Journal of Applied Psychology 2004, Vol. 89, No.

3, 442 454

Copyright 2004 by the American Psychological Association 0021-9010/04/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.442

Stressful Work, Psychological Job Strain, and Turnover: A 2-Year Prospective Cohort Study of Truck Drivers
Einar M. de Croon and Judith K. Sluiter
Coronel Institute for Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Amsterdam/Academic Medical Center, Research Institute Amsterdam Center for Health and Health Care Research (AmCOGG), Amsterdam

Roland W. B. Blonk
TNO Work and Employment, Hoofddorp

Jake P. J. Broersen
SKB Center of Expertise on Health and Work, Amsterdam

Monique H. W. Frings-Dresen
Coronel Institute for Occupational and Environmental Health, Research Institute Amsterdam Center for Health and Health Care Research (AmCOGG), Amsterdam

Based on a model that combines existing organizational stress theory and job transition theory, this 2-year longitudinal study examined antecedents and consequences of turnover among Dutch truck drivers. For this purpose, self-reported data on stressful work (job demands and control), psychological strain (need for recovery after work and fatigue), and turnover were obtained from 820 drivers in 1998 and 2000. In agreement with the model, the results showed that strain mediates the influence of stressful work on voluntary turnover. Also in conformity with the model, job movement to any job outside the trucking industry (i.e., interoccupational turnover) resulted in a larger strain reduction as compared to job movement within the trucking industry (intraoccupational turnover). Finally, strain was found to stimulate interoccupational turnover more strongly than it stimulated intraoccupational turnover. These findings provide a thorough validation of existing turnover theory and give new insights into the turnover (decision) process.

Numerous studies have investigated voluntary withdrawal from the organization (i.e., voluntary employee turnover). Two categories of theories can be distinguished that serve as a frame for a substantial part of these studies. The first category of theories tries to explain how stressful work results in voluntary turnover (i.e., organizational stress theory). Theories in this categoryalthough differing in, among other things, terminology, abstraction level, and extent to which cognitive processes are integratedall seem to perceive turnover as the result of a two-step sequence (Kahn & Byosiere, 1992, p. 593). In the first step of this sequence, stressful work is believed to produce a condition of psychological strain. In the second step, this psychological strain causes employees to display several behavioral reactions among which is voluntary turnover.

Einar M. de Croon, Judith K. Sluiter, and Monique H. W. FringsDresen, Coronel Institute for Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Amsterdam/Academic Medical Center, Research Institute Amsterdam Center for Health and Health Care Research (AmCOGG), Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Roland W. B. Blonk, TNO Work and Employment, Hoofddorp, The Netherlands; Jake P. J. Broersen, SKB Center of Expertise on Health and Work, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The Dutch Central Bureau of Occupational Health Care in Road Transport (BGZ Wegvervoer) provided partial funding for this study. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Einar M. de Croon, Coronel Institute for Occupational and Environmental Health, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands. E-mail: e.m.decroon@amc.uva.nl 442

The second category of theories tries to explain how turnover affects the departing employee (i.e., job transition theory). Initially, theories in this category regarded turnover from a negative stress perspective (Adams, 1976; Hayes & Hough, 1976; Werbel, 1983). In particular, turnover itself was seen as a potential disruptive and stressful event that produces strain. More recently, however, transition theory regards turnover from a positive proactive growth perspective. According to this perspective, workers who turnover strive to find work that fits their personality (e.g., Clarke, 1980) and that allows active learning and growth (e.g., Nicholson & West, 1988). From this perspective, then, turnover reduces rather than produces strain. Indeed, the empirical research, so far, seems to support this last positive perspective. To obtain a more complete picture of the turnover phenomenon, the present study examines a turnover model that combines the previously described turnover theories1 (see Figure 1). According to this model, stressful work instigates a condition of strain. This strain, in turn, invokes the worker to turnover. Next, turnover results in decreased strain, which, consequently, reduces the likelihood of successive turnover (negative feedback loop). Below, the concepts of the model are described in detail. Thereafter, a review of the literature that underpins the relationships between the variables of the model is presented.

We acknowledge the helpful suggestion of an anonymous reviewer in this respect.

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Figure 1.

Stress-to-turnover-to-strain model.

STRESSFUL WORK
Stressful work characteristics are defined as work conditions that are assumed, hypothesized, and (cumulatively) demonstrated to have certain undesirable effectsadverse physiological changes, decrements in role performance, emotional tensions, onset of physical symptoms, and so forthin the population about which we propose to generalize (Kahn & Byosiere, 1992, p. 575). This study examines two categories of stressful work characteristics, namely job demands and job control.

Job Demands
Researchers use different formulations to describe the stimuli that are responsible for the stress response. Following Selye (1956), many researchers use the term stressor. Following Karasek (1979) and Frankenhaeuser (1991), the formulation job demands is used in this study. This formulation is used because demands can be conceptualized in negative (i.e., stressful) and positive (i.e., challenging) terms. In analogy with Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, and Schaufeli (2001), job demands are defined in this study as physical, social, or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort. This definition implies that the exposure to demands is associated with certain psychological and psychophysiological costs (e.g., fatigue, increased catecholamine secretion). Psychological job demands, such as role overload (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964), are a central construct of the demand-control theory of organizational stress (Karasek, 1979; Karasek & Theorell, 1990). Numerous demandcontrol studies have demonstrated that psychological job demands predict psychological strain (see review in Van der Doef & Maes, 1999). Demands have also been found to predict physiological stress reactions (e.g., Aronsson & Rissler, 1998; Evans & Carrere, ` 1991) and behavioral stress reactions such as sickness absence (Kristensen, 1991; Vahtera, Kivimaki, Pentti, & Theorell, 2000).

