FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FATIGUE ANALYSIS Julie A. Bannantine, Ph.D. University of tinois Jess J. Comer, Ph.D. South Dakota Schoo! of Mines James L. Handrock, Ph.D. University of Minois Currently at Sandia National Labs. + Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632CONTENTS FOREWORD PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1 STRESS-LIFE 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 S-NDiagram 1 1.3 Mean Stress Effects 5 1.4 Modifying Factors 11 14.1 Size Effect, 11 1.4.2 Loading Effects, 13 1.4.3 Surface Finish, 13 1.44 Surface Treatment, 14 Plating, 17 Thermal, 18 Mechanical, 20 1.4.5 Temperature, 25 1.4.6 Environment, 26 1.5 Important Concepts 28 1.6 Important Equations 29 viiiContents ‘STRAIN-LIFE 40 2.1 Introduction 40 2.2 Material Behavior 42 2.2.1 Monotonic Stress-Strain Behavior, 42 Basie definitions, 42 True and engineering essai, 43 Siresraran rlauonships, #4 2.2.2 Cyclic Stress-Strain Behavior, 46 223. Transient Behavior: Cyclic Strain Hardening and Softening, 48 2.2.4 Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve Determination, 52 2.3. Stress-Plastic Strain Power Law Relation 55 2.4 Strain-Life Curve 59 2.5. Determination of Fatigue Properties 63 2.6 Mean Stress Effects 66 2.7 Important Concepts 70 2.8 Important Equations 70 FRACTURE MECHANICS 88 3.1 Introduction 88 3.2. Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Background 89 3.2.1 Historical Overview, 89 32.2. LEFM Assumptions, 90 3.2.3. Loading Modes, 90 3.2.4. Stress Intensity Factor, 91 3.25. Plastic Zone Size, 96 Plane sess and plane strain conditions, 96 ‘Monotonic plastic zone size, 97 Cyelic plastic zone size, 97 3.2.6 Fracture Toughness, 98 3.3. Fatigue Crack Growth 100 43.3.1 Fatigue Crack Growth Curves, 101 3.3.2 Region I, 103 3.3.3. Region I, 105 3.34 Region III, 107 3.3.5. Factors Influencing Fatigue Crack Growth 108 Stress rai effects, 108 Environmental effects, 109 3.3.6 Crack Closure, 111 acetal MAO, Content: 34 35 4s 46Contents v 3.4 Important Concepts 113 3.5 Important Equations 113, 4 NOTCHES 124 4.1 Introduction 124 4.2 Stress-Life Approach 124 4,3. Strain-Life Approach 135 4.3.1 Notch Root Stresses and Strains, 135 4.3.2 Example of Notch Analysis using Neuber's Rule, 140 4.4 Fracture Mechanics Approaches 145 44.1 Introduction, 145 4.4.2 Transition Crack Length, 145 44.3 Stress Intensity Factors near a Notch, 444 Short Crack Growth at Notches, 151 4.5 Combination Methods 152 4.6 — Important Concepts 155 4.7 Important Equations 155 5 VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING 178 5.1 Introduction 178 5.2 Definition of Fatigue Damage 178 5.3 Damage Summing Methods for Initiation 179 5.3.1 Linear Damage Rule, 179 5.32. Nonlinear Damage Theories, 181 53.3. Conclusions, 182 5.4 Cycle Counting 184 5.4.1 Early Cycle Counting Procedures, 184 Level-rosting counting, 184 Peak counting, 185 Simple-range counting, 186 5.4.2 Sequence Effects, 187 5.4.3 Rainflow Counting, 189 Reinflow counting (falling rain” approach), 190 Rainflow counting (ASTM standard), 193vi 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 61 6.2 63 64 65 6.6 7 12 emery Contents Crack Propagation Under Variable Amplitude Loading 196 5.5.1 Introduction, 196 5.5.2 Load Interaction Effects, 197 Observed behavior, 197 Load interaction models, 200 5.5.3 Prediction Methods, 202 Cracksip plasticity models, 202 Staistica! models, 206 Crack closure models, 207 Block loading, 208 Dealing with Service Histories 214 5.6.1 Introduction, 214 5.6.2 SAE Cumulative Damage Test Program, 215 Important Concepts 221 Important Equations 221 COMPARISON OF METHODS 232 Introduction 232 General Points for Comparison 232 Stress-Life (S-N) Approach 234 6.3.1 Strengths of Method, 234 6.3.2 Weaknesses of Method, 234 6.3.3. Typical Applications, 235 Strain-Life (€-N) Approach 235 6.4.1 Strengths of Method, 235, 6.4.2 Weaknesses of Method. 6.4.3 Typical Applications 36 6 Fracture Mechanics LEFM Approach 237 6.5.1 Strengths of Method, 237 6.5.2 Weaknesses of Method, 237 6.5.3 Typical Applications, 237 Conclusion 238 MULTIAXIAL FATIGUE 239 Introduction 239 Background 240 7.2.1 Stress State, 240 7.2.2 Cracking Observations, 244Contents vii 7.3. Multiaxial Theories 244 7.3.1. Equivalent Stress/Strain Approaches, 245 7.3.2 Sines’ Model and Similar Approaches, 251 : Sines’ model, 251 ‘Maximum range of shear siress criterion, 253 Equivalent strain range criterion, 254 7.3.3. Critical Plane Approaches, 256 7.4 SAE Notched Shaft Program 258 7.5 Conclusion 260 INDEX 266FOREWORD Fatigue of metals has been studied for over 150 years. August Wohler, while not the first, is one of the more famous early fatigue researchers. During the period from about 1850 to 1875, experiments were conducted to establish