Chapter 2

PRIMARY CONCEPTS: SOCIETY, FAMILY, COMMUNITY, NATION AND NATIONALITY

Section 1. SOCIETY What is society? Civics deals with man as a member of a society. Civic life is essentially a part of social life. Before we begin the study of the citizen and his activities, it is better of know what is society. Society means the group of the people living together in more or less organised manner under laws, customs, and institutions for some common purpose or interest. In order to make this definition clear let us analyze it further. As described above, society consists of five elements, viz., (1) a group of people, (2) social relations and organizations, (3) laws, customs and institutions, (4) common purposes, interests, and common good, (5) change and progress. Assembly of people. Society is necessarily an assembly or association of human beings-men, women, and children, young and old. Whenever two or more persons meet together, there is a society, Society primarily means companionship. This fact is shown by the etymology of the term society. It comes from the Latin root; socius, which means a companion. A single and isolated man will never make a society. The stories of isolated individuals living in deserted islands or in the desert are not really the stories of human beings. A being, says Aristotle, who lives alone, is either a god or a beast, but not a man. Social relations and organisations The second characteristic of society is the relationship and organization of the individuals who lives together. Society is really relationship between two or more individuals. It is, as Professor Maclver says, human beings in relation. This relation may be temporary or permanent, loose or intimate, direct or indirect. For instance, persons travelling in the same railway compartment form a social relation, although it is quite temporary. Similarly people living in the same country but in two different cities are related to each other. Although they may never come into personal Primary Concepts Society, Family, etc contact with each other, yet they have a political or civic relation because they live under the same government. This is an indirect relation. Every social relation has its rights and duties, its benefits and responsibilities. When a social relation becomes more permanent and definite, it becomes an organised relation. Social organization implies definite rights and duties, responsibilities, and benefits. It controls the behaviour and conduct of the individuals. This leads us to another feature of the society. Social laws, customs and institutions As we have just mentioned, every social relation and organization has its rights and duties, its responsibilities and privileges, which must be defined and regulated. This is the function of the laws, customs, and institutions. They regulated the behaviour and activities of the individuals, and protect their rights and privileges, and enforce their duties and responsibilities. Without them social life and relations would be disorderly and impossible, because there would be confusion, disorder and disturbance in the social life of the individuals. Mere assembly, contact or meeting together between individuals does not make society. Their actions and behaviour must be organized and regulated under a definite body of rules, customs, laws and institutions. Common purposes and common good. If a society consisted of nothing but a group of people organised under strict rules, laws, and customs, it will be no,better thrn a colony of bees. It needs common purposes, and ideals of common good to make it a human society. Man is essential a moral being. He acts in order to achieve some purpose or realise some good. When men associate with each other, they have some common purpose or goal to realise. Every social group has a common end or interest, which its members seek to attain. The society as a whole has also common social ends. It aims at the common good of all. Social change and progress Human life constantly changes. Old interests and purposes are achieved or given up, and new purposes and interests come into being. This fact introduces the element of change in social life. It raises the question of adjustment of the old relations and organisations to new goals and purposes. It also requires a change

in laws and institutions in the light of new demands and conditions of life. All these changes require that the society must progress and adopt itself to new conditions and solve its new problems Society must, therefore, develop and progress. ? Final definition We may now define society as thus: - Society is a group of people who have relations and organization among themselves, under a system of customs, laws and institutions, for some common purposes or interests, which relations, laws, and purposes are progressively improved upon and developed so as to achieve the common good of all. Necessity of Society Why does man live in society! Society has come into being because man is by nature a social animal. He is born in society and lives all his life in society. His nature and his needs urge and impel him to live with other human beings. Let us see what is in Mans nature and what the needs which make him a social being are. Human nature. More than two thousand years ago, the great Greek philosopher, Aristotle, uttered a profound truth when he said, Man is by nature a social animal. These words embody a simple but absolute truth about human nature. By human nature we mean those qualities and characteristics of human mind and heart, body and character which make him a man and distinguish him from all other animals. Every man or woman, young or old, has several instincts and inclinations, impulses, feelings and emotions of love, fellow-feeling, sociability, sympathy and natural aid. They are called social or gregarious instincts and impulses. They make a human being to seek joy in the company of others and feel sad if deprived of it. The heart of very person yearns for the society of others. Indeed, the hardest punishment inflicted on a prisoner in a jail is to put him in solitary confinement. He will either die or go mad, as it has occurred in many cases of solitary confinement. Aristotle has rightly remarked that he, who lives alone, is either a god or a beast, but never a man. Man seeks society still more for the opportunities it provides for nobler and higher aims and perfection. In society only man can develop his faculties of mind, and character: Every great man, whether in science or in philosophy, religion or culture, in arts, or learning, has become so by living and working with other human beings. Man is made by man. Human nature develops in society alone. All progress and development of man, in the past, present and future, has been and will be through the society. Mans mind develops, this intellect and reason sharpen, and his character becomes nobler by social contact, association and cooperation. Man is by nature social, becaiis? he >s endowed with several abilities, and faculties of mind and body, which enable him to live in society. They are the powers of reason, intellect and speech. These faculties or powers enable human beings not only to understand the feelings, thoughts and desires of others but also to communicate their own to them. In these way common ideas, common plans and aspirations and common ways of life are achieved. They make the society as a group of people living together for common and collective ideas and ideals. Human nature is preeminently fit for the common and collective life. Man can have knowledge and understanding of common ideals, ends and purposes of collective or social life. The reason why animals and birds have no society is because they do not possess these abilities and faculties of mind and body to communicate and understand the ideas, desires and feelings of each other. This is the important reason why, of all animals, man alone is a= social creature. Only men can have common consciousness or, what the psychologists call, the group mind. Human needs. Human life depends on the satisfaction of material needs. If not, human life will be placed in danger, and may even be destroyed. They are economic needs, the need for selfpreservation, and the need for love and protection during childhood. Economic needs. First and foremost among the necessities of human life are the economic needs. Man needs food, clothes, shelter, and thousand other things, both to live and live well He cannot, however, make or manufacture all these things by his unaided effort and labour. It is only by working and co-operating with others, and by exchanging what they have produced, that men can satisfy their economic needs For instance a farmer produces food, while a weaver makes cloth, a carpenter makes furniture, and a shoe-maker makes shoes and so on. All of them exchange with others what they have produced more than their personal requirements. Thus, by exchange and distribution of