Second, control may attenuate the effect of demands on strain (e.g., Tetrick & Larocco, 1987). In particular, high control may lead to a less threatening secondary appraisal of job demands and a healthier coping style. Third, the lack of job control may frustrate the intrinsic need to be competent and feel competent in interacting with the working environment (White, 1959), thereby bringing about strain in a direct manner. Theoretically, one may argue that the interaction between job control and job demands is most important for the prediction of strain and subsequent turnover. Research, however, has provided most support for the main effect of job control on strain in a psychological (see review in Van der Doef & Maes, 1999), physiological (e.g., Steptoe, 2001), as well as behavioral respects (Kivimaki et al., 1997; North, Syme, Feeney, Shipley, & Marmot, 1996). Therefore, the present study tests the main effect of job control on strain and turnover only.

PSYCHOLOGICAL JOB STRAIN

Psychological job strain is defined as aversive and potentially harmful psychological reactions of the individual to stressful work. This study examined two important aspects of psychological strain: need for recovery after work and fatigue. In the following discussion, these concepts and their relation with other strains and stressful work are described.

Need for Recovery After Work

Building on biopsychosocial organizational stress research (Frankenhaeuser, 1991; Levi, 1981), Meijman, Mulder, Van Dormolen, and Cremer (1992) introduced the concept of need for recovery after work (i.e., the need to recuperate from workinduced fatigue after the working day). The need-for-recovery concept is related to emotional exhaustion (Schaufeli & Van Dierendonck, 1999; De Vries, Michielsen, & Van Heck, 2003), psychological distress (Jansen, Kant, & Van den Brandt, 2002), and physiological stress reactions (Sluiter, Van der Beek, & Frings-Dresen, 2001) and resembles the concept of postwork irritability (Glass & Singer, 1972). Recently, Sluiter, De Croon, Meijman, and Frings-Dresen (2003) showed that elevated need for recovery after work is a consequence of stressful work in terms of demands and control.

Job Control
Job control or autonomy plays a central role in many organizational stress theories (see review in Frese, 1989; Ganster, 1989). Hackman and Oldham (1975) defined the construct as the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out (p. 162). The influence of job control on strain may be threefold (e.g., Frese, 1989). First, job control may influence the extent to which objective job demands are perceived as stressful (i.e., control resulting in the perception of demands as less stressful; Spector, 1998).

Fatigue
Employees who display increased occupationally induced need for recovery after work must exert additional effort (i.e., increased

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psychophysiological activity) the next working day to cope with the demands of the job. When job demands are chronically high, this process starts a vicious circle in which high need for recovery after work requires additional effort the next day, which, in turn, results in elevated need for recovery after the working day. This cycle may result in prolonged fatigue, which resembles Maslachs (1982) emotional exhaustion (being overextended and exhausted by ones work). In contrast to short-term work-related fatigue (i.e., need for recovery after work), prolonged fatigue is not easily reversible in the short term and is task-nonspecific. It manifests itself in inefficient action patterns; declining interest, involvement, and commitment; reduced concentration and motivation; and negative emotions (Meijman & Schaufeli, 1996). Epidemiological research has demonstrated strong relations between fatigue on the one hand and psychological distress and emotional exhaustion on the other hand (Beurskens et al., 2000). Moreover, longitudinal research has found stressful work in terms of demands and control to predict the onset of fatigue (Bultmann, Kant, Van den Brandt, & Kasl, 2002).

on turnover have demonstrated that employees with elevated strain are more likely to voluntarily resign from their organization than employees with low strain (Drake & Yadama, 1996; Todd & Deery-Schmitt, 1996; Wright & Cropanzano, 1998). Drake and Yadama (1996), for instance, demonstrated that social welfare workers who reported high levels of emotional exhaustion had an increased chance to quit their job. Similarly, Todd and DeerySchmitt evidenced that child-care workers experiencing emotional exhaustion were more likely to turnover than their nonexhausted co-workers. Finally, Wright and Cropanzano (1998) found emotional exhaustion to predict subsequent turnover in health care workers.

Psychological Job Strain as a Mediator Between Stressful Work and Voluntary Turnover
To our knowledge, until now, no single study has examined the presumed mediating role of psychological job strain between stressful work and actual turnover. Numerous studies, though, investigated the presumed mediating role of psychological strain between stressful work and the intent to turnover (e.g., Bedeian & Armenakis, 1981; Kemery, Mossholder, & Bedeian, 1987; Klenke-Hamel & Mathieu, 1990; Lang, Wittig-Berman, & Rizkalla, 1992; Moore, 2000; Taris, Schreurs, & Van Iersel-Van Silfhout, 2001; Taylor, Daniel, Leith, & Burke, 1990). These studies largely provide support for the two-step sequence model according to which stressful work affects turnover via strain. For instance, Moore (2000) showed that exhaustion partially mediated the effect of working conditions on the intent to leave. In like manner, Taris et al. (2001) found stressful work to predict decreased turnover intention through elevated emotional exhaustion.

EMPLOYEE TURNOVER
Research predominantly reflects on employee turnover as an indistinct behavior, defined as voluntary withdrawal from the organization. However, as noted by Jackofsky (1984), several types of voluntary turnover can be distinguished. One relevant turnover distinction relates to the destination of the new job. In this respect, Wright and Bonett (1992) distinguished between intraoccupational and interoccupational turnover. Intraoccupational turnover involves job movement within the relevant occupational grouping (i.e., truck driving). Interoccupational turnover concerns movement to any job external to the targeted occupational grouping (i.e., outside truck driving). The distinctive nature of intraversus interoccupational turnover was demonstrated by Wright and Bonnet who found in their study of social welfare workers that, compared to intraoccupational turnover, interoccupational turnover results in more drastic changes in work characteristics and coinciding psychological strain.