a safe alternating stress below which failure would not occur. Full scale axles as well as smaller laboratory specimens were employed to establish the endurance limit concept for design. Nearly one hundred years of research has been performed to experimentally establish the effects of the many variables that influence the long life fatigue strength of metals. Bauschinger (Circa 1885) developed a mirror extensometer with the sensitivity to measure one microstrain and for many years studied the relationship between small inelastic strains and the safe stress in fatigue. He believed in a natural elastic limit (measured in cyclic tests) below which fatigue would not occur. Unstrained material exhibited a primitive elastic limit that was not equal to the natural elastic limit. Today we recognize this phenomena as the difference between the monotonic and cyclic yield strength of the material. In 1903 Ewing and Humphrey, motivated by the work of Wobler and Bauschinger, published their classic paper entitled “The Fracture of Metals under Repeated Alterations of Stress.” Flat fatigue specimens made from high quality ‘Swedish iron were tested in the annealed condition. Optical microscopy was employed to examine the same region of the specimen at various stages of the fatigue life. They stated, “The course of the breakdown was as follows: The first examination, made after a few reversals of stress, showed slip-lines on some of the crystals, the slip-lines were quite similar in appearance to those which are seen when a simple tensile stress exceeding the elastic limit is applied. After manyForeword ix reversals they changed into comparatively wide bands with rather hazily defined edges. As the number of reversals increased this process of broadening continued, and some parts of the surface became almost covered with dark markings, When this stage was reached it was found that some of the crystals had cracked. The cracks occurred along broadened slipbands. In some instances they were first seen on a single crystal, but soon they joined up from crystal to crystal, until finally a long continuous crack was developed across the surface of the specimen.” They also observed “Once an incipient crack begins to form across a certain set of crystals, the effect of further reversals is mainly confined to the neighborhood of the crack.” Thus, at the turn of the century, to-and-fro slip was established as the cause of fatigue damage. Later work using electron microscopy, x-ray and other powerful tools, has provided further substantiation that the basic cause of fatigue crack nucleation is the result of alternating shear stresses and strains. Jenkin, in 1923, used what must be the first spring-slider model for simulating the stress strain behavior of metals. By using several parallel elements, Jenkin was able to simulate many of the complex hysteresis loops that were previously reported in the literature by Smith and Wedgewood. In describing this work, Jenkin notes that “about six months ago I wrote a paper... and made a model to illustrate a small point in it. It grew too strong for me and took command, and for the last six months I have been its obedient slave—for the model explained the whole of my subject—Fatigue.” The importance of cyclic deformation was clearly established in 1923 but largely ignored until forty years later. At about this time Griffith published his classical paper on fracture. It is not widely appreciated that Griffith was motivated in his studies by the fatigue problem. He acknowledges Professor Jenkin, at whose request the work was commenced. Griffith's work showed that the last cycle of fatigue was nothing more than brittle fracture caused by cyclic growth of a fatigue crack to an unstable length. Little was known or written about the manner in which the nucleated fatigue crack grew to catastrophic proportions. Virtually nothing quantitative was done on this problem of crack propagation until forty years later by Paris. In 1927, Moore and Kommers published their book, “The Fatigue of Metals." H. F. Moore worked for many years on a number of practical fatigue problems, especially those relating to the railroad industry. This book and the work of Moore and his associates had a large effect on fatigue design, testing, etc., in the United States. Moore was responsible for organizing an ASTM Committee on Fatigue Research which later grew into Committee E-9 on Fatigue. The SAE Committee on Fatigue Design and Evaluation has its origin in a “counter movement” of engineers, who wanted a group that was more practical than the ASTM Committee on Fatigue. Research in fatigue during the 1930's and 1940's was largely devoted to experimentally establishing the effects of the many factors that influence the