goods, all men satisfy their various needs. So economic necessity urges and impels men to live together and cooperate with each other. In short, man is by economic necessity a social animal. Self-preservation Another necessity which urges man to live in society is the need for self-preservation or bodily protection. Unlike other animals, man is a very weak and defenceless creature. Unlike other animals can defend themselves against their enemies by their claws, teeth, strong bodies or by means of flight or fast-running legs. Man has none of these natural aids and advantages for self-protection. Therefore, if alone, he can be easily injured or killed. But by living and co-operating with others, man can defend himself against his enemies. Hence his safety lies in numbers, that is, when he lives in a group or company of other men. Moreover, man has far more enemies than any other animal, some of which he can see, but others he cannot, such as the germs of diseases, etc. Hence his need for help and co-operation is still greater. Man must seek the help and succour of other persons in times of danger, compels men to live together. By the way, this necessity for selfpreservation has also made certain animals, e.g., the ducks, deer, and other mammals and birds, to live together. But they are merely gregarious animals, that is, they live together without common consciousness and co-operation. Man is the most gregarious of all animals: he is social, because he not only lives together but can also communicate his thoughts and fears, his intentions and purposes to others. It is due to this social instinct and ability to understand the needs of others, and come to the aid of others that men have overcome their enemies, whether they are animals or beasts of jungle, germs of diseases or forces of nature, or hostile human groups. This is another reason why Man lives in society. Helplessness of childhood Every person is born a child. But as a child he is quite helpless and defenceless. He can neither feed nor protect himself from all danger. The young ones of many animals can defend themselves from the very moment they are born. But human child cannot. He is a little, helpless tot when he is born. Hence he needs the protection, love and care of his mother and other members of the family. They give him food, cover him with clothes, and protect him against diseases and other danger. When he begins to grow up, they teach him to walk, eat and speak. Thus the human child depends on the love and care, first and foremost, of his mother and then of his father and other members of his family. They show great love and concern for him, till he grows up to a mature age. Now, after living among them and experiencing their love and care throughout his childhood and youth, he also begins to love them and desire to live with them. His love extends to all the members of his family. He also begins to love or like his relatives, his neighbours his friends, etc. The love of the family leads to the love of ones neighbourhood, village or town, or city and, ultimately, of ones country and of the whole mankind. We may summarise the reasons why society is necessary for human beings They ape: (1) the instincts and impulses of human nature: (2) the need for mutual aid and self-preservation; (3) the economic needs and cooperation; (4) protection and care during childhood; (5) the need for training and education of mind and character and intellectual development; (6) the need for progress and happiness. Advantages of society. A partnership in higher life. Man does not live in society for the sake of mere life, but also for the sake of oood life. We have mentioned above some of the advantages which the society gives to the individual, e.g., satisfaction of economic needs, self-preservation, and mutual aid during childhood and adult age. But it does more for the individual than this. It provides him with opportunities for the development and perfection of his mind, body and character. He can learn in it arts and philosophy, sciences and culture. He can live in it a more refined, prosperous, happier and better life. Society has been aptly described as a partnership in all arts and in alt sciences, a partnership in all culture and in all civilization, and in all progress and happiness. Division oLlabour. Society is based on the principle of the division of function or labour. A solitary man cannot satisfy even his bare needs for food and shelter. This fact has been proved by the miserable existence of those persons who were compelled by accident to dwell on a lonely island or desert, like Robinson Crusoe. Such persons have to spend all their life in the struggle to keep their body and soul together. In society, however, with its great net-work of different occupations, activities, and professions, work and functions are divided and distributed among different persons and groups. The division of labour enable each man to work better and produce more and thus afford a better and richer life for all.

Leisure. Another important opportunity, which society affords the individuals, is leisure. It means the time which the individual can spare from the necessary routine of earning his livelihood. Leisure results from social organisation and division of labour. Society is such an organization and co-operation among all its members that many of them can spare enough time from necessary economic work and labour. They can. therefore, devote themselves to other needs and interests than the need to fill their bellies or cover their bodies. This is leisuretime during which a man can devote himself to higher and nobler pursuits. Progress in arts, sciences, culture and civilisation has been mainly due to leisure. One of the supreme purposes of society is to provide leisure-time to as many people as possible. Really speaking, history shows that human progress consists only in providing, more and more leisure to ever greater number of persons. Social heritage. Society is really a store-house of all the past human achievements in science and learning, arts and culture, philosophy and literature, intellect and reason, industry and agriculture. This 4s called mans social heritage; this is what he has inherited from the past generations of mankind. It has been accumulated during hundreds and thousands of years of human past. It is Mans living past. As the proverb goes, Rome was not built in a day, so we can say that society was not built in a day. It required hundreds and thousands of years for Man to built his culture and civilisation, i.e., his social heritage, which is now his greatest opportunity to learn everything. He equips his mind and intellect by learning from his social heritage for further development and achievement. Without society he could not make even a crude and simple tool. But with the accumulated knowledge and experience of the past he can attain to any height of success and greatness in any human endeavour. With-out society, he is like a jungle, or still worse, in darkness and ignorance. But in society, he can acquire any science or learning, and practise any art or occupation. This is the supreme purpose of society. Social progress and happiness. Society is a necessary condition for progress. There is need for struggle against all such habits, customs, ideas, superstitions and usages, which dwarf human personality and prevent the full growth of human mind. The struggle for progress is really a struggle against the forces of selfishness, ignorance, and obscurantism. It is also a struggle against social injustice, inequality and slavery of all kinds. A nation can be happy and powerful only by setting free the mind of every man and woman from social, political, economic, cultural, and intellectual restraints and evils. The purpose of society is to enable every one to wage this struggle foe progress and social betterment. Moreover, the aim of society is to give happiness to all individuals who compose it. Happiness is for all individuals and nations. The ultimate goal of human society. Human society is now divided into many societies of several nations and countries. But the ultimate goal of human life is a perfect society of the whole world. It presupposes the development of internationalism. It is an equal development of all nations and countries. Each country and every people should have equal opportunity to develop its or their national life and qualities. But they must not live an isolated life, meeting only to attack and conquer the other nations as they used to do in the past. The need to-day is for greater international co-operation and friendship, and exchange of ideas and goods with a view to greater justice and happiness for all nations of the world. In the future international society there shall be no wars and no destruction of man by man. and all mankind shall live a life of peace, equality, prosperity and cooperation. This is the ultimate purpose of human society. Why does man learn from society? Man is, no doubt, a social animal. But the question is: why does he learn from society? What are the qualities of his mind and body which socialise him, i.e., make him a social being? They are, briefly, plasticity of human mind and body, language, and imitation. Plasticity. Human mind is extremely plastic, especially in childhood. Plasticity means the capacity to learn new ideas, habits and skills. Man can learn new habits and ideas and can adapt himself to new and diverse situations. Herein lies the secret of training and education. Human child readily learns new things and adapts himself to the habits and behaviour of others. In this way he learns new things from society. This is called socialisation. Man can socialise himself, this is, adjust himself to the customs, institution, tradition, and ways of his society. Other animals do not have this capacity to mould their minds and bodies to new conditions and situations. This fact has been experimentally demonstrated by a scientist. He experimented with his child and a newly-born chimpanzee. Both of them were fed, clothed, and reared in the same fashion. They were given the same food, kept in the same room and in the same kind of beds. They were taught the same kind of habits of eating, walking, dressing, etc. They were taught to speak the same language. This training continued for nearly five years. At first, both the children of man

