50.6 48.3 47.1 35. 3 35. 3

4.0 5.2 7.6 6.9 6. 8 6.2 12.0 16.6 14.5 12.7 20.7 17.5 19.4 21.7 30.4 31.4 35.8 49.4 52.2 50.7 58.6 73.0 81 .8 93.4

16.2 30.5 33.1 39.8 45.0 44.2 32.6 27.0 29.7 29.6 21.3 20.1 14.8 14.1 11.9 15.8 7.4 6.4 5.5 7.8 3.9 3.3 1 .3 0.2

54.3 28.0 27.3 19.0 9.2 8.2 6.5 6.8 6.2 7.2 9.5 7.5 3.4 3.6 2.8 6.7 4.1 2. 1 1 .9 3.1 1 .5 1 .3 0.5 0.1

4.6 8.3 6.0 6.9 8. 3 9.1 10.7 11.2 12.1 12.2 12.4 15.9 11.8 12.3 7. 8 10.8 17.4 7. 1 7. 1 7.6 5.9 3.0 1 .5 0.3 493

Nilo-Hamitesand Baganda Bahutu and Bahiru

Kakoma Batutsifrom Banyambofrom Nkole (Kabula) Bahima from Busongora Nile valley (Nyonki) Bari from hiredin Kampala Baganda, carriers, Banyorofrom Fort Portalregion Balera from Ruasa Kakoma Banya-Ruandafrom Balera, Muhawura slope Barondo,Rutshuru region Bagoye,Nyundoregion

Batwa, Bakondjo and Morphologically Linked Bahutu

Forest-dwellers

Batwa, courtmusicians, Niansa Bahutu from Issawi,Mission Batwa potters from Marangara Bakondjo,Vichumbiregion Batwa from Bugoye,Bigogotribe

Babira, Tropical ForestEdge at Irumu 35.0 Batwa from MuhawuraTropical Forest 33. 3 Banande (Tropical Forest-Bakondjo), Beni region 30.7 Beni region Babira, Tropical Forest, 30. 1 Baamba, Ruwenzoriforeground 19.3 Batwa, BugoyeTropical Forest 14.9 Pygmies,Giapanda region near Mawambi 5.9

I area fromthe north? demoncal forest strated in 1924 that the southward migrationof the Bantu is verywell reflectedin termsof numbers,and that these terms representa reliable basis for classifying Bantu dialects. A claim to of such importance, contrary all our anthropologicalobservations, must be dealt with veryaccurately.I would be much interested findout how we are to of to know the morphology the Bantu

during the period before their migration into the tropicalforest? Our presentdebate can be continued only aftermy questions have been answered. In answeringthe commentmade by Mourant (1962) I am restricting myself to a remark that might interest him. When maps are available which show the range of aspects at various periods, and the quantitative similar-

