ROAD STRUCTURE DESIGN PROCEDURE The design procedure for normal construction ids to 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Determine the number of commercial

vehicles in each direction each day Assume rate of growth of traffic (normally 3%) Decide on design life (normally 20 years of a flexible pavements) Obtain number of commercial vehicles in near side lane Determine or estimate CBR value of subgrade Determine thickness of sub-base Select materials for road base and obtain thickness from appropriate graph, together with thickness of surfacing

COMPONENT OF THE ROAD STRUCTURE SUBGRADE The subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of pavements materials placed over it. The loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the subgrade for dispersion to the earth mass. It is essential that at no time, the soil subgrade is overstressed. It means that the pressure transmitted on the top of the subgrade is within the allowable limit, not to cause excessive stress condition or to deform the same beyond the elastic limit. Therefore it is desirable that atleast the top 50cm layer of the subgrade soil is well compacted under controlled conditions of optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. It is necessary to evaluate the strength properties of the soil subgrade.this helps the designer to adopt the suitable values of the strength parameter for design purpose and in case this supporting layer does not come up to the expectations, the same is treated or stabilized to suit the requirements. PREPARING THE SUBGRADE FOR ROAD CONTRUCTION The first step in preparing the subgrade prior to constructing either a flexible or rigid pavement is to remove all extraneous man- made debris or natural vegetation from the site. This will minimize subsequent construction stoppages that might other wise arise from the need to remove known obstacles from below and above ground, as well as unwanted soil and vegetative growths. Topsoil is the general term used to describe surface that contain enough humus to support plant growth without resort to artificial fertilization. Using appropriate equipment, the topsoil should be stripped to a depth that will ensure the removal of all vegetative matter within the road way width; if left, it will eventually decay and leave voids that may be cause of subgrade or low- embankment settlement. The topsoil is normally stored in soil heaps adjacent to the site and reserved for subsequent re-use, e.g. in verges, on embankment berms, and on the slopes of cuttings. The soil heaps should be shaped to shed rainwater, and located where they will not obstruct the natural drainage channels. If the site contains man-made construction, as is like in built- up areas, it will need to be demolished and removed. Backacters fitted with appropriate attachments can used to load Lorries, etc. bulldozer can be used to break up masonry and concrete and push

it into stock piles. Special equipment and techniques made required to demolish to the depth pre scribed , existing concrete pavement significant structure and obstruction ( e.g. tall building , deep foundation, under storage facilities , cellars, etc.) that are typically found in right- of ways in urban areas. Holes remaining after the removal of the debris should be properly cleaned out and filled. To permit free drainage, holes should be made in a at least 10% of the area of slabs and basements that the specification says need not be removed, but which are liable to hold water. Disused soil and surface water drains, sewers, cables and ducts together with any bed or haunch within 1m of the formation should be removed. If the sub grade soil comprises fill materials the top 300mm of the embakmant, and preferably the top 750mm,shold be compacted to ensure that its final state is that used in the design of the pavement. If the subgrade soil in a cut section is relatively coarse and loose it may be quite easy to compact it to a substantial depth.however,if the soil is a heavy clay a light roller may only be used to smooth the upgrade surface as such undisturbed clays cannot usually be compacted beyond their natural state ,i, e the exposed clays will tend to gain moisture content and rolling with a resultant remoulding and weakening of the soil. After the subgrade has been compacted its surface will still be fairly rough, and it must be graded to the desired formation shape. The formation is normally reflective of the final carriageway shape (a) to help ensure that each subsequent pavement layer is constructed to its design thickness and (b) to allow water that gets into the subgrade to drain away. This final shaping, which is usually done by a motor grader, should be delayed until the subbase (or capping layer) is about to be laid. When grading is finished any loose material should be taken away and any surface irregularities removed by light rolling with smooth- wheeled or rubber- tyred rollers. Preferably, no traffic should be allowed onto the formation prior to the placement of the next pavement layer; this should be carried out as soon as possible, to minimize the danger of rain softening the subgrade. THE PAVEMENT DESIGN FACTORS Pavement design consists of two parts: 1) mix design of materials to be used in each pavement component layer 2) Thickness design of the the pavement and the component layers. The various factors to be considered for the design of pavement are given below: a) design wheel load b) subgrade soil c) climatic factors d) pavement component materials e) environmental factors f) special factors in the design of different types of pavements TYPES OF PAVEMENT Based on the structural behaviour, pavements are generally classified into two categories:

1) flexible pavement 2) rigid pavement FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT Flexible pavement are those which on the whole have low or negligible flexural strength and are rather flexible in their structural action under the loads.the flexible pave ment layers transmit the vertical or compressive stress to the lower layers by grain to grain transfer through contact points of the granular structure. A well compacted granular structure consisting of strong graded aggregates ( interlocked aggregate structure with or without binder materials) can transfer the compressive stress through a wider area and thus forms a good flexible pavement layer. The load spreading ability of this layer therefore depends on that type of the materials and the mix design factors . bituminous concrete is one of the best flexible pavement layer materials. Other materials will fall under the group are, all granular materials with or without bituminous binder granular base and sub- base coarse matrials like the water bound macadam, crushed aggregate , gravel soil aggregates mixes etc. According to this flexible pavement myay be constructed in a number of layers and the top layer has tobe the stringest aas the highest compressive stresses are to be sustained by this layer in addition to the wear and tear due to the traffic.the lower layers have to takle up only lesser magnitudes of stresses and there is no direct wearing action action due to traffic loads.therfore inferior materials with lower cost can be used in the lower layers.the lowest layer is the prepare surface consisting of the local soil itself, called the subgrade. STRUCTURAL COMPONENT OF THE FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT A typical cross section of a flexible pavement structure is shown in figure-a, this consists ofa wearing course at the top ,below which is the base course,below which is the road bas e followed by the sub-base course and the lowest layer consists of the soil subgrade.,viz. sub-base ,road base ,base course wearing course may consists of one or more number of layers of the same or slightly different materials and specification.

Kerb (1) Camber (2) (2) (3) (3) Kerb bed & Backing (4)

(5)

subgrade

Figure -a

(1)Wearing Course (2)Base Course (3)Road Base (4)Sub- Base (5)Formation THE SUB BASE The layer between the base course and subgrade. It functions primarily as structural support but it can also (1) minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure, (2) improve drainage and (3) minimize frost action damage. The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better than the subgrade soils. A subbase course is not always needed or used. A subbase is very often present in a flexible pavement as a separate layer beneath the road base. Whether it is present, or how it is used, depends upon it is intended function. As a structure layer with in the pavement the sub base further distributes the applied wheel loads to the weaker subgrade below. Whilst the subbase material is of a lesser quality (and thus, is normally cheaper) then the roadbase material, it must be able to resist the stresses transmitted to it via the road base and it must always be stronger than the sugared soil. Another major function of the subbase is to act as a working platform for, and protect the subgrade from, site and construction vehicles as a pavement is being built. This is specially important when the subgrade is of poor quality, e,g clayey or silty,as the critical load carrying period is when the heavy wheel loads used in the laying and compaction of the roadbase are applied to the subbase during construction. Whilst there is few in numbers the magnitude of these loads may be grade. If the subgrade is strong, e,g granular a subbase may not be needed. A Well graded dense subbase may be used (with or without a geotextile filter) to prevent the upward infiltration of fine grained subgrade soil in to a roadbase. This subgrade intrusion function is especially important during construction, when site traffic compaction loadings are high. it may also be used to prevent moisture from immigrating upward from the subgrade into, say a soil aggregated roadbase,or to protect a vulnerable subgrade downward frost action. ROAD BASE The road base which provides the platform for surfacing is the main structural layer in a flexible pavement. As the stresses induced in a flexible pavement by the applied wheel loads decrease with depth, the main function of the road base is to distribute the loads transmitted to it so that the strength capacity of the weaker subbase and subgrade are not exceed. Road bases in flexible pavement are normally designed to be very dense and highly stable, and to resist fatigue cracking and structural deformation.

If a pavement is formed with layers of bitumen- and cement bound materials the structure often referred to as a composite pavement. The rationally for building the composite pavements is to combine the better qualities of both flexible and rigid pavement. DENSE ROAD MACADAM The need for strong but truly flexible bases which will not crack has led to the examination and use of these dense bituminous materials for road base construction. the main requirement in the composition of dense macadam for use in roadbases are that the materials have a fines content ( aggregate passing 3.35mm BS sieve)of 38% and are made with high viscosity binders i.e. 54o C evt tar 100pen or 200pen bitumen. The more viscous of the alternative binders namely 54oC evt tar and 100 pen bitumen, are the appropriate once to use on road designed for more than 2.5 million standard axles, while the less viscous 50oC evt tar and 200 pen bitumen are suitable for the less heavily traffic roads. THE BASECOURSE The basecourse is structure platform which regulalates the top of the underlying roadbase, thereby ensuring that the wearing course has a good riding quality when built; it also helps to distribute the applied traffic loads. If the wearing courses impervious, the basement can composed of a more permeable material.roadbase are now normally bound with bitumen or cement. The following materials are used for base course OPEN TEXTURED MACADAM The open textured composition are coarsely graded with little or fine material passing the 3.35 mm mesh. The produced can be laid easily at low temperatures, being low viscosity mixes, and become stable and durable under traffic. The average thickness of a compacted course should be 60 -80 mm for 40 mm base course and 35-50 mm for 20 mm basecourse. The use of these materials is restricted to the less heavily trafficked roads for general repair work and in fact their general use is declining. DENSE BASECOURSE There are three nominal sizes of dense-coated macadam for basecourse, 40mm, 28mm, and and 20mm. The three nominal sizes enable the correct type to be used to suit the thickness the 40mm should be laid 60-80mm thick, the 28mm,50-60mm thick, and the 20mm ,35-55mm thick.all the materials have a fines content about 38%. The binders used 100pen or 200pen grade bitumen or 54 evt tar , all binders which set hard as soon as they are cooled and hence from the constructional stand point the materials have to be treatedn as hot- liad other wise adequqte compaction and strength will not be achived. The viscosity of the selected binder should on the intensity of the traffic, the higher viscosity i.e 100pen bitumen and 54 evt tar being appropriate for use under the heavier categories of traffic. these materials have a number of particularly features such as flexibility, stability and frost resistance and excellent load sepreading properties. SINGLE COURSE WHERE say a 75mm surfacing is required for new construction or a heavily traffic road a two-course job, i.e base course and bearing is to be preferred because it alloes more re- shaping to-be done ,and gives a better riding surface. However,many of the

