CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW OF OFDM

OFDM based transmitters are being commonly used in wireless communication systems. This technique allows for the transmission of large amounts of digital data over radio waves. OFDM is a special case of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) and is a multi-carrier modulation scheme. In OFDM the data is encoded in parallel over various carriers. The carriers frequencies differ from each other by integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, making the carriers orthogonal to each other. This minimizes interference between the different symbols being transmitted obtained by maintaining the Orthogonality. This immunes from a very important problem of ISI due to multi-paths, in wireless communications. Recently, research and development of the OFDM have received considerable attention and OFDM is a wideband modulation scheme that is specifically able to manage with the problems of the multi-path reception with sufficient QOS guaranties & high bit rate for 4th generation systems.

1.2 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OFDM

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is similar to the Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). OFDM uses the principles of FDM to allow multiple messages to be sent over a single radio channel which is done in a much more controlled manner, allowing an improved spectral efficiency. For example of FDM is the use of different frequencies for each FM (Frequency Modulation) radio stations. All stations transmit at the same time but do not interfere with each other because they transmit using different carrier frequencies. Additionally they are bandwidth limited and are spaced sufficiently far apart in frequency so that their transmitted signals do not overlap in the frequency domain.
7 Sub-carriers

Frequency

Figure 1.1: FDM with Seven Sub-carriers Using Filters

At the receiver, each signal is individually received by using a frequency tune-able band pass filter to selectively remove all the signals except for the station of interest. This filtered signal can then be demodulated to recover the original transmitted information. OFDM is different from FDM in several ways. In conventional broadcasting each radio station transmits on a different frequency, effectively using FDM to maintain a separation between the stations. There is no coordination or synchronization between each of these stations. With an OFDM transmission, the information signals from multiple stations are combined into a single multiplexed stream of data. This data is then transmitted using an OFDM ensemble that is made up from a dense packing of many sub-carriers. All the sub-carriers within the OFDM signal are time and frequency synchronized to each other, allowing the interference between sub-carriers to be carefully controlled. These multiple sub-carriers overlap in the frequency domain, but do not cause Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI) due to the orthogonal nature of the modulation .
7 Sub-carriers

Frequency

Fig 1.2: OFDM with Seven Sub-carriers

To transmit FDM signals there is need to have a large frequency guard-band between channels to prevent interference. The overall spectral efficiency so is very poor. But in OFDM with the dense orthogonal packing of the each sub carriers eliminates this guard band, and improves the spectral efficiency.
Frequency
Conventional Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Multi-carrier modulation technique

Saving of the bandwidth

Frequency

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) multi-carrier modulation technique

Fig 1.3: Comparison of the bandwidth utilization for FDM and OFDM

1.3 ORTHOGONALITY
1.3.1 ORTHOGONALITY IN TIME DOMAIN

Signals are said to be orthogonal to each other if they are mutually independent of each other. This Orthogonality property allows multiple-information signals to be transmitted perfectly over a widespread channel and detect it without interference. Loss of orthogonality results in blurring between these information signals and squalor in communications. Many common multiplexing schemes are naturally orthogonal. Example: - Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) allows transmission of multiple information signals over a single channel by assigning unique time slots to each separate information signal. During each time slot only the signal from a single source is transmitted preventing any interference between the multiple information sources. Because of this TDM is orthogonal in nature. In the frequency domain most FDM systems are orthogonal as each of the separate transmission signals are well spaced out in frequency preventing interference. Although these methods are orthogonal the term OFDM has been reserved for a special form of FDM. The sub-carriers in an OFDM signal are spaced as close as is theoretically possible while maintain Orthogonality between them.

4a P)) 4b 4c)))

4f 4g

4h

4d))) 4e)))
1.4:

4i
Figure domain

Time

4j

construction of an OFDM signal.

Fig.(4a), (4b), (4c) and (4d) show individual sub-carriers with 1, 2, 3, and 4 cycles per symbol respectively. The phase on all these sub-carriers is zero. Note, that each sub-carrier has an integer number of cycles per symbol, making them cyclic. Adding a copy of the symbol to the end would result in a smooth join between symbols. (4f), (4g), (4h) and (4i) show the FFT of the time waveforms in (4a), (4b), (4c) and (4d) respectively. (4e) and (4j) shows the result for the summation of the 4 sub-carriers. In OFDM the available bandwidth is splited into many narrowband channels between 100-8000, with its own sub-carrier in each case. These sub-carriers are to orthogonal to one another, i.e each one has an integer number of cycles inverse of a symbol period. So each sub-carrier has a null at the centre frequency of each of the other sub-carriers in the system in its frequency domain, as shown in figure 5 and 6. This results in no interference between the sub-carriers, allowing them to be spaced as close as possible. Because of this, there is no great need for users of the channel to be time-multiplexed, and there is no overhead associated with switching between users.

Fig 1.5: A set of orthogonal signals

Another way of explaining Orthogonality is; if two functions are multiplied and integrated over symbol period result will be zero but two functions should have integer number of cycles over symbol period.