Voluntary Turnover as an Antecedent of Psychological Job Strain

Research examining the separate effect of intraoccupational and interoccupational voluntary turnover on psychological strain is restricted. In fact, the single study investigating these effects is the previously described study by Wright and Bonett (1992). Several studies (Newton & Keenan, 1990; Van der Velde & Feij, 1995; Swaen, Kant, Van Amelsfoort, & Beurskens, 2002), however, have examined the effect of general turnover on strain. These studies consistently showed that voluntary turnover is associated with positive changes for the departing employee. Newton and Keenan (1990), for instance, demonstrated that young engineers reported decreases in strain after their job change. Similarly, Swaen, Kant, Van Amelsfoort, and Beurskens (2002), in a prospective cohort study among 12,140 Dutch employees, found that the job changers reported decreased psychological strain after the job change.

LITERATURE REVIEW Stressful Work as an Antecedent of Voluntary Turnover

Although some studies (e.g., Spector & Michaels, 1986) failed to demonstrate statistically significant effects of stressful work on turnover, research supports the hypothesis according to which stressful work is an antecedent of voluntary turnover (Bloom, Alexander, & Nichols, 1992; McFadden & Demetriou, 1993; Balfour & Neff, 1993; Todd & Deery-Schmitt, 1996; Arnold & Mackenzie Davey, 1999). Balfour and Neff (1993), for example, showed that high psychological job demands predicted subsequent turnover in nurses. Likewise, Todd and Deery-Schmitt (1996) and Arnold and Mackenzie Davey (1999) found high psychological job demands to predict voluntary turnover among hospital workers.

CONCLUSION
Taken together, the existing literature seems to support the proposed turnover model. Two central aspects of the model, however, have not been examined sufficiently. The first aspect relates to the presumed mediating role of strain between stressful work and turnover. Past research, investigating this widely accepted mediation paradigm, used a cross-sectional design and an attitu-

Psychological Job Strain as an Antecedent of Voluntary Turnover

With the exception of some research (e.g., Manlove & Guzell, 1997), the majority of studies investigating the influence of strain

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445 Measures

dinal criterion (i.e., turnover intention). Consequently, to some degree, findings of these cross-sectional studies could be explained by common method variance. The second aspect of the model that has not been examined sufficiently involves the distinction between interoccupational and intraoccupational voluntary turnover. As noted already, research has tended to treat voluntary turnover as an indistinct behavior. For some occupations, however, it may be necessary to distinguish between intra- and interoccupational turnover for a more complete picture of the consequences of voluntary turnover. Truck driving is exemplary in this respect as it is characterized by high psychological demands (Hedberg, Jacobsson, Janlert, & Langendoen, 1993; e.g., long working hours and just-in-time deliveries; Hamelin, 2001), high physical demands (e.g., manually [un]loading the truck; Van der Beek, Frings-Dresen, Kemper, & Van Dijk, 1993), and high supervisor demands (i.e., authoritative style of supervising; Orris et al., 1997) the stressful nature of truck driving is reflected in elevated psychological strain (e.g., Kuiper, Van der Beek, & Meijman, 1998). The high level of work-induced psychological strain among truck drivers suggests that only interoccupational turnover (i.e., leaving the trade) may reduce the drivers strain.

Stressful Work
We measured stressful work (demands and control) in 1998 and 2000 using scales from the Dutch Questionnaire on the Experience and Assessment of Work (VBBA)2 (Van Veldhoven & Meijman, 1994; Van Veldhoven & Broersen, 2003). Items of the Job Demand scales were derived largely from the Job Content Questionnaire (Karasek, 1985). Items of the Job Control scale were derived from the focused measure of timing and method control developed by Jackson, Wall, Martin, and Davids (1993; e.g., Wall, Jackson, & Mullarkey, 1995; Wall, Jackson, Mullarkey, & Parker, 1996). Dutch researchers in the field of organizational and occupational psychology frequently use these VBBA scales (e.g., Geurts, Rutte, & Peeters, 1999; Jansen, Van Amelsfoort, Kristensen, Van den Brandt, & Kant, 2003; Janssen, 2000; Meijman & Kompier, 1998;Van Yperen & Snijders, 2000). Van Veldhoven (1996) evidenced positive psychometric qualities of the Job Demands and Job Control scales. During construction of the scales, rho, comparable to Cronbachs alpha, varied between .89 (psychological demands) and .90 (job control). Loevingers H varied between .42 (job control) and .58 (supervisor demands). These values are consistent with underlying unidimensional constructs. Job demands. Three job demands were assessed in 1998 and 2000 by means of VBBA questionnaire scales, namely, psychological job demands, physical job demands, and supervisor job demands. An 11-item scale assessed psychological job demands. A 7-item scale assessed physical job demands. Supervisor job demands were measured by means of the Relationship With Your Immediate Boss scale of the VBBA comprising 9 items. All items of the three job demand scales were scored on a 4-point scale (1 never, 2 sometimes, 3 often, 4 always). Job Demands scale scores were calculated by adding the individuals scores on the respective items. All scale scores were transformed into scales ranging from 0 to 100. High scores on the Job Demands scale reflect a negative assessment. Job control. An 11-item scale quantified job control in 1998 and 2000. Items were scored on a 4-point scale (1 never, 2 sometimes, 3 often, 4 always). A Job Control scale score was calculated by adding the individuals scores on the items. Subsequently, this scale score was transformed into a scale ranging from 0 to 100. Low scores on the Job Control scale are indicative of a negative evaluation.

PRESENT INVESTIGATION
This study was designed to overcome shortcomings of the previously reviewed research and, by these means, to provide a complete test of the turnover model outlined heretofore. In particular, using a behavioral criterion (i.e., actual voluntary turnover) and a longitudinal design, this study examined (a) the presumed mediating role of strain between stressful work and turnover, and (b) the separate effect of interoccupational and intraoccupational turnover on strain. In accordance with existing organizational stress theory, it was expected that strain mediates the effect of stressful work (i.e., demands and control) on turnover. Furthermore, given the stressful nature of truck driving, a significant negative feedback loop from interoccupational voluntary turnover to strain only was expected.

