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Renewable Energy 31 (2006) 23702384 www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Technical Note

Distributed generation from renewable sources in an isolated DC network

V. Azbe, R. Mihalic
Faculty of electrical engineering, University of Ljubljana, Trzaska 25, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Received 17 January 2005; accepted 5 January 2006 Available online 10 March 2006

Abstract This article describes a direct current (DC) isolated network that is infed with distributed generation from renewable sources and cogeneration units. The sources are connected to the network via DC/DC converters to keep the voltage within a dened range and to ensure the required power ow. The consumption is directly connected to the DC network, without any DC/DC converter. The storage is located at a single point in the network. A simulation analysis based on a DC-network model shows that it is possible to operate a DC network with standard elements used for the generation side as well as for the consumption side. The key elements are the DC/DC converters, which control the voltage of the network and optimize the operation of the sources. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Distributed generation; Renewable sources; Power system control; DC network

1. Introduction The electrical output of generators for the exploitation of renewable sources is either direct current (DC), or alternating current (AC) of variable frequency. However, electrical storage elements are of the DC type, which means that in AC networks infed with renewable sources DC/AC converters are required. If, on the other hand, the network operates as a DC system, then many of these converters are not needed or can be replaced with simple, cheap DC/DC converters. In our study we looked at the possibilities of constructing an isolated DC electrical power system using more-or-less standard elements.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +386 1 4768 415; fax: +386 1 4768 289.

E-mail address: valentin.azbe@fe.uni-lj.si (V. Azbe). 0960-1481/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2006.01.001

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Two models for the digital simulation are presented. The rst is a simplied model, while the second is a detailed model that includes DC/DC converters with a proper control circuit. The results of the digital simulation show that it is possible to realize a DC network with distributed generation. 2. The concept of a DC network 2.1. Selection of operating voltage level One of the major decisions when planning a DC network is the voltage level. This has an effect on many parameters of the network, like the cross-section of the conductors, insulation, protection, compatibility with existing electrical devices, selection of switching and protection devices, and many others. 2.1.1. Cross-section of Conductor The cross-section of the conductor that connects two points of the network must be large enough to transmit the desired power from one point to another without exceeding the allowed voltage drop. The minimum cross-section, S, of the conductor is calculated by r2lP ; (1) DuU 2 where r (O mm2/m) is the specic resistance of the conductor, (2 l) (m) is twice the distance between the source and the consumption, P (W) is the transmitted power, Du is the maximum allowed relative voltage drop, and U (V) is the voltage of the source. As can be seen from (1), the cross-section is a quadratic inverse function of voltage. With the present prices of cables and DC/DC converters, a simple calculation shows that in the case of a nominal voltage level of 48 V, it is more economical to convert it to at least 230 V for transmissions that are longer than 200 m. Similarly, if the nominal voltage level is 230 V, it is economic to convert it to 400 V for transmissions that are longer than 5400 m, irrespective of the transferred power. S 2.1.2. Insulation and protection against electric shock When considering operational safety, lower voltages are more appropriate than higher ones. Voltages under 50 V are, to a large extent, harmless to the human body. Regulations dene voltage bands, which are the basis for other requirements that deal with protection against electric shock [13]. Regulations dene two voltage bands at the low-voltage level, which are different for DC and AC installations. The voltage bands are presented in Table 1. The higher voltages allowed for DC might be an advantage of DC networks over AC networks.
Table 1 Voltage bands for DC and AC voltages Band I Alternating Current Direct Current 050 V 0120 V Band II 501000 V 1201500 V