S t ( t )S j ( t ) dt = {

C i= j 0 i j

Equation below shows a set of orthogonal sinusoids, which represent the sub-carriers for an unmodulated real OFDM signal.

sk ( t ) =

k =1, 2 ,....M sin ( 2kf 0 t ) 0 < t < T 0 otherwise

Where fo is the carrier spacing, M is the number of carriers, T is the symbol period. Since the highest frequency component is Mfo the transmission bandwidth is also Mfo 1.3.2 FREQUENCY DOMAIN ORTHOGONALITY Another way to analyze the Orthogonality property of OFDM signals is appear at its spectrum. In the frequency domain each OFDM sub-carrier has a sinc, sin(x)/x, frequency response, as shown in Figure 7. This is a result of the symbol time corresponding to the inverse of the carrier spacing. As the receiver is concerned each OFDM symbol transmitted for a fixed time (TFFT) without any tapering at the ends of the symbol. This symbol time corresponds to the inverse of the sub-carrier spacing of 1/TFFT Hz. The rectangular gate function, in the time domain results in a sinc frequency response in the frequency domain. The sinc shape has a narrow main lobe, with many side-lobes that decay slowly with the magnitude of the frequency difference away from the center. Each carrier has a peak at the center frequency and nulls evenly spaced with a frequency gap equal to the carrier spacing. The orthogonal nature of the transmission is a result of the peak of each sub-carrier corresponding to the nulls of all other sub-carriers. When this signal is detected using a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) the spectrum is not continuous as shown below, but has discrete samples. The sampled spectrum is shown as os in the figure. If the DFT is time synchronized, the frequency samples of the DFT correspond to just the peaks of the subcarriers, thus the overlapping frequency region between sub-carriers does not affect the receiver. The measured peaks correspond to the nulls for all other sub-carriers, resulting in orthogonality between the sub-carriers.

Figure 1.6: (a) Spectrum of each carrier and the discrete frequency samples; each carrier is sin(x)/x, in shape. (b) Overall combined response of the 5 sub-carriers (thick black line).

Optical OFDM Generation & Reception

1.4 OPTICAL OFDM SYSTEM
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing is a special form of multicarrier modulation where a single data stream is transmitted over a number of lower rate orthogonal subcarriers. Such a format has been widely implemented in various digital communication standards like Optical OFDM system model brief description is provided below OFDM transmits a serial high-speed data channel by dividing it into blocks of data then using Fourier transform techniques to encode the data on separate sub carriers in the frequency domain. Our system using OFDM over an optical channel is shown in Fig.7. Each block of data is presented as N parallel data paths to the OFDM transmitter. The N paths are modulated onto N equally-spaced sub carriers using Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation (QAM). It overcomes the complexities and practicalities of multiple microwave mixers by using an inverse-FFT (IFFT) to generate a dense comb of OFDM sub-carrier frequencies Each QAM data channel is presented to an input of the IFFT; the IFFT produces a complex-valued time domain waveform containing a superposition of all of the subcarriers. This waveform is modulated onto an RF-carrier, fRF using an I-Q modulator, producing a real-valued waveform comprising a band of sub-carriers. Next, this band is modulated onto an optical carrier using a linear optical modulator. The output of the optical modulator is filtered to remove all frequencies other than the upper side-band (or lower sideband if preferred) and an attenuated (suppressed) optical carrier. After propagation through the fiber link, the photodiode produces an electrical waveform. This is converted to I and Q components by mixing with 0 and 90 phases of a local oscillator fRF. The I and Q waveforms are then converted to OFDM sub carriers using a FFT, which, if the transmitter and receiver FFT windows are synchronized in time, acts as a set of closely-spaced narrowband filters. The periodic boundary conditions of the simulator enforce this synchronization. In a real system, a cyclic prefix is added to each transmitted block after the IFFT, so that the relative delays between the received OFDM-sub carriers (due to fiber dispersion) can be accommodated without destroying the Orthogonality of the OFDM sub-carriers. For a 4000-km link of S-SMF at 1550 nm, the relative delay over the OFDM band is 2560 ps, requiring prefixes that extend the block by only a few percent. Once in the frequency-domain, each channel is equalized to compensate for phase and amplitude distortion due to the optical and electrical paths. This is 6

easily achieved by using separate complex multiplication for each channel. The multiplication coefficients can be determined by training the system with a known data sequence or by introducing pilot channels to the OFDM band to estimate the dependence of optical phase on frequency. After equalization, each QAM channel is demodulated to produce N parallel data channels. These can converted into a single data channel by parallel to serial conversion.[7].

Fig 1.7: Optical OFDM System Block Diagram

1.5 NATURAL PROTECTION AGAINST ISI and ICI

The symbol rate for an OFDM signal is much lower than a single carrier transmission scheme. E.g. for a single carrier BPSK modulation, the symbol rate corresponds to the bit rate of the transmission. For OFDM the system bandwidth is broken up into say Oc sub-carriers, the symbol rate is Oc times lower than the single carrier transmission resulted. This low symbol rate makes OFDM naturally resistant to effects of Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) caused by multi-path propagation. In order to maintain the Orthogonality in sub carriers an OFDM signal the amplitude and phase of the sub-carrier must remain constant over the period of the symbol. If they are not constant it means that the spectral shape of the sub-carriers in frequency domain will not have the correct sinc shape, and the nulls will not be corresponds to peak of the narrow main lobe, this resulting in Inter-Carrier Interference.

1.6 GUARD PERIOD

The effect of Inter Symbol Interference, Inter Carrier Interference and Time offset on an OFDM signal can be further improved by the adding a guard period at the start of each symbol. This guard period is a cyclic copy that makes longer the length of the symbol waveform. Each subcarrier has an integer number of cycles in a symbol thats why, placing copies of the symbol endto-end results in a continuous signal, with no discontinuities at the joins results in a longer symbol time.
Cyclic copy

IFFT

Guard Period

IFFT output
TFFT

Guard Period

IFFT

Time

TG

Ts Symbol N
Figure 1.8: Addition of a guard period to an OFDM signal

The total length of symbol is Ts=TG + TFFT Total length of the symbol in samples is Ts, Length of the guard period in samples TG, TFFT is the size of the IFFT used to generate the OFDM signal. Guard period provides the Resistance to effects of (ISI) caused by multi-path propagation. Protection against TIME OFFSET Protection against Inter Carrier Interference.

