CORROSION SCIENCE SECTION

Analytical Evaluation of Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection Systems for Steel in Concrete
W.H. Hartt*

ABSTRACT
Increasing attention has been focused in recent years upon galvanic anode cathodic protection (CP) for corrosion control of steel in atmospherically exposed concrete. While effectiveness of this type of CP can be assessed by depolarization testing and perhaps other procedures, no method presently exists for analytically characterizing and interrelating the relative influence of various system and corrosion cell parameters. Of particular interest is the electrochemical behavior of the anode since its characteristics often control CP effectiveness. In view of this, a procedure is described in terms of relevant electrochemical parameters that permits 1) cathodic polarization of embedded steel in concrete to be quantitatively characterized and for the role of different system variables affecting this polarization to be identified and 2) projection of galvanic anode performance and of CP system life. Utility of the method is demonstrated using previously reported data for laboratory specimens and a field structure. KEY WORDS: cathodic protection, chloride, concrete, current capacity, galvanic anode, reinforcing steel, slope parameter

INTRODUCTION
Steel in concrete is normally passive as a consequence of the alkaline nature of the cement paste (pH ~12.5 to 13.9), which facilitates the formation and maintenance of a passive iron oxide film. Consequently, the corrosion rate is low and minimal mainSubmitted for publication July 2001; in revised form, January 2002. Presented, in part, as paper no. 252 at CORROSION/97, March 1997, New Orleans, LA. * Center for Marine Materials, Department of Ocean Engineering, Florida Atlantic UniversitySea Tech Campus, Dania Beach, FL 33004.

tenance suffices for decades. However, the corrosion rate is anticipated to increase to an unacceptable level if the concrete at the steel depth becomes either carbonated or chloride-contaminated (or both). This leads progressively to embedded steel corrosion and to the accumulation of solid corrosion products in the concrete pore space around the steel. Because concrete is relatively weak in tension and may be unable to support these stresses, cracking and spalling eventually result. Cathodic protection (CP) is presently recognized as the only methodology for which extensive service experience exists to effectively control ongoing corrosion of reinforcing steel in chloride-contaminated concrete.1-2 Most previous studies and experience related to this mitigation technique pertain to impressed current as opposed to galvanic anode CP (GACP) because of the relatively high resistivity of the electrolyte (concrete pore water) and the higher driving voltage that the former affords. However, instances of successful application of GACP to substructure components of coastal bridges in Florida have been reported;3-6 and interest exists in determining the utility of this CP approach for colder or drier (or both) exposure conditions. Complications regarding generic applicability of GACP to reinforcing steel in concrete arise because of, first, the relatively small potential difference between the anode and steel (as noted above) and, second, an apparent tendency of the anode to passivate while the concrete is relatively dry.7 In this regard, there is presently no standardized means for representing or characterizing GACP performance, and it is often unclear from

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that associated with the anodes (anode resistance [Ra] >> cathode resistance [Rc]) such that S was estimated as follows:

S=

Ra Ac = 1.83 W - m 2 N

(2)

FIGURE 1. Potential vs current density for a laboratory specimen and an offshore structure.

the data exactly what mechanistic feature(s) controls performance. Recently, a novel approach to the design of and data representation for CP systems in marine applications involving submerged bare steel was proposed.8-12 This is based upon a modified form of Ohms law and is expressed as follows: fc = (R t A c ) i c + fa (1)

where N is the number of aluminum anodes. In the case of the laboratory specimen, an external 450-W resistor was dominant such that S was the same in both cases (1.83 W-m2). Because of this, the fc-ic decay trend for the two was identical with slope equal to the above value and a vertical intercept of ~ 1.08 V vs saturated calomel electrode (SCE) (the polarized anode potential, fa). Galvanic cathodic polarization of reinforcement in atmospherically exposed concrete is likely to be more complex than for steel in seawater, since Rt can change by orders of magnitude for wet-vs-dry conditions and fa may vary by 0.5 V or more depending upon whether the anode is active or passive. Nevertheless, Equation (1) may be useful in evaluating GACP for atmospherically exposed reinforced concrete applications. The present paper reports the results of analyses in which data pertaining to GACP of reinforcing steel in concrete from the literature were analyzed to establish a protocol for data representation and CP system life projection.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Literature data that are sufficiently comprehensive for application of Equation (1) to GACP of steel in concrete are limited; however, a study by Sags and Powers involved both controlled laboratory exposures and bridge CP system measurements.14 The first involved a series of chloride-contaminated reinforced concrete slabs that were cathodically polarized via surface-applied arc-sprayed zinc and exposed to a constant relative humidity (RH) of 25, 60, or 85%. In addition to depolarization testing, fc, ic, and Rt were routinely recorded. Figures 2 through 4 reproduce the fc-ic data for each of the three RH. In the first two cases (25% and 60% RH), the trend is reversed from that in Figure 1 in that the slope of the best fit line through the data is negative; and it can be shown that, in all three cases, the slope of the line bears no relation to S. This apparently resulted because fa tended to become more positive and Rt progressively increased with time. Thus, the fundamental criteria upon which linearity might occur were not realized. However, it should be appropriate to apply Equation (1) to data acquired at a particular time. Figure 5 illustrates this for each of the three exposure conditions after 210 days, where the more positive potential in each case is fc and the more negative fa. The slope of the line connecting the respective data pairs is 3.72, 64.65, and 390 mV/mA-m2 for RH = 85, 60,