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In addition, lower voltages require less insulation for electric devices, and non-isolated DC/DC converters can be applied, which means a signicant cost reduction. 2.1.3. Compatibility with existing electrical devices When selecting a nominal voltage based on the voltage level of existing electrical devices, we see that those devices are mainly manufactured for 230/110 V AC or 12/24 V DC; the latter is a relatively low voltage for building a network to cover at least a few residential houses. Initially, it might appear problematic to connect an AC device to a DC voltage without a DC/AC converter. However, many electrical devices, like incandescent lamps, heaters and universal motors, can also be infed with DC at the same voltage level. Some other devices, like modern electronic devices, need minimal changes to operate with DC voltage. The way to connect AC devices to the network is described in more detail later in the text, in Section 2.4 and if the AC device cannot be adapted to run with DC voltage, a DC/AC converter can be used. However, the problem with this solution is that the price of the DC/AC converter might be considerably higher than the price of the device itself. Another consideration is that a new standard voltage of 42 V DC for automotive vehicles will soon be applied. This means that a lot of electrical devices will be manufactured for this voltage level, and so this voltage might be high enough for building an economic network for a small, isolated village. 2.2. The main principle of voltage and power-ow control In contrast to AC, where the power ow is controlled mainly by the phase angle between two points, the power ow in a DC network is controlled by the voltage difference between those two points. As the power ows from the point with the higher voltage to the point with the lower voltage, different voltages are present at different points in the network. Regulations for AC low-voltage networks allow operational voltages to be 10% lower or 10% higher than the nominal voltage. The same demands should be valid for a DC network if the consumption is directly connected to the network. This demand can be satised by a sufciently low resistance of the conductors between different points of the network. Because the level of production does not always correspond to the level of consumption, an excess or decit of produced power is stored or retrieved from a battery as required. The basis of voltage and power-ow control is that a battery with a DC/DC converter can maintain a stable voltage, while other DC/DC converters ensure the produced power owing from the sources to the network and the optimum operation of the sources. This concept is presented in Fig. 1, and based on this concept we have developed a model for a digital simulation. As presented in Fig. 1, a DC/DC converter, with a battery, maintains a constant voltage for the network at the point of connection by taking energy in and out of the battery as required. This DC/DC converter is bi-directional, and the controlled parameter is the voltage on the network side of the converter. When the battery becomes fully charged, i.e., the voltage of the battery reaches the maximum-allowed value, additional control of the battery voltage stops the charging. At the opposite end of the network, DC/DC converters close to the sources ensure the produced power ows to the network. These converters take care of the optimized operation of the sources, so the controlled parameter of these DC/DC converters is the

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Fig. 1. Concept of voltage and power-ow control.

input voltage, i.e., the voltage of the sources. The output voltage of those converters automatically reaches the level that causes power to ow to the consumers or to the battery. When the charging of a battery stops and the production of the sources is higher than the consumption, the voltage of the network rises until the maximum-allowed voltage is reached. At this point additional control of the network voltage lowers the power ow to the network. The power ow to the network can be lowered either by reducing the production of a source by setting the operational voltage away from the optimum voltage or by taking the produced power away to a discharging resistance in the form of an air or water heater. The presented voltage and power-ow control strategy should be valid even if the network is extended and includes many sources and consumers. The parameters that need to change with a scaled-up network are the storage capacity and the cross-section of the conductors. 2.3. Electrical parameters of distributed generators Solar cells, wind turbines, micro-hydro turbines, fuel cells and diesel engines are typical sources of small-scale generation. The use of renewable sources like the sun, wind and hydro depends on the natural environment, whereas fuel cells and diesel generators can run on demand. The cogeneration of heat and electrical energy is one of the interesting elds of distributed generation. Cogeneration units for residential use that are powered by a diesel engine have been commercially available for many years, whereas cogeneration systems with fuel cells are in the test phase and should be available soon [4]. The connections of sources to the network are described in the following sections. 2.3.1. Solar cells Although solar cells produce DC voltage, they should be connected to the network via a DC/DC converter. The reasons for using a converter are as follows: (a) Solar cells produce a DC voltage that is not constant. It depends a lot on the current of the cell and on ambient conditions like the solar radiation level and the temperature. The open-circuit voltage of a solar cell is about 40% higher than its bestmaximumpoweroperating voltage, which is not allowed if the voltage of the network has to remain within the limits of 10%.

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(b) If the load is heavier than the produced power, the voltage of the solar cell collapses. A DC/DC converter would prevent this. (c) The maximum-power operating voltage depends to a small extent on the cells temperature and on the solar radiation level. A DC/DC converter can maintain this operating voltage to extract the maximum power from the solar cell. This maximumpower-point tracking function is not necessary, but it slightly increases the energy production of solar cells. The maximum-power point can be set by measuring the cell temperature and the solar radiation or by measuring the open-circuit voltage or the gradient of the power [5,6]. A DC/DC converter ensures all these tasks with a proper control of the input voltage at the solar cells side. The generated output voltage ensures that the produced power ows to the network. When the network cannot receive all the power from the solar cells, the DC/ DC converter increases the input voltages to keep the output voltage within the dened range. Because the input voltage increases, the power of the solar cells decreases. 2.3.2. Wind turbines Almost all wind turbines under 20 kW use permanent-magnet generators that are very efcient and easy to maintain [7]. The output voltage of a wind turbine alternates at a variable frequency. The voltage and frequency depend on the rotation speed, which in turn depends on the wind speed. Wind-turbine sets are usually already equipped with an AC/ DC converter, typically a simple diode bridge rectier. To connect it to the network, an additional DC/DC converter should be capable of regulating the proper power ow to the network. Because small wind turbines usually have blades with a xed pitch angle, a constant ratio between the wind speed and the rotor speed should be maintained in order to achieve the most efcient wind-turbine operation. This can be achieved by proper control of the DC/DC converter; it controls the current of the wind-turbine generator according to the power and the frequency of the generator [8]. When the network cannot receive all the energy from the wind turbine, the excess energy needs to be transmitted to the discharging resistance, or the production of the wind turbine should be lowered by setting the rotational speed away from the optimum point. 2.3.3. Fuel cells Fuel cells are a fast-developing technology, but they remain relatively expensive for widespread use. As a fuel they use hydrogen, which can be extracted from natural gas, oil derivatives or from other hydrogen-rich material. Fuel cells produce a DC voltage, which varies depending on the output power. The operating voltage at maximum output power is about 50% lower than the open-circuit voltage [9]. This means that a direct connection to a constant-voltage DC network is not possible. A DC/DC converter should be used to provide proper power transmission to the network. 2.4. Consumption The consumption of one residential house in the presented model of a DC network is based on the following devices: lights, refrigerator, deep freeze, washing machine, dishwasher, electric iron, hair drier, microwave oven, TV set, hi- and video equipment,

