The Anthropology of the Senses and Sensations Author(s): Jack Goody Reviewed work(s): Source: La Ricerca Folklorica, No.

45, Antropologia delle sensazioni (Apr., 2002), pp. 17-28 Published by: Grafo s.p.a. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1480153 . Accessed: 23/10/2012 07:26
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JACK GOODY

The of the and Anthropology Senses Sensations

and level.AnthropoloThe senses have botha narrower wider physiological at a cultural and with the latter and have In reference. Europe narrow the refers gists nowdeal largely to meaning attention the physiological to senses. the fivesenses distinguished Aristotle by (what paid little I forconvenience refer as the basic senses). Butat the beginning thiscentury, earlier, to of and Butthereis a wider the usage inwhich senses manyscholars as well as the general public for a wouldinclude, example, sense ofhumour, considered that some general differences ofjustice,ofduty, colour, rhythm. there between mentalities the members soof of And the of of is a third even broader and the calledadvanced and primitive societiesrelated to usage in which term coversthe capacity physical sense (inthe singular) The inheritance. philosopher Levy-Bruhl to understand, makesense, to havecommon- wrote 'primitive to of he mentalities' which saw as sense. fromours regarding basically verydifferent The basic senses are our windows the perceptions, least cognitively. problematon at That the senses we acquireinforma-iccontinued hold stageat thephysiological world. to the Through tionas wellas sensations,which related are to level as well,and investigations place to took thesenses ina more thanetymological The determine way. how far basic sensoryperceptions stimulus sensations or feelingsmaycome differed thesimpler for in societies.One ofthefirst from outsideor from inside.Indeedthe majorexpeditionsof scientiststo a 'simple' the the wider to of refers only the culture not meaning theword tookplace aboutone hundred yearsago, not to rangeoffeelings, simply whatwe experi- in1898, andwas organised thezoologist, A.C. by encethrough senses but therange senti- Haddon, the to of whorecruited doctors assist him, four to mentssurging within and whosepresenceis W.H.R.Rivers, McDougall, Seligmanand us, W. C. oftenincludedin the concept of 'mentalities' C.S. Myers. Noneofthem, had Haddon, including historians, much previous experience of anthropology, employed psychologically-minded by for in the of example, discussing distributionthe certainly socialanthropology; interest not their lay sentiment feeling loveor,more or of relat- in directly of a physiological bent.Threeof psychology ed to thesenses, ofbeauty. thembecametheeffective founders psycholoof I shall initially confine discussionto the my the filled ofthe one gyinBritain; fourth, Seligman, first these, to the narrower of of meanings the first Chairs Anthropology. Rivers of When arrived words.But itwillnot be altogether possibleto inthe islandsofNewGuinea,he established"a sincesense-impressions small keeptothatresolution, in psychological laboratory" the disused constitute major inwhich interact the we with way house on Murray Island wherethe missionary the world(in this sense theyare mediators, teamworked four for months. topicsinvestiThe in involved representation) thoughts and about concerned possibledifferwith gatedweremostly their statusinthiscapacity much affect our ences in very sensorycapacities betweenwestern of it. Lateron the discussionis and understanding societies,thatis, in simpler extendedto touchupon the questionof sentimentalities. ments, feelings, visualactivity sensibility light and to difference; Allexperience theworld of outsideis mediatcolour for vision, blindness, including testing colour ed by senses, including the aesthetic experience colournomenclature, thresholds different the for in the arts and beyond.The senses are the and the colour colours,after-images, contrast, means of communication, at vision theperipheral of binocular line retina; vision; operating botha