where fa and fc are the polarized anodic and cathodic potentials, respectively; ic is the cathodic current density; Ac is the cathode surface area; and Rt is the total circuit resistance. Equation (1) is first-principles based and has been verified in laboratory seawater CP experiments, field trials, and full-scale offshore structures.9,11-12 The utility of this expression is optimized for situations where Rt, Ac, and fa are constant with time, as often occurs for steel in seawater, in which case polarization data conform to a straight line of slope Rt Ac and vertical intercept fa. For this reason Rt Ac has been designated the slope parameter, S. Particularly useful is the finding that systems of vastly different anode-cathode surface area ratios and/or of different cathode surface areas can be compared directly (normalized) through S. Figure 1 illustrates this as a plot of fc vs ic subsequent to deployment in seawater (increasing time is from upper right to lower left) for a relatively small laboratory specimen9 and an offshore petroleum production structure,13 both of which were coupled to a galvanic aluminum anode (anodes in the case of the offshore structure). Rt for the structure was dominated by

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FIGURE 2. Plot of fc vs ic for an arc-sprayed zinc-reinforced, chloridecontaminated concrete specimen exposed to a constant RH of 25% (data estimated from graphs).

FIGURE 3. Plot of fc vs ic for an arc-sprayed zinc-reinforced, chloridecontaminated concrete specimen exposed to a constant RH of 60% (data estimated from graphs).

and 25%, respectively, which, when converted to ohms (the surface area of the embedded steel was 0.0319 m2), becomes 116; 2,030; and 12,200 W, respectively. Figure 6 reproduces Sags and Powers resistance-vs-time data and shows that the above slopes approximate the measured values at the time in question. The above analysis indicates that representation of the fc-ic data should be limited either to specific times or to periods for which resistance was relatively constant. Figure 6 indicates that this was realized for RH = 85% between ~150 days and 300 days and at RH = 60% between 300 days and 500 days. On this basis, Figure 7 plots fc vs ic for data acquired during each of these two time regimes (data for ic = 0 correspond to fa). The slope of the respective lines for RH = 85% and 60% correspond to resistances of 197 W and 2,800 W, respectively, which are in general agreement with the values from Figure 6 during the indicated times. Sags and Powers also reported CP performance for bridge substructures in Florida in sufficient detail that the necessary parameters for representation in an Equation (1) format were either provided directly or could be calculated.14 The sprayed zinc system used included embedded steel probes (surface area: 0.0013 m2) at elevations of 0.76, 1.22, 1.83, and 2.4 m above the mean high tide for depolarization testing and ic determination. Tables 1 and 2 list values for the relevant parameters in the case of the Bahia Honda Bridge, which is located in the Florida Keys below Marathon. Data in Table 1 pertain to the 0.76-m elevation at three different times subsequent to energizing, and data in Table 2 pertain to four elevations 6.9 months after energizing. Of interest here is the relatively good correspondence between the measured and calculated values for S (Rt Ac), as shown in the last two columns. The measured value was determined directly from the reported anode-to-probe resistance and the probe surface area, and the calculated value was de-

FIGURE 4. Plot of fc vs ic for an arc-sprayed zinc-reinforced, chloridecontaminated concrete specimen exposed to a constant RH of 85% (data estimated from graphs).

FIGURE 5. Plot of fc and fa vs ic after 210 days for arc-sprayed zincreinforced, chloride-contaminated concrete specimens exposed to three different RH (data estimated from graphs).

termined from Equation (1). Correspondingly, Figures 8 and 9 plot these data in the fc-ic format. It is projected that this representation provides a graphical indication of the trends involved and of the accuracy and self consistency of the data, particularly

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FIGURE 6. Concrete resistance vs time for chloride-contaminated concrete specimens exposed at three RH.