ity of such maps is grasped with the help of their correlation coefficients, one attains the relative chronologyof the appearance of the aspects illustratedby the maps. I demonstrated this, for example, with regard to the of processes of differentiation Slavic languages (1929-1931). Perhaps it would be possible to obtain the relative chronologyof mutations by the same method?
in the Study of Race: Two Views from Poland, with Discussion. Current Anthropology3:35. do MYDLARSKI,J. 1928.Przyczynek poznania strukturyantropologicznej Polski i zagadnieni doboru wojskowego. Kosmos 53:195-210. --. 1939. Rasa. Czlowiek, jego rasy i zycie. Trzaska, Evert i Michalski. Warszawa. J. PAVELCIK, 1948. Mestys Nivnice. Zpravy Anthropologicke Spole6nosti F.4 1:3-4. PEARSON, KARL. 1894. On the Dissection of Frequency Curves. Phil. Trans. Royal Society 185A:71-110. RIPLEY, W. Z. 1900. The Races of Europe. London: Kegan, Trench, Triibner & Co. 1929. AnthroRoSINSKI,R. P. BOLESLAW. pogenetischeAuslese. Anthropologischer Anzeiger 6:49-64. --. 1931. Emigracja Polska w Stanach Zjednoczonych.Zagadnienia Rasy 13:4964. ---. 1947-48. 0 dziedziczeniubarwyoczu u czlowieka. Przegl4d Anthropologiczny T. XIV:32-45. 0. SCHLAGINHAUFEN, 1946. Anthropologia Helvetica. Zurich: Archiv der Julius Klaus-Stiftung. STOLYHWO,K. 1931. Korpergrosse, ihre Vererbung und Abhangigkeit von dem neuen Milieu bei polnischen Emigranten in Parana (Brasilien). Verhandlungen der Gesellschaftfur Physische Anthropologie. Stuttgart4:94-106. W. SUROWIECKI, 1824. Sledzenie pocz4tk6w Roczniki Kr6lewnarod6w slowianiskich. Tow. Przyjaci6oNauk sko-Warszawskiego 17:2, 193. SZMYT, J. 1938. Sklad rasowy i Konstytucjonalny chorychna nowotworyzlosliwe lwowskich zaklad6w leczniczych. Prze12:223-55. glqd Antropologiczny. E. TSCHEPURKOWSKY,M. 1912. Anthropologische Bestandteile der altesten und j ungsten slavischen Bevolerung Russlands. Korrespondenz-Blattder Deutschen Gesellschraftfur Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte.Jahrgang 43. Braunschweig. zespol6w cech anWANKE, A. 1952. Czestogc tropologicznych. Prace Wroclawskiego Tow. Naukowego Seria b, Nr. 29:1-58. wyste---. 1953. Metoda badani czestogci powania zespol6w cech czyli metoda stochastycznej korelacji wielorakiej. Przeglqd Antropologiczny19:106-47. F. WOKROJ, 1938. Kozacy Kubansky pod wzglqdem anthropologicznym.Przeglqd 12:419-40. Antropologiczny wsi Pod--. 1948. Ludnosc ukraiAiska bereice pod wzglhdem antropologicznym. Sprawozdania Polskiej Akademii Umiejqtnosci 49:458-63. --. 1954. Charakterystykademograficzno-antropologiczna ludnosci kolonii podkarpackich. Przeglqd Antropologiczny 20:341-427.
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