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Fig. 2. Cumulative diagram of daily consumption.

computer, oil burner, and other household appliances. The devices that are not included are kitchen range, oven, water heater and other heaters that consume a lot of energy and are not economically well suited for use in island networks that are powered from renewable sources. Taking into account the possible coincidence of loads, the maximum power consumption of one house in the presented model of a network is 2.3 kW, and this lasts for about 10 min. The cumulative diagram of the daily consumption is shown in Fig. 2. The total daily energy consumption is about 7 kW h per house. Large loads like the washing machine, which contains a water heater of about 2 kW, should be in operation at a time when other devices are turned off and the production of the sources is high. The way to connect electrical devices to a DC network is described in the following sections.

2.4.1. Lighting Incandescent light bulbs can be directly infed with DC at the same voltage level. As the energy consumption of energy-saving light bulbs is much lower, the use of these bulbs is preferable when using renewable sources. Existing energy-saving light bulbs have an integrated AC/AC converter to convert a 230 V, 50 Hz voltage to higher voltages and frequencies over 20 kHz.Some energy-saving lights are available for 12 V DC.

2.4.2. Deep freezer and refrigerator Deep freezers and refrigerators have AC motors to run a compressor. To change the motor to run at DC voltage would be a complicated task for the non-expert, but not so difcult for manufacturers. At the moment the simplest way is to use a DC/AC converter that is capable of dealing with a starting power of about ve times the nominal power of the compressor. A few models for 12 or 24 V exist, but they are expensive units. With current prices, a better solution is an AC refrigerator with a DC/AC converter.

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2.4.3. Washing machine The energy consumption of a washing machine is about 1 kWh over the operating cycle. The electrical devices in a washing machine are a water heater, a motor, a pump and electronics. The main part of the energy consumption is the water heating. A water heater of about 2 kW is installed, and this heater could be connected to 230 V DC directly. The motor in a modern washing machine is a universal motor, regulated with an AC/DC converter. An AC/DC converter is also used for the electronics, and it is not difcult to change an AC/DC converter to a DC/DC converter. So only the pump, which consists of an AC permanent-magnet motor with a nominal power of about 30 W, should be infed with a DC/AC converter or replaced with a universal motor. 2.4.4. Dishwasher A dishwasher contains a water heater, similar to that in a washing machine, and can be directly connected to a DC voltage. The pump, rated at about 250 W, contains an asynchronous motor, which needs a DC/AC converter, or it should be replaced with a universal motor 2.4.5. Household appliances Household appliances, like a blender or a vacuum cleaner, mainly contain universal motors, which can run on either AC or DC voltage. Other parts of the devices, like switches or speed controls, must be considered before the devices are connected to a DC voltage. Some appliances, like electric irons and hair driers, can, with minimal changes, be connected to a DC voltage. 2.4.6. Electronic devices Electronic devices, like a TV set, a video recorder, hi- equipment, a computer or a microwave oven run on DC voltage that is derived from an AC/DC converter inside the device. This converter should be rearranged to work as a DC/DC converter in order to connect the device to a DC voltage. 2.4.7. Switches Special attention should be focused on switches that disconnect inductive loads. In AC networks the arc that can occur is interrupted as the voltage crosses a zero value. In DC networks the voltage does not cross a zero value, so the interruption of the arc is more difcult, especially if voltages over 48 V are applied. For electrical installations in buildings, DC switches, circuit breakers, fuses and residual current devices are available. Switches in existing AC electrical devices must be taken into consideration prior to connecting to a DC voltage. 2.5. Energy storage Energy storage is the key consideration for island networks with distributed generation from renewable sources; this is because the production and consumption of electricity are not easily synchronized. However, various kinds of energy storage are possible for smallscale distributed generation. There are different types of batteries, like leadacid, nickelcadmium, nickelmetalhydride, alkaline, lithiumpolymer, available in the market, and new types of batteries, like sodiumsulfur and sodiumsalt batteries, as well

