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Physics I
Class 17
Newtons Theory of
Gravitation
Rev. 03-Nov-04 GB
17-2
Forces Known to Physics
There are four fundamental forces known to physics:
- Gravitational Force (today)
- Electromagnetic Force (later in Physics 1 and 2)
- Weak Nuclear Force
- Strong Nuclear Force
(All forces we observe are comprised of these fundamental
forces. Most forces observable in everyday experience are
electromagnetic on a microscopic level.)
17-3
Forces in Physics 1
(so far)
We have encountered the following forces in Physics 1:
- Gravity
- Ideal Springs (Hookes Law)
- Pushes and Pulls
- Friction
What makes gravity different from the other three?
(Hint: The ideal spring force is also conservative,
so that isnt the answer.)
17-4
Newtons Theory of Gravitation
Isaac Newton, 1642-1727
In 1666, our old friend, Isaac Newton, was musing
on the motions of heavenly bodies while sitting in a
garden in Lincolnshire England, where he had gone
to escape the plague then ravaging London.
What if the force of gravity, the same force that causes an apple to
fall to the ground in this garden, extends much further than usually
thought? What if the force of gravity extends all the way to the
moon? Newton began to calculate the consequences of his
assumption
17-5
Newtons Law of
Universal Gravitation
r
r
m m
G F
2
2 1
=
17-9
We Have Two Formulas for
Gravitational Potential Energy!
Old: ) y y ( g m ) y ( U
0 g
=
New:
r
M m G
) r ( U
g
=
How could these be the same?
Consider a location near the surface of the earth, y
0
= R, y = R+h.
The only thing that matters is AU, not U itself.
Old: h g m ) R h R ( g m U
g
= + = A
New: |
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
= A
h R
1
R
1
M m G
R
M m G
h R
M m G
U
g
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
h R R
h
M G m
h R
1
R
1
M G m
2
(h << R)
h g m h
R
M G
m
R
h
M G m
2 2
= = ~
17-10
Class #17
Take-Away Concepts
1. Four fundamental forces known to physics:
- Gravitational Force
- Electromagnetic Force
- Weak Nuclear Force
- Strong Nuclear Force
2. Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation
r
r
m m
G F
2
2 1
=
kg and R =
6
10 4 . 3
+
m.
17-13
Activity #17
Gravitation
(Pencil and Paper Activity)
Objective of the Activity:
1. Think about Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation.
2. Consider the implications of Newtons formula.
3. Practice calculating gravitational force vectors.
17-14
Class #17 Optional Material
Part A - Keplers Laws of Orbits
Material on Keplers Laws
thanks to
Professor Dan Sperber
17-15
Keplers Three Laws
of Planetary Motion
1. The Law of Orbits: All planets move in elliptical
orbits having the Sun at one focus.
2. The Law of Areas: A line joining any planet to the
Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The Law of Periods: The square of the period of
any planet about the Sun is proportional to the cube
of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
Newton showed through geometrical reasoning (without calculus)
that his Law of Universal Gravitation explained Keplers Laws.
17-16
Keplers Three Laws
of Planetary Motion
Try this link to see an animation:
http://home.cvc.org/science/kepler.htm
The Law of Areas
A A A r r
dA
dt
r
d
dt
r
L
L rmv rm r
L mr
=
= =
=
= =
=
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
( ) u
u
e
e
e
constant
The Law of Periods
F ma
GMm
r
m r
GM
r T
T
GM
r
=
=
= =
=
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
e
e
t
t ( )
ENERGY IN CIRCULAR
ORBITS
K mv m
GM
r
K
GMm
r
U
GMm
r
E U K
GMm
r
= =
=
=
= + =
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
17-20
Class #17 Optional Material
Part B - General Relativity
Material on General Relativity
thanks to
Albert Einstein
17-21
Where Did Newton Go Wrong?
(Again!)
Albert Einstein (18791955)
(Check back to the optional material for classes 3 and 6 first)
Einstein realized that something must be wrong with Newtons
theory of gravity, because it implied that the force of gravity is
transmitted instantaneously to all points in the universe. This
contradicts the fundamental limitation in the Theory of Special
Relativity that the fastest speed information or energy of any type
can travel is the speed of light.
To overcome this problem Einstein postulated a third principle, the
Principle of Equivalence, to go with his two principles of Special
Relativity. (1907)
17-22
The Principle of Equivalence
In broad terms, the Principle of Equivalence states that there is no
experiment that one can perform to distinguish a frame of reference
in a gravitational force field from one that is accelerating with a
corresponding magnitude and direction.
This is sometimes called the Elevator Postulate because we can
imagine a physicist in a closed elevator cab trying to determine
whether he is at rest on earth, or accelerating at 9.8 m/s
2
far from
any planet, or perhaps on a planet where gravity is half that of earth
and the elevator is accelerating upward at 4.9 m/s
2
. According to
Einstein, there is no experiment that could detect a difference.
17-23
The Principle of Equivalence
17-24
General Theory of Relativity
By 1915, Einstein had worked through all the math (with some help)
to show that his postulates led to a new theory of gravity based on
the effect of mass and energy to curve the structure of space and
time. His theory has some startling implications, one being the
existence of black holes regions of space where the gravity field
is so high that even light cannot escape. The predictions of General
Relativity, including the existence of black holes, have been
confirmed by all experiments to date.
17-25
Black Holes
Black holes are detected by the characteristic
x-rays given off by matter falling into them.
17-26
If Newtons Gravity isnt true,
why do we still use it?
Its a good approximation for most engineering purposes.
Massive Black Holes
In Galaxies
NGC 3377, NGC 3379
And NGC 4486B