FIGURE 7. Plot of fc vs ic for arc-sprayed zinc-reinforced, chloridecontaminated concrete specimens maintained at a RH of 85% and 60% when resistance was relatively constant (data estimated from graphs).

with regard to the relative influences of 1) anode-tocathode resistance, which can restrict the utility of GACP systems for reinforced concrete, and 2) fa, which can serve as an indicator of the active-vspassive behavior of this electrode. An additional point pertains to current capacity and efficiency of sprayed galvanic anodes on concrete. Design of GACP systems for offshore petroleum production structures incorporates a modified form of Faradays law:15-16

T=

t r (1 p) u C A a ic Ac

(4)

w=

im A c T uCN

(3)

where w is the weight of an individual anode, im is the mean current density, T is the design life, C is anode current capacity, N is the number of galvanic anodes, and u is a utilization factor. In the case of a distributed anode, N becomes unity and the above expression can be modified as follows:

where t is the anode thickness, r is the anode density, p is the fractional anode porosity, and Aa is the anode surface area. Here, ic is assumed to be equivalent to im. The influence of RH can be incorporated into the above expression considering the dependence of ic upon this parameter. Thus, Figure 10 plots Sags and Powers14 ic-vs-RH data for two different times and reveals a linear relationship between these two parameters. Here, ic was less sensitive to RH at the longer time. The expression interrelating ic and RH at 670 days is as follows: i c = 0.023 RH 0.536 (5)

Table 3 compares the field and laboratory ic data at common exposure times. This indicates that the

TABLE 1 GACP Data at the 0.76-m Elevation for Different Exposure Times for the Bahia Honda Bridge
Time (months) 1.4 6.9 12.4 Resistance (W) 460 460 2,700 fc (mVCSE) 630 759 463 fa (VCSE) 0.722 0.889 0.477 ic (mA/m2) 156 222 3.55 S (Rt Ac), W-m2 Calculated 0.59 0.59 3.94 Measured 0.60 0.60 3.51

TABLE 2 Data for Different Elevations of the Bahia Honda Bridge 6.9 Months Subsequent to GACP Energizing
Elevation (m) 0.76 1.22 1.83 2.44 Resistance (W) 460 1,200 1,400 1,200 fc (mVCSE) 759 503 432 296 fa (VCSE) 0.889 0.551 0.459 0.336 ic (mA/m2) 222 31 15 25 S (Rt Ac), W-m2 Calculated 0.59 1.54 1.80 1.60 Measured 0.60 1.56 1.82 1.56

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FIGURE 8. Plot of fc vs ic at different times at the 0.76-m elevation subsequent to initiating CP on a substructure member of the Bahia Honda Bridge.

FIGURE 9. Plot of fc vs ic at different elevations of a substructure member after 6.9 months of CP for the Bahia Honda Bridge.

1.22-m field (assumed to be the elevation of maximum corrosion rate and CP current demand) and RH = 85% laboratory data at the two longer times (6.9 months and 12.4 months) differ by a factor of ~5. Modifying Equation (5) by this factor and substituting it into Equation (4) yields the following:

T=

t r (1 p) u C A a 0.023 RH 0.536 + 5 0.536 A c

(6)

Figure 11 provides solutions for this expression for different values of C considering that t = 0.38 mm, rZn = 7.13 g/cm3 (density of zinc), p = 0.1, u = 0.75, and equal cathode and anode surface areas, and assuming that 5 ic (RH = 85%) at 670 days realistically portrays im. Also indicated is the present service life of the arc-sprayed zinc CP systems upon the Seven Mile Bridge (Florida Keys) and the Howard Franklin Bridge (Tampa Bay). In areas of the former subject to splash, only oxide residue normally remains over ~15% of the surface after 4 to 5 years; and essentially all the zinc is gone at the end of year 5. For comparable areas upon the latter, the zinc remains in good condition after 9 to 10 years.17 Assuming that the above values for t, p, and u are realistic and given that the theoretical C for zinc is 820 A-h/kg, the current capacity (more correctly, the effective current capacity or Ceff) corresponding to these lives is indicative of relatively poor performance. Local action corrosion cells invariably render a <100% efficiency although a value of 99% is often approached in marine experience with specification bulk zinc anodes.18 While local action cells undoubtedly occurred in the above exposures at the zinc/concrete interface, corrosion of the atmospherically and splashzone-exposed exterior zinc surface may have been more significant. Thus, the relatively short service life for arc-sprayed zinc upon the Seven Mile Bridge (Figure 11) probably resulted from direct, open ocean exposure and wave action whereas the Howard

FIGURE 10. Dependence of ic upon RH.