und Vererbungsduktive A bstammungslehre 54:154-68. ---. 1934,2nd ed. 1937.Czlowiek w Czasie i Przestrzeni.Biblioteka Wiedzy T. IX. BERNSTEIN, F. 1924. Ergebnisse einer bioWarszawa. Trzaska, Evert i Michalski. statistischen zusammenfassenden Betrachtungiuberdie erblichen Blutstruk--. 1954. Die Schweizerische Anthroturen des Menschen. Klinische Wochenpologische Aufnahme im Lichte der Polschrift, Berlin. J. Springer,3:1495-97. Przenischen Untersuchungsmethoden. 20:218-314. BIALEK, C. 1962. Stosunki antropologiczne glqd Antropologiczny Afryki Srodkowej w swietle aproksy1955. Na marginesie Konferencji --. macji Wankego. Unpublished DissertaEthnogenetycznej1952 r. (Aproksymacja tion, University Poznani. of Wankego i wyniki W.Kocki). Ibid. 21: 830-56. BIASUrTI, R. 1959. 3rd ed. Le Razze e i Popoli della Terra, Torino. DENIKER,J. 1898. Les races de l'Europe L'Anthropologie 9:113-33. A. P. 1880. Doistoriceskije BOGDANOV, tveritjane po raskopkam kurganov. Iz--. 1904. Les six races composant la vestija Obsestva Ljubitelej Jestestvozpopulation actuelle de l'Europe. Journanija, etc. Trudy Antropologiceskago nal of the Royal Anthropological InstiOtdiela 4:382-92. Moskva. tute of Great Britain and Ireland 34: 181-286. Merjane v antropologiceskom ot DROZDOWSKI, 1952. Ludnosc Kultury Z. nosenii. Ibid.: 404 et seq. Fatjanowskiej. Dysertacja Magisterska. BUNAK, V. 1932. Neues Material zur AusPoznaii. sonderung anthropologischer Typen unter der BevolkerungOsteuropas. (Ver- EICKSTEDT, E., v. 1934. Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichteder Menschheit. Stuttgleich der geographischen Karten fiir gart. Kbrpergrosseund des Kopfindex). Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthro- GIBowsKI, M. 1961. Analiza antropologiczna ludnosci Lowynia z przelomu pologie 30:441-503. XVII-XVIII w. Dysertacja Magisterska. 1962. Comment on Issues in the Posnaii. Study of Race: Two Views fromPoland, J. with Discussion. Current Anthropology HIERNAUX, 1962. Comment on Issues in the Study of Race: Two Views from 3:24-25. Poland, with Discussion. Current AnCZEKANOWSKI, J. 1907. Untersuchungfiber thropology3:29-31. das Verhaltnis der Kopfmasse zu den Schadelmassen. Archiv filr Anthropol- K6OKA, W. 1958. Zagadnienie etnogenezy lud6w Europy. Materialy i Prace Anogie N.F.T. 6:42-89. tropologiczne 22:1-288. 1909. Zur Differentialdiagnoseder J. Neandertalgruppe. Korrespondenzblatt KOLLMANN, 1882.Europaische Menschenrassen. Mitteilungen der Anthropologider Deutschen Gesellschaftfur Anthroschen Gesellschaftin Wien 11:1-8. pologie 40:44-47. 1921. Les Lois de Mendel et Galton ---. 2nd ed. KROEBER, A. L. 1948.Anthropology, et les coefficients l'heredite de Pearde MAJNOV, V. N. 1883. Rezultaty antroson. Revue Generale des Sciences 32: pologieeskichizsliedovanij sredi mordvy671-75. erzi. Zapiski Imperatorskago Geografi1922a. Prawa Mendla i Galtona i ceskago Obsestva po otdielenii T. IX. wsp6lczynniki dziedzicznosci Pearsona. S. Peterburg. ArchiwumTow. Naukowego we Lwowie. 1891. Materialy po antropologii. --. Dzial Matemn.-Przyrod 1:301-44. Mordvy-Erzi. Nizegorod-Skago uiezda. 1922b. Przyblizone mierniki wsp6lDnevnik Antropologiceskaga.Otdiela. zaleznosci przy zalozeniu praw Mendla. MARTIN, R. 1914. Lehrbuch der AnthroPrace Komisji Matem.-Przyrodniczej. pologie in SystematischerDarstellung. Pozna?'zskie Tow. Przyjaci6l Nauk 1:244Gust. Fischer.Jena. 73. MICHALSKI,I. 1949. Struktura antropol1925. Wyniki badani serologicznych ogiczna Polski. Acta AnthropologicaUniAnthropologiWojskowego Zdjecia Lodziensis 1:18, 110, 236. versitatis cznego.Polska Gazeta Lekarska nr. 3 Sep. 1962. Comment on Issues in the 1-6. Study of Race: Two Views fromPoland, An---. 1928. Das Typenfrequenzgesetz. with Discussion. Current Anthropology Anzeiger 5:335-59. thropologischer 3:32-35. 1930. Das anthropologische Mittel- MISZKIEwIcz, B. 1960. Struktura antrowertgesetz.Verhandlungen der Ges. fiir pologiczna autochtonicznej ludnosci PhysischeAnthropologie4:15-20. Warmii. Materialy i Prace Antropologiczne 51. ---. 1932. Coefficient Racial Likeness" of und "DurchschnittlicheDifferenz."AnMONTAGU, M. F. ASHLEY. 1951. An Introduction to Physical Anthropology. thropologischer Anzeiger 9:227-49. Ill. Charles C. Thomas. Springfield, 1933. Mendelistisches"Law of AnMOURANT, A. E. 1962.Comment on Issues cestral Heredity." Zeitschrift fiir in-

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