Introduction to Dimensional Analysis: Part 1

By Patrick Bruskiewich

Abstract

Physical units are also known as dimensions in physics. Since the quantities represented
by the two sides of an equation must have the same dimensions, it is often possible to
arrive at the form of an expression connecting physical quantities by the consideration
only of the dimensions of the quantities involved, without a detailed theory.

Discover Laws Relating Physical Quantities

The aim of scientific research is to discover laws relating physical quantities. For
example, such a law might describe how the period () of an oscillating pendulum is
related to physical quantities such as the pendulums length (L) and the gravitational field
strength (g).

A physical quantity is defined by unit and numerical values. The system of units for
physical quantities is derived from a set of standard units such as Length (L), Mass (M)
and Time (T) as in the MKS system (e.g. metre- kilogram-seconds). There are additional
units for Temperature (), Charge (Q) and Luminosity ().

Studying a system and outlining the measurable physical quantities that may describe the
system allows for a determination of the pertinent relationships between attributes based
on inspection, say how the kinematics of the system may be related to key features of the
system, such as how the length and the period of pendulum may be related.

This method of discovering physical laws is known as dimensional analysis and provides
physicists with a useful and powerful analysis technique.

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Physical Laws Tend to be Power Laws

A power law is an expression of the form


where c is a constant, x is the independent variable, y is the dependent variable and n is
the order of the power law.

Take, for example, the second order kinematic equation



where s is distance, a is acceleration and t is time.

In terms of the units this relationship has dimensional form (the square bracket [ ] is
meant to represent the dimensionality of the physical quantity)




where L represents length, and T represents time.


Dimensional Analysis Rule 1: The laws relating quantities in the physical universe
tend to be power laws.


n
y cx =
2
1
2
s at =
| |
| |
2 2
L LT T
L

=

=
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Another more advanced example of a power law is Newtons Law for Universal
Gravitation which states that the magnitude of the gravitation force between two objects
varies as the inverse square of the distance between them and is directly related to the
respective mass of the two objects.

Newtons expression for Gravitational force is given by




where F is the force in Newton, m
1
and m
2
are the masses of the two attracting objects in
kg, G is the Gravitational Constant and R is the distance between the two attracting
masses in metres.

In an expression such as Newtons Law of Universal Gravity we find both concepts and
mathematical logic. The equal sign tells us that the numerical value and units must be
equivalent on both sides of the equal sign for the statement to be logically valid.


Dimensional Analysis Rule 2: In a mathematical formulation of any physical law,
the units or dimensions on both sides of the equation must be the same.


In the 17
th
century when Newton derived his Law of Universal Gravitation he and his
contemporaries were not able to determine the value for G the Gravitational Constant. It
would require over a century of technological developments before the first accurate
measurement were made for G. One of the first experiments to measure the Gravitational
Constant G was done by Henry Cavendish in 1798 using a precise torsion balance.

1 2
2
m m
F G
R
=
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If we wanted to solve for the units for the Gravitational Constant G we can invert the
expression and gather the units, or dimensions, namely













Modern measurements of G have yielded a value of







When we are studying a system the physical quantities that can be measured in the
system can be found by inspection. For instance while studying the periodic motion of
an oscillating pendulum, we would determine by inspection whether the mass of the
pendulum, the length of the pendulum and the gravitational field strength g might have an
effect on the period of the pendulum.
| |
| || |
| |
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2 2
F R
G
M
N m
kg
kg m
m
s
kg
m
s kg
=

| |

|
\
=
=
2
11
2
3
11
2 2
6.67 10
6.67 10
N m
G
kg
m
s kg

=
=
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Dimensional Analysis Rule 3: Any measurement R for a physical quantity of a
system governed by a power law relationship can be expressed in the form



where , , etc. are definite and unique values and L,M and T are standard units
of length, mass and time (metre-kilogramme-second).


The equations obtained using dimensional analysis may lack a multiplying constant of
uncertain magnitude, which can be determined empirically. Numerical constants such as
or have dimension zero.

Example 1: Centripetal Acceleration

Let us say we would like to determine the relationship for centripetal acceleration around
a perfect circle. By inspection we predict that centripetal acceleration will have a
function of the form




where a is the centripetal acceleration a, v the velocity around the circle and r the radius
of the circle ( K is some unknown constant of zero dimension).

In terms of fundamental units or dimensions this means that




| | | | | | | |
R L M T

= K
| |
2 1
ms ms m

=

| | | | | |
a K v r

=
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Dimensional Analysis Rule 4: Gather the exponents and solve for their values.



Separating out the length and time dimensions and gathering the exponents we find that







which represents two equations in two unknowns and is readily solved for and .

Based on dimensional analysis the expression for centripetal acceleration is given by






which is the correct functional form.

By convention the constant is K = 1 and so the expression for centripetal acceleration is




Example 2: Velocity of Sea Waves

By inspection we predict that in deep water waves travel with a velocity (v) which might
depend on the gravitational acceleration ( g ), the wavelength ( ) and the density ( ).

By observation it is found that the amplitude of the wave has no effect on its velocity
provided the amplitudes are small compared to the wavelength.

1
2
: 1
: 2
length m m m
time s s

= = +
= =
| | | | | |
2 1
a K v r

=
2
v
a
r
=
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Let


In terms of dimensions we find that



Separating out the dimensions and gathering the exponents we find that






which represents three equations in two unknowns and is readily solved for and . We
find that = = 1/2 which means that



or


The constant K is determined experimentally and is equal to




therefore waves in deep water travel with a velocity given by


| | | | | | | |
v K g

=
| |
1 2 3
ms K ms m kgm

=

1 3
1 2
0
: 1 3
: 1 2
: 0
length m m m m
time s s
mass kg kg

= = +
= =
= =
| | | | | | | |
1/ 2 1/ 2 0
v K g =
v K g =
1
2
K

=
2
g
v