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visual some which inves- etc. in anyoverall were with dividing; illusions, of scheme,whether fiveor of quantitatively; andrange hearing; any othernumber components. acuity tigated of Not onlyis discrimination of tone-difference; smell rhythm, and thereno grouping but together the LoDagaa of to and taste;tactile acuity localization; sensibility northern Ghana have no collective word the for ofweight pain; temperature discrimination spots; senses. Onecan refer to generally bodily feelings and illusions weight; of reaction-time, including is my and and inthephrasen id ba num, body notsweet auditory visualsimplereaction-time is indiestimationintervalstime; of of memo- (nu5).That adjective also used to describe choice-time; mental and muscular senses such as taste,a ziernumona,the power vidual ry; fatigue practice; and motor and blood soup is sweet ('tastes good'), the oppositeof accuracy; drawing writing; under various etc. conditions, 1 which pressure changes wouldbe tuo,bitter. Other senses recognizedincluded touch(fiil), smell(nyO0), hearing, Theinvestigators only found smalldifferences are but to referred bytheverb sight, they usually inthephysiological there variables, clearly though thanbythe abstract noun.More(action)rather weresome at the cultural level,forexamplein over verbs the for andsmelling well as (as hearing and colourterminology in drawing and writing, for and smoking) to be thesame, appear of inter- drinking subjectsthathave remained continuing thoughthe actions themselves are certainly these latter differences little have to est, though when thisis required. with do physiologically thesenses orwith sensa- distinguished Is the grouping of together the senses in a tions. Rivers concluded thatat this levelthere namedcategory, a fixed with number of specific was little difference societieswith between and elementsand a higher degree of abstraction, without writing althoughbetween individuals Watt that by there was. Butthatuniversalism notthewhole encouraged literacy? and I argued writis the from the ing promotes abstractas distinct of story.The classification colourdoes differ contextualised oflanguage2.Thatis use concrete, among human societies in interesting ways, the the in histori- certainly case with use of nouns(Goody apparently developmentally,a cultural is 1987). Thenumerical developmentsuggested by cal sequence (Berlin Kay1969). Thosedifferand the dominating of tendency the Chineseto group ences may affect understandingcolour, our of for and of for by the of be attributes persons all kinds numbers, example English perception orange may theFour Gentlemen Flowers, Gang of the influenced the use of a fruit a concrete example, as by For seems relativeOn referent. theother is handthere no indication ofFour. thebasicsenses there inliterate little difference cultures this at the level; thattheabsence ofa term an to implies inability ly number is widespread, five for possibly physiologidiscriminate. case of writing somewhat The is to the possibly do with spreadofwritnot the as clearer, regarding senses so much the cal reasons, ten knowledge Important 3. differences the in and emotions and sensations,thatis, feelings of lie conceptualisationthesenses do however at the problem howthese are elaborated the of in the cultural leveland relate three to mainareas, I pursuelater. is writing one the Thereare certainly some universal features firstly placeofthesenses inthetotalcultural the on secondly variable emphasis placed from physiological the ones. Humansoci- universe, apart the senses, and thirdly evaluation, eties in generalrecognise same senses of the different the the ofsense impressions, of credibility, touch,taste, smell, as we do. indeed very sight,hearing, data. at the sensory However, looking the questionmorefrom the between sensthe of standpoint social or cultural anthropology, Regarding relationship es and the cultural the side of universe, formal thereis little evidencethatthe recognition of such linkagesis illustrated the case of the by senses as a category, particular a group in of of in which characteristiis system India, fivesenses, is a widespread conceptualisationAyurvedic a written ofmedicine. five form The outsideEurope Asia.Indeed oralcultures cally senses, and the are under the ofAfrica, them, grouped while senses ofsight theothers as we know the and together are clearly do recognized, notappear to group concept rasa. The senses are in turnlinked in of together the senses oftouch,sight, hearing, formally, a mannertypicalof earlywritten with elements theuniverse. of cultures, thefive
2 3

Rivers 1901-3: 1-12. five senses wits theconcept but also to faculties widely, more applies mental andWatt 1963. Goody for 'witless' Kerrigan). example, (John Inearly modern the are English five the

Ether Sound Air Soundand touch Fire Sound,touchand sight

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sense oftaste. The elaboration a complex of or Water Sound,touch, and sight taste tasteand smell haute cuisine,the frequent of spices, the Earth Sound,touch, use sight, of of its emergence a culture winewith profeswas as Such a systematisation notprimitive, sionalterminology, factors toa greater these lead some structuralist writers have thought, an emphasisbeing but stratplacedupontaste inmany writ- ified ofcomplex, least early at example complex, post-Bronze societiesand at thesame Age tengraphic timeto a development the ability discrimiof to display4. the second point,the relative nate betweenflavours. this sense, taste is In Regarding of like importance thesenses, theChinesehavelong cultivated, flowers. the dwelton this topic in writing, recognizing Perhaps that is also trueof the sense of in as as same five a set as Europeans early the smell, which closely is to linked tasteand is often of third B.C.E.,for exampleinthewriting applied cooking to wine. century to and There seem to do of Xunzi and (Hsujn-tzu), Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzi) of be some broad differences relatedto cultural 5. late Zhou (Chou)dynasty thinkers In his work elaboration of this kind of and it has been writes thefive suggested methat of Heaven',Hsun-tzu 'Concerning to African societiesdo notfor and receive stimuli cannot examplegreatly senses each ofwhich elaboratethe discrimination of senses - the smellanymore be interchanged; these are thefive thanthey oftaste,ofcuisine; do natural are by (T'ien)senses - which controlled certainly boththese cases the vocabulary in the heart, their natural ruler6. The Japan- seems somewhat (T'ien) in to limited comparison the ese appearto have adoptedthe Chineseideas, major of civilisations Eurasia. in probably the Nara or the earlyHeian (794The Chinesecase also raises thethird point viewof Confu- to which referred, 1185) periodsince the writer's I the since significantly elaboat cianism was favoured thecourt. ratecultivation thesenses goes handinhand of has Butthequestion sight been particular-withtheir of 8. rejection, especially in Buddhism for ly important Chinese authors, no doubt Much in neo-Confucian China, Japan thought both an to because ofthe importance given painting, and Korea deals with'human desire' versus with use the thatwas closelyconnected activity the linked to 'heavenly principle', first obviously for The ofthebrush writing, calligraphy7. prolif-the senses and to the for as butwhich, in earth, in eration Chinesecharacters, thelogographic most of we leave for religions, must eventually has meansthatspecial attention to be system, is more destination. another, spiritual, Sensuality in paid to small differences graphemeswhich thus to spirituality, riseto dualist, opposed giving haveto be learnt heart. courseinpreliterate Of by viewsof the world which Manichaean, rejected societies,menand womenhaveto be awareof the fleshinfavour the of Relianceon the spirit. visualclues, for or different example,in hunting senses also raises a related opposition, espein travelling fromplace to place. But when in the of and cially Japan,between notion 'duty' it continbecomesvisible does demand language to the 'natural emotional instincts', though get attention decipherment. at uous, concentrated round this dichotomy, some Chineseturned to of Andina wider sense, thedevelopment visual some to classicalwriting example, Dai ritual, (for for in representations, example,in perspective, of Zhen),and othersto notions moralaccountin landscapes,inanatomical drawings, botanical I thatone finds roots the of ing9. havesuggested does of illustration, seem to have an affect the thisopposition humansociety in but generally, the waywe perceive world. more'intellectuSuchcultural influences yet are clearer the thatit becomes moreexplicit, for when facedwith reflexivity the ofwriting. alised', That dilemma relates tothequesvery directly 4 Iam indebtedAsha to Sarabhai help. 7 Clunas1981. for tion aesthetics theappreciation beauty. of and of 5 See University ofChicago T. Brook 1998. thesison With each sense a discrimination be made may 'The China'. SensesinEarly 9 I am muchindebted Dr J. McDerto on a scale running betweenpositive (good)and The Works Hsijn-tzu, of trans. H.H. mottforhelp withthis section. See between beautithe (bad) impressions, negative Dubs, London1928, pp. 175-6; Fung Chow Kaiwing1994, and Dai Zhen, fuland theugly whendealing with but sight, with of on Yale 199Xand Yu-lan,A History Chinese Philoso- commenting Mencius, similar evaluations a kind for others. (of +/-) the vol. I., The Periodof the Philoso- C. Brokaw, Moral Books,Princephy, Ledger pleasureare all associated with Beauty, delight, phers,trans. by D. Bodde, Princeton, ton,1990. the positive sensations.Tastes too rangefrom 1952 p. 304. I am indebted David to McMullen thesereferences. for smell(though English in goodto bad, so too with
8 6