1.7 PERFORMANCE OF OFDM SIGNAL IN FIBER

Combined deployment of optical fiber technology and wireless networks has great potential for increasing the capacity and Quality of Service. By using Radio over Fiber technology, the capacity of optical networks can be combined with the flexibility and mobility of wireless access networks without significant cost increment. The Radio over Fiber means to transport information 8

over optical fiber by modulating the light with radio signal. OFDM is one of most favored modulation techniques in WLAN due to its efficient implementation and robustness against multi-path and narrowband interference. One of the biggest disadvantage of OFDM is its high peak to average power ratio (PAPR). High PAPR makes it unusable in non-linear systems. The non linear effects on the transmitted OFDM symbols due to high PAPR are spectral spreading, inter modulation and harmonic generation. In other words, the non linear distortion causes both in band and out of band interference to signals. Thus Low PAPR of OFDM signal will improve its performance in fiber. In fiber, OFDM signal is suitable for long haul transmission systems because it provides number of advantages (i) increase of the transmission distance (ii) improvement of spectral efficiency (iii) simplification of dispersion compensation engineering. In fibers, OFDM signal being extremely tolerant to variation in profiles that may be caused by fabrication defects.

1.8 DISPERSION TOLERANCE AND CYCLIC PREFIX IN OFDM

Dispersion from optical transmission medium results in ISI and signal impairment. This may be overcome with an OFDM signal by adding a cyclic prefix to each symbol .The cyclic prefix is a small section of the end of each symbol that is added to the beginning of each symbol. The cyclic prefix contains redundant information. In the receiver, only the centre section of the OFDM symbol is retained and this is not affected by the chromatic dispersion induced inter symbol interference.

Figure 1.9: Cyclic prefix is this superfluous bit of signal we add to the front of symbol.

We add the prefix after doing the IFFT just once to the signal. After the signal has arrived at the receiver, first remove this prefix, to get back the perfectly periodic signal so it can be FFTs to get back the symbols on each carrier. However the addition of cyclic prefix can perfectly eliminate inter symbol interference, but increases bandwidth.

1.9 ADVANTAGES OF OOFDM

OOFDM offers a significant improvement in spectral efficiency OOFDM provides increase of transmission distance OOFDM combat dispersion in optical media. In OOFDM system optical signal to noise ratio penalty at 10 Gb/s is maintained below 2 db for 3000 Km transmission of standard SMF without dispersion Compensation. OOFDM systems mitigate polarization Mode dispersion in optical fibers. BER better than 1*10-4 is achieved in OOFDM.

1.10 DISADVANTAGES OF OOFDM

High PAPR of OFDM makes it unusable in nonlinear systems. OFDM signal is contaminated by nonlinear distortion of transmitter power amplifier, because it is a combined amplitude frequency modulation (it is necessary to maintain linearity) At the receiver, it is very difficult to decide the starting time of the FFT symbol

1.11 OFDM FOR OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS

Despite the many advantages of OFDM, and its widespread use in wireless communications, OFDM has only recently been applied to optical communications. This is partly because of the recent demand for increased data rates across dispersive optical media and partly because developments in digital signal processing (DSP) technology make processing at optical data rates feasible. In typical (nonoptical) OFDM systems, the information is carried on the electrical field and the signal can have both positive and negative values (bipolar). At the receiver there is a local oscillator and coherent detection is used. In contrast in a typical intensity-modulated direct detection optical system, the information is carried on the intensity of the optical signal and therefore can only be positive (unipolar). There is no laser at the receiver acting as a local 10

oscillator and direct detection rather than coherent detection is used. A variety of optical OFDM solutions have been proposed for different applications. To understand these different techniques, it is useful to realize what is fundamental in each domain. For an OFDM system to work successfully the system must be (approximately) linear between the transmitter IFFT input and the receiver FFT output. Optical OFDM solutions can be broadly divided into two groups. The first group comprises techniques for systems where many different optical modes are received, for example, optical wireless, multimode fiber systems and plastic optical fiber systems. For these the OFDM signal should be represented by the intensity of the optical signal. The second group includes techniques for single mode fiber, where only one mode of the signal is received and for these the OFDM signal should be represented by the optical field. Optical OFDM Using Intensity Modulation The many optical modes that are present at the receiver result in optical wireless systems being linear in intensity. So, for optical wireless systems and other systems where many modes are received, the OFDM signal must be represented as intensity. This means that the modulating signal must be both real and positive, whereas baseband OFDM signals are generally complex and bipolar. A real baseband signal OFDM signal can be generated by constraining to have Hermitian symmetry. Two forms of unipolar OFDM have been proposed: dc-biased optical OFDM (DCO-OFDM) and asymmetrically clipped OFDM (ACO-OFDM) . In dc-biased OFDM, a DC bias is added to the signal, however because of the large peak-to-average power ratio of OFDM, even with a large bias some negative peaks of the signal will be clipped and the resulting distortion limits performance . In ACO-OFDM the bipolar OFDM signal is clipped at the zero level all negative going signals are removed. If only the odd frequency OFDM subcarriers are non zero at the IFFT input, all of the clipping noise falls on the even subcarriers, and the data carrying odd subcarriers are not impaired. It was shown that except for extremely large constellations ACO-OFDM requires a lower average optical power for a given BER and data rate than DCOOFDM. ACO-OFDM has also been shown to be efficient from an information theoretic perspective. The use of DCO-OFDM has been demonstrated experimentally for optical wireless , multimode fiber and plastic optical fiber . A number of simulation studies examine the performance of DCO-OFDM in more detail, and how adaptive modulation can be used to improve performance.