Psychological Job Strain

Need for recovery after work. Need for recovery after work was measured by means of the similarly named scale of the Dutch VBBA questionnaire (Van Veldhoven & Meijman, 1994; Van Veldhoven & Broersen, 2003). The Need for Recovery After Work scale comprises 11 dichotomous items. Typical items of this scale are: At the end of a working day I am really feeling worn-out and I find it hard to relax at the end of a working day. The Need for Recovery After Work scale contains one reversed item that is recoded. A Need for Recovery After Work scale score is calculated by adding the individuals scores on the 11 (recoded) items. This scale score is transformed into a scale ranging from 0 to 100. Higher scores indicate a higher degree of need for recovery after work. Need for recovery after work is strongly related to emotional exhaustion (Schaufeli & Van Dierendonck, 1999). During construction of the scale (Van Veldhoven, 1996), rho and Loevingers H were .88 and .50, respectively. Fatigue. Fatigue was measured by means of the Checklist Individual Strength (CIS) (Vercoulen et al., 1994). The CIS consists of 20 statements

Method Participants
In September 1998, a random sample of truck drivers was taken from the directory of the Dutch Central Bureau of Occupational Health Care in Road Transport (N 2,000). Of the 2,000 mailed self-administered questionnaires, 1,225 were returned. Two years later, in September 2000, 102 of these 1,225 drivers were not traceable. Therefore, 1,123 (1,225 - 102) drivers received a second questionnaire, which 820 participants returned (72%). Nonresponse analyses revealed two significant differences in 1998 between nonrespondents in 2000 (n 303) and all respondents in 2000 (n 820). Compared with the respondents, nonrespondents were younger in 1998 (mean age 38 years vs. 40 years, t(1121) 3.41, p .01) and had a lower tenure in 1998 (mean tenure 8 years vs. 10 years, t(1121) 4.00, p .01). Because of retirement, dismissal, and incomplete questionnaires for this study, 137 respondents at follow-up were excluded from the present analyses.

2 The Dutch questionnaire and the English translation are available from the SKB Center of Expertise on Health and Work, Amsterdam. (info@skbvs.nl).

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for which the person has to indicate on a 7-point scale to what extent the particular statement applies to him or her (1 yes, that is true; to 7 no, that is not true). The statements refer to four fatigue aspects: (a) subjective fatigue (e.g., I feel tired), (b) reduced motivation (e.g., I feel no desire to do anything), (c) reduced activity (e.g., I dont do much during the day), and (d) reduced concentration (e.g., My thoughts easily wander). The CIS is well validated within the clinical setting (e.g., Vercoulen et al., 1996) and the working situation (e.g., Beurskens et al., 2000; Bultmann et al., 2000). In this study, a composite CIS total score (ranging from 20 to 140) was calculated by adding the individuals scores on the four factors. Higher scores indicate a higher degree of fatigue, more concentration problems, reduced motivation, or low levels of activity.

Employee Turnover
Past researchers have defined voluntary turnover in several ways (e.g., Wright & Bonett, 1992). This study defined turnover only as voluntary actual withdrawal from the organization. Voluntary employee turnover among the participating truck drivers was measured in 2000 by means of the following question, During the last 2 years (since you completed the first questionnaire), did you voluntarily quit your job? Thereafter, the respondents were also asked, How many times did you voluntarily quit your job during the last 2 years (since you completed the first questionnaire)? Subsequently, as a check on the reliability of the answers, the respondents were asked to specify the exact date of the (first) quit. Finally, to distinguish between interoccupational turnover and intraoccupational turnover, the drivers were asked to specify their current job title. The intraoccupational turnover group included job changers who were still working as a truck driver at the second measurement. The interoccupational turnover group included job changers who were no longer working as a truck driver at the second measurement.

measurement (intraoccupational turnover group). In contrast, 22% of the job changers (n 33) had switched from the driving profession to a different profession (interoccupational turnover group). These employees found employment in the road transport industry (e.g., transportation manager, warehouse manager) as well as outside the road transport industry (e.g., security worker, sales worker). Descriptive statistics, internal consistency, and intercorrelations for the variables under study are presented in Table 1. Inspection of Table 1 reveals that on a bivariate level older drivers (r .16, p .01), higher tenure drivers (r .25, p .01), and drivers with more job control (r 08, p .05) were less likely to change jobs. In addition, drivers with higher physical job demands (r .07, p .05), higher supervisor job demands (r .07, p .05), higher need for recovery after work (r .12, p .01), and higher fatigue (r .08, p .05) were more likely to change jobs. Furthermore, all questionnaire scales evidenced favorable internal consistency (Cronbachs alpha ranging between .88 and .92).

Mediation Tests Plan of Analysis

The following criteria were used in testing the mediation proposition embedded in the turnover model (e.g., Baron & Kenny, 1986, p. 1177). First, each separate stressful work characteristic must significantly affect psychological strain (Equation 1). Second, each work characteristic and strain indicator must be shown to significantly affect employee turnover (Equation 2). Third, when these conditions hold in the predicted direction, the effect of each work characteristic on turnover must be less when each strain indicator (i.e., presumed mediator) is introduced into the model (Equation 3).

Results Preliminary Analyses

Of the respondents, 23% (n 156) changed jobs voluntarily during the 2-year follow-up period. Of these respondents, 124 (79%) changed jobs once, 23 respondents (15%) changed jobs twice, 8 respondents (5%) changed jobs three times, and 1 respondent changed jobs four times (1%). Furthermore, 78% of the job changers (n 123) still worked as truck drivers at the second

Need for Recovery

Table 2 presents the results of the regression analyses using need for recovery after work as strain indicator. In the first set of

Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations, Internal Consistency, and Zero-Order Pearson Correlation Coefficients of the Study Variables in the Cohort
Variable 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
a

M 39.1 9.8 46.4 45.0 34.9 27.2 35.7 49.0

SD 9.4 8.4 20.4 16.0 22.0 19.4 32.6 21.9 .89 .88 .88 .89 .90 .92

1 .54** .05 .15** .07* .07* .09* .07* .16**

2 .03 .13* .08* .10** .04 .03 .25**

Age (y) Organizational tenure (y)a Job controlb Psychological job demandsb Physical job demandsb Supervisor job demandsb Need for recovery after workb Fatigueb Employee turnoverc,d

.38** .10** .37** .32** .31** .08*

.44* .45** .56** .44** .04

.33** .41** .31** .07*

.40** .37** .07*

.71** .12**

.08*

Note. ns 664 683 because of missing values. y years. b For job demands, need for recovery after work and fatigue, high scale scores reflect a negative evaluation. High scores on the job control scale are indicative of a positive evaluation. c 0 remained with the job during the two-year follow-up; 1 changed jobs during the two-year follow-up. d Spearman rank correlation coefficients (rho). * p .05, one-tailed. ** p .01, one-tailed.