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the knowledge thatflowers were harbingers of fruit berries shouldnottherefore gathor and be eredforother elsewhere would purposeswhich be deemedaesthetic. The cultivation flowers gardens,and of and with perhaps cultivation a sense oftheir it the of seems first have been elaborated to at beauty, courtsand amongaristocracies, centresof at written culture. Thatis notso very different from

are a words also involved),pleasant the cultivation of for cuisine taste, haute separate (grande) and an unpleasant disturbing) the of or sound;with andfor appreciationrare wines, indeed (or is in the which marginalthis much artistic craft and which touch, respect, skin from activity often receives both and as activities.was inthis It sensations, originated luxury painful pleasant way suchas fire heat. varietyterms used that formal A of and are the theatre a developed, factthat to describe on one of to points thisrange experiencesconstituted oftheobjections thestagein in but most as or and The eighteenth century earlier. samewas languages, inEnglish LoDagaa, the the termsgood and bad could probably true secular be of collections art; of they were seen of of of time', appliedacross the wholerangeof senses. as products theluxury, 'leisure However scalebetween andbadrelates catering theelite, class-based, they the for as until good ina more evaluationsense were of neutralisedbeing in museprofound tothe placed public way by of of and So of data, sensation, aesthetic experience of ums. itwasnot a question Africa only being on we without flowers evenin Eurasia, touched. but where the emotion, which have For carries it notion anti- luxury withthe of in aesthetics cultures China, India theNear and East of of in their and aestheticism, therejection an interest hadencouraged domestication cultivawhat other other or other tion, there onefound too situations periods and societies, peoples, to timesconsider be important of their diminished ifnot categories inwhich use was greatly This a of andforbidden. experience. is not simply matter differaltogether rejected enceintaste, example painting inflow- Takefor for in or instance theexample Jewish at of ers. There also a definite is of cemeteries. flowers ever No are rejection these and Islamic activities may several which take forms. or in grown offered these places. One major I Whenwasworkingtheculture flowers,reason that suchoffering be viewed on of is could any I was struck thegreat variations their in use as an attempt influence deadinto to the by looking and appreciation, that differences werepartlyafterthe living, whereasin these strongly related aesthetic to Flowers often monotheistic are choices. the of religions God only holds reins seenas havingparticular to a appeal thesenses power. ofsight smell, it commonly in and and was stated Such hesitation, even ambivalence, and theliterature thelove flowers univerof that was the situations regarding use ofwhatin other to related thephysical ofbees to might a desirable attractions be to sal, offering, appealing the colourful scented and flowers hence their various to is true flowers itis espeof but senses, (and One these cially oftherepresentations true offlowers. Like propagation). was ledtoassumethat universal features wererepresented the other in these disaprepresentations figurative aesthetic of for from Christian culture they as did preferenceshumans physiologipeared early cal reasons. from Jewish Muslim and ones.Thereasons was But humans out be more turn to one complicated. nature, was partly (in religious representing Incertain circumstances subvert to whatonly Creator the they supposed- attempting recreate universals. struck inlookingcouldcreate) What me and partly secular related ly biological (which at sub-Saharan Africa thefact was that flowersclosely problems to luxury regarding butalso to were little or decoration;thevalidity sense impressions general, of in at very used inrituals for had been For they never domesticated inEurasia) least oftheir (as representations). Plato,an was a lie,never thing the itself. too and even wildspecies held little So at attraction, image since least as plucked flowers. I interpreted this were objects, reality beyond lay appearance the or a One not as from the in ideaof flowertable. could trust neglect,even rejection, resulting thedataofone's senses which for preference ediblecropsand to overwhelming depended upon
and the representation couldnotrecognize real, the pure,thing. Andifthe representation was also a luxury, problem further the was aggravated. Inother words perception sense data the of was strongly influenced onlyby individual not cultures differences, specific by (andtheir hierarchies) butwas also qualified a moregeneral by factor some humancultures some at marking a distrust thatdata, especialof periods, certain