and the ape continued to learn in the same way and even behave in the same manner. Butt after three or four years of training, they began to show difference. While the human child was still learning new ideas, new habits, and new ways of doing or making things, the ape-child ceased to do so. Its habits hardened and it failed to learn new things. It showed that the human child remained educable. Its mind still remained plastic and could be moulded into new habits and ideas. The mind and body of chimpanzee, however, ceased to learn anything new. The reason is that the animal mind does not remain plastic and educable after a few months or years of its birth, while human child can learn new things up to the age of 20 and more, and can even learn something throughout his adult life. The plasticity of human mind and body is both marvellous and unlimited. But it is at its best during childhood and youth. 2. Speech and language Another reason why the young one of the chimpanzee, in the experiment mentioned above stopped to learn after the age of four or five years, was its inability to speak and understand the words spoken by others. While the scientists child was learning to speak fluently and understand new words and terms, the young chimpanzee did not do so at all. The speech and language are the most important means not only to communicate ones thoughts to others but also learn new skills and ideas from them. They are the most important means of socialising human individuals. By means of speech and language, we can form common purpose and common way of actions and co-operation. As man alone has this capacity to speak and communicate his thoughts, he alone is a social animal. 3. Imitation. Man has a great capacity to imitate others. This is particularly so during childhood and early life. Imitation and example are two important means of socialising or infusing habits and attitudes in human beings. Interdependence of man and society. Although the individual and society seem to be two different entities, they are not antithetical to each other. The individual is not opposed to society, and society is not opposed to the individual. Both go hand in hand, because they are interdependent and closely related to each other. An individual lives and learns all his life in society. Society is around and in him. What the individual learns from the society. Every individual learns everything from his society. Society makes him what he is. No individual can exist apart from society. He is bound to societv by nature and necessity. He lives and acts as its member. Society makes the individual what he is. It provides him with all skill and ability, all ideas and beliefs. It satisfies his needs, protects his life and property, and provides him with all the opportunities for the development of his mind and body. It teaches him all his habits, good or bad. Society means all other individuals with which an individual comes into contact, namely, his parents, his brothers and sisters, his relations, friends, his neighbours, and teachers and all other individuals with whom he comes into contact, wither directly or indirectly. Society means all those who live today and have lived in the past and shall live in the future. The ideas and acts of the past generations affect the minds and actions of the present generation, and, thus, of the next generations. This is the continuity of social traditions and social heritage. Thus, all individuals learn from the past and present of their society. In short, the culture and civilisation of a nation socialises its citizens and makes them what they really are. What society gets from the individuals? - The relation between the individual and society, however, is not onesided. Man is not only made by the society but he also makes the society what it is. Society makes man just as man makes society. Both are interdependent. The relation between the two is not antithetical. Instead of that both the individual and society affect each other. After a man has learnt what society could teach him, he begins to develop the society still further by performing his work or duties or by inventing or discovering new thoughts and things. For instance, after a student has acquired knowledge from his teachers, he is able to teach others what he has himself learnt. In this way society is continued and maintained. There are many men who invent new things, think new thoughts and develop science, art and learning further. They are the makers of society. The great scientists, engineers, writers, thinkers, inventors, and leaders of industry and trade contribute to the progress and development of their nation or society. Thus the society progresses and develops with the work and efforts of the individuals. A backward and un-progressive society suffers from stagnation and decay, only because there are no new thoughts and new things invented or discovered by its members. Similarly, in early societies, there was no progress because the customs and religions prohibited and inhibited men from experimenting and developing new ideas new things. Society promotes the well-being of the individuals by giving them full opportunities for self-development and selfexpression. Thus society and the individuals will progress by their interaction upon each other. This is the reason why we cannot separate the individual from the society without destroying both. Section 2. STRCTURE AND ORGANISATION OF SOCIETY

Structure of the society. Society consists of associations, institutions, social groups and other forms of social relations and customs. Social relations Society is, as Professor Maclver says, human beings in relation. Relation means to have contact with each other or dc something because of the presence or for the sake of others. It signifie: claims and counterclaims upon each other. It means rights and duties of the persons related together. Social relations, therefore, require that the individuals related should adjust themselves to the needs and demands of their relations. Indeed, when one man acts, others react. Sometimes our actions and reactions are opposite and hostile. At other times, they are peaceful and co-operative. Relations are of many kinds of different durations. They may be temporary or permanent. They may be chancerelations or consciously-made relations. The latter become the basis of associations. A person may have relations with one, few or many persons, with one group or many groups or with the whole community and with the whole humanity. When relations are of cooperative nature and directed to some common ends or purposes, they become associations and institutions. An Association: its meanings. An association is a group of people organised for a common purpose or purposes, interest or interests. An association, therefore, means: (a) a social group of a few or many persons : a single person cannot form an association : (b) a common purpose or purposes, interest or interests, which the group seeks to achieve ; and (c) an organisation of the functions and activities of the members of the associated group. Without organisation of the behaviour and activities of the members and without defining their functions, the common purpose will not be attained. For instance, a college is an association. It consists of the students and teachers. Its organisation is seen in the arranging of the students and teachers into various classes, teams, etc., without which they cannot be properly taught and trained by their teachers Interest and Association The most important characteristic of . an association is the interest it seeks to realise. We can achieve our interests in many ways. First of all, each one of us may seek hs interest by the individual efforts. But in this way he would not achieve much. Secondly, we can achieve our common purposes by struggling with each other. But conflict is wasteful and destructive of social life. The , third way is by co-operating with each other. It is the best, the most fruitful and successful way. This is the purpose of an association, , which is a co-operative way of achieving a purpose or realising common interests. Associations constantly change. New members join an association and old members may leave it. Their functions may change. New interests may arise. An association may increase in membership. It may be divided into several smaller associations and groups, e.g., a school is divided into classes. Association, Personality and Society. Association is necessary for the development of human personality. One man alone cannot achieve much. He cannot satisfy all his needs by himself. He must combine with others to achieve his common purposes and private needs. Human personality develops in response to the needs and demands of the social environment. Every association provides an opportunity for the realisation of some human needs and for the achievement of some human purposes. It thus develops personality. The function of every association is to provide opportunities for personal action and expression and to fulfil some need. But no single association can satisfy all the needs and purposes of a man. Hence he must join many other associations to satisfy all his needs, interests and purposes. Only in this way his personality, his character and mind will fully develop. Human nature and needs compel men to form many associations and to move from one association to another. In fact, we do nothing all our

lives but move from one association to another and participate in several associations at one and the same time. Indeed, the richer and more varied the social life, the greater the number of associations. The more associations a society has the more progressive and civilised it becomes. Hence there should be a great multiplicity and variety of associations. Various classifications of Association. There are as many forms and kinds of associations as there are human purposes and interests. It is, therefore, difficult to enumerate all possible forms of them. Associations can be divided into different kinds on different principles. We consider three types of classifications here: (a) Associations differ from one another in point of the area of their jurisdiction, i.e., the sphere of their activities. Considered from this point of view associations may be divided into local, municipal, provincial, national and universal or international associations. A local association is confined to the persons living in one and the same place, for example, a tdinil), a school, a club, a literary society, etc. Municipal association is wider than local association: for example, a panchayat, or a town-committee, etc. A provincial association has its membership over a province or a part of a country: for example, a Chamber of Commerce, a Provincial University, etc. A national association extends over the whole country: for example, a state, a political party, etc. A universal or international association has its members and functions extended over several nations or the whole globe; for example, the U.N.O., the UNESCO, International Postal Union, etc. (b) Associations can also be divided according to their origin, i.e., whether they arise from human nature or are artificially created by man. In this respect, associations can be divided into two kinds, namely: (i) Natural or Compulsory Associations : and (ii) Artificial or Voluntary Associations. Natural and Artificial Associations. A natural association is one which arises from the needs and impulses of human nature. It is a compulsory association because one necessary belongs to it, whether he likes it or not. He does not choose it, but is born into it. For instance, family, tribe and state are natural associations. An artificial association is one which men have themselves created for the sake of their own needs, interests, comfort and convenience. The members of the artificial association belong to it of their own choice Hence they are voluntary associations. Most of the associations in our social life are the artificial and voluntary kind. Resemblance and Difference Between them. Both natural and artificial associations presuppose social nature of men. Both of them exist to satisfy mens desire for companionship and for the fulfilment oftheir manifold needs. They are based on such human qualities as co-operation, sympathy, fellow-feeling and other social habits. But natural and artificial associations are also different from each other. Natural associations exist long before their members join them. Really speaking, men are born into natural associations, but they join artificial associations. For instance, family exists before the child is born But the child joins a school. Artificial associations are created for some definite purposes, while natural associations exist for many purposes. For instance, a literary society exists for literary production and criticism, while a family exists for educational, economic and other needs of its members. A natural association is based on necessity, while an artificial association on convenience. Generally speaking, a natural association is a closed association, that is to say, a person who is not born in it; cannot become its member, except by adoption. For example, no man who is not born in a family can become its member. But any man can become a member of an artificial association. It is open to all persons; e.g., any child can join a school. Advantages of voluntary associations. Modern society consists mostly of voluntary associations. Society must have progress as well as order. Order is maintained by the state, which is a compulsory association. But the compulsory assocSiations, like the state, cannot fulfil all the needs which society seeks. Hence we need a large number of voluntary associations. They enable us to satisfy our needs, interests, and realise our aims of different kinds. The voluntary associations are, for example, the schools, the colleges, the literary societies, social clubs, orphanages academies, trade unions, meena bazaars, etc. (c) Associations can also be classified according to their functions or purposes. According to it there are seven kinds of associations: (1) Biological Associations, (2) Economic or Vocational Associations, (3) Religious Associations, (4) Cultural Associations, (5) Recreational Associations, (6) Philanthropic Associations, (7) Political Associations. This classification, however, suffers from certain defects. Firstly, it is not exhaustive. Secondly, it is not precise: some associations cannot be clearly placed under one particular head but can be classified under two or