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Optical OFDM Using Linear Field Modulation In single mode optical fiber systems the best way to achieve linearity between the transmitter IFFT input and the receiver FFT output is to map each discrete OFDM subcarrier frequency in the baseband electrical domain to a single discrete frequency in the optical domain. This is achieved by using linear field modulation, so that there is a linear relationship between the optical field of the transmitted signal and the OFDM baseband signal. At the receiver the OFDM signal is mixed with a component at the optical carrier frequency and the signal detected from the carrier signal mixing products. The component at the optical carrier frequency can either be transmitted with the OFDM signal as in direct-detection optical OFDM (DD-OOFDM) or coherent detection can be used where the received signal is mixed with a locally generated carrier signal as in coherent optical OFDM (CO-OFDM). Both techniques have advantages. DD-OOFDM has a simple receiver, but some optical frequencies must be unused if unwanted mixing products are not to cause interference. This is usually achieved by inserting a guard band between the optical carrier and the OFDM subcarriers. This reduces spectral efficiency. DD-OOFDM also requires more transmitted optical power, as some power is required for the transmitted carrier. CO-OFDM requires a laser at the receiver to generate the carrier locally, and is more sensitive to phase noise. There is currently extensive research into the performance of both systems and on techniques to mitigate the disadvantages of each. It is useful to understand the problems which arise in single mode systems if an OFDM subcarrier is mapped to more than one optical frequency. If doublesideband modulation is used, each OFDM subcarrier is represented by two optical frequencies, one on either side of the optical carrier, chromatic dispersion (CD) results in two components with equal amplitude and different phases. Subcarriers for which these two components cancel, experience deep fades. If intensity modulation is used,but one sideband is suppressed, the combination of the nonlinear effect of intensity modulation and dispersion in the channel results in ICI in the received signal. MIMO-OFDM for Optical Communications In wireless communications, MIMO OFDM has very quickly moved from theoretical concept to commercial application. In the literature on RF wireless systems, the term MIMO is used to describe a range of systems with multiple transmit and/or receive antennas. Depending on the relationship between the signals transmitted from different antennas MIMO schemes can be used 12

to either increase the overall capacity of the system, or to reduce the probability of outage. Because wireless channels usually introduce significant multipath dispersion, MIMO is often combined with OFDM. MIMO techniques have also been shown to give significant benefit across a range of optical systems. In indoor optical wireless, multiple transmitters and or receivers can be used to increase the probability of line of sight between transmitter and receiver . In this application MIMO OFDM combines the advantages of MIMO with tolerance to delay spread . MIMO techniques have also been applied to free space optical systems but none of these have used OFDM. As signal dispersion is relatively unimportant in these applications, the dispersion tolerance of OFDM is not a significant advantage, though the power efficiency of ACO-OFDM has potential benefit. MIMO techniques have also been applied to a range of optical fiber applications. A number of authors have noted the potential of MIMO techniques in multimode fiber. Intermodal dispersion is usually considered to be a problem in multimode systems, however when MIMO techniques are applied, it can be used to increase the information capacity of the fiber. So far there do not appear to be any papers considering the combination of OFDM with MIMO in multimode systems, despite the significant potential advantages MIMO, both with and without OFDM, has been applied very successfully in single-mode fiber applications by transmitting and receiving signals on both polarizations. In this context, MIMO is also called polarization multiplexing. MIMO in single-mode fiber systems has very different characteristics from MIMO in wireless applications and may well give even greater benefits. With polarization multiplexing, all of the received signal power is divided between the two received polarizations, whereas in wireless systems, the signals at different receive antennas are at best uncorrelated, and there is always some probability of outage when no antenna is receiving a good signal. It has been shown experimentally that by using MIMO/polarization multiplexing very high data rate transmission can be achieved both in systems using OFDM and systems using single carrier formats.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

I have done a comprehensive literature review in the field of optical OFDM whose detail is given as under: Eric Lawrey [1997]: [1] has given the effectiveness of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) as a modulation technique for wireless radio applications. Hermitian [2001]: [2] Intuitive Guide to Principles of communication Introduces OFDM, OFDM special case of FDM, delay spread and use of cyclic prefix, properties of OFDM,BER performance. Su Li [2001]: [3] discussed the advantages of OFDM viz. spectral efficiency; no inter symbol interference, high data rate, no need of channel equalization etc. Bryn J. Dixon [2001]: [4] presented the performance of coded OFDM for variety of multimode fiber profiles, including step index and graded index profiles has been assessed. It has the ability to perform well in a frequency-selective multipath environment at data rates in excess of 100Mb/s without equalization. Here the use of OFDM to combat the effects of multimode fiber dispersion and investigations on the feasibility of its use for a variety of refractive index profiles has been reported. Debashis Chanda,Abu Sesay and Bob Davies [2004]: [5] have suggested better ways to overcome PAPR problem of OFDM signal which will improve its performance in fiber. Low PAPR in OFDM signal results in low out of band noise generation and robustness against MZ nonlinearity. The Performance of the clipped OFDM signal was better than unclipped OFDM signal . O. Gonzalez [2005]: [6] proposed OFDM system for optical wireless transmission, which was able to withstand multipath dispersion and also more bandwidth efficient than previous systems 14