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Fig. 3. Relationship between battery voltage and capacity.

as super-carbon capacitors, are the subjects of intense research. Another type of energy storage is low-speed or high-speed ywheels, which can store the kinetic energy of a rotating mass. Superconducting magnetic energy storage is also being developed, but so far only for larger capacities of over 500 kWh. Reversible fuel cells can also be used for energy storage. In the presented model of the network, a leadacid battery is used for the energy storage. This kind of storage is still the best choice in terms of price. The voltage of a leadacid battery depends on the level of discharge. As seen from Fig. 3, the voltage difference between a fully charged battery and a maximum-allowed discharged battery is about 40%. This voltage difference can be lowered if we charge a battery at a constant voltage of 2.3 V per cell when the charge level goes over 85%. This is one reason why a battery cannot be directly connected to a DC network. Another reason is a special function of the DC/DC converter, which should provide regular charging and discharging of the battery. When the storage is fully charged and the production of the sources is higher than consumption, voltage of a battery rises until the maximum-allowed voltage is reached. At this point the production of sources should be lowered, or produced energy should be consumed by a discharging resistance. The capacity of a battery depends a lot on the rate of discharging. To achieve high efciency, discharging power (in kW) should, in principle, not be greater than one tenth of the capacity (in kW h). But in the presented model of a DC network, where the peak power lasts for only about 10 min a day, the maximum discharging power can be greater, about one-third of capacity, and loss of capacity in this case is less than 4% of total capacity. 3. Digital simulation The behavior of a DC network was simulated in two stages. The rst stage of simulation of DC network involved simplied elements. Results of this simulation conrmed our basic idea about voltage and power-ow control. The second stage was a simulation of the DC

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network with detailed elements. The main feature of this second stage was the modeling of the DC/DC converters with proper control circuits. Digital simulation was carried out with the program PSCAD/EMTDC, which includes basic components of power electronics necessary for construction of DC/DC converters. 3.1. The model of a DC network Examined network model connects three residential houses. Distance between each house is up to 500 m, and each house produces electrical energy from renewable sources that matches the size of its own average consumption. A battery, which is located in one of the houses, represents the energy-storage system for all three houses. This could be the model for a small mountain village. In the worst case, the network should be able to transmit the peak power of sources to the energy storage and peak power of consumption from energy storage to the place of consumption. Nominal voltage of the network is 230 V DC, because of compatibility with existing electrical devices and small cross-section of conductors. The model of the network is presented in Fig. 4, where source 1 represents solar cells, source 2, a wind turbine and source 3, fuel cells. All sources and the storage are connected to the network via a DC/DC converter, whereas consumption is directly connected to the network without any DC/DC or DC/AC converter. 3.2. Simplied model for long-term digital simulation In the rst stage we created a model of a DC network that consists of simplied models of sources. Each source, together with a DC/DC converter, is presented as a controlled current source, the current of which depends on previously dened power. A battery with a

Fig. 4. Model of a DC network.

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DC/DC converter is presented as a constant voltage source. This model can be used for analyzing the behavior of a DC network over a longer period, e.g., a 24-h period, because simulation is fast. Results of digital simulation of the simplied model are presented in Fig. 5. This gure presents voltage, production, and consumption at one of the points of the network between 2 and 7 pm. The rst graph presents the voltage U2 according to the model in Fig. 4. A wind turbine is connected to the network at this point. The second graph presents the produced power of the wind turbine, and the third graph presents the consumption at this point. As can be seen from the graphs, voltage is proportional to the difference between production and consumption. At the point where solar cells and consumption 1 are connected to the network, similar conditions are established. The voltage U3 at the point where the battery is connected to the network stays constant, as was predened. The main nding of this digital simulation is that voltage at each point of network can be within dened limits, provided the conductors are appropriately sized according to (1).

Fig. 5. Results of a long-term digital simulation of a simplied DC network.