more heads. For example, the family is at once a biological, a cultural and an economic association. The state is more difficult to classify, because it is at once a political, cultural, economic, and even religious association. In spite of these shortcomings, it is the most useful and commonly accepted classification. Section 3. FAMILY Society has certain basic associations and groups. We shall now study some of them. It will show us what role particular associations play in the civic life of the individuals and why they are so important for the science of Civics. It will also illustrate the ways and methods by which a citizen can order his loyalties in a good and intelligent manner. We begin with the family. The Family. Among the natural associations, the family is the oldest and the most important. It is a kinship association, arising from the relationship by marriage and birth. It is also one of the most universal social groups because it is found in one form or another in every society, nation, and country of the past and present. Family means a group of a man and a woman, or women united together in marriage and the children born to them. Basis of Family. The basis of the existence of the family lies both in human nature and human needs. Firstly, it arises from the needs of sexual union of human male and female. Secondly, it is cemented by human impulses of love and affection. These impulses bring man and woman together into a permanent union of marriage. So sex alone does not make family. It is the human instincts of love, fellow-feeling and sympathy which unite a man and a woman in a permanent union of marriage. Another powerful factor which created the family is the motherly love for her children. The father also shares this instinct to a great extent. The third basis of the family is the need for reproduction and preservation of human race. Lastly, human child remains absolutely dependent upon the love and care of its mother and, to a lesser extent, of its father for several years of its infant life. This is another reason which has created the family in human society. Origin of the Family. Although family is the most fundamental and universal institution of human society, yet it has not remained the same throughout human history, History and anthropology have discovered two stages in the origin and evolution of the family. The first form of family was matriarchal. It existed in the most primitive stages of human history, ordinarily called prehistory. A matriarchal family was really a marriage-group, called a totem or herd. It was headed by the mother. All social relations of descent and kinship were traced through the mother or the female members of the group. The father was unknown. Permanent marriage relations did not exist. Marriage was a temporary affair between two totem groups. The matriarchal family existed when Man had not yet invented any tools or weapons but lived like animals of the jungle, and ate the fruits, berries , and roots of the jungle. It has long vanished with the rise of civilisation. But it is still found among the uncivilised and primitive peoples such as the Bushmen of Australia, etc. When, in primitive times, Man invented tools, domesticated animals, discovered agriculture or cultivation of the soil and acquired property and wealth, human society was completely revolutionised. Matriarchal family was replaced by a new kind of family, viz., the patriarchal family. Clans and tribes came into being consisting of many patriarchal families. Each patriarchal family was headed by the father or the eldest male member. It consisted of his wife or wives, their children, slaves, and dependents. In the patriarchal family and society, relations of descent and inheritance were traced through the father or male members of the family. The patriarchal family was based on the principle that man was the master of women, children and slaves. The patriarchal family is still found in all countries of the world, although it has been modified to various degrees by the modern movements of economic and social emancipation of women. We shall now describe the various forms of the patriarchal family. Forms of Family. Family is found in three different forms, according to the forms of marriage on which it is based. They are, (1) the monogamous family, (2) the polygamous family, and (3) the polyandrous family. Merits and demerits of the three types of the family. The polyandrous family is very rare. It is found in some parts of Tibet and India. It consists of the plurality of husbands, that is, one woman married to several husbands. The other two types of family, the monogamous and polygamous are most common. The polygamous family consists in the plurality of wives: one man married to several wives. It prevails among backward, underdeveloped, tribal peoples. It does not suit the conditions of a progressive and civilised society because it is based on the subordination of women and their consequent inability to participate freely and equally in the social life of the nation and country. That is

why polygamous family is now being replaced by the monogamous one among all civilised and progressive nations. Monogamous family is the best form. It is based on the marriage of one man and one woman It is based on the equality of the male and female sexes, and on the freedom and emancipation of the women from male domination. It creates a sense of responsibility, justice and equal happiness in the family life. It protects the rights of women It serves the supreme social purpose of the family, i.e., the care and the training of the children by both the father and mother. It makes the family a useful and active social unit in the life of the nation. It imposes equal duty of bringing up the children on both father and mother. It is not racked by family quarrels and feuds between several wives and their children. In short, monogamy fosters good citizenship, while polygamy hinders and hampers it. Owing to these advantages for social and national life and progress, it has become the universal kind of family and marriage in the modern world. On the recommendations of the Marriage Commission, the Pakistan Government has promulgated Muslim Family Laws Ordinance enjoining restricted polvgamous marriages in our country. Marriage and Citizenship. Family is an association; marriage is its institution, that is, its guiding principle and basis. Every community has definite rules regarding the persons who can marry each others, and those who are prohibited from marring. Besides these rules of prohibition, which are laid down by law and religion, there are also some social customs about the permitted and prohibited groups. In our society in Pakistan, we have to some extent followed the social customs of the Hindus regarding marriage. Many people in Pakistan do not marry except within their own caste or Bradari. Differences of race_also restrict the circle of permitted and prohibited marriage groups. But there customs are opposed to the civic and national life of our country. Thex have hindered the growth of common feelings and national spinT in our country. Except the rules of prohibition as laid down by Islam, there should be no customs of bradari caste, race or sect dividing the nation. Inter-racial and inter-caste marriages would foster social, civic and national unity of the country. Home and family. Home and family are closely linked to each other. Home means the place where the family lives. It may be a hut or a palace, a tent or a house; it may be a house made of mud or of marble. In short, home means those things and persons which are found in the family. The family is the social unit, and home is its physical basis and environment. A child is born in the social and physical environment of the family and home which has already a number of customs, traditions, social attitudes, beliefs, interests, occupation or profession. As he receives love and care from his family group and dwells within the four walls of his home, he comes to love both the members of the family and the things and walls of his home. This love and affection for his family and home becomes the beginning of his love for his neighbourhood, his village, his town or city and the country where his family resides aijd his home stands. In this way both family and home the starting-points of mans love for his country or nation, called patriotism. Nation is really nothing but the union of thousands of families, while the country is nothing but an assemblage of homes and hearths, where these families dwell. The relation between family and home, on the one side, and the country and notion, on the other are aptly illustrated by such words as father-land, mother-land, homeland and the brotherhood of man. Single and joint Families. Family can also be classified as a single and a joint family. A single family means simply a husband, a wife and their children. A joint family consists not only of a father, a mother and their children but also of grandparents and granduncles, uncles, and aunts, brothers and cousins with their wives and widowed sisters, etc., living in the same house. It prevails iij Hindu society, but the Muslims of Indo-Pakistan have borrowed it from the Hindus. Joint family system was very useful in the Middle Ages, when the state was weak and the protection and defence of mans life was possible only within the circle of his relatives. But now it has become antisocial. It weakens the sense of responsibility of the father and the mother towards each other and towards their children. It hinders moral training, development and discipline of the children. What is common to all is neglected by all. The common property and the common duties of members of a family are neglected in the joint family. It also maintains a lowly and inferior position of the women in the family and society. It has, therefore, become an obstacle to the proper moulding of the character and habits of the children, -the future citizens. Like the purdah system, the joint family system is one of the anti-social and unprogressive institutions in our country. The single family system is more suitable for civic life and its responsibilities. Functions of the Family /. Biological or sexual function. The primary function of the family, and also its foundation, is biological or sexual.