The use of channel equalization based on sending initial training sequences to estimate channel response has been demonstrated as a favorable method to combat frequency channel fluctuations, owing to slowly time varying nature of optical channels. In addition, a simple QAM system has been described, which was able to outperform system throughput over noisy wireless optical channels. N.E Jolley, H.Kee in his paper [2005]: [7] described the generation of the fastest ever DQPSK encoded OFDM signal at 10 Gb/s. Minimum degradation to the performance was observed due to differential encoding scheme and use of cyclic prefix in the data. An acceptable error rate of better than 1 *10 -4 was achieved. Arthur James Lowery and Jean Armstrong [2005]: [8] presented a method of transmitting OFDM signals over multimode fibers that increases electrical SNR by 7 db for a given optical power and new method of transmitting OFDM signals over optical channels by using zero bias. Ivan B. Djordjevic and Bane Vasic in his paper [2006]: [9] proposed OOFDM provides increase in transmission distance, improvement of the spectral efficiency to at least 2.9 b/s/Hz and also provides dispersion compensation. To further improve spectral efficiency to at least 2.9 b/s/Hz the OOFDM SSB transmission should be combined with sub carrier multiplexing. This paper has introduced a novel modulation format for long haul transmission systems.16-QAM OOFFDM can be used in short reach systems and QPSK OFDM in long reach systems can be used. W.Shieh and C. Athaudage in their paper [2006]: [10] proposed to combat dispersion in optical media. It was shown that optical signal to noise ratio penalty at 10Gb/s is maintained below 2 db for 3000 Km transmission of standard single mode fiber without dispersion compensation and if the maximum delay spread of multipath fading is smaller than the guard time, the cyclic prefix can perfectly eliminate the intersymbol interference. The fundamental condition for complete elimination of ISI in optical medium is that the delay spread due to chromatic dispersion among the subcarriers should not excced the guard time. J.Peters and Jean Armstrong [2005]: [11] presented novel method of transmitting OFDM signals over non linear multimode fibers increases electrical SNR by 7 db for given optical power .

15

Arthur James, Lowery and Jean Armstrong [2006]: [12] show that combination of OFDM and suppressed carrier OSSB transmission could be used to dispersion compensate ultra long haul optical links at 10 Gb/s over transmission distance of 4000 Km, with a 0.5 db power sensitivity advantage over NRZ system with perfect extinction ratio and optimized threshold at a BER of 103.

Thus OFDM can compensate for the frequency dependent amplitude and phase characteristics

of a communication channel . W. Shieh, W. Chen and R.S Tucker [2006]: [13] proposed that PMD in deployed links can be overcome by CO-OFDM systems at 10 GB/s and beyond .This paper analyses the system for which chromatic dispersion is near zero, and guard time interval margin is used for PMD mitigation. In IO-OFDM systems where main optical carrier is sent along with the OFDM sub carriers, the polarization misalignment between main carrier and OFDM sub carriers will cause severe fading thus CO-OFDM provides complete PMD mitigation. Hongchun Bao and William Shieh in his paper [2007]: [14] showed that Q of the WDM channels at 10 Gb/s is over 13 db for transmission up to 4800 Km of standard SMF without dispersion compensation. In this paper two things are investigated, Max achievable Q value and optimal launch power at various transmission distances .A novel technique of partial carrier filling for improving the nonlinearity performance of transmission is also presented. W.Shieh ,X.Yi and Y.Tang [2007]: [15] shown that 128 OFDM sub carriers with nominal data rate of 8 Gb/s have been successfully processed and recovered after 1000 Km transmission through SSMF fiber without optical dispersion compensation. Yan Tang ,William Shieh, Xingwen Yi [2007]: [16] proposed the optical I/Q modulator

nonlinearity in CO-OFDM system based on direct up/down conversion has been analyzed .It was find that in contrast to direct detected systems, the optical modulator bias point for the coherent system was ,where Q penalty and excess loss were minimized. Brendon J.C Schmidt, Arthur James Lowery and Jean Armstrong [2007]: [17] has presented that optical OFDM using simple direct detection receiver can post compensate for dispersion in 320 Km of SMF fiber at 20 Gb/s. In this system signal was recovered by mixing between the OFDM optical sideband and optical carrier, so distortion from phase noise and frequency offset was completely eliminated. 16

W.Shieh in his paper [2007]: [18] showed the PMD benefit to fiber nonlinearity reduction in CO - OFDM systems was predicted. In CO-OFDM systems not only does PMD not cause any impairment, but it also provides a benefit of polarization-dependent loss induced fading and consequently improves system margin. Xingwen Yi, William Shieh [2007]: [19] in his paper presented phase estimation and compensation methods for a transmission for a CO-OFDM transmission experiment with a nominal data rate of 8 GB/s over 1000-Km SSMF without optical dispersion compensation. The OSNR penalty was found to be about 1 db at BER of 10 -3. Arthur James Lowery [2007]: [20] showed that nonlinear power limit of optical links using optical OFDM for dispersion compensation can be significantly improved using optimum combination of nonlinearity pre-compensation and post compensation. An optimum combination of pre and post compensation allows a 2 db increase in launch power for standard SMF over 2000 KM or 5 db increase in signal quality for given launch power. Xingwen Yi, William Shieh, Member, IEEE, and Yiran Ma [2008]: [21] showed the phase noise effects on High Spectral Efficiency. This paper includes the three major advantages for coherent optical orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (CO-OFDM) transmission using digital signal processing. First, coherent detection is realized by digital phase estimation without the need for optical phase-locked loop. Second, OFDM modulation and demodulation are realized by the wellestablished computation-efficient fast Fourier transform (FFT) and inverse FFT. Third, adaptive data rates can be supported as different Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) constellations are software-defined, without any hardware change in transmitter and receiver. Don F. Hewitt and Nishaanthan Nadarajah [2009]: [22] gave the comparison of Double and single side band direct base band transmission. The paper investigates the complex interactions between sidebands for baseband DSB coherent optical OFDM systems and proposes the use of SSB coherent OFDM to avoid sideband interaction in dispersive fiber .