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3.3. Detailed model for a short-term digital simulation In the next stage we created a detailed model of a DC network. The main work was to create the models of DC/DC converters with their controlling circuits and models of sources according to their U I characteristics. As DC/DC converters consist of high-frequency switches that operate at 25 kHz, time step of a digital simulation must be short, i.e., under 10 ms. This results in simulation being slow, and so it is only useful for a short-term simulation of transients. Compatibility of the simplied and the detailed models was checked with test simulations. Results show that steady-state conditions and the slow transients are equal in both models. 3.3.1. Model of a DC/DC converter for the connection of sources to grid Because the voltage level of the network is higher than voltage of sources, we used a step-up DC/DC converter, which is presented in [10]. Fig. 6 presents the basic structure of the converter. It consists of an inductor, a capacitor, a diode and an IGBT, which is controlled with on/off signal. The on/off signal is generated by a PWM control circuit. Fig. 7 presents the basic structure of the PWM control circuit constructed in our model. The difference between actual voltage of the source, Uin, and optimum voltage of source, Uref, is compared with the constant-frequency saw-tooth oscillator signal. When saw-tooth signal becomes higher than voltage difference, IGBT turns on, and when saw-tooth signal becomes lower than voltage difference, IGBT turns off. 3.3.2. The model of a DC/DC converter for the connection of a battery to the grid A battery is connected to the grid with a bi-directional DC/DC converter. Structure of the converter used in our model is a combination of a step-up converter and a step-down converter with a common inductor. The converter is presented in Fig. 8. The step-up converter transmits power from the battery to the network when the IGBTout and the diode Dout are active, whereas the step-down converter transmits power from the network to the battery when the IGBTin and the diode Din are active. Each IGBT has a control circuit like that shown in Fig. 7, only that the reference voltage Uref is compared with Uout and not with Uin. The reference voltage Uref is the constant nominal voltage of the network.

Fig. 6. Model of a DC/DC converter for the connection of sources.

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Fig. 7. PWM controlling circuit.

Fig. 8. Model of a DC/DC converter for the connection of a battery.

3.3.3. Model of the sources Solar cells were modeled as a controlled voltage source, the voltage of which depends on the current, the solar radiation and the temperature of the solar cells. The voltage dependency was dened in tabular form by applying linear interpolation between the points. The fuel cells were modeled in the same way, but in this case the voltage depends only on the current.

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The wind turbine was modeled as a permanent-magnet generator, i.e., a three-phase synchronous generator with constant excitation. The output voltage, the amplitude and frequency of which varies according to the rotational speed, is rst rectied with a threephase bridge rectier and then connected to a DC/DC converter. 3.3.4. Results of digital simulation Various scenarios in a DC network were simulated. In this article a short circuit on the cable between source 1 and a battery, according to Fig. 4, is presented. During the short circuit the produced power of the sources remains constant and the consumption is presented as a constant resistance. Fig. 9 shows the voltages U2 and U3 according to Fig. 4, and the current of the wind turbine and the battery during the short circuit. The power of the DC/DC converter with

Fig. 9. Digital simulation of the short circuit.

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the battery that controls the constant voltage is limited, and consequently the voltage of the network decreases. The DC/DC converters with the sources transfer the produced power to the network. Because the voltage of the network is lower, the currents increase in order to transfer the desired power. The current peaks at the beginning of the short circuit are the consequence of discharging the capacitors at the output of the DC/DC converters. After the short circuit is removed, the network is restored. The conditions are presented in Fig. 10, which shows the same voltages and currents as in Fig. 9. The voltage increases and the capacitors in the DC/DC converters are charged until the nominal voltage is reached. Because the faulty line was disconnected, larger currents ow from the battery to the consumption over the other two lines. Larger currents cause the voltage U2 to be lower than it was before the short circuit.

Fig. 10. Digital simulation after the short circuit is removed.

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4. Conclusion This article proposes a low-voltage DC network as an alternative to an AC network. First, we made the main concept one of voltage and power-ow control, and then, on the basis of electrical energy generation, transmission, storage and consumption, we constructed a model of a DC network for a digital simulation. The battery and sources are connected to the grid via DC/DC converters, which play the main role in ensuring proper power ow and voltage stability for the network. The article shows that a DC network with distributed generation is very realizable when applying simple DC/DC converters, while standard elements on the generation side as well as on the consumption side are applied. This kind of DC network needs no central control and no communication between the different elements of the network. Dc voltage has several technical and economic advantages over AC voltage: the control of a DC network is much easier and DC/DC converters are, in general, simpler and cheaper than DC/AC converters. Finally, we believe that isolated DC networks with distributed generation from renewable sources could be one of the most promising alternatives for the electrication of developing countries, where villages are often far away from the utility grid. References
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