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Table 2 Linear Regression of Need for Recovery After Work on Each Separate Stressful Work Characteristic (Job Control and Job Demands; Equation 1), Logistic Regression of Employee Turnover on Each Separate Stressful Work Characteristic (Equation 2), and Both Stressful Work Characteristic and Need for Recovery After Work (Equation 3) in the Cohorta
Need for recovery after work Predictor variables Equation 1 Job control Equation 2 Job control Equation 3 Job control Need for recovery Equation 1 Psychological demands Equation 2 Psychological demands Equation 3 Psychological demands Need for recovery Equation 1 Physical demands Equation 2 Physical demands Equation 3 Physical demands Need for recovery Equation 1 Supervisor demands Equation 2 Supervisor demands Equation 3 Supervisor demands Need for recovery .31** .011** 1.39 .006 .088** .53** .013** 1.36 .001 .094** .39** .010** 1.67 .004 .089** .41** .013** 1.47 .010* .085** 1.29 1.85 1.46 1.79 1.01 1.96 1.18 1.86 B Employee turnover Odds Ratio B Odds Ratio

Note. All equations are adjusted for age and organizational tenure. a ns 665 674 because of missing values. * p .05, one-tailed. ** p .01, one-tailed.

analyses (Equation 1), need for recovery was regressed on each stressful work characteristic. As can be seen from Table 2, low job control ( -.31, p .01), high psychological demands ( .53, p .01), high physical demands ( .39, p .01), and high supervisor demands ( .41, p .01) significantly predicted need for recovery in the expected direction. The next set of regression analyses concerned the prediction of turnover. Because turnover is a dichotomous outcome variable, this study used logistic regression analyses to examine the relations of the predictor variables to turnover. For each predictor variable, the standardized regression coefficient and odds ratio are reported. In the present context, the odds ratio represents the ratio of the turnover probability by high job demands (above the median value) or low job control (below the median value) to the turnover probability by low job demands (below the median value) or high job control (above the median value). Compared with the standardized regression coefficients, the odds ratio provides a means to quantify the practical importance of a relation between a predictor variable and a dichotomous outcome. As can be seen in Table 2, in

Equation 2, when need for recovery was not included, job control significantly predicted turnover (B -.011, p .05) (Model 1). Similarly, psychological job demands (B .013, p .05), physical job demands (B .010, p .05), and supervisor job demands (B .013, p .05) were positively related to employee turnover. In terms of odds ratios, drivers who reported low job control were 1.39 times more likely to turnover as compared to drivers who experienced high job control. Compared to the drivers who experienced low levels of psychological, physical, and supervisor job demands, those who experienced high levels were 1.36, 1.67, and 1.47 times more likely to change jobs, respectively. In Equation 3, need for recovery after work was introduced into the models. After introduction of this strain (in addition to age and organizational tenure), all relations between the stressful work characteristics and turnover became nonsignificant, with the exception of supervisor job demands (B .010, p .05). When need for recovery was added to Equation 3, the drop in the contribution of job control and psychological, physical, and supervisor job demands to the prediction of turnover (in terms of standardized

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regression coefficients) was 54%, 92%, 60%, and 23%, respectively. Based on these figures, then, need for recovery seems to fully mediate the relation from psychological job demands to turnover and partially mediate the relation of the other stressful work characteristics to turnover.

standardized regression coefficients of job control, psychological job demands, physical job demands, and supervisor job demands were reduced by 36%, 54%, 40%, and 23%, respectively. These figures indicate that fatigue partially mediates the relation from these stressful work characteristics to turnover.

Fatigue
Table 3 presents the results of regression analyses using fatigue as strain indicator. In Equation 1, after adjustment for age and organizational tenure, fatigue was regressed on each stressful work characteristic. In Equation 1, control ( -.30, p .01), psychological demands ( .44, p .01), physical demands ( .31, p .01), and supervisor demands ( .38, p .01) significantly predicted fatigue in the expected direction. In Equation 2, turnover was regressed on each work characteristic. The results of these analyses show that job control (B -.011, p .05), psychological demands (B .013, p .05), physical demands (B .010, p .05), and supervisor demands (B .013, p .05) significantly predicted turnover. In Equation 3, after introduction of fatigue, the

Effect of Turnover on Psychological Job Strain

Table 4 displays information on need for recovery and fatigue of the job stayers, the intraoccupational job changers, and the interoccupational job changers. To examine differences between the job changers and the job stayers prior to the job change, we conducted one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs). These analyses revealed significant differences in 1998 between the three groups on need for recovery, F(2, 675) 6.35, and fatigue, F(2, 668) 5.79. Post hoc comparisons by means of the least significant difference test (LSD test) showed that, compared to the job changers, the intraoccupational job changers, t(675) 2.53, p .01, and the interoccupational job changers, t(675) 2.82, p .01, experienced higher levels of need for recovery after work before the job