Liang Du, Arthur Lowery [2009]: [23] studies the Improvement in Nonlinear Pre-compensation in Direct-Detection Optical OFDM Communications Systems. It studies the Carrier boosting of the receiver enabled direct detection optical OFDM (DDO-OFDM) to outperform coherent 17

OOFDM in the nonlinear limit. Boosting also improves the effectiveness of nonlinearity precompensation substantially. Y. Tang, X. Yi, W. Shieh and R. Evans [2009]: [24] studies the Optimum Design for Coherent Optical OFDM Transmitter. Optimum design for coherent optical OFDM transmitter has been analyzed. In contract to the direct-detection system, the optimal modulator bias point for the coherent system is where the nonlinearity and excessive loss are minimized Wei-Ren Peng, Jason (Jyehong) Chen, and Sien Chi [2010]: [25] studied the On the Phase Noise Impact in Direct-Detection Optical OFDM Transmission. In this letter, they characterized the impact of laser phase noise (PN) in directdetection optical orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) and emphasize its several differences from those in coherent optical OFDM. They also analyzed the system performance in the presence of PN for various Quadrature-amplitude-modulation formats and provide the bit-error-rate estimation method which can yield reliable results when the PN -induced optical signal-to-noise ratio penalty is lower than 2 dB. Alan Barbieri, Giulio Colavolpe, Tommaso Foggi, Enrico Forestier and Giancarlo Prati [2010]: [26] studied the OFDM versus Single-Carrier Transmission for 100 Gbps Optical Communication. They analyzed the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) technique in long-haul next generation optical communication links and compare it with the wellestablished single-carrier (SC) data transmission using high-level modulation formats and coherent detection. The analysis of the two alternative solutions is carried out in the 100 Gbps scenario, which is commonly considered to be the next upgrade of existing optical links, with special emphasis on quaternary phase-shift keying (QPSK) modulations. Nir Shaffy and Dan Sadot IEEE member [2010]: [27] studied the Direct Modulation and Coherent Detection Optical OFDM. It studies about the Optical orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (O-OFDM) with a novel direct modulation and coherent detection system at 34.3 Gb/s and 16 QAM is proposed. Electronic pre-compensation of laser frequency response is applied at the transmitter. 18

Kai ming Feng and Wei Ren Peng IEEE [2010]: [28] studied the Enhancing Spectral Efficiency and Receiving Sensitivity in a Direct-Detected OFDM System. In this paper, they reviewed the latest developments in improving the spectral efficiency and receiving sensitivity in a directdetected OFDM transmission system. An RF-tone assisted virtual single sideband (VSSB) OFDM modulation format is proposed to enhance the spectral efficiency in both electrical and optical domains for direct detected OFDM applications. Satana Suppitux, Soonthorn Tangkachavana, Thipvadee Vinichhayakul, and Prapun Suksompong [2010]: [29] studied the enhancing PAPR reduction for Tone Reservation Algorithms by deep clipping. Large Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) has been a crucial problem in OFDM system. Tone reservation (TR) is a well known technique to reduce PAPR. Its advantages include no side information and no distortion on the data-bearing carriers. Gong LinYang Shu-hui, Chen Yinchao IEEE [2010]: [30] studied Research on the reduction of PAPR for OFDM signals by companding and clipping method. In this paper, they proposed a union algorithm of Companding and clipping method to reduce Peak-to-average Ratio (PAPR) in Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) system. Jean Armstrong IEEE [2010]: [31] studied the New OFDM PAPR reduction technique. This paper describes a new peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) reduction scheme for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM. A time domain version of the OFDM signal is generated using an oversized inverse discrete Fourier transform (DFT). Neil Carson and T. Aaron Gulliver [2010]: [32] studied the PAPR Reduction of OFDM Using Selected Mapping, Modified RA Codes and Clipping. The demand for high speed wireless communications is constantly increasing. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a modulation technique that can be used to address this demand as it performs well in fading channels. However, OFDM has one significant drawback, the potential for a high Peak-toAverage Power Ratio (PAPR). This paper presents a novel approach to reducing the PAPR using a modified Repeat- Accumulate (RA) code and signal clipping.