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when and associated 'luxury' with with thesetwogreat achievely rejected beauty, nent virtually andanambivalence attempts re-present about to ments itsownclassicalaesthetic of heritage. itinwhat think as one of civilothers about desirable ways. Sculpture, ofthemajor glories Greek Some early Christian fathers Clement isation like thatprovides centre the piece ofthe at Louvre many and the of other museums, rejected givingflowersfunerals preferring practigreat to in three instead give thepoor. hadalso beena cally to That for dimendisappeared centuriesits theme theRoman of later of until moralists, taken by sionalform, theearly up years the Italian Christians. expressed concern theuse Renaissance. about They ofluxuriestheir culture,particular in own in those So toodidtheformal another theatre, major of of evenat thepopular luxuries perfumes silks, very like and the objects glory Greece Rome; and in terms smell touch, level of dramatic was under and aesthetic preferences presperformance often the even the that were atgreat from abroad surefrom church after riseofreliimported expense That was only to gratify senses. ThetrueRoman the ideally gious plays. disappearance not due none this; theearly of like he tothe of Roman nor the fall the Germans, Empire yet decline required their a these neededonly crown grass,notofprecious inthe of economy, played though factors in It metal. Suchquestioning widespread the part. wasideological ideologically was econom(and were as as classical Eastinboth secular ic).Theatres actually world theNear and destroyed well in andreligious contexts. it occurredother allowed fall disrepair. But also to into to The applied representations, majorcivilisations. Chinesephilosopher Theserejections to of did Mencius worried aboutthe legitimacy such to thearts, detractors, not which, their as as it. What for such aesthetic ends, present reality much misrepresent expenditure, effortspurely to when poor the were appealed thesensesofsomewasrejected by starving. I suggest and that thiscritical attitude towards others, atsomeperiods all.Similar by objec'real'objects suchas as part luxury emerges an intrinsic ofitsappear- tionsare madeagainst which ance (andtherefore much of aesthetic flowers, onceagainhada great related appealto where and sense experience), repre-the senses forsome butweremistrusted by especially of with or sentations concerned. other are In words certain others because their association luxury, in the were associatedexperiences, particular post- because sensestowhich appealed in they Bronze cultures rich where and poorexist suspecton wider as metaphysical Age grounds, resideby but highly side with and as differentiated of presenting therefore possibly misprestyles is their critique. reaction senting world This the outside. life, promote own in context distrustthesensthis of found of especially thewritings philosophers Ina religious in in of of like like Mencius, moralists Pliny, satirists es was found Buddhism,early Christianity, like and a critique civili-andelsewhere; of Puritanism indeed perhaps Juvenal, itconstitutes may itself. itdoes not But with result a universal from in cultures sation stop thewritten tendencyluxury in nor of towards sense. We are word intheminds specialists. puritanism a wider I have is that to different societies prob- accustomed theideathat argued there an inevitable lem contradiction)only luxury with have not with different for but of of (a concepts beauty, example, itself women. is an instrinsic ofthecontemThat representation since thisfundamental part human intrinsic language to is to cultural commitment relativism. in But (which porary activity mediated thesense of hearing) raise fact difference the cultures periods and between by may doubts of of much further is structuredwide aboutthevalidity theprocess re- extends and by theworld, and ideas. That comparative suchas thedomestication factors, presenting 'reality' is to in exclusion poets offlowers post-Bronze societies. of Flowers problem intrinsicPlato's Age from Republicpainters becausethey provide good example.In actuality, do not his a we too,
of flowa sensation beauty towards what him to was already represen- find universal a represented of tation the world reality of differembodiedin ideas. ers; as sense data theyare experienced in But What created was never thing the but ently. thedifferences perception deepitself, they go since it made claims in that direction, was er. Doubtsmayalso be felt it aboutthevalidity of a therefore lie. as rise sensory perception such,giving to a lack A similarnotionarises withsculpture and oftrust thesenses, a deliberate in aside setting theatre. ofthemostprofound aboutthe of pleasure,of beauty, One facts whichcan be seen as mankind from proper the The culture Medieval of path. astray Europeis thewaythatconti- leading