Table 3 Linear Regression of Fatigue After Work on Each Separate Stressful Work Characteristic (Job Control and Job Demands; Equation 1), Logistic Regression of Employee Turnover on Each Separate Stressful Work Characteristic (Equation 2), and Both Stressful Work Characteristic and Fatigue (Equation 3) in the Cohorta
Fatigue Predictor variables Equation 1 Job control Equation 2 Job control Equation 3 Job control Fatigue Equation 1 Psychological demands Equation 2 Psychological demands Equation 3 Psychological demands Fatigue Equation 1 Physical demands Equation 2 Physical demands Equation 3 Physical demands Fatigue Equation 1 Supervisor demands Equation 2 Supervisor demands Equation 3 Supervisor demands Fatigue
a

Employee turnover B Odds ratio B Odds ratio

.30** .011** 1.39 .007 .011** .44** .013** 1.36 .006 .011** .31** .010** 1.67 .006 .011** .38** .013** 1.47 .010* .010* 1.37 1.50 1.54 1.44 1.17 1.52 1.22 1.51

Note. All equations are adjusted for age and organizational tenure. ns 665 674 because of missing values. * p .05, one-tailed. ** p .01, one-tailed.

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Table 4 Means, Standard Deviations, Paired t Values, Autocorrelations (Stability) of Need for Recovery After Work and Fatigue in 1998 and 2000 for the Job Stayers, the Intraoccupational Job Changers, and the Job Changers
1998 M Job stayers Need for recovery Fatigue Intraoccupational job changers Need for recovery Fatigue Interoccupational job changers Need for recovery Fatigue
a

2000 SD M 37.4 52.8 40.32 52.43 23.88 43.56 SD 34.7 22.9 35.78 23.97 29.70 17.90 Paired ta 3.23** 5.38** 0.37 0.77 2.95** 2.89** Autocorrelation .66 .57 .43 .62 .04 .11 n 516 503 122 121 33 32

33.4 47.9 41.57 50.97 48.04 58.80

31.7 21.1 34.06 23.68 35.36 25.93

Paired t value is an indicator of the difference between the mean value in 1998 and the mean value in 2000 of the same variable of the same respondents. ** p .01, one-tailed.

change. The post hoc analyses further revealed that, compared to the job stayers, only the interoccupational job changers experienced an elevated level of fatigue before the job change, t(668) 3.24, p .01. From Table 4, it can be further seen that an elevation of need for recovery, t(515) 3.23, p .01, and fatigue, t(502) 5.38, p .01, occurred between 1998 and 2000 among the job stayers. Among the interoccupational changers, opposite changes over time in need for recovery, t(32) 2.95, p .01, and fatigue, t(31) 2.89, p .01, were discerned. Finally, the autocorrelations of need for recovery and fatigue in the stayers (r .66 and r .57, respectively) and in the intraoccupational changers (r .43 and r .62, respectively) were moderately high. Contrarily, the autocorrelations in the interoccupational changers for need for recovery (r -.04) and fatigue (r .11) are small. ANOVAs were used to test whether changes in psychological

strain over time had been different across the stayers, the intraoccupational changers, and the interoccupational changers. Difference scores of need for recovery and fatigue between baseline and follow-up were used in these analyses as an indicator of change over time. In all the ANOVAs, post hoc pairwise comparisons between the groups were performed by means of the LSD test. These analyses revealed significant differences across the three groups with respect to changes over time in need for recovery, F(2, 703) 13.20, p .001, and fatigue, F(2, 689) 12.75, p .001. Post hoc comparisons demonstrated a significant difference between the interoccupational changers and the job stayers on need for recovery after work, t(580) 5.30, p .001, and fatigue, t(567) 4.94, p .001, in the expected direction (see Figure 2 and Figure 3). The interoccupational changers also significantly differed from the intraoccupational changers on need for recovery after work, t(153) 2.95, p .05, and fatigue, t(151) 3.66, p .001. At last, a significant difference was observed between the

Figure 2. Need for recovery after work at the first measurement (initial job) and at the second measurement (new job) in the job stayers, the intraoccupational job changers, and the interoccupational job changers.

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Figure 3. Fatigue at the first measurement (initial job) and at the second measurement (new job) in the job stayers, the intraoccupational job changers, and the interoccupational job changers.

intraoccupational changers and the stayers on need for recovery after work, t(636) 1.73, p .10.

Discussion
This study makes three contributions to turnover research. The first contribution is an examination of a voluntary turnover model that integrates existing organizational stress theory (addressing turnover antecedents) and job transition theory (addressing turnover consequences). Past turnover research has tended to examine antecedents and consequences of voluntary turnover as isolated aspects. The second contribution of this study is that it used a behavioral criterion (i.e., actual turnover) and a longitudinal design to examine the proposed turnover model. Previous research, reviewed earlier in this article, has used primarily an attitudinal criterion (i.e., turnover intention) and a cross-sectional design. The third contribution of this study concerns the distinction it made between interoccupational and intraoccupational voluntary turnover. Prior research has investigated turnover primarily as an indistinct behavior. However, theoretically, for some occupations, intra- and interoccupational turnover may have different consequences that are worthy of examination. In accordance with the models predictions, logistic regression analyses found stressful work and strain to be significant predictors of voluntary turnover. Furthermore, in agreement with the models propositions, the regression analyses demonstrated that the effect of stressful work on turnover decreased substantially after adjustment for strain. Hence, in agreement with previous cross-sectional research, this longitudinal study supports the widely accepted idea according to which stressful work influences turnover via strain. However, compared to the cross-sectional relations observed in past research, the present longitudinal relations were weak. This discrepancy suggests that, to an essential extent, method bias is responsible for cross-sectional effects of self-reported stressful work characteristics and strain on turnover intention (e.g., Spector, 1994). The present small longitudinal effects of stressful work and strain on turnover may be attributed