It was created for the satisfaction of the sexual urges of human beings by means of marriage. Marriage means a socially recognised permanent union of a man and a woman. Family fulfils the function of the propagation of the human race through the satisfaction of the sexual impulses and its preservation through the care of children. In the family, the stronger members of the family give protection and provide food and other necessaries of life to its weaker numbers. 2. Psychological function. Family performs the psychological function of satisfying the instinctive urges towards love and affection between the wife and the husband between the parents and their children. Love is one of the strongest impulses of human nature. It is not only the most sublime but also the most essential means of preserving the human race. God created mothers to perform His divine mission of love and care for the little ones. This is also true of the love and solicitude of the father for his children. The bond of love which the family creates between its various members is one of the greatest sources of happiness for human beings. The family is thus a school of affection. It teaches love, affection and care for each other. 3 Care of the young Care of the young is one of the most important functions of the family. Human child is born in a condition of absolute helplessness. Without the love and care which the mother bestows upon her little baby, it would never survive and grow up to adult age. Words fail to describe her single-minded devotion to her children. Her life is often an epic of selfless love and heroic selfsacrifice. It has been proved by modern psychological researches that without maternal care and love, the child would not grow up to a normal personality. The father also contributes his share to the wellbeing of his young ones, in an increasing degree as they grow up. Without the family it would not be possible to bring up the children in rformal and healthy manner. Many suggestions and programmes to bring up the children in state-maintained hostels have ended in failure. No one can fell the same concern for the children as their parents. A nurse cannot take the place of a mother. The hostel cannot become a substitute for the love and care of the home and the family circle. No one can sacrifice his time and thought for the children so much as their parents can. Thus the family performs the great function of preserving and continuing the human race. 4. Educative function. Closely allied to the care of the young is the educative role of the family in the life of the children and young people. It is the most important school in which the child receives all sorts of education and training. By education here we do not mean the teaching of the three Rs, but the development of ones mind, character and personality so as the make him an active, intelligent and good citizen and social being. Understood in this sense, there is no other social institution which educates disciplines and instructs the mind, character and body of the children and young boys and girls and even of the young men and women so much as the family and home do. This is one of their most important functions. Modern researches in child psychology have proved that the first five years are the most important period in the life of a person. The second period of equal educative value is the age between five to fifteen years. During childhood and early life, human mind is very impressionable and receptive. The first 15 years of human life are the most formative years, during which the children and the youth can be taught and trained anything. But these are the years during which the children and the boys and girls live mainly and even exclusively in the family environment. They learn to speak, dress, talk, act and behave in the way they see the older members of the family. Thus by imitation and instruction, childs mind and character, habits and ideas, like and dislikes, interests and inclinations are moulded by the family environment, in other words, by the mother, father, brothers, sisters, other relatives, young and old, visitors and servants. Moreover, as the researches in child psychology and Psycho-analysis have shown, the instruction and the impressions which the child has received during the first ten or twelve years of his life will last so long as he lives. No doubt, when he grows up, he goes to school and into the outside world. The experience and education, instruction and influence which he would receive in the school or in the wide world outside, will ceVtainly give him new ideas, impressions and habits. But they cannot wipe out what the earlier family life has already imprinted upon his character, mind and personality. The influence of the mother on the child is particularly important. The lives of the great men bear ample testimony to the mothers role in moulding the childs character and career. Napoleon once remarked, Whatever I am and whatever I hope to be, 1 owe to my mother. 5. Economic function. The family also plays an important economic role. It acts as a unit of production. This has been one of its most important functions in the past, and is so even to-day to a great extent. Family is an economic unit of the society. Many families have their own property, such as lands, shops or family business. Many people work within their family circle or home, for example, the peasants, the artisans, and the handicraftsmen. Cottage industry is even to-day a family affair. The family is a place of work and income. It was particularly true in the

Middle Ages and ancient times, when all economic work and production was done within the house or the family circle. The weaver, the carpenter, the spinner, the blacksmith, the cobbler and the small businessman worked in the family and with the co-operation and labour of other family-members, men and women, young and old. Now-adays, however, Industrial Revolution, that is, science, machine and technology, have brought about a great change in our social and economic life. Economic activity and enterprise have moved to the factories, farms and offices. This is one of the causes which has to some extent decreased the role of the family in social life in present times. But family still remains an important economic unit of income and consumption. The family earns as a whole and spends as a whole. It is one of the important reasons why the father works for his wife and children as their breadwinner. Moreover, family also acts as the medium for the transmission of vocational knowledge and technical skill from the parent to the child. The son learns a job from his father. The daughter learns from her mother her domestic duties and skills. Lastly, the family is a means of mutual aid and social security for its members in times of economic distress and trouble, such as unemployment, sickness, scarcity, old age, or widowhood. 6. Cultural Function. The family also performs the function of transmitting the culture and civilisation of a nation from the old generation to the new one. It is a great agency of cultural transmission and continuity. No other social institution is so important in this respect. The young generation, i.e., the children, boys and girls and young people, learn the habits, attitudes, ideas, manners, morals a.nd ways of life and social behaviour from the older generation. When they grow up, they continue the culture and civilisation of the older generation which passes away with old age and death. Thus the family plays the great role in national life by continuing the social heritage frdm generation to generation. Just as the child cannot live without the care and protection of his parents, so the national culture and civilisation could not continue without the training and civilisation of the individual in the family or home. Family is the link between the past and the present of a nations history. Anything which weakens or destroys family unit and life will weaken and destroy the culture and civilisation of the nation. It is for this reason that the monogamous marriage and family, which assure social continuity and cultural transmission, are more important in the life and progress of a nation than polygamous ones. 7. Cradle of civic virtues. The family or the home has been aptly described as the cradle of civic virtues and the primary school of citizenship. It is in the family that the child receives his first lesson in citizenship. It is his first school^where he learns everything about men and thing. The family is a kind of a small state. All the members obey a common authority and are bound to one another by mutual rights and duties. Here the child learns to live a collective and common social life among other members, who are of different age and of different habits and inclinations. In this environment he receives valuable training in discipline and self control. He learns to obey his elders. He is taught torespect the authority and rules laid down by his parents and elders. tti,thi. way he is taught how to be a law-abiding and alert citizen, who will stand up for his rights but at the same time loyally fulfil his duties. He learns to adjust himself to the needs and rights of others. He learns how to respect elders and love the youngsters. The family is a miniature society in which boys and girls, men and women, young and old live together. Hence the child, the boy or youth learns how to behave towards persons of other sex and age. Moreover, good citizenship requires the adjustment of selfinterest with the wider interests of all. The family is the first association in which the child learns how to subordinate his own interests to the common good of all. This is his first lesson in citizenship. Social life would be impossible if every individual pursues his selfish interest without caring for the interest and well-being of others. This is also true of the family. In the family the mother and the father spend their time. energy and efforts for the well-being and happiness of their children. The strong members of the family protect the weaker ones. jThe children are taught to work for the good of others. They become the helpers of their parents when they become old or invalid. Moreover, the family is the cradle of social virtues. Social virtues are such habits, activities and attitudes which enable an individual to live, co-operate and work with other individuals, without which common or collective social life would no be possible. These social virtues or qualities are sociability, sympathy, co-operative spirit, courage, self-sacrifice, industry, thrift, mutual trust and consideration, dutifulness, civic sense or the sense of duty and responsibility for the interests and well-being of others. Without these qualities no society would remain united or cooperative. The social life of the individual begins in the home in which he is born and brought up. It is here that the child learns the social virtues from his elders and fellow-children by example and precept. It is the family or home that teaches him to be social, to be so-operative and selfsacrificing. In the home everything is for everybody. The child, therefore, learns to look for the good of others, to feel a sense of duty and responsibility towards them. He learns to work for other members of the family, and to be dutiful, obedient and considerate. Home is the little world of the child where he becomes a socialised being and the future citizen of the state. In this way, home becomes the nursery of social virtues. After learning them, the boys