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is somewhat when different the Theproblematic as of senses aredistrusted means attaining whereone can And truth. those we are dealingwith at least the ultimate truth, images with the a on doubts connected theone handwith compare representation therepresentare the schemawhere view Cathar, oftheworld, ed, exceptin the Platonic dualistic, manichean, not but since falsifies thesurface is ofour which unworthy attention reality,image reality theidea is samewith sensedatawhere is the behind That the it. lies The spiritual reality, beyond. flesh bad, and contrast between internal of representation spirit good.Notall components all societies the be in can and external all this 'reality' never fact made;one display tendency thetime; groups side bysideto compare. over That can never cultures their orientation time. placethem change of of aboutthevalidity sense data view onecomponentearly as was Christianity Hencedoubts than well oflater There as Puritanism. isalsoan impor-seem less widespread thoseaboutrepreof kind. the tant of that componentBuddhism distrusted sentation theiconic on madegreat another senses, while publication Representations component inan earlier andContradictions I argued doubts that use ofthem. (1997) but forms repreof aboutimages other But not Thosewerethe religious only approaches. at in oral sentation found leastimplicitly were view there also thesecular ofphilosophers was These doubts often were to cultures. most andmoralists, broughtthe expressed clearly Bishop by as in who distrustedsurface writing, in eighteenth the reflexivity, by encouraging Berkeley century doubts aboutthe Plato'scase. Do we also find sense data as a meansof learning implicit the of cultures? doubt outside world eventhrew and uponthe about validitysensedatainoral I on Such Thatis a subject which am unclear, existence one'sself well theOther. of as as partly mentioned and above the nature expe- becauseofthedifficulties of an approach questioned very one to becauseuntil getswritten rience whereas religious hadrather partly the belief categorisaof the tions basicsenses,as in Aristotelian dowith contentthat sense impressions the case, is, the between senses(as with the were ways Godbut to that not distractions; was theboundaries and of Bernard ClairvauxLoDagaa conceptsof hearing/smelling) theview theCistercian, of what as of between wewould which very counter that Archbishto ran much spirregard mystical, of thepurvue thesensthe of thepromoter Abbey of Church St itual, experiences beyond opSuger, is less The with of Denis, itsabundance stained glasswhose es are much clear-cut. see-er also a the the is to to was held be an opening thesuper- seer,discovering future; hearer also a beauty of or of hearer 'voices' ofthemusic thespheres. natural. of Inother there have beentwo the these broader words opposing Within framework categories of the viewswhich have been stressedat different perception through senses, thereis exist perhaps cause to doubt; less sincethere no timesand places butwhich is mayoften tothe the and limitation physical, empirical, in doubt contemporaneously giveriseto contradicsometimes inthesame person even and a senseis built-in. tions, not the Let turn the me to linked of about reambivalence, simply concept sensations producing of related only are not presentation sense data butaboutthevery which clearly etymologically of Mankind at with sensesbut theonehand physical is the on to validitythesedatathemselves. to oncehighly inforexperience 1) dependent thesensesfor upon (feelings and on the other sentiments passions and mationabout the outsideworld (and in a way emotions, 2). (feelings the of about his internal experience, sensation heatis states) butmayalso distrust As physical less abstract, thesense of than whatthey him.Is thatthetruth is ita lie? more tell or specific, so sensations not are numerically cateWe are back at the Platonic problem regarding touch, that
and in as basicsenses. representations thearts.Foreventhesens- gorized thesame way the(five) es are re-presentingus something claim Nor it to is easy find to translations non-European into they and we assume is outthere.These rejectionist languages non-written for ones) gener(especially notionsemergefrom timeto time as explicit al concepts sensation, like emotion, etc., feeling, thereis alwayspresentin eventhough some particular emotions recogare ideologies.However thehuman situation possibility doubt the of about nised, example, andhate.But emotionfor love the the waythe senses work, about the waythey al sides ofsensations much 2) (feelings areclearly informationus and act as mediators to with more toclassify specify thesensdifficult and than relay theworld us. around refer only the mediabywhich to not we es; they

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world also a the the inward Fromscientific standpoint modern experience outside but tothe study or statesto which thoseexperiences, internalofemotions backto Darwin's account of goes reflection the experiences, rise.In TheExpression Emotions Manand Animals in of upon give is ofsensesbut (1872). He was essentially there to concerned docuEnglish is a lexical typology or one emotions passions, ment evolutionary there ofsensations, his so put hypothesis forward I doubt wearedealing successfully TheOrigin Species. Byshowing or if either in of explicit implicit? with set defined either theactors bythe not simply transcultural or a the of nature such by of In observers. his extensive but study emotions expression also itstrans-specific character, would be he countered creationist oftheinsurnot which Harr6 the view 'hope', (1986)includes term first ofmany The 'emotion' came mountable between andanimals, man and part listings. gap in into at to between animal century indeed English theendofthesixteenth species; tryingshow by sense of 'a political social a universality expression only or thenow obsolete intheir not among only the century of agitation'; in following (1660)was humans among whole theanimal but the kingIts for an of itusedfiguratively agitationthemind. dom.Thesmileis a smile He wherever found. became sawsomecontinuity use a feeling psychological for mental between these, differall any where encesevolving theresult an accumulation current inthe nineteenth only century, of as in isthe recollected 'emotion tranquility' equivalent adaptive he in of This changes. notion reinforced a as ofmental feeling, stateofconsciousness thestudy emotions of to cognitive. opposed the in whose work edited he InfluencedDarwin by in an Aristotle offers informal listing, which 1998, Ekman outto testthe universality set to that love hatearecentral thefeelings are thesis a seriesofstudies and in which brought were accompaniedby pleasureand pain. Cicero together a book,Darwin FacialExpression. in and to fundamental reducesthem four passions, There comesdown thesideofuniversals, on he fear distress pleasure, anddesire'o.Augus- using phrase and the the 'affect to program'describe as tinesaw all four species of love.Aquinas 'innate basisofuniversal (p. expressions' 386). to traditions and For account was reverted the Aristotelian he this criticizedthe by strongly discerned eleven basicpassions. Meadwhofor political Margaret anthropologist are influenced reasons, Emotions clearly more by yet she explains, become wary had very of cultural factors thebasic senses than specific in of determinism, especially theform biological there butdespite theseinfluences is a coreof social when was taken bythe it Darwinism, up across that (a commonality cultures commonality Nazis. for embodied is transcultural still but cultural), has The biological accountof emotions in of (and example notions reciprocity itssenti- always in beenheavily in particular politicised, and mental concomitant, amity) its opposite, theassertion thecontinuity of ofgenetic control that (with reciprocity,is revenge itssenti- overbehaviour. negative A high of degree suchcontrol Theseemotions mental concomitant, enmity). of of reduces element malleability, the obviously social and areapparent throughout life literature, ofpossible socio-cultural intervenintentionality, from feuds African to therevenge tribes among The leads on tion. former to a reliance physical in theme Renaissance drama. as a of interference way ameliorating lotof the of for Passionswereat thecentre interest as (sections of) mankind, in the eugenic seventeenth both philosophers, tonaturcentury of to attempts elimfor al philosophy understanding and to doctrinesthe1930s,inNazi them inate'lower races' or indeedin much 'racist' moral for them. philosophycontrolling "Passions The is that thinking. alternative an approach or understood be thoughts to ... are generally other for possibilities improvement, of states thesoulwhich represent as good emphasizes things and and socio-cultural political, was or evil forus". These evaluationsinvolve educational,
'emotions thatmoveus and guideouractions'. maniMoreover passions haveinstrinsic physical which emotion festations and actionand bridge on are written thebody . held by manysocialists, even to the strongly in as of extent, with Lysenko the SovietUnion, for of arguing the possible inheritance acquired of characteristics. Mead was inthe midst such controversies. Ekman's is data do indeedshowthatthere a for to tendency facialexpressions be interpreted ina transcultural fashion. suchtrends not But are