to the multifactorial nature of turnover. Turnover reviews (e.g., Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000) showed that various factors in the work domain (e.g., distributive justice) and family domain (e.g., family constraints) influence turnover. Furthermore, personality factors may affect turnover as well. Barrick and Mount (1996), for instance, showed that conscientious and emotionally stable truck drivers, compared to their colleagues, were less likely to change jobs. On a more specific level, the present results can be interpreted in the light of the effort-recovery model of Meijman, Mulder, Van Dormolen, and Cremer (1992) and Leiters process model of burnout (Leiter, 1991, 1993). The effort-recovery model states that repeated occupationally induced fatigue starts a vicious circle in which extra effort is required every new working period to cope with the demands of the job. Consequently, more fatigue is experienced after the working period. This vicious circle causes cumulated fatigue, which, over the longer term, may result in conditions such as prolonged fatigue and emotional exhaustion. In accordance with process theory on burnout (Leiter, 1991, 1993), these conditions may compel employees to withdraw themselves from the working situation. According to Leiter, this withdrawal response may first come about in an attitudinal adjustment (decreased commitment) and, thereafter, in a behavioral adjustment (i.e., performance deterioration, absenteeism, turnover). This study extended the stress-to-strain-to-turnover pathway by incorporating a negative feedback loop running from turnover back to strain. In particular, based on prior research (e.g., Newton & Keenan, 1990; Wright & Bonett, 1992; Van der Velde & Feij, 1995; Swaen et al., 2002), turnover was hypothesized to provide the opportunity for job improvement and, thereby, a reduction in strain. However, in view of the stressful nature of truck driving, this strain-reducing effect of turnover was expected to occur only when turnover involved movement to another occupation (i.e., outside the trucking industry). In agreement with this supposition, the job-changing truck drivers who found employment in a different branch displayed a substantial reduction in psychological

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strain. The job-changing truck drivers who continued working as truck drivers, conversely, did not display this decrease in strain. The finding that turnover can be a consequence as well as an antecedent of strain suggests that job change might, to some extent, reduce the chance of subsequent turnover via decreasing strain (the turnover 3 strain 3 turnover pathway). It was taken for granted that truck drivers would not be cognizant of the fact that the experienced work-induced strain is intrinsic to truck driving. Correspondingly, we did not expect, and include as a formal hypothesis, that the amount of strain experienced prior to the job change would be different for the intraoccupational and interoccupational job changers. Observation of the present results, however, disproved the casualness of our assumption. In particular, compared to the job stayers, the interoccupational job changers experienced elevated fatigue before the job change in 1998. The intraoccupational job changers, contrarily, did not experience more fatigue than the job stayers did. A similar pattern of results emerged when need for recovery in 1998 was compared between the job stayers, intraoccupational job changers, and interoccupational job changers. Albeit post hoc, these findings suggest that, to some extent, strain has a dissimilar effect on intraand interoccupational turnover. Apparently, a comparatively high proportion of strained drivers are cognizant of the fact that the experienced strain is intrinsic to truck driving. This awareness may activate the drivers decision to search for employment in another occupational grouping.3 Drivers who change jobs within the trucking industry may be more likely to turnover for different reasons, for instance, pay dissatisfaction or fear of becoming unemployed. The dissimilar effect of strain on the two turnover types and the differential effect of the two turnover types on subsequent changes in strain suggest that the discrimination between intra- and interoccupational turnover may give a more precise representation of the turnover (decision) process. Accordingly, in our opinion, this turnover differentiation provides an interesting avenue for future research to examine the turnover (decision) process. Another interesting finding was the effect of organizational tenure on turnover (r -.25). Compared to prior research (see meta-analytical review in Griffeth et al, 2000), this effect was strong. Possibly, low-tenure (inexperienced) drivers are psychologically unfit for the stressful and strenuous work of truck driving (i.e., healthy worker survivor effect). Alternatively, these drivers still may have to learn about their new work role before there is an adequate personwork environment fit (Edwards, 1991). The consequential strain in these drivers might have paved the way to turnover. Additionally, turnover may have been more difficult for the high-tenure drivers because of restricted alternative employment availability and family concerns (Johns, 1991). Also, the high-tenure drivers in this study may have collected more side bets or investments with the organization, which made it more difficult to change jobs (Meyer & Allen, 1984). Three methodological aspects of this study should be taken into account to appreciate the implications of the results. The first aspect involves the interpretation of the effects in terms of full versus partial mediation. According to the standard, strain fully mediates the stress-to-turnover relation when this relation is no longer significant after addition of strain into the equation. When the relation remains significant but a drop in the contribution of stressful work to the prediction of turnover occurs, strain is said to partially mediate this relation. Considering our large sample size

this standard may not give a true picture of the mediation effects in this study. In particular, although strain may account for a substantial part of the relation from the work characteristics to turnover, these relations may remain statistically significant because of our large sample size. Therefore, we based our interpretation of the mediation effects on the reduction of the magnitude of the stress-to-turnover relation after the addition of strain into the equation. On the basis of this criterion, we concluded that strainin terms of need for recoveryfully mediates the relation from psychological job demands to turnover and that it partially mediates the relation from the other work characteristics to turnover. Presumably, the effect of job control, physical job demands, and supervisor job demands on turnover is also mediated by job satisfaction, which plays a central role in turnover (decision) models (Dipboye, Smith, & Howell, 1994). In fact, previous research (e.g., Michaels & Spector, 1982) has established the mediating role of satisfaction between stressful work and turnover. Unfortunately, a validated measure of job satisfaction was not included in this study. Consequently, the possible (confounding) role of job satisfaction in the stress-to-turnover process could not be examined. Future longitudinal research is required to elucidate the combined roles of strain and job satisfaction in the stress-toturnover process. The second methodological aspect that requires consideration concerns the response that, despite the publicity given to the research and three repeated mailings, was 61% at the first measurement. Unfortunately, we could not retrieve the characteristics of the nonrespondents at the first measurement. However, in our opinion, nonresponse did not have a strong influence on the research findings. First, at the first measurement, no significant differences in work characteristics and strain between nonrespondents and respondents at the second measurement were observed. Second, although nonrespondents at the second measurement averaged a moderately lower tenure and age, we adjusted the analyses for these potential confounders. Third, in a questionnaire study similar to ours, Van der Beek, Frings-Dresen, Kemper, and Van Dijk (1993) performed a telephone investigation among the 150 nonresponding Dutch truck drivers. Of the 150 nonresponding drivers, 102 drivers (68%) participated in this investigation. The investigation did not reveal meaningful differences between the nonrespondents and respondents. The third methodological aspect that warrants comment is the composition of the study sample, which was taken randomly from the directory of the Dutch Central Bureau of Occupational Health Care in Road Transport (BGZ Wegvervoer). At that time, the BGZ Wegvervoer directory comprised about 5,000 road transport companies with approximately 100,000 employees of whom the majority are truck drivers. Consequently, we can state with good reason that the study sample was representative of the entire population of Dutch truck drivers. Moreover, presumably due to the representativeness of the study sample, the variation in the study variables was high. Nevertheless, effect sizes of turnover predictors vary across occupations (Griffeth et al., 2000), which indicates that prudence is required when the present results are
3