TABLE 3 Comparison of ic Values for the Bahia Honda Bridge and Laboratory Specimens at Three Different Times
Bahia Honda Bridge Time (months) 1.4 Elevation (m) 0.76 1.22 1.83 2.44 0.76 1.22 1.83 2.44 0.76 1.22 1.83 2.44 ic (mA/m2) 155 39 31 31 221 31 16 12 4 15 15 2 Laboratory Specimens RH (%) 60 60 85 85 60 60 85 85 60 60 85 85 ic (mA/m2) 13 13 20 20 1.5 1.5 5 5 1.6 1.6 3 3

6.9

12.4

Franklin Bridge is more sheltered and water salinity is ~2/3 less. Obviously, development of methods for increasing Ceff should be addressed if arc-sprayed GACP technology is to advance.

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REFERENCES
1. R.A. Barnhart, Federal Highway Administration Memorandum, FHWA Position on Cathodic Protection Systems, U.S. FHWA, April 1982. 2. R.F. Stratful, ed., A Manual for the Corrosion Control of Bridge Decks, Report no. FHWA/CrEng/1 (Washington, DC: U.S. FHWA, February 1984). 3. R.J. Kessler, R.G. Powers, I.R. Lasa, Zinc Metallizing for Galvanic Cathodic Protection of Steel-Reinforced Concrete in a Marine Environment, CORROSION/90, paper no. 324 (Houston, TX: NACE International, 1990). 4. R.J. Kessler, R.G. Powers, Cathodic Protection Using Scrap and Recycled Materials, CORROSION/91, paper no. 555 (Houston, TX: NACE, 1991). 5. R.G. Powers, A.A. Sags, T. Murase, Sprayed-Zinc Galvanic Anodes for the Cathodic Protection of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete, Proc. Materials Engineering Cong., ed. T.D. White, paper no. 732 (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1992). 6. R.J. Kessler, R.G. Powers, Update on Cathodic Protection of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete Marine Substructures, CORROSION/93, paper no. 326 (Houston, TX: NACE, 1993). 7. A.A. Sags, R.G. Powers, Corrosion 52 (1996): p. 508. 8. K.P. Fischer, T. Sydberger, R. Lye, Field Testing of Deep Water Cathodic Protection on the Norwegian Continental Shelf, CORROSION/87, paper no. 67 (Houston, TX: NACE, 1987). 9. W. Wang, W.H. Hartt, S. Chen, Corrosion 52 (1996): p. 419. 10. D.W. Townley, Unified Design Equation for Offshore Cathodic Protection, CORROSION/97, paper no. 473 (Houston, TX: NACE, 1997). 11. W.H. Hartt, S. Chen, D.W. Townley, Corrosion 54 (1998): p. 317. 12. Design of Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection Systems for Offshore Structures, NACE Publication 7L198 (Houston, TX: NACE, 1998). 13. K.J. Kennelley, M.W. Mateer, Evaluation of the Performance of Bi-Metallic Anodes on Deep Water Production Platform, CORROSION/93, paper no. 523 (Houston, TX: NACE, 1993). 14. A.A. Sags, R.G. Powers, Low-Cost Sprayed Zinc Galvanic Anode for Control of Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in Marine Bridge Substructures, Final Report submitted to the Strategic Highway Research Program on Contract no. SHRP-88-ID024 by University of South Florida, February 1994. 15. Cathodic Protection Design, DnV Recommended Practice RP401 (Hovik, Norway: Det Norske Veritas Industri Norge AS, 1993). 16. Corrosion Control of Steel-Fixed Offshore Platforms Associated with Petroleum Production, NACE Standard RP0176-94 (Houston, TX: NACE, 1994). 17. R.G. Powers, Florida Department of Transportation, 2006 NE Waldo Road, Gainesville, FL 32609. Private communication. 18. T.J. Lennox, R.E. Grover, M.H. Peterson, Mater. Prot. Perf. 10, 9 (1971): p. 39.

FIGURE 11. Projected dependence of CP system life upon effective current capacity of arc-sprayed zinc.

CONCLUSIONS
A method is proposed for representing GACP system data and characterizing the performance for atmospherically exposed reinforced concrete structures through Equation (1). However, because it must be anticipated that fa and Rt vary with time, applicability of Equation (1) is likely to be limited to specific points in time. Nevertheless, measuring each of the above parameters confirms the accuracy of acquired data and identifies factors that control performance. Alternatively, if four of the above five parameters are known, then the fifth can be calculated. Performance of a sprayed galvanic anode system on atmospherically exposed concrete can be projected in terms of Equation (4). Evaluation of CP data for two Florida marine bridge substructures indicated, for the anode lives being realized, that C for an open exposure is ~100 A-h/kg and, for a sheltered exposure, 200 A-h/kg, which is considerably less than the theoretical value (820 A-h/kg).

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