10 modern of Many philosophers separate antecedent action(James1997:7). emotion fromdesire, seen as the 11 James 1997:4.

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devices hadan interin the affectedsimply communicative but universalthat dofind situation we in emotions. Darwin's thesis for differences; example Japanese nal origin similar bycultural on in students follow rules' masking point relativists by 'display nega- hasbeencriticizedjustthis in of The seems tive emotions thepresence authority, if and others. universalist but hypothesis is he external show tenuousbecause the linkbetween no authoritypresent, argues, they and statesis noteasyto their colours. true criticisms anthro-'expressions' internal from Despite While there a limited is measure of concludes that establish. and the pologists linguists author of at the of there also are consider universality continuity level gesture, the "mostscientists if of to facialexpression emotion be wellestab- major differences, especially one considers this thatouremotions expressed only are not in lished" 390). However agreesthat he (p. in or which his highly to a limited ofemotions gestures inwords but proappliesonly range in for edition The of Emotions Ekman admits cultures example Darwinian expressions; pre-literate for be "Are an "fear surprise not and were differentiated". may relevant: words required such Only inthecase of"certain and of feelwhen awareness considerationemotional emotions", strong to he no to what feel, ings?" a rhetorical make attempt mask question which gives people they his of threaten "the will For he that expressions be thesameregardless noanswer12. if did, would sex culture, oreducation" 391). On universalistic assumptions. (p. age,race, of Inthehuman how we handthere clearly number are a the other context, would conceivemotions without words? physThe that with express expressions dovary thesefactors. ably not with discussion icalexpression alonewould getus far.For There other are problems this and words only not express ofemotions their and Ekman emotions, elaborate expression. they be and Darwin largely with deal not emotions se but them insomeinstances actually said per may is to to them. make point not adopt To this with which a sub-category create are facial expressions which extreme relativist ofgesture; Darwin himself "that the position, Ekman rightyet recognized On criticizes. theother it that most arelearned". There are ly hand, is toinsist symbolic gestures is to other ofexpressing emotions than universalism and simple insufficient pure many ways for we In the or themost account what observe. considering facial even ones, important gestural we ofwhich linguistic, theseare definitely are and modesof human communication recognize intransla-similarities continuities wealso have There obvious difficulties and but to learned. are in tion dealing the with comparative of discontinuities well.One of as study what acknowledge is said(andinsomecultures inexpress- thesewas certainly advent language of the written) (of Another thatofwriting visible was elaborations a long beyond words). emotions; (of ing go way their or As remarks "lack emotion of crude the expressioncommunication phys- words). Ekman by ical means.These elaborations wordscan change emotionalexperience" immediately inthe introduceelement discontinuity evolu- (p.392) andmore an of that controversially, languages a in that extent which word to a subtle tionary process, discontinuityisattheroot differ"the gives not ofearlier anti-Darwinian about men nuances combines or or emotions tellsus what only jokes and monkeys also of the moreserious caused emotion" 393). Idonot tofall but the wish (p. discomfort feel the in here,common many in wholesale applicationintoa nominalistic fallacy of animalbiology humans, forexample linguistic to in thepaucety basiccolour of analysis; or determinism. can termsdoes not meanthatAfricans We cannot socio-biology genetic thatbiological considerations perceive are other norcreatepatterns differences, surely agree the of thread and yarn a greater of of important (hencerejecting rejectionism with variety Meadandofcultural relativists but absencedoes limit power their colours, their Margaret generwithout accepting theuniversality to manipulate conceptuality. same is also that of their The ally)
of emotional meansanything than true emotions. more expression here to those debates that see thatcertain facialexpressions widely are distrib- We return utedbutmaybe modified or (for (in culturally. language Chomsky) classification Fiel's Ekman's interest in the expression of work) wired tothehuman in as species andthereemotionsconcentrates the physical, on from espe- foresubject to geneticlaws, as distinct the face; and such physical featuresare otherlinguists who see naturallanguages as cially considered be expressions a secondsense, highly to in differentiated subject cultural to learnand that is of underlying emotions.Theywere not ing.Undoubtedly are universal there features that

12

Ekman 1998.