and girls go into the wide world outside where they behave in the same manner and with the same social virtues which they have learnt in their family life. In the words of W.H. Baverige, it is within the family that the child learns the meaning of co-operation and self-control, of loyalty, sympathy and altruism. This is the reason why family is called the primary school of citizenship. Mazzini has rightly said that the first lesson of citizenship is learnt between the mothers kiss and the fathers caress. Importance of the Family. The importance the family can be realised from the functions it performs for the society and for training the children for citizenship. The family is the basic unit of human society. It is an economic factor of great magnitude. It is the training ground for citizenship. It is a state in miniature. It performs many services for the society and the state. It has been and will be indispensable as the protector of child life. Economically it is useful for division of labour, for the specialisation of occupations, co-operation and for the institution of private property. It trains the youth in intellect and character. It is a cradle of social virtues. Dewey writes, The virtues of sympathy, self-sacrifice, obedience, foresight and courage, to mention only a few, strike their roots deep down in the human heart in family life. It is extremely important element in the educational machinery of the society. The importance of the family can also be shown by human history. There has been no age and no society in human past which was without some kind or other of family. Mr. E.M. White emphasises the importance of the family in these word: all that man does is done in or through society, and family is the first school to teach him the meaning of society and the value of the social habits. It is a small social group which trains the child for the responsibilities and duties of the larger group of the future, that is, the society. Mrs. Bosanquet writes that the family is the great trysting place of the generations, where past and future flash into the reality of the present. It is the great store-house in which hardlyearned treasures of the past, the inheritance of spirit and character from our ancestors are guarded and preserved for our descendants. And it gives the great discipline through which each generation learns a new lesson of the citizenship that no man can live to himself alone. As Taylor and Brown put it: in the family, the children learn how to treat persons of their own sex and age with fairness and of the opposite sex and other ages with courtesy. Above all, family gives us the most difficult and the most important of all the subjects of knowledge, the knowledge of human nature. The family is the training place for all human adjustments and activities. It is the seed-bed of the garden of social life. In the family both sexes are present; the young and old are there; the question of making a living are discussed. All members of the family are likely to be called upon, to participate in the solution of economic problems to some degree. A great amount of education takes place in the family. Religious and political ideas and attitudes are taught by the adults to the young. Courtesy, obedience, loyalty, altruism, team-work, manners, ideals and ambitions are developed in the home. Practically every type of question and problem with which the children will in after years be concerned, is presented, discussed, and in one way or another resolved in the family circle. Family teaches us what is good, dutiful, and true. It is the repository of custom and traditions of culture and civilisation. Hence, it is the most important of all associations and institutions in human life. Citizenship and family. Although family is of immense importance for society and civic life, but it is the good family that is useful for civic and social life. No doubt, nothing also is as bad as a bad family. A bad family corrupts the youth, spoils the character of the child, and stunts the growth of his mind and personality. It is a source Primary Concepts Society, Family, etc 45

of darkness and ignorance. It produces all kinds of civic and social vices. If a good family produces good men and women, the bad family produces the criminals and evil-doers in the society. Hence the question arises: what are the features and qualities of a good family? A good family is based on the love and understanding between both mother and father. It is also based on love and affection between the parents and the children. If it is to train them for good citizenship and social virtues, it must be based on ideals of service and sacrifice, of love and affection. Both parents must be intelligent enough to understand their duties and responsibilities towards each other and their children. A good family is necessarily a happy family. In order to maintain a decent standard of life, it must have adequate income. Then alone can it provide the children all opportunities for education and training. In the good family the parents train their children into active habits, initiative and self help, so that^they do not become idlers and spendthrifts or waste away their energy and time in evil habits or wasteful activities. Hence a good family is once which has enough income, and is based on monogamy, sex-equality, love, care and solicitude for the children and the proper training, discipline and development of their character, mind and personality. Without such a family, no

nation or country can be great, good and prosperous. Future of the family. In spite of its great importance, its universality and its long history, the future of the family is sometimes considered to be dark and short. Many a thinker is of the opinion that the family will cease to exist in the future. It is also said that it should be abolished altogether, because it corrupts human mind, makes it selfish and self-centred, or that it diverts human energy and thought from the society and nation to the service of a small group of persons. Moreover, it is said that family was based on the sanction of religion and tradition. But Man in modern times is becoming less religious and is not bound by the traditions of the past. The love and the sense of duty which bind the husband and wife and the parents and children would vanish when religion and tradition would become weak. It is further asserted that the family has been an economic unit of production and consumption. But, with Industrial Revolution in every country today, production has moved out of the family into farm and factory. It is, therefore, no longer necessary for men to remain in jhe family. They remain out of it for the greater part of the day Women are also now working out of the family in increasing numbers. These facts weaken the loyalty between the various members of the family who do not see each other for the greater part of their daily life. Furthermore, many important functions of the family, such as the education of the children, recreation, etc., are now provided by the state or by some other institutions. The members of the family now do not remain within its circle to enjoy a game or for rest and recreation. Lastly, the greatest cause of the disintegration of the family in the present times is the liberty and emancipation of the women. Man is no longer the master. The women are becoming more and more independent. They are no longer dependent upon their fathers and husbands for food and other necessaries of life. Like men, they now work outside the family and spend greater part of their lives outside. Nurseries and schools have relieved them of the burden of training and education their children. Birth-control has relieved them of maternal duties. Due to these changes, home has become a sort of hostel, where men, women children come to stay for a few hours in the night. This has weakened their ties of love and affection. Hence, disharmony and discord in the family life has increased. Instead of love and affection, quarrels are more common. Divorces have increased. Therefore as the opponents of the family assert, the family must be abolished or it shall vanish itself. The future of the family, however, is not as dark as it is painted by its dismal prophets. Of course, many changes have come into it. The old patriarchal family has vanished or is vanishing. But the family as such will exist in the future. It shall no doubt be differently organised. It shall not be based on the slavery or subjugation of women, but on the equality and liberty of the two sexes. It will exist for the happiness of all its members and for the moral and intellectual development of the child. It shall be based on the education for good citizenship. Family has not vanished even in such a new society as that of the Communist China, where women enjoy complete economic, social and political equality with men, not only in theory but also in practice. But their liberty and equality has made the life of the Chinese healthier and happier. Instead of vanishing, family has become more firm and stable in the communist society. It shows clearly that family has a great and useful future. Section 4. COMMUNITY Society is a circle of circles of ever-widening relationships, activities, interests and associations. Each one of these circles has its own common interests, common traditions, customs, activities, aims and ideals. These common features make a social group into a Community. The very first social group of common interests, ideals and activities is the family. But it is merely the beginning of the common social life or community. Man is born not only into a family but also into a community. At first he (or she) remains unaware of the community. But as he grows, he moves into his neighbourhood or mohallah, and then into his village or town, which is a still wider neighbourhood, where he meets with other phildren, boys, girls, and grown-up persons. Gradually he begins to feel and understand that these persons, young and old, have something in common, such as their dress, their language, their houses and furniture and utensils, their modes of behaviour and conducts, their conventions and customs, their beliefs and practices and their aims and ideals of life. Thefee common features constitute these people into a neighbourcommunity or a village-community or a town or city-community, as the case may be. By play and work, our young citizen learns the common precepts and practfces of his or her local community of the neighbourhood, village or town. However, when he grows up further and becomes a young man (or woman), his circle of associations widens still further. He visits, works, studies or lives in other villages, towns or cities. Thus he comes to know that he lives in a country or a nation, which has its own common traditions, interests, ideals and sentiments. This is another type of community of people, called the national-community. He learns more and more about his country or national community as he grows to adulthood or maturity. Many of these grown-up persons, especially in the present times, have a chance to study abroad or travel and live in foreign countries and among