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Eprahim B. Al-Safadi and Tareq Y. Al-Naffouri [2010]: [33] studied the Reducing of the complexity of Tone-Reservation based PAPR reduction schemes by compressive sensing. In this paper, they described a novel design of a Peak-to-Average-Power-Ratio (PAPR) reducing system, which exploits the relative temporal sparsity of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexed (OFDM) signals to detect the positions and amplitudes of clipped peaks, by partial observation of their frequency content at the receiver. Zhiyuan Huang, Juhao Li, Su Zhang, Fan Zhang, Zhangyuan Chen [2010]: [34] studied the Investigations of SPM Suppression by PAPR Reduction in Coherent Optical OFDM Systems. They investigated SPM suppression for coherent optical OFDM systems utilizing three PAPR reduction methods including the clipping, the selective mapping and the partial transmit sequence. Hamidreza Bakhshi, Mohammadamin Shirvani [2010]: [35] studied the Peak-to-Average Power Ratio Reduction by Combining Selective Mapping and Golay Complementary Sequences. They studied a new method for reduction of Peak-to-Average Power Ratio in OFDM systems by combining selective mapping and Golay complementary sequences. Yafei Hou, Tomohiro Hase [2010]: [36] studied a new way of PAPR reduction for OFDM system. This paper proposes a new peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) reduction technique for OFDM systems. The proposed system selects the specific duration of each time-domain OFDM symbol which can achieve a promising PAPR, to transmit equal bits of data. Carole Devlin, Anding Zhu, and Thomas J. Brazil [2010]: [37] studied a PAPR Reduction Technique for OFDM Signals Using Unused Tones with Phase Information. A major drawback of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is the high Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) of the transmit signal which can significantly impact power efficiency and performance. In this paper they presented a PAPR reduction technique which exploits the phase of the signal in the frequency domain. Y. Z. Jiao, X. J. Liu, and X. A. Wang [2010]: [38] studied a novel Tone Reservation Scheme with Fast convergence for PAPR reduction in OFDM systems. OFDM is facing great opportunities and challenges in current broadband communication era. These opportunities and challenges derive from the native advantages and disadvantages of OFDM technology respectively. Too high PAPR 20

is one of the main problems that prevent OFDM from being used more generally in broadband systems. Many approaches such as clipping and filtering, coding, SLM, PTS, and tone reservation have been studied to reduce the peak magnitude of OFDM symbols. In these approaches, tone reservation is considered as one of the most promising methods because of no additional distortion, no side information, and low implementation cost. In this paper, a novel tone reservation scheme is presented. Its essential idea is that a subcarrier selected from all reserved subcarriers for PAPR reduction should have a phase close to one of , /2+, + and -/2+, at the peak location in time domain, where is the phase of the peak sample.

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CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM FORMULATION

3.1 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY To Design and Simulate Optical OFDM system using OPTSIM. To carry out the PAPR performance analysis of above data format on the basis of performance matrices using Instantaneous Power. To improve the PAPR in optical transmission link by employing different techniques using MATLAB. 3.2 PROBLEM FORMULATION Since Optical OFDM system involves analogue modulation, and detection of light, it is fundamentally an analogue transmission system. Therefore, signal impairments such as noise and distortion, which are important in analogue communication systems, are important in these systems as well. These impairments tend to limit the Noise Figure (NF) and Dynamic Range of these links. The noise sources in analogue optical fiber links include the lasers Relative Intensity Noise (RIN), the lasers phase noise; the photodiodes shot noise, the amplifiers thermal noise. In Single Mode Fiber (SMF) based OOFDM, system, chromatic dispersion may limit the fiber link lengths and may also cause phase de-correlation leading to increased RF carrier phase noise. In Multi-Mode Fiber based OOFDM systems, modal dispersion severely limits the available link bandwidth and distance. It must be stated that although the OOFDM transmission system itself is analogue, the radio system being distributed need not be analogue as well, but it may be digital (e.g. WLAN, UMTS), using comprehensive multi-level signal modulation formats such as xQAM, or Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). AM\AM distortions are a major focus of research with OFDM systems. Because of the large number of carriers used in an OFDM system especially for UWB, the dynamic range for the output of the RF signal can be quite large. Thus, researcher have been facing with the problem of minimizing the amount of harmonic distortions caused by driving the modulator into saturation yet maintaining an efficient operating point .The non-linearity causes two effects on the detected samples: 22

 Constellation warping of amplitude and phase distortions. Nonlinear distortion, which causes a cluster of received values around each constellation point rather than a single point. 3.3 High Peak to Average Power Reduction Because of the difficulty with filtering out near-in inter-modulation (IM) products, IM is the most difficult to deal with. Equally important situation is when the harmonic distortions are caused by the input signal driving the amplifier into its saturation region. In the saturation region, an increase in input drive level does not result in an increase in output power level. The definition for
the beginning of the saturation region is specified relative to the 1 dB compression point. Shown in Figure the 1 dB compression point is labeled P 1dB and is defined as the point at which a 1 dB increase in input power results in 1 dB decrease in the linear gain of the analog device. There for, the dynamic range of analog device, which also corresponds to the linear region of operation for an analog device, is defined between the noise-limited region and the saturation region.

Fig 3.10 Represents Power Transfer Function

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3.4 High Peak to Average Power of OFDM Large peak-to-average ratio (PAPR) distorts the OFDM signal if the transmitter contains

nonlinear components such as laser sources. The nonlinear effects on the transmitted OFDM symbols are spectral spreading, inter-modulation, and changing the signal constellation. In other words, the nonlinear distortion causes both in-band and out-of-band interference to signals. The in-band interference increases the BER of the received signal through warping of the signal constellation and inter-modulation while the out-of-band interference causes adjacent channel interference through spectral spreading. The latter is what prevents the usage of OFDM in many systems even if the in-band interference is tolerable. Therefore the laser source requires a back off, which is approximately equal to the PAPR for distortion less transmission. So, reducing the PAPR is of practical interest. The OFDM baseband signal for N subcarriers is:

1 where the an and bn are the in-phase and quadrature modulating symbols. If each carrier has amplitude A, the maximum PAPR will be: (NA)^2 / [N*(A2/2)] = 2N When the number of subcarriers N is small, a PAPR of 2N has reasonable chances of occurring. However, if N is large enough so that the central limit theorem applies, the amplitude distribution of the OFDM signal is better approximated by a Rayleigh distribution since a PAPR of 2N has exceedingly small probability of occurring. The cumulative distribution function for the peak power per OFDM symbol is shown in equation 2

2 Where z is the complex envelope power of x (t) and 2z represents envelope power to average symbol power ratio.

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3.5 PAPR Reduction Methods The high PAPR of OFDM means that if the signal is not to be distorted, many

of components in the transmitter and receiver must have a wide dynamic range. In particular the output amplifier of the transmitter must be very linear over a wide range of signal levels. In wireless systems the expense and power consumption of these amplifiers is often an important design constraint. Inter modulation resulting from any nonlinearity results in two major impairments: out-of-band (OOB) power and in-band distortion. In wireless communications OOB power is usually the more important, because of the near-far problem; interference from the OOB power of a close transmitter may swamp reception from a distant transmitter. For this reason the specifications on OOB power in wireless are very stringent. OOB power caused by transmitter nonlinearities may be much less of a problem in optical applications of OFDM. As we will show, in-band distortion is a relatively small effect and becomes important only for large signal constellations.

3.6 CHOICE OF KEY ELEMENTS FOR OPTICAL OFDM SYSTEM

(1) Useful symbol duration The useful symbol duration T affects the carrier spacing and coding latency. To maintain the data throughput, a longer useful symbol duration results in increase of the number of carriers and the size of FFT (assume the constellation Fixed) In Practice, carrier offset and phase stability may affect how close two carriers can be placed. Its application is for the mobile reception, the carrier spacing must be large enough to make Doppler shift negligible. Generally the useful symbol duration should be chosen so that the channel is stable for the duration of a symbol (2) Number of carriers The number of sub-carriers can be determined based on channel bandwidth, data throughput and useful symbol duration. The carriers are spaced by the reciprocal of the useful symbol duration. The number of carriers corresponds to the number of complex points being preceded in FFT. For HDTV applications, the number of sub-carriers are in 25

the range of several thousands, so as to accommodate the data rate and guard interval requirement.

(3) Modulation scheme The modulation scheme in an OFDM system can be selected based on the requirement of power spectrum efficiency and the desired BER performance. The type of modulation can be specified by the complex number a+jb. The selection of the modulation scheme applying to each sub-channel depends solely on the compromise between the data rate requirement and transmission robustness and another advantage of OFDM is that different modulation schemes can be used on different sub-channels. (4) Guard interval The trade-off of guard interval is to set it large enough to avoid inter symbol interference depending upon the memory channel and transmitter position spacing in a single frequency network. On the other hand, we want it to be as small as possible as it carries no information and can be seen as a spoil of bandwidth. In wireless system; a guard interval of 25% of symbol period is often met.

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[1] Eric Lawrey, thesis on The suitability of OFDM as a modulation technique for wireless telecommunication, with a CDMA comparison, (1997). [2] Web Site :Web Site :www.complextoreal.com (2004) Intuitive Guide to Principles of communication(2004) [3] Web Site: www.adc.com , white paper on The OFDM advantages,IEEE Trans. ,Vol. 14,No.5,2001. [4] Bryn J. Dixon, OFDM in wirelesss communication system with multimode fiber feeds,IEEE Trans.Microwave theory and techniques,Vol.49,No.8,August 2001 [5] Debashis Chanda,Abu Sesay and Bob Davies Performance of clipped OFDM signal in Fiber IEEE ,Niagara falls,May 2004 [6] O.Gonzalez,Rperez,A.Ayala OFDM over indoor wireless optical

channelIEEE,Optoelectron, Vol.152, No.4, August 2005 [7] N.E Jolley,H.Kee Generation and propagation of a 1550 nm 10 Gb/s optical OFDM signal over 1000m of multimode fibre using a directly modulated DFB Optical Networks Advanced technology,Essex ,(2005) [8] Arthur James Lowery and Jean Armstrong 10 Gb/s multimode fiber link using power efficient OFDM.Optics Express Vol 13,NO.25,November 2005.

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optical OFDM signals in WDM systems. Optics Express ,Vol. 15,No.8,April 2007 [15] W.Shieh, X.Yi and Y.Tang Transmission experiment of multi-gigabit coherent optical OFDM systems over 1000 Km SSMF fibreElectronics Letters Vol. 43 No. 3 February 2007 [16] Yan Tang ,William Shieh , Xingwen Yi (April 2007) Optimum Design for RF to Optical Up- Converter in coherent optical OFDM Systems IEEE photonics Technology Letters ,Vol. 19, No. 7,April 2007 [17] Brendon J.C Schmidt,Arthur James Lowery and Jean Armstrong Experimental

Demonstrations of 20 Gb/s Direct Detection optical OFDM and 12 Gb/s with a colorless transmitter Deptt. OF ECE engineering,Monash University,Clayton,2007. [18] W.Shieh PMD Supported coherent Optical OFDM systems ,IEEE Photonics Technology letters, Vol. 19,No. 3,February 2007.

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Phase Estimation for coherent Optical OFDM ,IEEE

Photonics Technology letters, Vol. 19,No. 12,June 2007. [20] Arthur James Lowery Fiber nonlinearity pre and post - compensation for long haul optical links using OFDM,Optics Express, Vol. 15,No. 20 ,October 2007.

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