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or inthe not there inliterature, written Significantly word. one controlled; may may be genetically in of of in cultural variations theexpres- finds elaborationthediscourse love little are also many in sionofemotions Amity, is cultures Africa, of areas 13. cathexis, obviouslytheoral except those to with written poetry epic, love and as widespread thefeuds enmity which where as and Islam, its wehave referred thebasisofa considerablehas madean impact. Elsewhere the and certainly of of Fortes and maintained, kinship, conception amity ofloving relationships range sociallife; Not lust "the of exists. allis pure andsexas someEuroembodies axiom amity". friendship, Amity, inthat owninteraction continent is a diluted oflove;or lovean intensified form peans,whose form amity. is especially with of so sexual may have been limited commercial That virtually tothe the whether the between sameoropposite sex, orexploitive, love, suppose.Indeed Africans may to view which discussed under is variousheadings, havehadreason takea similar ofEuroone their on and recent-peanswhen recalls demands the romantic, passionate, conjugal more in A dominant of Europeans population, less events West is much Africa as view lycongruent. in of Horn a this orat recountedthelife Trader where local their invented sentiment, that continent in love. and was a to leastthat romantic De Rougement woman locked a cage with monkey of not the others, many including greatmedievalistamusetheonlookers, to speakoftheinnuand of and intwelfth merable crudities cruelties slavery the have Duby, seenitas emerging George In in of But we France thetime thetroubadours. slavetrade. what do notfind Africa at century is of view contention insufficient experience, any weight South theSahara,inmy my this gives in from verbalisationthosesentiments of which the extensive totheIslamic influences Spain on in in A much forms song, folktale,mythical recitalater oral drew troubadours so extensively. (in in itself. What is and still speech by beginning, European,envisaged moderntions) perhaps ordinary of him of historians Lawrence like Stone following an elaborationthesentiment loverequires and of and that like Giddens have is a measure separation idealisation who bysociologists Anthony verbal communication ata seen thedevelopment loveas taking of place writing permits (which in distance) Aswith kind extenof the theeighteenth encourages. century, predominantly during sive foundin Indianand Chinese industrialisation, love-play England, with along capitalism, it Romanticsources, wasalso assisted the 'modernisation' thenuclear and (like by family. writing) of love has been regarded a characteristicexistence a leisure as class whocouldfreely in In it choiceof partners,engage suchelaboration.thisrespect is aspectofthe unrestricted that cultures develop to whenthis process was freedfrom parental significant theparticular to werepostItcame mark only relationsthesesentiments a high not the constraints. to degree the with childrenBronze ones possessing Even between couple those their but Age writing. the I think, marking of as the rise as well, chosen, family' periods giving to the 'affective wrongly of in were the modernity. origin love Europe, oneswhere use Such a periodisation the history the of the written greatly of of word in expanded, the at of sentiment lovehas notbeenaccepted all. twelfth of at by centurythetime thetroubadours, on have theRenaissance theacquisition printing, with of Other like historians, PaulVeyne Rome, in with seen these discussions beingthoroughly theeighteenth as of century theexpansion in thereading orrather chronocentric. of andthedevelopmentthe ethnocentric, public Certainly, thedomain literature, were of love' there and the expressionsnovel, for'congruent with mass in of of of oflove allvarieties thework Saphoas in circulation newspapers magazines and that that Ovid, tospeak therecords Roman have further of not of of the opened up and elaborated And one for audience. Hopkins. if looks subject a wider Egypt analysed Keith by In other love at Indian Sanskritic poetwords while basic sentiments the literature, including
ty has recently been considered Harr6 (ed.) by 1986, byLutz1988 and 1986, by Wierzbicka 1995 and by Turner (forthcoming).
13

Such culturalvariabili-

in like and sensations)ofloveand hateare univerry thebooksofinstructionlove-making (feelings, east too at the sal (and in thiscontext findFortes'anthropothe Kama Sutra,and further I of that well logical universalism moreintellectually anthologies Chinesepoetry datefrom satisfying before Greekshad developed the their ethnocentric alphabet, thanthe historian's particularism), of one has evidence of similar sensations, their elaboration a feature written is cultures, emotions sentiments Asia. and in notnecessarily all, and itoccurs in different of Each of those societies possessed writing waysat different differ times,so thatpractices and developed discourse sentiment love somewhat France inEngland. can this a of and in and Nor