foreign peoples. They find them quite different communities of peoples from the one in which they were born and brought up. Yet one finds that there is a minimum of practices, beliefs, interests and ideals which are common with those of his native community. These common features are greater, it the foreign country or people are, for instances, of the same religion or ideology. Thus they will form a community of believers, such as a Muslim community of nations, or Christian community, etc. Thus the Muslim countries and nations form a single Muslim community. But even over and above these religions or ideological communities, one will find a human community of the whole globe, especially in the present days, because mankind as a whole has many things in common and is increasingly acquiring many common interests, activities and ideals. It forms the widest community, which is called the world community. At present, it is the weakest of all types of communities. But those very forces of humanity, science, learning, industry, technology and transport which brought the lesser communities of the villages, countries and nations into being, are tending to link this world community into ever stronger links. The study of these communities, from the family and neighbourhood communities to the world-community, is at once a very interesting and a very instructive part of Civics and other social sciences. Community defined and analysed. We may define a community as a group of people living together in a locality and having a certain degree of common traditions, interests and ideals, which bind them together into a common bond of feelings and sentiments. Briefly, community is society plus commonness of traditions, interests and sentiments. From its definition, obviously, the community consists of three elements or characteristics. They are as follows: (1) Group of People. The first thing that makes a community is a group of people. It may be such a small group as a family or a mohallah, a village or a town, or it may be so large as a big city, a country, a nation or the whole mankind. All these social groups form communities of small or large sizes. (2) Locality. The group of people must occupy a definite locality that is a geographical area of territory, in order to become a community. But this area need not be fixed. For instance, a nomadic tribe is a community, though it moves from place to place, yet within a definite territory. It retains its common customs, traditions and sentiments, while moving from place to place. Nevertheless, strong communities exist only when the people take to a settled and sedentary life of a village or town. (3) Community sentiment. Community sentiment means a feeling of belonging together, sometimes called wefeeling. This sentiment of community is manifested in common traditions, common mode or life, customs, traditions and ideals. The size of a community, indeed, depends upon the extent of we-feeling or community sentiment. This fact makes some communities small in size, such as the neighbourhood-community or village community, and others large, such as the nation community or the world-community. Other things being equal, the smaller communities have stronger ties of sentiment and feelings, than the larger communities. For instance a person has stronger attachment towards his (or her) family or neighbourhood community than towards his nation or world community. But the needs of the modern civic life require that the sentiments and attachments to the wider communities should be as strong as those of tHe lesser communities. This is, indeed, the purpose of our civic life, patriotism, nationalism and humanism. Other Definitions. We mention here a few more definitions of the community, given by some eminent writhers. Maclver defines community as an area of social living, marked by some degree of social coherence. This definition emphasizes two facts. Firstly, man is by nature a social animal and necessarily lives with other human beings, and, secondly, he must have some degree of social unity and coherence in order to constitute his society into a community. Bogardus defined community as a social group with some degree of we-feeling and living in a given area. This definition is so simple and clear that it needs no explanation. Osborn and Neumeyer define the community as a group of people living in a contiguous geographic area, having common centres of interests and activities and functioning together in the chief concerns of life. This definition clearly brings out the three elements of community, which we have mentioned above, namely, (a) a group of people; (b) locality or a contiguous geographic area; and (c) common interests and activities, which are the basis of wefeeling or sentiment of community.

Lastly, a famous British author, G. D. H. Cole has given us a wider and more exhaustive definition. He says that community is a complex of social life, a complex including a number of human living together under conditions of social relationship, bound together by a common, however constantly changing, stock of conventions, customs and traditions, and conscious to some extent of common social objects and interests. Section 5. NATION AND NATIONALITY In Civics we deal with nation and nationalism, because citizenship and civic life are closely related to them. Nationalism is one of the most important forces of Modern life. The first loyalty of a citizen is towards his nation and state. Hence it is necessary to understand the meaning of the terms nation and nationality Both the words have been devised from the Latin word Natus which mean birth or race. Nation. The word nation is understood in different senses. It may mean a people related together by blood or race. It also means a people living in a particular territory and related together by some common characteristics such as common language, common culture, common traditions, and common political aspirations. Finally nation is understood in the sense of a people organised by a state. We define nation as a people who have some common attributes of race, language, religion or culture and united and organised by the state and by common sentiments and aspirations. A nation becomes so only when it has a spirit of feeling of nationality. Different Definitions of Nation:1. Prof. Gilchrist: the Nation is the state plus nationality. 2. Dr. Stephen Leacock: Nation is a community of people possessing common origin, common language and common literature. 3. Burgess: A population of an ethnic unity, inhabiting a geographic territory, 4. Lord Bryce: A nation is a nationality which has organized itself into a political body either independent or desiring to be independent. 5. Garner: A nation is culturally homogeneous social group which expression is at once conscious and tenacious of it unity of a physic. 6. Hayes: A nationality by acquiring unity, sovereignty and independence becomes a nation. Nationality. Nationality means the feeling or sentiment on unity which exists among a group of people who possess some common characteristics of nationhood, such as a common language, culture, etc. The terms nation and nationality are often used interchangeably. The reason is that the characteristics which make a people a nation also make them a nationality. We shall now consider these common characteristics of nation and nationality. Different Definitions of nationality: 1. Lord Bryce:- (1) A nationality is a population held together by certain ties, for example, literature, ideas, customs and traditions in such a way as to feel distinct from other population similarly held together by like ties of their own. Primary Concepts: Society, Family, etc. 51

(2) A nationality which has organised itself into a political body either independent or desiring to be independent. 2. Zimmarn: - The most clearly marked nations have commonly enjoyed geographical unity, and had often owned their nationhood, in part to this fact.

Non-essential elements or characteristics of nation or nationality 1. Common racial origin. Those writers, who define nation as a people of the same race, regard the common racial origin as an essential element to make a nation. It is quite natural that the people who belong to the same blood or race regard themselves as a single nation. But the ameness of blood and race is not a good criterion of nationhood. European nations, such as the Germans, the English, the French, etc., regard themselves as nations because they are the descendants of a common stock of people. But the common racial origin is not a good basis of nationality. There is no pure race in the, world to-day. Every nation is a mixed race. The racial theory of nation or nationality is unscientific and untrue. Moreover, it is also dangerous* It has been a great source of national rivalry and jealousy in the modern world. For instance, it has been a cause of war between Nazi-Germany and other nations of the world in the recent past. If we understand a nation as a people with a common racial origin, then many nations of the world to-day cannot be called so. For instance, Pakistani nation has not descended from one common stock of people: it belongs to several races. Nevertheless, it is a nation in the real sense. So this condition is not essential to constitute a nation. 2. Common language and literature. Common language and literature are important influences in the formation of a nation. A people who speak the same language and read the same literature have naturally strong feelings of unity or oneness of thought and beliefs. They have a sense of unity among them. Common language makes it possible to exchange ideas and have social intercourse among the people. Thus a common language and literature creates the feeling of national unity and solidarity. Ramsay Muir has very aptly remarked: There is nothing that will give unity to divergent races, as the use of common tongue, and in many cases unity of language community of ideas which its beings have proved the main binding force in the nation. And Boheim says. That the concept of mother tongue has made language the source from which springs all intellectual and spiritual existence. But this common feature is also not an essential element to make a nation. There are several nations in the world who do not have one common language and .literature, for instance, Pakistan, Switzerland, and Canada. Switzerland has three national languages; Canada has two and Switzerland three official national languages. In Bharat, Hindi has been made an official language although it is not spoken even by one-third of the people of India. These examples show us that common language and literature are not the indispensable characteristics of a nation. It is good to have one language, but it is not essential. 3. Common culture, customs and traditions. According to Ramsay Munir, Common historical traditions are indispensable factor in cementing the bonds of nationalism. These are also powerful forces for unifying a people into a nation. The French, the English and the Japanese nations are unified by their common culture, traditions, and customs, since very old times. Pakistani nation has also a great community of culture, tradition, and customs. But there is also a great variety of customs and traditions in our country. There is unity in diversity in our culture and customs. This also shows that community of culture and-tradition is a useful element in making a nation, but it is not an indispensable element. National unity is possible even without common culture or customs, 4. Common religion. The people who belong to the same religion have same customs, belief, rites and practices, which unify them into a single nation. Several European nations have one and the same religion and, therefore, they have become distinct nations. But like other characteristics, common religion is also not an essential element of nationality. There are several nations which do not have one common religion. In Pakistan, there are a large number of nonMuslims. While in India there is a large minority of non-Hindus. In Switzerland and Canada both Roman Catholics and Protestants are form one nation. Religion is now-a-days not a powerful force of political unity. 5. Common Residence. This factor creates unity among the people settled at one place. Ramsay Munir has remarked: The most clearly marked nations have commonly enjoyed geographical unity, and had often owed their nationhood in part to this fact. This factor created its vital role in creating the Swiss and American nationalities. But this did not happen in the South Asia were the Muslims and the Hindus inhabited for centuries but separated in 1947 for their new nationality. Essential elements. We have considered above several elements which are regarded as the basis of national unity.