We would like to thank an anonymous reviewer for this insightful comment.

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DE CROON ET AL. Bloom, J. R., Alexander, J. A., & Nichols, B. A. (1992). The effect of the social organization of work on the voluntary turnover rate of hospital nurses in the United States. Social Science and Medicine, 34, 1413 1424. Bultmann, U., De Vries, M., Beurskens, A. J. H. M., Bleijenberg, G., Vercoulen, J. H. M. M., & Kant, I. J. (2000). Measurement of fatigue in the working population: Determination of a cutoff point for the checklist individual strength. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 411 416. Bultmann, U., Kant, I. J., Van den Brandt, P. A., & Kasl, S. V. (2002). Psychosocial work characteristics as risk factors for the onset of fatigue and psychological distress: Prospective results from the Maastricht cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 32, 333345. Clarke, L. (1980). Occupational choice: A critical review of research in the UK London HMSO, Careers Service Branch, Department of Employment. London: Department for Work and Pensions. Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The Job Demands-Resources Model of Burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 499 512. De Vries, J., Michielsen, H. J., & Van Heck, G. L. (2003). Assessment of fatigue among working people: a comparison of six questionnaires. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 60, i10 i15. Dipboye, R. L., Smith, C. S., & Howell, W. C. (1994). Job attitudes. In R. L. Dipboye, C. S. Smith, & W. C. Howell (Eds.), Understanding industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 139 178). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Drake, B., & Yadama, G. N. (1996). A structural equation model of burnout and job exit among child protective service workers. Social Work Research, 20, 179 189. Edwards, J. R. (1991). Person-job fit, A conceptual integration, literature review, and methodological critique. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (pp. 283357). New York: Wiley. Evans, G. W., & Carrere, S. (1991). Traffic congestion, perceived control, ` and psychophysiological stress among urban bus drivers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 658 663. Frankenhaeuser, M. (1991). A biopsychosocial approach to work life issues. In J. V. Johnson & G. Johansson (Eds.), The psychosocial work environment (pp. 49 60). Amityville, NJ: Baywood. Frese, M. (1989). Theoretical models of control and health. In S. L. Sauter, J. J. Hurrell, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Job control and worker health. Chichester, England: Wiley. Ganster, D. C. (1989). Worker control and well-being. In S. L. Sauter & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Job control and worker health (pp. 323). Chichester, England: Wiley. Geurts, S., Rutte, C. G., & Peeters M. (1999). Antecedents and consequences of work home interference among medical residents. Social Science and Medicine, 48, 11351148. Glass, D. C., & Singer, J. E. (1972). Urban stress: Experiments on noise and social stressors. New York: Academic Press. Griffeth, R. W., Hom, P. W., & Gaertner, S. (2000). A meta-analysis of antecedents and correlates of employee turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research implications for the next millennium. Journal of Management, 26, 463 488. Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1975). The development of the Job Diagnostic Survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 159 170. Hamelin, P. (2001). Professional drivers working time as a factor of flexibility and competitiveness in road haulage. Newsletter of the European Trade Union Technical Bureau for Health and Safety. Brussels, Belgium. Hayes, J., & Hough, P. (1976). Career transitions a source of identity strain. In J. Adams, J. Hayes, & B. Hopson (Eds), Transition. London: Robertson. Hedberg, G. E., Jacobsson, K. A., Janlert, U., & Langendoen, S. M. (1993).

generalized to other occupations. As noted previously, workinduced fatigue among truck drivers can have consequences for road safety, which may compel these workers in particular to find employment elsewhere. Furthermore, the trucking industry regularly faces driver shortages (Keller, 2002), indicating that alternative employment in this industry is highly available. In conformity with turnover decision models (e.g., Mobley, 1977), this may activate quit decisions of strained or dissatisfied drivers. The results of this study have methodological as well as practical implications. Methodologically, the results indicate that longitudinal organizational stress research may not give a complete picture of the relation between stressful work on the one hand and health and well-being on the other hand. Specifically, a selection effect may occur among employees in prospective cohort research that is comparable with the previously described healthy worker survivor effect. This effect is brought about by a self-selection process that allows comparatively healthy employees to remain in certain jobs, whereas those who change jobs (and occupation) are less healthy (Rothman, 1986). Similarly, the attrition of strained employees may restrict the range of health complaints over time, thereby attenuating prospective relations between stressful work and health complaints. Practically, the results of this study suggest that managers may be encouraged to know that an improvement in working conditions may simultaneously decrease psychological strain, which, in turn, may reduce turnover. At the individual level, managers and occupational health service practitioners may prevent voluntary turnover by means of extending the psychological resources of employees with elevated psychological strain. For instance, these employees may be given the opportunity to attend stress management courses. When there is no prospect of improvement, these practitioners may encourage strained employees to search for suitable jobs in another occupational setting.

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Received October 10, 2002 Revision received June 6, 2003 Accepted July 10, 2003