less heavilt traffic road which require re- shaping or strengthening can be dealt with quit satisfactory at a lower cost by single cost surfacing . The medium textured material provides for this in a 40mm nominal size done graded aggregate laid 60-80mm, the durability of a single course job depends upon the surface treatment it receives early in itsd life. The best method is tosrface dress as soon as possible after laying and preferablily before the first winter.alternatively the materials can be lightly dressed with fine cold asphalt just to fill the voids and surface dressed after not more than twelve month.

WEARING COURSE The wearing course forms the uniform carriageway surface upon which vehicles run. ideally it should (1) offer good skid resistance, (2) allow for the rapid drainage of surface water, (3) minimize traffic noise,(4) resist cracking and rutting, (5) withstand traffic turning and breaking force (6) protect underlining road structure (7) require minimal maintenance (8) be capable of being recycle or overlaid and (9) be durable and give value for money. No one material meets all of these requirements so, in practice a selection of a bearing course material depends on the design needs at each sides. The following materials are used for wearing course: HOT ROLLED ASPHALT This is the strongest and most durable wearing course. It is very dense, made with high fines and asphaltic cement content with crushed slag or gravel added, to provide additional stability and reduce the cost. Hot rolled asphalt is the only wearing course recommended for use on the more heavily trafficked roads. It is normally 40mm thick with 20mm coated chipping rolled into the surface to provide better skid resistance. DENSE BITUMEN MACADEM Tese materials are used mainly as wearing courses in new construction and for resurfacing when 14mm or 10mm nominal size dense wearing course is often used very successfully using crushed rock with the 200-300pen bitumen or a100 pen bitumen for the more heavily traffic roads. they often used to provide the road with additional strength, using the more viscous and harder and binder.they are closely graded , are dense and virtyally impervious , are produced at very high temperature and are consequently more difficult to lay than open or medium texured materials. DENSE TAR SURFACING Dense tarsurfacing is normally used on the less heavily trafficked roads in 10mm or 14mm nominal size with carse aggregate contents of 35% or 50% and laid to athickness of 30 or 40mm respectively. If desired coated chipping may be rolled into the surface of the 35% coarse aggregate content mitures.

For motorway services areas and similar purposes , where its excellent resistance to softening by oil dropping is especially valuable the material should be of 14mm nominal size coarse aggregate of 50% percentage using crushed or slag aggregate. TESTING MATERIAL Penetration test The penetration test determines the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a standards loaded needle will penetrate vertically in five seconds. The sample is maintained at a temperature of 25oc. the concept of penetration test is shown in figure 6.20 indian standards institution has standardized the equipment test procedure. The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100g and device for releasing and locking in any position. There is a graduated dial to read penetration values to 1/10th of a mm. refer figure 6.21. The bitumen softened to a poring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into containers to a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the expected penetration. The sample containers are then placed in a temperature controlled water bath at the temperature of 25oc for one hour. The sample with container is taken out and the needle is arranged to make contact with the surface of the sample. The dial is set to zero or the initial reading is taken and the needle is released for 5 seconds the final reading is taken on dial gauge. Atleast three penetration test are made on this sample by testing at distances

STRUCTURE OF THE ROAD Embankment Base shoulder

Carriageway

Pavement Drainage Fig- 1

Wearing course Base course Wearing surface base Road base

Sub base

Sub grade

Sub base

Subgrade
Fig-2

pavement

base

sub base

cover gully

Subgrade Kerb- stone Cast iron gully Fig-3