But they are not essential and indispensable characteristics of nation or nationality. What are the essential characteristics which make a nation? /. Common historical experience -One of the important elements which make a people a nation is their common historical experience. A people who experienced the same problems, and faced the same dangers in the past and have overcome them by their united efforts tend to become a nation, even though they may be different in religion, language, culture or racial origin. Nothing unites a nation more than their common struggle to overcome the same historical dangers and problems. For instance, the people of Pakistan are a nation today because they struggled jointly for more than a century against their enemies, the British Imperialists, who enslaved them after the downfall of the Mughal Empire. 2. Common consciousness.- The most important and indispensable element which makes people a nation is their common consciousness of economic, political and culture interests and ideals. A people may not have anything in common, but if they feel and think that they are a nation with common ideals and aims at present and for the future, they will become a nation. It is the consciousness of political unity which lifts the nation above the people. When a people feel, think and act as a nation, they will necessarily become so. Nation is a unity of hearts, emotions and sentiments, thoughts and ideals. Is Pakistan a Nation? -Let us consider the case of Pakistan in the light of the characteristics of a nation mentioned above. Pakistan does not possess many common features which make a nation. For instance, she does not have one language, religion, race, custom, and literature. In spite of these differences, Pakistan is a nation because we have sufficient community of religion and customs. But, still more important reason is that we have the same historical experience in the past. We had a common history of conquering and settling in IndoPakistan sub-continent, and of the Muslim rule in India. We struggle for liberty and independence against the British Imperialists who had enslaved this sub-continent for a long time. We have now several years f common historical experience in overcoming many national difficulties and dangers for the unity and progress of the nation as a whole. We have also a single state. Lastly, we have a common aspiration to build an Islamic state and society in Pakistan in the future. There are some of the common features which unite us into a single nation. Differences between nation and state In ordinary language the two words nation and state are often used interchangeably. For instance, when we say Pakistani nation seeks friendship with foreign powers, we mean Pakistani state. Similarly, the term United Nations really means 191 States which are members of the UNO. (in 2002) There are some common features between the state and nation. Both mean the people living in a particular territory. Both signify a community of the people, rules by a separate and independent government. Both signify an association of the people. But there are also many differences, as mentioned below: (1) The state is a political organisation of the people, while the nation signifies their cultural and social unity. (2) The state refers to a definite territory or land, while nation has sometimes no reference to a territory. For example, the Jews were a nation, although they did not possess territory or country, till they captured Palestine and formed a state. (3) A nation a group of people united by their common racial origin, language, etc. The state does not necessarily possess these common features. (4) The nation is built on the peoples consciousness of common life and ideals. The state may not have such a consciousness of common culture, community of thought and literature or common ideals and ambitions. (5) The state possesses sovereignty, but a nation may not be sovereign. Possession of complete independence is essential to the state but not to the nation. For instance, the Indian Muslims were a nation before the establishment of Pakistan in 1947, but they formed a state after the declaration of Independence in 1947.

(6) Nation means internal feelings of people, while the state means the external power of the people. (7) State and nation are two different kinds of association. The state is a political association, while the nation is a cultural, religious, linguistic and racial association. In spite of these differences, state and nation may coincide with each other and become one. If so, it is called a national state, which is regarded as the highest political goal for the growth and evolution of a people in modern times. Every nation struggles to become an independent, sovereign state. This is the principle of nationalism. - Section 6. ISLAMIC CONCEPT OF NATION AND NATIONALITY Islam is a complete code of life having pure religious footing. Being a universal religion, it has no place for racism or territorial nationalism. On the contrary, it is to be founded in the oneness of God and the Finality of Muhammads (P.B.U.H) prophet hood. Islam believes only in two factions of humanity, viz., (1) Hizbullah: It is party of God. (2) Hiz-bush-Shiateen: It is party of infidels. Let us discuss the Islamic concept of nation and nationality in the light of elements which play an important role in the making of western nation and nationality. Common race: Islam does not give any importance to the common racial origin. The Holy Prophet categorically announced that whites have no predominance over the blacks. Keeping in view this saying of the Holy Prophet, second caliph Hazrat Umar remarked about the negro Bilal in there words: Bilal is the servant of our master but he is our master. The Holy Prophet regarded about Salman Farsi as one of the members of his family. Islam, in reality, stresses upon piety and does not attach any importance to the race. Common language: Islam does not give any importance to language. Had it done so, it would have limited itself within the Arabian Peninsula. Common residence: It is true that love with country has been regarded a part of faith but at the same time Islam orders to migrate whenever it is in danger. The Holy Prophet himself set an example in this regard and he migrated from Mecca to Medina. Had common residence played any important part in the formation of nationality, he

would have not migrated. The Muslims and the Hindus resided for centuries in India but separated in 1947 with the creation of Pakistan. Common government: This factor also plays an important role in the formation of nationality in the western concept. But Islam does not give any importance. We have the example of the British India where the Muslims and the Hindus could not form their nationality despite the common British government. The Muslims, in order to maintain their separate identity, began to strive for the establishment of Pakistan Common Purposes: Islam does not maintain that the common purposes are necessary for the formation of nationality. All India Congress had pointed out an independent India (which should be un-di visible) on the basis of this factor. The Muslims struggled, several times, collectively with the Hindus on one platform for independence but did not abandon two-nation theory which the Congress had acknowledged in 1916 through the Lakhnau Pact. In short, Islam considers only piety the basis of the Millat The Holy Prophet ordained, Obey your ruler whether he is a Negr^ with a flat nose. The Holy Quran also emphasises upon the Muslims to unite themselves overlooking their racial prejudices. Oneness of Allah, Finality of the Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) and one Holy Quran are the three elements of the nationality in Islam. The elements essential for the formation of western nationality are fatal for the Islamic concept as the principles of the both have a stark centrist. Chapter 2 *- Section 7. OBJECTIVES 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) Society is a partnership in higher . (b) Community is plus commonness of traditions, interests and sentiments. 2. Select the correct answer and fill in the blanks. (a) opined that a being who lives alone, is either a god or a beast, but not a man. (Aristotle, Plato, Socrates.) (b) A good is based on the love and

understanding between both mother and father. (Association, Society, Family) 3. Tick the right or wrong: (a) Society is based on the principle of the division of function or labour. Right / Wrong (b) A family does not play an important economic role. Right / Wrong 4. Answer briefly (a) Define Society. (b) What is meant by an association? 5. Compare column A with column B: !-

Man has a great Modern society consists Home and family are B mostly of voluntary associations. closely linked to each other. capacity to imitate others.