26

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elaboration thesedifferences) consid- ature. is notso much be It literature life (and reflecting ereda superficial, external matter because it as life literature. takesplaceinwriting; writtenexternalised At most the is the level, general writing encourages which interiorised reflexivitymeditation. and Indeed suchreflection thought is inturn reflexively by thereader indeed thewriter. example, is intrinsicwritinga quite and For to in mechanical by way, thewritten of are since activitywriting, above ofreadof and all expressions others incorporat- the ed into own our of The "my ing, for measure separation the call a of from system feelings. line loveis like redredrose"becomes ofour other a activities sociallife order getthe of in to part own of the of task the perceptions nature therelationship; done.Silenceis (optimally) required; is that oneofthefunctionspoetry why of and we dialogue tostop.However has the reading elaboturn readily Robert so to Burns toJohn or Donne rated of as transforms,Burke thoughts others, ortoShakespeare when areinlove. we one'sown of indicates, expression emotions. That seemsstrongly reinforced Thesesuggestions at attempt onceto recogsuggestion by Peter Burke's comments the on discourse love niseuniversal particular of and elements sentiin intheEuropean A Renaissance. socialpractice ments and sensations, jealousy, like shame, which entered day anger, todraw and attentiontheir to elaboration through theRenaissance every he was writing I am a for life, claims, verses,expeciallyinwriting, suggestingmechanism the sonnets about loveinthemanner Petrarch developmentcertain of to of cultural one differences, in Laura. "The of of that of praises thelady terms roses, that well may explain oldchestnut shame coral alabaster, theparadoxes andguilt and and of the the lilies, cultures, first oral, latter being thebeloved 'dearenemy', lovers' a the 'sweet written. isa far either notions the This from of cry torment' and all incomparability ofcultures, with (dolcetormento) the 'icyfire' popular postthe of orfrom of those 'mentalities', 14. passed into language love" "Tospeak or modernists, popuin way write this wasa kind game". writing with of The lar somehistorians. not I shall elaborate on of letters, was sincemy of love-letters, another thefirst especially analysis lovewould place which much classical Italian limits particularism incomparability. owes to and on and But practice models. sonnets, Like letters supposed thenotion mentality seen closer my were to of to might be an elegant of a It as has it expression commonplaces, position. is not; G. Lloyd argued is a new permutation combination items crudenotion and of thatis often in a highly applied familiar. Modellove-letters formed ethnocentric a manner. theparadigmatic Take case already oftheir "The own. charms theloved of one ofAries' of attitudes childhood, to genre study changing were in in described a formalistic in he but manner", the which locates sixteenth Europe, century manner Petrarch of which nowlargely is discredited. to Accordingly 1'. Doesthesamehappen other with and is and emotions, him, thethesis adopted supported by sensations? anyof Lawrence Are Stonefor the in sentiments, feelings, England, shift sentitheother emotions in 'stretched' writ-ments, in describedeven broader as a shift terms similarly ten communications?situations ingrati- mentalities, In of in occurred therates infant when of tudewemay haverecourse thewords mortality reduced whenparents well to of were and no Lear'sdaughter Cordelia inthemoments longer their or of saw children temporary as visitors to to flies but denizens on impotence thoseofLearhimself:-"As to thisworld as more permanent wantonboys are we to the gods". Shake- whom couldlavish one affection without experiwordsgovern feelings. our Harold encing almost an inevitable disilspeare's disappointment, Bloom recently has elaborated ideaofthe lusionment, this indeedrejection, the result as of dramatist's influence ouremotions our their on and death. After shift, that children premature attitudes life. is poetry only to Nor the source had toys,were no longer of adults,but just little
of elaboration, though the concentrated, werepartof a wholeconstruction childhood. of Ariesis simply metaphoric aboutearlier and quality its 'memorable speech' Factually wrong makes it particularly in repeatable.The Biblecan othercultures.Atthat time the difference serve a similarpurpose,whether Song of mortality the betweenEuropeand Asia was notall to and inanycase there weremany Songs, Ecclesiastices,or injunctions charity. thatgreat ways is with loss. Other Basicallythis process of incorporation an ofcoping societiescertainly had of all aspect ofthe reflexivitywriting, the more a conceptofchildhood; other children toys, had whenwe are dealingwith own.Therewere significant greatliter- games and some lifeof their

'" Burke1998: 198.

15

Burke 1998: 198.

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differences cultures epochs not experience we find written between and but that in cultures (for at thebroad level Children almost example, Aristotelian); inany were the and case writing implied. cherished their and tends make implicit explicit. to the more invariably by parents their always were mourned. Theimportant of deaths influenceliteracyyet is more always of What alsowrong the is with concept 'mental-apparent sensations, the with in form feelings, of in contextthat isgiven ethnocentric is it an emotions sentiments. there many or While are ity' this do nothave samecapacities similarities the for acrosscultures, while and there are twist; 'they' is sentiment 'we' have.And as thatdeficiency specific societal interests conceptions, and one into difference comesabout mental with invention the make-up, as main projected thewhole just of Mental- ofwriting, reflexivity the ofwhich didinhisdiscussion Primitive the promotes L6vy-Bruhl of and which basedonthekind assumption was elaborationsentiments ofsensation. of The ity, differences Rivers tryingtestat written ofcommunication that about was to mode stimulates such thephysiological Onedoesn't level. need be an reflexivity, a concern thesenswith to encouraging tosee but extreme cultural relativist this an inade- es, sensations sentiments, both as and posiand That to quateresponse difference. tively negatively. is to say, it may of Inconclusion, theactivities promote their both and rejecphysiologically recognition their in the senses are characteristic the human tion; emotions haveto be controlled of the may of or of andlittle difference isapparent,theinterests socialintercourseindeed species, average the restraintexample someindividual are. Butculturally socialdifferentiation, for ones though the sensesaredifferently conceived emphasizedtimes and from at marking high thelow; thesame invarious with conceptual inter-rela- thesenses maybe suspectas a wayof time cultures, the in the At one of elaborated written tionships especially knowing world. times element this being forms repre- polarity bestressed, times of another. in ones.Aswith and at But may images other the at timesand placeshuman considering senses, we haveto take into sentation, various cultures expressed the the human worries the have doubts about validi-account widespread about of ofsensedataas a means knowing the validitythedatawe receive of about them ty through and in world. Suchdoubts seem less prevalent oral those doubts well the and may affect sensations from becausethey havenotdevel- sentiments result andgovern interthat our cultures, perhaps of with world. opedthemore precise categorisationsense action theexternal

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